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Which city, the largest on the Australian west coast, is the capital of the state of Western Australia ? | Australian Cities, States and Territories - Tourism Australia
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Mainland Australia is the world’s largest island but also the smallest continent. The country is divided into six states and two territories.
What are Australia's cities, states and territories?
Mainland Australia is the world’s largest island but also the smallest continent. The country is divided into six states and two territories.
Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) bounds the national capital of Canberra and is the centre of government. The Australian Capital Territory is located approximately 290 kilometres (180 miles) south of Sydney, and is home to a number of important national institutions, including Parliament House, the Australian War Memorial and the National Gallery of Australia.
New South Wales
New South Wales (NSW) is Australia’s oldest and most populous state. New South Wales was originally settled as a penal colony on the shores of Port Jackson where the bustling capital city of Sydney now stands. Sydney is the nation’s largest city and is renowned for its idyllic beaches, great walks and world-class dining. New South Wales is also home to popular attractions including the Blue Mountains and the Hunter Valley wine region.
Northern Territory
At the top end of Australia lies the Northern Territory (NT). Darwin , on the northern coast, is the capital, and Alice Springs is the principal inland town. Alice Springs is the physical heart of Australia, almost exactly at the nation's geographical centre. The Northern Territory is home to the famous Uluru (Ayers Rock), Kata Tjuta (the Olgas) and Kakadu National Park .
Queensland
Queensland (QLD) is Australia’s second-largest state (in size) and is home to the world famous Great Barrier Reef , the world’s most extensive subtropical rainforest and the beautiful Queensland Islands – including the World Heritage-listed Fraser Island . Brisbane is the state’s capital; it enjoys more winter sunshine and warmth than most Australian cities and is perfect for outdoor activities and water sports.
South Australia
South Australia (SA) sits in the southern central part of the country, and covers some of the most arid parts of the continent. The state’s capital is Adelaide and is a great base for exploring the Barossa wineries, the Flinders Ranges and Kangaroo Island . South Australia has a thriving arts scene and is known as the ‘Festival State’, with more than 500 events and festivals taking place there each year.
Tasmania
Tasmania (TAS) is separated from mainland Australia by the Bass Strait and is the smallest state in Australia. The capital, Hobart , was founded in 1804 as a penal colony, and is Australia's second oldest capital city after Sydney. One-fifth of Tasmania is covered by national parks and wilderness – abundant in driving routes and walking trails – and it is one of the world’s most mountainous islands.
Victoria
Victoria (VIC) is the smallest of the mainland states in size but is home to the country’s second most populated city, Melbourne . Often referred to as the nation’s cultural capital, Melbourne is famed for its graffiti laneways, fashion-forward boutiques and booming café scene. Victorians' enthusiasm for sport is also legendary and this is where Australian Rules football began. The only thing more sacred than the footy is Melbournians love of coffee, and here you’ll find some of Australia’s best flat whites, cappuccinos and piccolo lattes.
Western Australia
Western Australia (WA) is Australia’s largest state and is a place of true contrasts: from desert in the east to 13,000 kilometres of pristine coastline on the west. The state’s capital is Perth ; the fourth most populous city in Australia and famed for its uncrowded beaches, parklands and fresh seafood. Off the coast of Esperance, in the state’s south, is Middle Island, which is home to the extraordinary pink-coloured Lake Hillier .
Australia also administers Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, the Cocos (or Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard and McDonald Islands, Norfolk Island and the Australian Antarctic Territory (covering 42 per cent of the Antarctic continent) as external territories.
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Which spirit forms the basis of a Tom Collins cocktail ? | Cities in Australia, Australia Cities Map
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Australia is divided into six states and two mainland territories. The states in Australia are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.
Australia's mainland territories are the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Each of the states and territories is headquartered at its own capital city.
The capital of Australia is Canberra, which is located in the Australian Capital Territory in southeastern Australia. Canberra has a population of about 367,000, making it the largest inland city in the country, but the eight largest city in all. Canberra covers an area of 814 square kilometers (314 square miles).
The most populous city in Australia is Sydney, which is the capital of New South Wales. Sydney is home to about 4.6 million people, in an area of about 12,144 square kilometers (4,689 square miles). Sydney is a major cultural center of Australia, as the location of the Sydney Opera House, a thriving art scene, and cultural events and festivals.
Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, is the second largest city in Australia with a population of about 4.1 million. The area of Melbourne is about 8,806 square kilometers (3,400 square miles), and it is called Garden City. Melbourne is often considered the cultural capital of Australia, with the headquarters of the country's film and television industry, and major sports and arts center.
Brisbane is Queensland's capital, and the third largest city in Australia with a population of 2.1 million. Brisbane covers an area of 5,949 square kilometers (2,297 square miles) along the east coast of the continent.
Perth is situated in Western Australia and is the largest city and capital of the state. Perth has a population of 1.8 million people living in its metropolitan area, which covers 5,386 square kilometers (2,079 square miles).
The fifth largest city in Australia is Adelaide, the South Australian capital. Adelaide's population numbers about 1.2 million and an area of 1,827 square kilometers (705 square miles).
Cairns in Queensland and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory are other important cities in Australia.
Some of the important Australian cities include:-
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Which British rock group had a 1970 No.1 hit with In the Summertime ? | YouTube
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"Mungo Jerry ~ Mungo's Blues..." The YouTube account associated with this video has been terminated due to multiple third-party notifications of copyright infringement.
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| Mungo Jerry |
The film simply known as Star Wars on its first release in 1977 became Episode 4 in the eventual sequence of six films, and acquired a subtitle. What was the subtitle ? | Mungo Jerry — Listen for free on Spotify
Mungo Jerry
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Mungo Jerry are one of rock's great one-hit successes. Outside of England, they're known for exactly one song, but that song, "In the Summertime," is a seasonal anthem known by listeners who weren't even born when it was released.
Mungo Jerry was a solid blues outfit as well -- in fact, one suspects they were the kind of blues band that purists Alexis Korner and Cyril Davies would have loved, had they ever intersected -- and knew how to get the most out of their jug band sound, which helped them survive for decades.
Mungo Jerry were formed in 1970 by singer/guitarist Ray Dorset (born March 21, 1946), who had a fascination with early rock & roll sounds, as well as skiffle and blues. The other original members were Mike Cole on upright bass; Paul King on guitar, kazoo, and jug; Joe Rush playing washboard; and Colin Earl at the keyboards. Dorset and Earl had first hooked up in the Good Earth, a group with a mixed rock & roll and blues sound that cut some tracks for the mid-priced Saga label, none of which sold. Cole, King , and Rush came aboard and the lineup was complete. The name Mungo Jerry -- from a T.S. Eliot poem -- came next, with a contract from Pye Records .
The quartet had a pleasing, low-key jug band sound, folk-like but also bluesy, which was unusual in 1969, a time when most British bands that were into blues were shooting for high-wattage virtuosity. They sounded less like Cream or Blind Faith and a lot more like Jesse Fuller or Tampa Red , or even Piano Red (aka Dr. Feelgood ). Mungo Jerry became one of the very first acts placed on the Pye label's new Dawn Records imprint, a progressive label that was intended to update Pye 's image. In May of 1970, following an appearance at the Newcastle Hollywood Festival, their debut single, "In the Summertime," written by Ray Dorset, was released. The record, an easygoing, catchy skiffle-like piece reflecting the mood of the season in its title and the sexual ethos of the late '60s was an instant hit, shooting to number one in England in only two weeks and riding the charts for much of the summer. Concerts and television appearances followed in profusion, although the most often seen among the latter is a performance mimed to the single. It was a Top Ten hit in America, riding the charts for weeks, and was a success in practically every country in which it was released, ultimately selling between eight and 16 million copies around the world.
A self-titled debut album was rush-released that summer to capitalize on the hit. By the time the LP was recorded, washboard-player Rush was gone, and Cole had left by the time the record was issued, the beginning of a dizzying series of personnel changes. The group's second single, "Baby Jump," was a chart-topper in England but didn't fare as well overseas, and heralded a second album, Electronically Tested, which was followed by a third, You Don't Have to Be in the Army, that same year, with a parallel U.S. release, Memoirs of a Stockbroker ( Janus Records ). "Maggie," "Johnny B Badde," "Mighty Man," "Lady Rose," and "You Don't Have to Be in the Army to Fight in the War" all charted in England and got decent, if not spectacular, airplay at various other points around the globe.
The membership of Mungo Jerry began coming apart almost from the outset of their success. Cole, who was replaced by John Godfrey, was followed out of the lineup by King and Earl, although their exit was somewhat more acrimonious. They attempted to take the name Mungo Jerry, but Dorset, as the singer, guitarist, and songwriter, held onto the name. Instead, King and Earl cut solo albums for Pye and went on the road as the King Earl Boogie Band with former bandmate Rush in the lineup. Meanwhile, Dorset recruited keyboard player Jon Pope and drummer Tim Reeves for Mungo Jerry.
Essentially, from 1972 onward, Dorset was Mungo Jerry, even more than Ian Anderson was Jethro Tull . Drummer Paul Hancox (ex- Chicken Shack ), bassist (and future Ozzy Osbourne alumnus) Bob Daisley , and keyboard man John Cook passed through, as did piano player Ian Milne and guitarist Dick Middleton, and that was just during the band's time on Pye through 1975. In the later '70s, when the band was signed to Polydor , original members Earl and Rush were back in the lineup. Earl and King later formed a group called Skeleton Crew.
Mungo Jerry's chart hits stopped coming, but they continued to attract audiences on-stage everywhere from Eastern Europe to the Middle East. Ironically, Dorset found himself unable to emerge from the shadow of his group's identity. His solo albums, including 1987's A Case for the Blues, featuring Peter Green on guitar, failed to attract any attention. Decades after the band's founding, Mungo Jerry, which could consist of any lineup from a quartet down to Dorset with taped accompaniment, continued to work on-stage and "In the Summertime" remained their signature tune. Reggae singer Shaggy recorded a cover version of "In the Summertime" in 1995, which hit the charts worldwide, and in 2010 Dorset re-recorded it (as Mungo Jerry & Bluestone featuring MC Skibadee) to celebrate the song's 40th anniversary. Occasional albums have appeared under the Mungo Jerry name in the 21st century, including 2001's Candy Dreams, 2003's Adults Only, 2007's Naked - From the Heart and When She Comes, She Runs All Over Me, and 2012's Cool Jesus. ~ Bruce Eder & Steve Leggett, Rovi
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Which spirit forms the basis of a Pina Colada cocktail ? | Pina Colada recipe
Pina Colada recipe
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Old-style recipe for this popular drink. The coconut cream needs to have the right consistancy, some find the alternative, coconut milk to be too thin, however you can add condensed milk to coconut milk to bring up it's thickness. Add pineapple juice if desired.
3 tbspcrushed pineapples
Put all ingredients into an electric blender with 2 cups of crushed ice. Blend at a high speed for a short length of time. Strain into a collins glass and serve with a straw.
More comments
posted by ilda @ 12:12PM, 5/02/06
This is the bomb it is very delicious and it tastes wonderful, I love it!!!
Coconut Milk vs. Coconut Cream
posted by jbasil @ 10:44PM, 5/06/06
I made this using coconut milk, as in the recipe, and it was virtually undrinkable. When I blended it, the coconut particles separated out into a thick crust on top of the pineapple / rum. I noticed most other recipes call for coconut cream. I will try that next time.
Pineapple juice
posted by form the tropic @ 06:30PM, 5/07/06
Where is the pineapple juice? Add a tbsp of condensed milk also.
Finishing touches
posted by Tom Jacobs @ 08:57PM, 5/07/06
As per the coconut milk separating... try a few different things, one is light coconut milk, shake the can like crazy before you add it. (I think this drink is way better with it and don't put any ice in coconut milk, and less fattening.) Also, use frozen pineapple and much less ice. I buy frozen pineapple chunks and don't put any ice in. Last thing, add a squirt of fresh lime juice.
Practice...
posted by Inalbis @ 01:25PM, 5/08/06
A nice drink. The second time I've done it, it came out just fine. I used chunks of fresh pineapple, and its important to blend all the ingredients together in the electric blender. I'll try diferent ingredients too, since the pina colada from the bottle tastes really better so far...
Compare and contrast
posted by Katey @ 08:19PM, 5/20/06
I've only had VIRGIN Pina Coladas. I had one sip of the this recipe and I must say, they can taste pretty good.
Captain Morgan
posted by Mr. Morgan @ 09:01PM, 5/20/06
Captain Morgan rum is the best for this!
Add vanilla ice cream
posted by Miata @ 08:39AM, 5/30/06
Add vanilla ice cream when blending and put in the freezer. It makes a very delicious pina colada ice cream. I reckon Malibu is the best to use because it has a hint of coconut. What else do you need?
Real recipe
posted by Rosie @ 06:27PM, 5/31/06
This recipe is all wrong. I'm from Puerto Rico where we know how to make good pina coladas. You need Captain Morgan Spiced Rum, lots of ice, pineapple juice, and coconut cream. The coconut cream is the key to a really good pina colada.
Modifications if you've already bought the ingredients listed...
posted by SimbaNala @ 07:01PM, 6/03/06
The original recipe as listed needed a lot of work to be served as the only mixed drink at a Hawaiian-themed wedding shower we threw. It was pretty tasty with 1 cup ice, 2 oz. rum, 1.5 oz coconut milk, and 4 oz. crushed pineapple. We agree with many of the other comments, including trying it with Captain Morgan's Spiced Rum and cream of coconut.
Best recipe
posted by Mariah @ 03:36PM, 6/04/06
Pina coladas are really good. I went to my friends party one time and the guy used ice, pineapple juice, and coconut milk. It was really good. I think coconut cream is better but if you don't agree have it your way.
The Best
posted by Manuel @ 02:31PM, 6/07/06
Pina Coladas made our party go with a swing. I will be making them again soon!
If you're lazy and can find it...
posted by LJ @ 01:16PM, 6/14/06
For the coconut freaks, it really depends on taste.. some like more pineapple, some like more coconut.. here's a tip for the lazy who wish to use "additives" mixes... get TGI Friday's pina colada with rum.. then add more rum ( the rum you enjoy with it ) along with 2 tbspoons of diced pinapple, coconut rum OR cream OR milk, depending which agrees with you... then ice... then the fancy shmancy dressings.. and toss in the blender and give it a whirl...
It is hard to find mixes that taste good... also it's hard to find someone who knows how to make a real good pina colada... i'm still trying like mad to make the best i've ever tasted..
Oh yes, watch out for mixes that smell more like shampoo than something edible.
Rum
posted by EO @ 09:04PM, 6/17/06
Great with Flor de Ca�±a Gran Reserva (7 year).
Help for the Pina Colada Recipe
posted by Joan @ 07:36PM, 6/22/06
The recipe is basically good and adding condensed milk makes it creamier but try adding 5 tbsp of pineapple juice or crushed pineapple instead of 3 and you can use almost any rum you have as I used rum from the Virgin Islands which had a strong flavor and it was only slightly detectable as it should be.
Yes
posted by Pina gal @ 09:19PM, 6/23/06
I absolutely love pina coladas!!
For a lighter version
posted by Jenny @ 10:18PM, 6/30/06
I like the sweeter taste of the cream of coconut but not the calories. So, try coconut flavored non daily coffee creamer instead. Its a little harder to find than the more common flavors, but persevere. I also add a splash of sugar free cocunut syrup for a little stronger coconut flavor. I agree with those that like a little more pineapple too.
Pina colada
posted by Dianna @ 03:50PM, 7/07/06
I make the BEST pina colada around!! I put coco. milk or coco. cream [doesn't matter which] and chunks of pineapple with the juice and vanilla icecream and ice into a blender and whiiirrrllll . It's a guarantee you're gonna LOVE it!!
Add vanilla ice cream
posted by Dianna @ 04:08PM, 7/07/06
The secret to a creamier pina colada is putting in the vanilla icecream. I think the pina colada I make is the best there is. I simply put in coco.milk or coco. cream (doesn't matter which) along with crushed pineapple w/ the juice and ice and blend it on high! YUMMYY. I don't put alcohol in it as I don't drink alcohol but you can put some in if you like.
Virgin Pina Colada
posted by Rosio @ 12:54PM, 7/14/06
Vanilla Ice Cream makes a big difference. I tried several recipes. The best of all is crushed pineapples (very cold or frozen), vanilla ice cream and the one and only coconut cream. Blend together and enjoy! YUMMY.......
Can you use coconut rum?
posted by ard @ 10:26PM, 7/15/06
I was wondering if it tastes the same with coconut rum?
Don't Let Komo Make Pina Coladas...
posted by Josh @ 07:02PM, 7/20/06
...although he's a bartender he really sucks balls at making pina coladas. What the fuck is his problem?? God damn it!
Not sweet enough :(
posted by ecoMaus @ 05:22PM, 7/27/06
Tried this recipe with fresh pineapple and it turned out not sweet enough. The rum dominated. Better try with coconut cream and pineapple juice next time! Believe me!!!
Coco Lopez
posted by Freshuan @ 07:56PM, 7/27/06
Use COCO LOPEZ for all coconut drink recipes, you will never even try anything else. Oh, and take it out of the can and put it in the fridge so it hardens a bit before blending. Enjoy the heavenly paradise
Try this!!
posted by David M. Haff @ 10:57AM, 7/29/06
Use Bacardi Dark Superior. This rum has an old fashion flavor is is a really smooth sipping drink. Use a 2/3 a cup of crushed pineapple, 4/3 a cup of Coconut cream, and 8 Oz of the rum. my blender is a little over six cups and just put it all in ther and keep adding ice until the blender, on its highest speed appears to stop bleninding. These are not stong drinks and the blender is usually full to max when finished.
Mmm
Serving this drink
posted by Bartender Bill @ 03:45AM, 8/03/06
Get a coconut shell for serving in, and an umbrella for looks... then put it in the fridge and serve cold with shaved cocunut and small chunks of pineapple thrown on top. And for sure use the Coconut cream. NO ICE CREAM.
Cup of Frothy Goodness!
posted by Pina Hoover @ 03:07PM, 8/05/06
My man just made me a pina colada, and damn is it good! It's just as good as when my man gives me something else I love. Creamy! White! Delicious! I could drink these all day every day. In fact, I think I'm going to do just that.
Great combo
posted by Dave Harlow @ 03:11PM, 8/05/06
Try the above recipe and add some spicy chicken wings to snack on while watching "Animal House." It's a great way to spend a saturday morning!!!
Bacardi Mixers in your frozen section
posted by Stepha @ 04:27PM, 8/06/06
I think these are pretty good too! I like to add some ice cream and pinapple rings to float on top for me to chew on.
The best pina coladas ever though where on Grand Bahama Island across from the Westin Resort, they chopped the coconuts in half emptied them out and made it w/ all fresh ingredients and gave u the coconut to chew on as a snack.
Freshest is always best - but I think those frozen ones are best.
Fresh is best
posted by Das @ 06:57AM, 8/22/06
Best pina colada i had was in cuba and made with fresh coconut and pineapple mixed with ice the just add as much rum as you like !!
The Bahama Islands recipe
Pina colada recipe
posted by Rachel @ 02:53PM, 9/03/06
I absolutely love pina coladas. When I go to my private club, the bar maid doesn't have to ask what I want, she already knows. That's all I drink. I absolutely agree with the person from Puerto Rico who takes credit for her country being the originals in Pina Coladas. I changed the first recipe to the Puerto Rico one.
Still have not found it
posted by Shorty @ 01:22PM, 9/23/06
I have tried this recipe and it still does not taste right. Everytime I make it, it taste watery. I will try the condensed milk. For some reason when you order it in the resturants it is much creamier and coconuty. I have yet to find an excellent recipe.
Thanks
4 tbsp of coconut milk
1/3 cup of Bacardi superior
1 and 1/2 cups of ice.
Blend it up, pour it into a glass and let it sit for a minute. Then enjoy!
Indeed,
posted by dude @ 04:02PM, 10/06/06
The coconut cream truely is the secret ingredient. Last week we couldn't find it so we just used the coconut milk from the recipe... needless to say we were dissapointed after having several restaraunt pina coladas. This week we finally found coco cream and it is MUCH thicker than the milk. Not the same stuff at all.
Ah yes...
posted by ozzzmmr @ 03:13PM, 10/15/06
Pina coladas are delicious, expecially luigi's italian ice pina coladas... they're so perfect, so flawless, and I hear if you consume more than 50 of them you can get drunk so it's just as good. And who wouldnt want to have 50 luigi's italian ice pina coladas? I know I would... pina coladas are god, tied with the shirley temple (non-virgin of course). It's a shame that tupac considers revenge the sweetest joy next to gettin' pussy, cuz pina coladas are better then sex.
Pretty good
posted by Weekend Experimenter @ 11:57AM, 10/17/06
This was okay but I agree it's best with coconut cream. For a quick and good Pina Colada, although not authentic; Bacardi Frozen Pina Colada and follow the recipe but use Bacardi CoCo rum instea of light Bacardi. Then put Edys Pineapple/Coconut Ice Cream and serve with fresh pineapples & of course a cherry. Like I said not authentic, using store bought frozen PC but it's effective.
Slight improvements
posted by Flycastin1 @ 06:03PM, 10/18/06
Use cococut cream instead of coconut milk and top it off with whipped cream outta the can, perfecto.
Needs coconut cream
posted by subhuman85 @ 05:01PM, 10/25/06
Without coconut cream, it's not a Pina Colada. Use about 1.5 oz of canned coconut cream, 2 oz of rum (white or dark, your choice) and 2 oz of pineapple juice or 1 cup of pineapple chunks. That's all you need.
Yea
posted by yea @ 10:57AM, 11/02/06
Try coco lopez coconut cream instead, it has a good recipe in the back too.
Red Lobster Pina Coladas
posted by Sherry Clark Thomas @ 11:52AM, 11/14/06
Can anyone tell me what goes into the Pina Coladas that they make at Red Lobster?
Ace
posted by bunny @ 04:49PM, 11/16/06
I love this drink. I use bought pineapple & coconut mixed juice for when im in a hurry!
Pina colada
posted by eric ortega @ 03:58PM, 11/20/06
This is great it was so good man. I loved it more than anything. You have to try it and you would die for it.
Great
posted by Mr. Smee @ 08:03PM, 11/22/06
This recipe is simple and very tasty!
Mmm
posted by Robert @ 08:06PM, 11/22/06
I really drank it. It was GRRREEEAAAT!
Condensed milk
posted by Ray @ 06:14AM, 11/23/06
Try adding 3 tbsp of condensed milk to make it thicker and sweeter.
Add Strawberries
posted by M.S. @ 02:28PM, 12/03/06
I added 5 frozen strawberries, reduced the ice to 1 cup, and used pineapple juice(about4 tblsp) instead of crushed pineapples. This made a great drink!
Good and easy pina colada with flavored rums
posted by joyfromGa @ 02:19AM, 12/08/06
2 oz coconut rum and 1 oz pineapple rum (I like Cruzans) add as much or little pineapple juice, cream or condensed (to ur taste).. pour over ice in blender and blend.. delicious.
Ice Cream
posted by Apolonia @ 10:34PM, 12/23/06
I agree with the vanilla ice cream suggestions, it definitely made the pina colada frothy and sweet...not watery at all. The recipe listed is ok for a mediocre pina colada but for an awesome one try pineapple juice, vanilla ice cream and coco Lopez. The ingredients will not separate as they do using plain ice in the ingredients.
Measurements
posted by Jack @ 04:00PM, 12/28/06
Great recipe but it would be helpful to give liquid measurements in mls because nobody other than Americans know what you mean by an oz.
Lovely Jubberly
posted by Del Boy @ 04:30PM, 12/30/06
Instead of some rum, you can use Bacardi.
Some chunks of pineapple, Followed with some coconut cream or milk, plenty of ice, throw all that in the blender. Pour into a glass, and top it with an umberella, PERFECTO!!! Lovely Jubberly.
Pinas recipe
posted by barista @ 02:06AM, 1/03/07
Fab cocktail... also you can add a splash of triple sec to add some kick to the drink... yummy!
Milk vs cream
posted by Thunderchild @ 03:40PM, 1/21/07
I think they taste better when mixed with Coco Lopez cream of coconut. The coconut milk makes the drink too thin.
Too much ice
posted by samsneed @ 06:05PM, 1/25/07
Use fresh ingredients. If you have a good blender, add coconut shavings. Almond slices also give it good mouth feel for nutty people. But the fresh pineaples are required. I also tried the condensed cream. Will be using this recipe in my resturaunt instead of the bottled stuff we have been using. Will let you know success in the summer.....
Secret Ingredient
posted by Monique @ 11:25AM, 1/28/07
Sangster's Coconut Rum Cream - Do yourself a favor and replace the coconut milk in this recipe with rum cream.
Best drink
posted by Ryan Mills @ 06:34PM, 2/16/07
This is the best drink i think i have ever had, it was nice and sweet but also was smooth. very good.
Try this variation
posted by yesuthasen @ 09:06AM, 2/19/07
Put the soft flesh of a tender coconut through a blender and substitute for coconut milk and add a dash of tender coconut water... delicious and creamy.
Pina Coladas
posted by Clifford Duffy @ 04:17PM, 2/19/07
Awesome drink. I'll have lots of it!
Spiffy
posted by coconut @ 05:35PM, 3/03/07
oooh la la this is one spiffy drink! alli could say was yummy!!!!
Pina Colada recipe
posted by JKB62 @ 08:34PM, 3/07/07
When in Mexico, we had Pina Colada's served in a whole pineapple, garnished with toasted coconut and sprinkled with cinnamon. Yum!
Great combo indeed
posted by CocoBreath @ 10:28PM, 3/08/07
"Try the above recipe and add some spicy chicken wings to snack on while watching "Animal House." It's a great way to spend a saturday morning!!!"
What are ya, an alcho?
Like it
posted by Emily @ 10:47PM, 4/04/07
If you like the syrupy sweet pina coladas most restaraunts serve than you might not like this recipe. Personally, I think it's great. With all natural ingredients and no added sugar it's better for you than the premixed crap. I used light coconut milk, not as much ice and a few drops of vanilla. Yum.
I've had better
posted by tom @ 08:42PM, 4/05/07
The recipe tasted a wee bit watery, added some coconut cream and dark bacardi then it'd be better. Bet even coco rum might be tasty in it.
Add the orange juice...
posted by Cobbweb @ 10:32AM, 4/06/07
I learned from locals on Eluthera to use equal portions of PC Mix or Coconut Cream, rum, orange juice and pinapple juice and a few fruit pieces, with the condensed milk. Blend with ice. Add the touch of the cherry.
Needs sugar? Vanilla extract
posted by c_girll @ 06:41PM, 4/15/07
I was surprised to know I already had all the ingredients in my house! I mixed it up.. Needed sugar.. Then I added some vanilla extract and then it was PERFECT!
Good stuff
posted by tyler @ 03:06PM, 4/26/07
I'm a sucker for pina coladas! and this was pretty good! (and to make it really good, use twice as much dark rum)
Better (for you) recipe!
posted by dncrgrl23 @ 03:18PM, 4/30/07
The best way to make this drink is with crushed pineapple, light rum, light coconut milk, simple syrup (sugar & water solution), and coconut extract for extra flavor. Then freeze it in the freezer (scraping periodically) or use an ice cream maker to get the slushy consistency without diluting the drink with ice. This is MUCH healthier than using cream of coconut and also very tasty. One can of Coco Lopez has 75 grams of fat, 67 g of those being saturated fat!! More fat than you should consume in a whole day in just a couple of drinks. I make pina coladas for my friends all the time with this recipe and they love them.
My first pina colada
posted by Neil @ 08:18PM, 5/01/07
This friday i'm gonna make my first pina colada, just bought a new blender for this purpose, so im excited, anyways. After reading all the comments, i can see what is wrong with some of the methods. First off, the reason some methods are watery, or separation occurs, is because you need at least ONE ingredient that is thick, and/or creamy, this will give you the right consistency. The options are coconut cream, and some others such as, ice cream, half and half, condensed/evaporated milk. The coconut cream seems like the best choice here, and its what im gonna use, or i may try half coconut cream, and half coconut milk, and adjust from there.
Second, you need an ingredient that's gonna make it taste good. I would use the pineapple and its juice, plus either coco cream, or coco milk, or both. I'll throw some ice in the blender too. I will use the suggested light rum, i think. For presentation, you could add a pineapple slice to the rim of the glass, and throw a cherry on top, and serve with an umbrella and straw. Those are my thoughts, i'll come back friday or saturday with the results.
Another version
Splenda
posted by Pina Colada Fan @ 05:54PM, 5/17/07
I added a bit of Splenda and voila, it was perfect. Otherwise it all depends on the natural sweetness of the pineapple, which is crucial for an excellent Pina Colada. Taste before adding sweeteners of any kind though. I also used a dry and light premium rum.
Not too bad...
posted by Tryn for the first time @ 05:53PM, 5/27/07
We used 4 shots of coconut milk, 4 shots of rum, fresh pineapple, vanilla ice cream and ice, and blended it together in the blender. Not terrific...but not too bad, either.
Where is the pineapple
posted by alwaysworking! @ 10:38AM, 5/28/07
You do not need pineapple juice if you use fresh pineapple. I use the juice from fresh pineapple after cutting it up! This was a great recipe, and my husband also enjoyed this one!
Wrong Glass
posted by rabbit @ 08:53PM, 5/28/07
I think its meant to be served in a colada glass not a collins glass.
Vanilla ice cream!
posted by Kim @ 06:07PM, 5/29/07
Add a little vanilla ice cream and it's more like dessert! I found this to be the big secret at Grady's who use to make the best pina coladas around... less ice and add ice cream.
Nutmeg
posted by Kris @ 02:56PM, 6/02/07
Try a sprinkle of fresh grated nutmeg on top, that's how they do it in the British Virgin Islands. Yumm!
Better Recipe
posted by Big Bartender @ 10:27PM, 6/10/07
Instead of gettin all that hard stuff, I just use Malibu Coconut Rum, half/half, some sugar, and pineapple juice, tastes great.
Block Party Runner-up
posted by BP @ 04:27PM, 6/14/07
I followed this recipe for a block party competition & nearly won!! I only lost because my presentation was baad (and yes presentation counted). Anyway, that was last year, I'm coming back this year with a BANG!!
Same recipe, just eyeball it, you'll be fine. I used a few real coconuts just to say "It has real coconut milk" but I also used the canned coconut milk. I can't see how people are messing this up?!
The Best Pina Colada Ever
posted by SLH @ 06:17PM, 6/24/07
I just came back from Puerto Rico and had the best Pina colada ever. The birthplace of the drink is a restaurant called Barrachina back in 1963. It is still up and running right in Old San Juan. Why mess with a good thing. It was great tasting, equally coconut and pineapple and just right in the sweetness.
Frothy
posted by joe @ 07:42PM, 8/06/07
Whats the best way to get it nice and frothyyyyyy???
My version works for me.
posted by Kiwi @ 06:48AM, 8/11/07
In a Blender,
1 oz Heavy Whipping Cream (put in last)
Blend well, makes enough to fill about a 16 oz glass.
Give peas a chance
posted by magnus sex-question? @ 04:33PM, 8/11/07
Great drink! We didn't have any ice so we garnished it with frozen peas...was grand.
A little something.
posted by Tom @ 02:03AM, 8/23/07
Main ingredients: (RUM), chunky pineapple can, coconut cream (milk), and sugar (cane juice). Take the coconut cream and boil it on medium fire. Add sugar until the cream taste sweet. Make it a bit sweeter because the pineapple will dilute it. After the coconut cream is ready, pour in ice and pineapple and the sweet coconut cream. Cooking the cream will make the coconut finer, so it isn't thick.
Barrachina in Old San Juan
posted by nanomatrix @ 07:10PM, 9/01/07
We were down there about 5 years ago. I still remember sitting under those green umbrellas in the courtyard in the late afternoon. Those were the best Best Pina Coladas I have ever had. I also remember how completely smashed we got. They were so smooth and refreshing in the late heat of the day...
Pino Colada
| RUM |
King Ludwig II of Bavaria was the patron of which German composer ? | Does drinking cocktails make you less of a man? - Telegraph
The Filter
Does drinking cocktails make you less of a man?
Cocktails have a reputation for being less masculine than certain other drinks, yet even the much-derided Pina Colada is more manly than you'd think, say Tom Sandham and Ben McFarland
Drinking thinkers: Steve Carrell and Ryan Gosling in Crazy Stupid Love Photo: Warner Bros
Comments
During a recent stag do, the Thinking Drinkers endured a tirade of abuse when ordering cocktails. The suggestion was this: by making such a bar call, in this case for a martini, a man becomes a bonafide w-----.
The affront was spewed from the suspiciously mouthy betrothed, but rather than retort immediately, the tongue was held and instead reserved for the enjoyment of a decent drink, all the while safe in the knowledge this particular stag looked more of a w----- in his arseless chaps. Added to comments unspoken was the assertion that the stag’s impending marriage was potentially recruiting him into a wide/long/short-reaching club of onanists anyway.
Even so, the allegation that any man ordering a cocktail is a "w-----" left a damp smear on the mind. The smear was given licence to fester and gather mould over the following weeks, so that by the time of writing this, it is in need of airing.
For some it might seem baffling there are still circles where ordering cocktail incites the sort of "bants" to get you excommunicated from the apparently "hard-drinking" fraternity. But there are (see opening paragraph). And the only reason we can suggest for the accusation is a lack of understanding of what a cocktail is and where it comes from.
Because the reality is, rather than a choice for the dandy, self exhibitionist or effete, if we take a gander at its genesis the evidence reveals the cocktail is actually the choice for the hard drinker.
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Early incarnations of the cocktail can be identified as far back as drinking became a pastime. The Romans, for example, mixed up vini gallici, lemon juice and a pinch of dried adder. They also drank turpentine and made men fight lions. But these were twists on wine drinking and if we associate cocktails with the distilled drinks, then the Persians provide a nice early reference. They stirred up a potion in 900 that paved the way for the julep, an Arabic Julab, which included a spirit made from the sap of a tree and juice of poppy, or opium. We can’t condone adding heroin to your drinks, it’s not big or clever, even so, this is a properly punchy mix.
The etymology of the word "cocktail" makes for a lengthy essay, but it came into more common parlance around the 18th century and was originally a drink comprising four ingredients. In 1806 the Balance and Columbian Repository defined a cocktail comprising “spirits of any kind, sugar, water, and bitters - vulgarly called a bittered sling”. The word "cocktail" has since been attributed to all manner of flamboyant mixed drinks, but in essence, it’s a very simple drink born out of a necessity to improve the flavour of something.
Bitters are worth a second consideration and remain a ubiquitous ingredient in the cocktail. As the name would suggest, bitters do not make for a sweet ingredient, like, say, the Coca Cola you might use with your rum and coke. Bitters appeared in 19th century drinks served in the morning to revive. They didn’t use Stella for this activity, since they needed something a bit more substantial and Stella wasn’t available. Bitters were particularly popular in America where the cocktail was an 18/19th century medicinal champion before a more social and very serious bar call.
The Wild West was an important stomping ground for the cocktail and as men explored the frontier, poking cows and trapping beavers, they set up saloons so they could sip a mixed drink. Anyone who enjoyed Deadwood, an HBO classic throbbing with testosterone, might revisit and note the menu behind Al Swearengen’s bar, a splendid example of how cocktails were part of the Wild West rhetoric, his specials board replete with mixed drinks options. These drinks were for hardened drinkers and Al would’ve shot a man who called another a w----- for enjoying his whiskey fix.
From 1860 to 1930 the cocktail enjoyed a "golden era" in America and then Europe and interestingly during that period America endured prohibition. Despite the daft ban on booze, many American cocktail drinkers rebelled and ran the risk of severe beatings by coppers to enjoy a mixed drink. Anyone prepared to take a thump in the face for a cocktail (man or woman) is alright in our books. And while the 20th century saw some highs and lows for the cocktail, including a period in the 70s when even we admit there were some shocking concoctions travelling across the bar, it still gave us the Zombie, a drink mixing three types of rum and absinthe. Hardcore for sure.
While this is a very brief overview of the history of the cocktail, if you need more evidence then it’s worth identifying some of the people who have enjoyed them over the centuries. The founding fathers of America and the leading lights of British politics amongst them – in 1798 a cocktail appeared on William Pitt’s enormous and unpaid bar tab. There are stars of screen like Humphrey Bogart who ate a martini glass for a bet, or leading lights of literature like the flag bearer for machismo Ernest Hemingway who fished off Cuba using hand grenades. Whether they were creative, intelligent, ambitious, inspirational, or simply hard, great men have historically enjoyed a cocktail.
Still not convinced? Perhaps if you call it a "mixed drink" it’ll make you feel more comfortable ordering a cocktail. For this is all it is. And a drink with a mixture of ingredients can mean anything - a gin and tonic, a rum and coke, dare we say it, a jagerbomb, a lager shandy even orange squash.
It’s too easy to call someone a w----- these days, and there’s too much online bongo in the world to easily dodge the slur. But to level the put-down at a man who simply enjoys a proper drink is lazy and, frankly, ignorant. We have nothing against the lager drinker, we even champion our own in Hobo . We also enjoy a glass of wine. All we’re asking is you open your mind up a bit and don’t restrict yourself to monogamy in your drinking life, because if you’re that mouthy stag, you might well find yourself restricted in your love life.
Martini
The Martini is not a drink for w-----s. It’s exceptionally strong and a number of people order it because of its fame rather than understanding what it is. If you’ve never had the pleasure then give it a go, it makes a pint of lager look like a very safe option. History is also on its side as a manly choice. It’s occasionally connected to the origins of the Martinez, a mixed drink that emerged in the late 1800s comprising vermouth and Old Tom gin with dashes of maraschino, sugar syrup and bitters. Served up in San Francisco it was not the choice of fancy dans and financiers, rather the grim and carved up miners during the gold rush who swapped nuggets for the drink before threatening to shoot the bartender to get their precious metal back. In the decades that followed it evolved into the simple gin and vermouth mix we are more familiar with, one that Winston Churchill drank while he orchestrated a defeat over the Nazis. Franklin D Roosevelt raised one while he battled a disabling illness to win an unprecedented four presidential campaigns, and it won the Cold War, President Reagan and Gorbachev managing a Martini before signing the nuclear arms treaty. And while he was a fictional character, James Bond drank them and was also pretty hard.
Glass: cocktail
10ml Vermouth
Stir the ingredients on ice and strain into the glass.
With your garnish steer clear of limes unless you’ve got a penchant for the things. Or scurvy. You should go with an olive or a lemon twist. If you’re going dry then enhance the savoury side with a few olives on a cocktail stick.
Sazerac
The ingredients alone here should scare any hardened drinker and if you’ve got an aversion to a cocktail glass then this will at least ease you into the world of a mixed drink. It comes in a rocks glass and if you can’t endorse the machismo of a rocks then you’re probably just an obstinate freak and we give up. Served at the Sazerac Coffee House in New Orleans in the 1850s it included the hit of Antoine Amedee Peychaud’s bitters and a substantial slug of whiskey. He made the stiff drink considerably stiffer by adding the stink of an outré liquid obstacle in absinthe. Whisky, bitters, absinthe. It’s large. For the serious sipper then, this is the king of cocktails but it’s great to aim, and indeed be, high.
Glass: rocks
2 dashes Peychaud bitters
Absinthe
Pour a small amount of absinthe in the glass, coat the inside and discard it. Build slowly in the glass, stirring over ice as you do and garnish with a lemon zest.
Margarita
There are plenty of alternative and largely unsubstantiated origin stories for this drink but we’ll go with Carlos "Danny" Herrera’s to support a rather outdated but apparently still relevant "manly drink" theory here. Herrera told anyone who would listen that he invented the margarita at the Rancho La Gloria Bar in Rosarito, Mexico, sometime between the late 30s and early 40s. And get this, he dreamt it up for a showgirl. When serving it he undoubtedly added a garnish of: “What’re you doing dancing here, darling? I can take you away from all this.” We’re not in the business of celebrating misogynistic stereotypes here, but for the benefit of those who berate the use of moisturiser, a man who invents a drink for a stripper is surely on message. But this is just the nub of the action because the margarita is the flagship cocktail for tequila, perhaps the most manly of all the spirits. Sourced from the rugged lands of Mexico, using the bulb of the lethally leaved agave plant, hand picked by hard men with blades, this spirit has consistently proved itself to be the go to juice for the serious drinker.
Glass: Margarita/martini
25ml Cointreau
25ml fresh Lime Juice
Rim a chilled glass with salt then shake all ingredients hard over ice and strain into the glass. Garnish with a lime wedge.
Pina Colada: a hard man's drink (Photo: AP)
Pina Colada
In the 1820s Puerto Rica’s Roberto Cofresi, a Puerto Rican pirate, was wreaking havoc in the Caribbean seas. He was bloodthirsty, no doubt, one of his favourite past times was nailing captives to the deck of his ship El Mosquito and while he was latterly seen as a Robin Hood, there’s little doubt he was a dastardly chap. He was also rum thirsty and served up a concoction of pineapple, coconut and sugar cane spirit to appease his antsy crew. This is the basis of a pina colada. There are other stories about how this drink came to be, some more accurate perhaps, but what we’re saying here is that this oft derided camp classic was the choice of a cutthroat criminal. If you ever feel the need to defend this cocktail choice to a small minded flaming Sambuca shooter (why would you?), let them know as much.
Glass: Hurricane
| i don't know |
What name is given to the form of divination through books ? | Types of Divination
ASTROLOGY is divination using celestial bodies: the sun, moon, planets, and stars.
CARTOMANCY is fortune telling using cards such as the Tarot.
CLAIRAUDIENCE is "clear hearing" of divinatory information. Parapsychologist generally regard as a form of extrasensory perception.
CLAIRVOYANCE is "clear seeing" of divinatory information. Parapsychologist generally regard as a form of extrasensory perception.
CRYSTALLOMANCY is divination through crystal gazing.
DOWSING or DIVINING RODS are methods of divination where a forked stick is used to locate water or precious minerals.
NUMEROLOGY is the numerical interpretation of numbers, dates, and the number value of letters.
OCULOMANCY is divination from a person's eye.
PALMISTRY is the broad field of divination and interpretation of the lines and structure of the hand.
PRECOGNITION in an inner knowledge or sense of future events.
PSYCHOMETRY is the faculty of gaining impressions from a physical object and its history.
SCIOMANCY is divination using a spirit guide, a method generally employed by chanelers.
SCRYING is a general term for divination using a crystal, mirrors, bowls of water, ink, or flames to induce visions.
TASSEOGRAPHY is the reading of tea leaves that remain in a tea cup once the beverage has been drunk.
Uncommon Types of Divination
AEROMANCY divination from the air and sky, particularly concentrating on cloud shapes, comets, and other phenomena not normally visible in the heavens.
ALECTRYOMANCY is divination whereby a bird is allowed to pick corn grains from a circle of letters. A variation is to recite letters of the alphabet noting those at which a cock crows.
ALEUROMANCY is divination using "fortune cookies"; answers to questions are rolled into balls of dough and once baked are chosen at random.
ALOMANCY is divination by table salt.
ALPHITOMANCY uses special cakes that are digestible by persons with a clear conscience but are unpleasant to others.
ANTHROPOMANCY is the long-outlawed means of divination by human sacrifice.
APANTOMANCY is divination through chance meetings with animals (e.g., a black cat), birds, and other creatures. Mexico City is said to have been founded where Aztec soothsayers saw an eagle flying from a cactus carrying a live snake.
ARITHMANCY or ARITHMOMANCY is an earlier form of NUMEROLOGY where divination is made through numbers and the number value of letters.
ASTRAGLOMANCY or ASTRAGYROMANCY is a form of divination by dice where the faces of the dice bear numbers and letters.
AUGURY is the general term for the art of divination and is chiefly applied to interpretations of signs and omens.
AUSTROMANCY is divination by the study of the winds.
AXIOMANCY is divination through the observation of how an ax or hatchet quivers or points when driven into post.
BELOMANCY is an ancient form of divination performed by tossing or balancing arrows.
BIBLIOMANCY involves divination by books.
BOTANOMANCY is divination from burning tree branches and leaves.
BUMPOLOGY strictly a modern term, a popular nickname for PHRENOLOGY
CAPNOMANCY is the study of smoke rising from a fire.
CATOPTROMANCY is an early form of crystal gazing that utilizes a mirror turned to the moon to catch moonbeams.
CAUSIMOMANCY is divination from behavior of objects placed in a fire.
CEPHALOMANCY refers to divination with the skull or head of a donkey or goat.
CERAUNOSCOPY seeks to draw omens from the study of thunder and lightning.
CEROSCOPY, CEROMANCY is a form of fortune telling in which melted was is poured into cold water.
CHIROMANCY is divination from the lines on people's hands.
CHIROGNOMY is the study of the general hand formation.
CLEROMANCY is divination by "casting lots", similar to dice but with objects such as pebbles or sea shells.
CLIDOMANCY or CLEIDOMANCY is divination using a dangling key. see RADIESTHESIA.
COSCINOMANCY is divination using a hanging sieve. see RADIESTHESIA.
CRITOMANCY is the study of barley cakes.
CROMNIOMANCY is divination using onion sprouts.
CYCLOMANCY is the practice of divination from a turning wheel.
DACTYLOMANCY is an early form of RADIESTHESIA using a dangling ring.
DAPHNOMANCY requires one to listen to laurel branches crackling in an open fire.
DEMONOMANCY is divination with the aid of demons.
DENDROMANCY is divination with either oak or mistletoe.
GASTROMANCY is an ancient form of ventriloquism whereby the voice is lowered to a sepulchral tone and prophetic utterances are delivered in a trance state.
GELOSCOPY is the divination from the tone of someone's laughter.
GENETHLIALOGY is divination by the influence of the stars at birth.
GEOMANCY is the study of figures on the ground and the influence of the Earth's "currents".
GRAPHOLOGY is the analysis of character through handwriting.
GYROMANCY is a divination procedure where a person walks in a circle marked with letters until they become dizzy and stumble at different points, thus spelling out a prophesy.
HALOLMANCY see ALOMANCY
HARUSPICATION IS fortune-telling by means of inspecting the entrails of animals, as practiced by priests in ancient Rome.
HIEROMANCY or HIERSCOPY is divination by observing object of ancient sacrifice.
HIPPOMANCY is a form of divination from the stamping and neighing of horses.
HOROSCOPY is the practice of casting of astrological horoscopes.
HYDROMANCY is divination by water including the color, ebb and flow, or ripples produced by pebbles dropped in a pool.
ICHTHYOMANCY is divination using fish.
LAMPADOMANCY is divination using lights or torches.
LECANOMANCY uses a basin of water for divination.
LIBANOMANCY is the study of incense and its smoke.
LITHOMANCY is divination using precious stones of various colors.
MARGARITOMANCY is the procedure of using bouncing pearls.
METAGNOMY is the divination using "visions" received in a trance state.
METEOROMANCY is divination from meteors.
METOPOSCOPY is the reading of character using the lines if the forehead.
MOLEOSOPHY is the study of moles and indicators of a person's character and future indications.
MOLYBDOMANCY draws mystic inferences from the hissing of molten lead.
MYOMANCY is the study of the prophetic meaning of behavior of rats and mice.
OINOMANCY is divination using wine.
OMPHALOMANCY IS counting the number of knots in the umbilical cord to predict how many more children the mother will have
ONEIROMANCY is the interpretation of dreams and their prophetic nature.
ONOMANCY is the study of the meaning of names.
ONOMANTICS is the application of ONOMANCY applied to personal names, particularly in the sense of occult interpretation.
ONYCHOMANCY is the study of fingernails.
OOMANTIA and OOSCOPY is the method of divination by eggs.
OPHIOMANCY is divination from serpents.
ORNISCOPY and ORINITHOMANCY is the study of omens associated with birds, particularly birds in flight. see APANTOMANCY
OVOMANCY is another type of egg divination.
PEGOMANCY concerns itself with spring water and bubbling fountains and the omens contained therein.
PHRENOLOGY is the long practiced study of head formations.
PHYLLORHODOMANCY is a means of divination whereby one slaps a rose petal against the hand and judges the favorability of the omen by the loudness of the sound.
PHYSIOGNOMY is the study of character analysis through physical features.
PSYCHOGRAPHY is a form of mysterious writing having a divinatory nature.
PYROMANCY and PYROSCOPY are forms of divination by fire or flame, often assisted by substances thrown onto the flames.
RADIESTHESIA is the general term for divination using a device such as a divining rod or pendulum. Other forms include "table tipping" which was practiced at the White House in the 19th century, the Ouija board, automatic writing (or superconscious writing), and scrying.
RHABDOMANCY is divination using a stick or wand. These methods were forerunners of the divining rod.
RHAPSODOMANCY is a means of divination using a book of poetry whereby the book is opened at random and a passage read.
SIDEROMANCY is the burning of straws with a hot iron, the resulting figures having divinatory properties.
SORTILEGE is the casting of lots and the assessment of omens indicated.
SPODOMANCY is divination using cinders or soot.
STICHOMANCY is another form of throwing open a book and selecting a random passage for the purpose of divination.
STOLISOMANCY draws omens from the way people dress.
SYCOMANCY is performed by writing messages on tree leaves; the slower they dry, the more favorable the omen. A modern variation is to write on slips of paper (always including one blank) and rolling them up. They are then held in a strainer over a boiling pot; the first to unroll will be answered.
TEPHRAMANCY is divination by ashes obtained from the burning of tree bark.
TIROMANCY is a type of divination using cheese.
XYLOMANCY is divination from pieces of wood, either from their shape when collected or their appearance while burning.
| Bibliomancy |
Which stately home in Derbyshire formed the backdrop to the famous historical romance between Dorothy Vernon and Sir John Manners ? | Category:Divination Fortune Telling Oracles - Association of Independent Readers and Rootworkers
Category:Divination Fortune Telling Oracles
Candelo Kimbisa - Susan Barnes
A beautiful antique Royal Doulton plate in faux-Delft blue decoratively displays the grand zodiacal parade in astro-inverso form, with England at the center of its world
Divination, fortune-telling, reading, divining, prophesying, telling futures, seeing by Spirit, and oracular disclosure are varied names for the process by which the present or future circumstances of a person, place, relationship, or object may be glimpsed, understood, or predicted.
Some religions -- such as Judaism , Hinduism , and Taoism -- have created or endorsed institutionalized roles for diviners and prophets within their priesthood or allied to it. Other religions maintain a neutral or even a negative opinion of seership and may even go so far as to forbid its practice on scriptural grounds, relegating divination to the realm of the magical arts . Whether or not a divination is performed within the embrace of a religious tradition or a magical arts , the knowledge conveyed by its practice is generally brought forth to clients or sitters by gifted seers. Depending on the nature of their gifts, their training, or their personal inclination, their insights may gleaned by means of a tool geared for such a purpose, by direct spirit-vision, through intuition, or by skill in interpreting signs, portents, and omens from the immediate environment.
In addition to divining things to come or revealing hidden thoughts and workings, many fortune-tellers will also give character readings -- short analyses of someone's character without specific predictions of future events. The subject of a character reading may be the client, who seeks self-knowledge, but the fortune-teller may just as readily perform a character reading on the client's prospective mate. If the latter is being assessed for marital compatibility with the client, there is an element of prediction, as the reader explores the future potential of the relationship based on the two characters.
Among hoodoo root doctors many types of divination are employed, and these derive from the varied cultural traditions which have gone into the making of African-American conjure .
Palmistry examines the form and lines of the hand
Graphology reveals secrets of the subject's handwriting
Phrenology is character analysis by means of the head
Astrology studies the native's planetary and zodiacal map
Numerology brings forth hidden meanings in the alphabet
Bibliomancy is fortune telling from a book
I Ching is an ancient Chinese form of divination
Cartomancy is divination by means of cards
Contents
4 AIRR Readers & Rootworkers Who Perform This Work for Clients
Personal Features
Fortune telling or character analysis may be performed by evaluating the morphology of the body, or what it immediately produces, or what may be associated with it by circumstances of birth. Among the morphological branches of divination are included phrenology, palmistry, graphology, and other readings of the human form
Palmistry
For more information, see Palmistry, Cheiromancy, and Hand Reading
Reading the hand, also known as palmistry, palm reading, or cheiromancy, tells the story of the sitter's life in terms of finger and palm shapes, augmented by the details of the mounds, creases, crosses, stars, rings, and grilles comprising the Heart, Head, Life, Fate, Health, and other lines.
Palmistry provides a ready evaluation of individuals, their personalities, tendencies, interests, potentialities, and destiny. Information discerned by examination of the hand includes such things as the sitter's strength and length of life, acquisitiveness or generosity, predisposition toward fame, inclination toward secrecy or gossip, artistic talents, spiritual tendencies, number of relationships, psychic abilities, and potential to have or rear children.
For more information, see Graphology and Handwriting Analysis
Handwriting analysis or graphology, is the examination and evaluation of a person's written expression so as to assess their character. Samples of the subject's writing and signature are measured against certain standards, noting details such as the slant and size of the letters, the formation of loops, the overall regularity of the strokes, and the overall form of the letters.
Graphologists use handwriting analysis to determine a subject's compatibility with other people, to ascertain the subject's suitability for certain tasks in an occupational setting, or to obtain insights into the subject's personality for purposes of assisting spiritual growth and development.
For more information, see Astrology
Astrology, the study of the stars, is found in most cultures of the world, keyed to constellations, the planets' courses through a portion of the sky, and the equinoctial precession. Astrology marks regular and swift-moving influences, from lunar changes of sign in a few days to yearly equinoctial and solsticial points; it includes the hidden rhythms of eclipses and large-scale zodiacal ages lasting thousands of years.
Zodiac signs, planetary positions, rulerships, aspects, houses, the ascendant, and the midheaven are points of reference and insight found on natal, electional, horary, locational, medical, and other horoscope charts. One's birth or the timing of subsequent events can be correlated with the configuration of astronomical events so as to influence one's character, potential, and most advantageous relationship and career options in life.
For more information, see Numerology
Numbers are conceived as permeating the whole of the cosmos, some believing that everything is in fact a number. Alternatively, some conceive of everything as composed of letters which may double as numerical values or be evaluated by a specialized system so as to reveal such a value.
Using ordinal, gematric, or other systems of enumeration and /or reduction applied to birth dates and names, the numerologist arrives at identifying, resonating, lucky, or essential numbers for the individual. For example, one's birth date may reveal a key number that can be compared to any other date's number and evaluated for harmonic or clashing influences. Likewise, the conversion of names, words, dream images, or phrases into numbers may reveal other names, words, or phrases with the same numbers, and these are thought to be attuned or "harmonic" to the original set of words.
(Read More...)
Mixing and Shuffling
Mixing, shuffling, cutting, or randomly selecting objects are methods of divination that involve some means of combining and concealing, or an abstracted selection or division, later deriving or disclosing an unknown result.
Bibliomancy
For more information, see Bibliomancy
Books; shuffling pages, closing our eyes when selecting a passage, opening haphazardly to a spot and commencing to read, inserting a specific instrument into a spot within the book or employing it to point out a specific paragraph once the book is open, somehow generating numbers and referring to a particular page and paragraph of the volume so indicated, etc.
The use of a book to generate a divinatory result is age-old. From wood and bamboo to hides, parchment, or other materials; from scrolls to printed books; no format of the book prevents one from using it in this way. Quite often key texts are selected due to the august nature which they are imbued. Scripture and prognosticatory or poetic volumes seem to be those most naturally associated with, or conducive to, the oracular result.
For more information, see I Ching
"Yijing," "I Ching," or "Classic of Changes" is an ancient Chinese oracle book attributed to King Wen and the Duke of Jhou. The book is consulted after using 50 yarrow stalks (or in the abbreviated version, 3 cash coins) to derive the first of six sequential lines of 4 varying qualities. This is repeated 5 more times so as to compose a 6-line figure called a hexagram.
Given its age, it is not surprising that multiple standards of use for the Yijing exist, including astrological, numerological, and magical interpretations. As with any book-oriented tradition, translations, revisions, and appended commentaries have greatly affected the character of its employment.
For more information, see Card Reading
Card decks of variable face values are shuffled, placed in a layout, then interpreted based on layout position, relation to other cards, and orientation. Suit designations often have a common aspect or element assigned to them, as do numerical rankings. Some oracle decks have no ranking features, others have numbers or quasi-suits.
Decks may be named through association with the game the cards were originally used to play (e.g. Tarocchi / Tarot), for the authors and artists of the deck (e.g. the Smith-Waite Tarot, Lenormand cards), or they may be provided with a titles similar to those given to books (e.g. the Grand Orient Egyptian Gypsies Tarot, the Thoth Tarot Deck, I Ching Cards, or the Secret Dakini Oracle).
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Curacao, off the Venezuelan coast, is a constituent country of which European kingdom ? | TrustCor | About | Curaçao
About
Curaçao
TrustCor is a Panamanian registered company, with technical operations in Curaçao – one of the most secure, privacy oriented jurisdictions in the world. We spent significant time and money researching secure jurisdictions and determined traditional safe havens, such as Switzerland and Luxembourg, did not even come close to the privacy protection offered by Curaçao’s strict privacy laws.
The Privacy Acts of Curaçao
The Privacy Acts require compliance with the following four principles with regards to personal data:
OBJECTIVE: Any storage and use of personal data must be in accordance with a clearly stated and justified objective. Personal data may not be stored and used for time periods that exceed meeting those specified objectives.
ADEQUATE, PURPOSE ORIENTED, NOT EXESSIVE AND ACCURATE: Personal data is subject to the above requirements which shall be observed by the suppliers and the processors of the data.
TRANSPARENCY AND RIGHT TO CORRECTION: Personal data is subject to transparency towards the consumers (data subjects). Consumers must be informed that their personal data is used with disclosure of the purpose. The consumer has the right to, and must be given possibilities to, object to the way in which the data is collected if he/she is of the opinion that the collection and use of his/her personal data is not in accordance with applicable laws. (article 13 EVRM). The expenses involved for the consumer to have is objections heard shall not be excessive, and he/she must be able to direct him/herself to the Data Protection Board (College Bescherming Persoonsgegevens).
DUE CARE: Personal data shall be supplied, processed and used in accordance with the laws and shall at all time be subject to principles of fairness and due care (article 6 LvBP/ WBP BES).
Curaçao's Privacy Act
Personal Data Protection Act of Curaçao
On October 1st, 2013 the regulation for the processing of personal data entered into force in Curaçao. The Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) sets rules for the protection of personal data in relation to the recording and provision of personal data.
Whereas Privacy Acts are currently becoming part of the local laws in Curaçao and the BES Islands (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba), and are largely based on the principles in the laws of the Netherlands, such laws have already been adopted in the Netherlands many years ago and generally follow the principles established in the EU Privacy Directive of 1995 (Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data).
Personal data encompasses all information that (could) disclose information directly tied to a natural person (“consumer”, or “data subject”). Such as the person’s characteristics, opinions or (payment) behavior. To evaluate whether data is “Personal Data”, the extent to which such data could be a factor in the way the person would be judged or treated in the community must be considered. Because the data that is stored by private communication company, such as TrustCor, could cause certain judgments about the consumer, we must adhere to the local Privacy Acts while storing and processing personal data.
In accordance with the Privacy Acts, the confidentiality and specified and limited distribution of the personal data must be ensured.
The local Privacy Acts in Curaçao and the BES islands form the legal framework in which TrustCor operates. The Privacy Acts stipulate the boundaries within which the personal data which are submitted by the members are allowed to be stored, processed and shared. In addition, as part of the registration process, security protocols, the general terms and conditions and the credit application procedures, as well as requirements of the local banking laws (for the bank members) must be complied with.
Privacy in Curaçao
Article 12 of the constitution of Curaçao (Staatsregeling van het Land Curaçao, A.B. 2010, 86) describes the right of each individual that his/her privacy is to be respected. This principle is addressed in the Privacy Act of Curaçao (Landsverordening bescherming persoonsgegevens (AB 2010, 84). This Privacy Act is substantially the same as the Privacy Act of Bonaire and the Privacy Act of the Netherlands with the exception of certain articles that relate specifically to Europe have been omitted. The Privacy Act of Curaçao entered into force on October 1, 2013.
About Curaçao
Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles
Curaçao is an island in the southern Caribbean Sea, off the Venezuelan coast, that forms part of the Dutch Caribbean. The Country of Curaçao, which includes the main island and the small, uninhabited island of Klein Curaçao ("Little Curaçao"), is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of over 150,000 on an area of 444 km2 (171 sq mi) and its capital is Willemstad. Prior to 10 October 2010, when the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved, Curaçao was administered as the Island Territory of Curaçao, one of five island territories of the former Netherlands Antilles.
Curaçao, as well as the rest of the ABC islands and also Trinidad and Tobago, lies on the continental shelf of South America, and is thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America. Curaçao's highest point is the Sint Christoffelberg 375 m (1,230 ft). The Netherlands Antilles, also referred to as the Dutch Antilles, was an autonomous Caribbean country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Although the country has been dissolved, all of its constituent islands remain part of the kingdom under a different legal status and the term is still used to refer these Dutch Caribbean islands.
Dissollution of Netherlands Antilles
The Netherlands Antilles was dissolved on 10 October 2010. Curaçao and Sint Maarten became distinct constituent countries alongside Aruba, which had become a distinct constituent country in 1986; whereas Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba became special municipalities within the Netherlands proper. The government of Curaçao takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic country. The Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Convicted felons are held at the Curaçao Centre for Detention and Correction prison. Curaçao has full autonomy on most matters, with the exceptions summed up in the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the title "Kingdom affairs\u201d.
Cooperative Security Location
Curaçao is a Cooperative Security Location (CSL), a U.S. military term for facilities used for regional training in counterterrorism and interdiction of drug trafficking, and also to provide contingency access to continental areas. "A CSL is a host-nation facility with little or no permanent U.S. personnel presence, which may contain pre-positioned equipment and/or logistical arrangements and serve both for security cooperation activities and contingency access." These sites were established as the Pentagon began to address regional threats primarily in Africa and Latin America following its 2004 global posture review. They are sometimes referred to as "lily pads." The establishment of such bases has accelerated under the Obama administration, especially with the pivot to the Asia Pacific region and increased operations in Africa.
Economy
Curaçao has an open economy, with tourism, international trade, shipping services, refining, storage (oil and bunkering) and international financial services being the most important sectors. Curaçao's economy is well developed and supports a high standard of living, ranking 46th in the world in terms of GDP (PPP) per capita and 27th in the world in terms of nominal GDP per capita. Curaçao possesses a high income economy, as defined by the World Bank. Activities related to the port of Willemstad (like the Free Trade Zone) make a significant contribution to the economy. To achieve the government's aim to make its economy more diverse, efforts are being made to attract more foreign investment. This policy, called the 'Open Arms' policy, features a heavy focus on information technology companies.
Water and Electricity
Aqualectra, a private company, and full member of CARILEC, delivers potable water and electricity to the island. Rates are controlled by the government. Water is produced by reverse osmosis or desalinization. It services 69,000 households and companies using 130,000 water and electric meters. Hato International Airport is located on the island. Its main runway parallels, and is adjacent to, the northern coast. The Queen Emma (semi-open), and the Queen Juliana are the primary bridges. The Queen Emma pontoon bridge, 67 meters (220 ft) long, connects pedestrians between the Punda and Otrobanda districts. This swings open to allow the passage of ships to and from the port. The bridge was originally opened in 1888 and the current bridge was installed in 1939. The Queen Juliana Bridge connects mobile traffic between the same two districts. At 185 feet (56 m) above the sea, it is one of the highest bridges in the Caribbean.
TrustCor's vision is to provide state-of-the-art, simple to use, privacy enhancing products and services for businesses and individuals. Using our privacy and security suite, certificate authority, global infrastructure, geo-jurisdiction advantage, and extensive expertise, will protect your digital footprint.
| Netherlands |
In which year did Napoelon's troops capture Moscow ? | Dutch overseas territories | Pearltrees
Dutch overseas territories
> Tfkempo > General knowledge > Nations > Europe > The European Union > Demographics of the European Union > Member nations > Special member state territories and the European Union > Overseas countries and territories
Aruba. Aruba is one of the four constituent countries that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along with the Netherlands, Curaçao and Sint Maarten.
The citizens of these countries all share a single nationality: Dutch. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but, for census purposes, is divided into eight regions. Its capital is Oranjestad. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. History[edit] Aruba's first inhabitants are thought to have been Caquetíos Amerinds from the Arawak tribe, who migrated there from Venezuela to escape attacks by the Caribs.
Europeans first learned of Aruba following the explorations for Spain by Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda in the summer of 1499. Bonaire. Bonaire was part of the Netherlands Antilles until the country's dissolution on 10 October 2010,[5] when the island (including Klein Bonaire) became a special municipality within the country of the Netherlands.
History[edit] Original inhabitants[edit] European arrival[edit] Spanish period[edit] Dutch period[edit] The Dutch West India Company was founded in 1621. While Curaçao emerged as a center of the slave trade, Bonaire became a plantation of the Dutch West India Company. British period[edit] Emancipation[edit] From 1816 until 1868, Bonaire remained a government plantation. Allotment[edit] In 1867 the government sold most of the public lands, and in 1870 they sold the saltpans. World War II[edit] Caribbean Netherlands. Although they are part of the Netherlands, these special municipalities will remain overseas territories[4] of the European Union at least until 2015.[5] Bonaire (including the islet of Klein Bonaire) is located east of Aruba and Curaçao, close to the coast of Venezuela.
Sint Eustatius and Saba are located south of Sint Maarten and northwest of Saint Kitts and Nevis. Curaçao. Curaçao (/ˈkjʊərəsaʊ/ KEWR-ə-sow; Dutch: Curaçao;[5][6] Papiamentu: Kòrsou) is an island in the southern Caribbean Sea, off the Venezuelan coast, that forms part of the Dutch Caribbean.
The Country of Curaçao (Dutch: Land Curaçao;[7] Papiamento: Pais Kòrsou),[8] which includes the main island plus the small, uninhabited island of Klein Curaçao ("Little Curaçao"), is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It has a population of over 150,000 on an area of 444 km2 (171 sq mi) and its capital is Willemstad. Prior to 10 October 2010, when the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved, Curaçao was administered as the Island Territory of Curaçao[9] (Dutch: Eilandgebied Curaçao, Papiamentu: Teritorio Insular di Kòrsou), one of five island territories of the former Netherlands Antilles. Etymology[edit] Map from 1562 with Curaçao indicated as Qúracao. On a map created by Hieronymus Cock in 1562 in Antwerp, the island was referred to as Qúracao.[11] History[edit] Map of Curaçao in 1836. Netherlands Antilles. The Netherlands Antilles (Dutch: Nederlandse Antillen [ˈneːdərˌlɑntsə ɑnˈtɪlə(n)] ( ), Papiamentu: Antia Hulandes[2]), also referred to informally as the Dutch Antilles,[3] was an autonomous Caribbean country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Although the country has now been dissolved, all of its constituent islands remain part of the kingdom under a different legal status and the term is still used to refer to these Dutch Caribbean islands. Saba. Saba, including the islet of Green Island, became a special municipality within the country of the Netherlands after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles on 10 October 2010.[5] The island has a land area of 13 square kilometres (5.0 sq mi).
As of January 2013[update], the population was 1,991 inhabitants, with a population density of 150 inhabitants per square kilometre (390 /sq mi).[1] Its current towns and major settlements are The Bottom (the capital), Windwardside, Hell's Gate and St. Johns. Sint Eustatius. The island lies in the northern Leeward Islands portion of the West Indies, southeast of the Virgin Islands.
Sint Eusatius is immediately to the northwest of Saint Kitts, and to the southeast of Saba. The regional capital is Oranjestad. The island has an area of 21 km² (8.1 sq. miles). In the 2001 census, the population was recorded as 3,543 inhabitants, with a population density of 169 inhabitants per square kilometre. The official languages are Dutch and English. Formerly part of the Netherlands Antilles, Sint Eustatius became a special municipality within the Kingdom of the Netherlands on 10 October 2010.[6] The name of the island "Sint Eustatius" is the Dutch name for Saint Eustice (also spelled Eustachius or Eustathius), a legendary Christian martyr known in Spanish as San Eustaquio and in Portuguese as Santo Eustáquio or Santo Eustácio.
Sint Maarten. Sint Maarten (Dutch pronunciation: [sɪnt ˈmaːrtə(n)]) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
It encompasses the southern half of the Caribbean island of Saint Martin, while the northern half of the island constitutes the French overseas collectivity of Saint-Martin. Its capital is Philipsburg. Its population is 37,000 on 34km2. Before 10 October 2010, Sint Maarten was known as the Island Territory of Sint Maarten (Dutch: Eilandgebied Sint Maarten), and was one of five island territories (eilandgebieden) that constituted the Netherlands Antilles. History[edit] In 1493, during Christopher Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies, upon first sighting the island he named it Isla de San Martín after Saint Martin of Tours because it was 11 November, St.
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What is the capital of Indonesia ? | Indonesia, About Indonesia
Bisnis Indonesia, Bali Post, Serambi, Pikiran Rakyat, Media Indonesia
Places to Visit:
Bali, Jakarta, Lombok, Bohorok Orang-utan Viewing Centre, Borobudur, Gunung Kawi, Kelimutu, Lore Lindu National Park and many others.
Transport:
Enter the region of Indonesia through Jakarta and Bali. Most of the airlines ply from Jakarta whereas Bali being the tourist capital attracts a lot of traffic. One may find Departure tax applied from Jakarta and Denpasar. Choose the land crossing from Entikong, Kalimantan and Sarawak; from Motoain and from Jayapura or Sentani to Vanimo in PNG. Take a ferry ride to the region from Penang to Medan or opt for speedboats travelling from Kalimantan to Sabah in Malaysia.
Shopping:
Batik cloth, silverwork, woven baskets, hats, bamboo articles, woodcarvings,sculpture,krises (small daggers), paintings and woven cloth.
The Indonesia Republic consists of nearly of 18,110 islands within the province of South East Asia, which stands as the world's largest archipelagic state. Being the fourth most populous country in the world the area has a majority count of Muslim population in the locality. Being a unitary state the place maintains unity in diversity as quite a lot of ethnic, and religious groups thrive within the area. Take a stunning journey to the exciting topographies echoing with enshrouded misty volcanoes, majestic mountains, untouched rain forests, offshore breeze from the endless beaches, coral reefs, and fantastic variety of flora and fauna.
Where is Indonesia
Indonesia is a wonderful archipelago nestled in the midst of Asian peninsula along the South East area and Australia; while lying in the middle of Indian and Pacific Oceans. The province is enveloped by Malaysia along the island of Borneo, by Papua New Guinea along the province of New Guinea and East Timor along the island of Timor.
Physical Map Of Indonesia
The Indonesia province widens from the eastern region to the western front thereby covering an area of 5,120 kilometers, and stretches from the northern end till it reaches the southern region to about 1,760 kilometers, and stands in the 16 th position as far as the land area is concerned. Out of 18,108 islands present in Indonesia, comparatively 6,000 of it is occupied by inhabitants and the rest seems to be dotted roughly near the equator thereby bringing in a tropical kind of weather. The five chief islands of the region are:
Java,
Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo),
Irian Jaya, and
Sulawesi.
The two other archipelago of the region is Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands. The archipelago can be separated into several divisions namely:
The Greater Sunda islands,
The Smaller Sunda islands, and
East Indonesia.
The islands of Sumatra, Java (which was known as Madura), Kalimantan (formerly named as Borneo), and Sulawesi (called as Celebes previously) fall within the sector of Greater Sunda Islands.
The Sulawesi seems to be a part of the Sunda Shelf that has extended from the Malay Peninsular region to the Southeast Asian region. Irian Jaya, which was previously called as Irian Barat or West New Guinea falls under the Sahul Shelf sector, is a part of the New Guinea Island.
The Smaller Sunda Islands is comprised of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Komodo, etc, which are even referred as Nusa Tenggara.
The region is quietly placed in the boundary edges of the three tectonic plates, which includes the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian plates, that makes the area prone to earthquakes followed up with tsunamis. Indonesia is hit with about 66 volcanoes whereby the Krakatoa area nestled near Sumatra and Java, is prone to acute eruption.
There are several mountain ranges within the region of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram that spreads to an area of 3,000 to 3,800 meters above sea level.
Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Mountains in Irian Jaya is the tallest elevated mountain within the area along with Puncak Jaya that is recognized as the highest peak. Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java are considered as the seismic peaks within the region.
Climate Of Indonesia
The apparent seasons into which the province of Indonesia can be divided into are:
The dry season, that extends from the month of June to October, and
The rain season, which occurs during the season of November to March.
The area of North Sulawesi is subjected to typical equatorial climate that initialized from the month of September. It is during this season the chilly winds of Northwesterly gather moisture and passes through the South China Sea thereby reaching the Sulawesi Sea during the month of November. Strong cyclones and typhoons can be sighted in the higher latitudes, with occasional afternoon thunderstorms affecting certain parts of the region.
The climatic condition of Indonesia is affected by the structure of the island that is placed across the Equator, lying in the midst of Asia and Australia that brings along even and high temperatures within the area along with slight monsoon based on down pouring.
Temperatures are uniformly high near the coastal region, with an annual rise in temperature to about 23 to 31 °C that becomes moderate when it reaches approximately above 2,000 feet high above. Maoke Mountains of Papua receives sufficient snowfall while the region of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Celebes, and Papua mountain ranges get the highest amount of precipitation.
There is a change in the seasonal pattern, which is based on the air that drifts from the Monsoon pattern and meets the tropical air blowing from the north and south of the Equator, which creates a low pressure within the area. It is during the month of December, January, and February; the west monsoon brings along heavy precipitation to the regions of southern Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Usually in the months of June, July, and August, the east monsoon, carry dry air from Australia affecting the regions of Lesser Sunda Islands and eastern Java. When the east monsoon passes through the Equator - that changes into the southwest monsoon belonging to the Northern Hemisphere, the winds bring along humidity followed with rain.
Flora And Fauna Of Indonesia
Travel to the Komodo group of reserves along the coast of Flores in the eastern part of the area,which is a home to the world's largest lizard namely the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). The native animals residing in the Sulawesi area are the babi rusa , a deer-like pig and the anoa , a forest based dwarf buffalo. Catch up with species like big civet cat called musang , tersier named binatang hantu and assoted ranges of black monkey or monyet hitam. Sumatran tiger or Panthera tigris sumatrenesis or the Java tigers known as Panthera tigris sondaica are the local species of tigers found within the region. The Maleo fowl and the shrubhen, are the two major birds in this province that belong to the megapode group of family. Irian Jaya, cassowaries , Maluku are some of the colorful bird species that is a part of the Paradiseidae and Ptilinorhynhidae family. The hornbill bird, or rangkongpopular of the Bucerotidal family, are noted for their horn-tipped beak.
Visit the Ujung Kulon National Park in West Java for seeing the one-horned rhino called as 'Badak Jawa' locally or travel to the Mt. Leuser National Park placed in the Alas river valley area in Aceh for sighting two-horned rhino named as Dicerorhinus sumatrensis in native word. 'banteng' or wild bull of Java, the tree kangaroo, the fresh water dolphin and the proboscis monkey are common species of the region. Catch up with birds like egrets, herons, kingfishers, hawks, eagles along with species like Tortoises and turtles within the area.
The ornamental fishes are quite prominent within the region and are found in different shapes and colors. These fishes are exported to countries like United States, Japan and Germany. The examples of ornamental fishes are clownfish (Amphiprion), wrasse (Coris gaimardi), damselfish (Dascyllus), butterflyfish, Sea horses, bannerfish, Angelfish, Hippocampus coronatus Surgeonfish, Paracanthurus hepatus , Peacock fish, Coris aygula and many others.
Pearl oysters are reared in the sea waters of Halmahera Island, the Maluku and the Aru Islands that are nurtured for extracting pearls.
Get to see variety of tropical plants especially the flower of Rafflesia arnoldi, found in Sumatra, is suppopsedly the largest flower species in the world. Catch up with orchids of various sizes which includes species like tiger orchid or Grammatophyllum Speciosum ( largest species) and Taeniophyllum ( smallest species) that are used for making medicines and handicrafts.
There are considereby three species of flowers that are known as the national flowers namely the melati (Jasminum sambac), the anggrek bulan or moon orchid (Phalaenopsis amabilis), and the Rafflesia arnoldi .
Teakwood, Sandalwood, Gonystylus, ebony, ulin and Palembang timber are some of the plants seen in the forested woods of the region.
People Of Indonesia
The Arab, Chinese and the Indian immigrants are known to have settled in Indonesia especially in the coastal cities. The local dialect spoken by Indonesian is Bahasa Indonesia (official), English, and Dutch.
The major ethnic groups surviving here are:
Minangkabaunese,
Maduranese, and
Ambonnese.
The chief religions thriving in this place includes Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Indonesia is covered with majority of Muslim population which covers about 86% of the area while the 11% thriving in the sector are Christian where two third of its portion are Protestants in nature, while 2% of the population are constituted with Hindus, and the rest 1% are Buddhist.
Arts, Culture And Music Of Indonesia
Art : The art of applying wax polish and tie dying on a cloth, prevalently known as Batik, is quite widespread in the area of Yogyakarta within the Java district. The crafts that the local natives resort to are ikat, the local weaving style, Songket, golden thread designed on a silk cloth and kris, jewel-adorned artwork.
Culture: Watch out for mock battles in the area of Sumba that relates to the disastrous warfare of the ancient times that usually occur in the month of February and March. It is usually the day before Balinese Caka New Year that is celebrated in the month of March-April, were temple shrines are carried to the sea and dipped in holy waters along with the drummers who wade away evil spirits from it. The Balinese festival is quite famous in the region of Galungan, where gods supposedly reside to the earth and participate in the carousing. Several other festivals are held here like the Easter parade that are held in the Larantuka Island, the Torajan festival which is a major funeral feast function that takes place in the area of central Sulawesi. The Indonesian cuisines are manipulated by Chinese flavors, where the local dishes include delicacies like Nasi goring, while sate; gado-gado and seafood, that add spice to life.
Music: The Javanese wayang (the popular puppet shows) and gamelan, is a spellbinding music accompanied with drums, are quite renowned in this region. Kecapi suling is based on instrumental composition that links well with the tembang sunda, which is usually heard in the region of Java. The most accepted Indonesian music can be referred to the gamelan music, which is escorted with instruments like metallophones, drums, gongs, spike fiddles and bamboo flutes. The Pop Music exists here in the form of Pop Sunda, Pop Minang, Pop Batak and much more assorted ranges. Some of the major dance music of the area includes Tapanuli ogong, Gambus, Jaipongan, Dangdut, and Kroncong.
The native's resort to several theatrical performances and celebrations, which includes the renowned wayang kulit shadow theatre, wayang orang, unmasked dance, and wayang topeng masked dance. These plays are based on mythological aspects and episodes relating to the several ancient epics of the old times like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Wayang topeng is a popular based masked dance, which is performed at the eastern Javanese courts, that has close links with the prehistoric animistic dance witnessed in the Pacific islands. Wayang orang is a Java based impressive kind of dance-drama, which was mainly participated by the female members of the 9th-century. Do indulge in Ketoprak and ludruk performances that are celebrated by a group of 150 to 200 proficient troupes.
| Jakarta |
What type of animal is the South African dik-dik ? | Current Local Time in Jakarta, Jakarta Special Capital Region, Indonesia
Current Local Time in Jakarta, Jakarta Special Capital Region, Indonesia
State: Jakarta Special Capital Region
Lat/Long: 6°09'S / 106°49'E
Currency: Indonesian Rupiah (IDR)
Sun in South: 12:03 pm
Altitude: 75.6°
Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, CGK
About 11 mi W of Jakarta
Husein Sastranegara International Airport, BDO
About 74 mi SE of Jakarta
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For which metal is Quicksilver another name ? | Quicksilver - definition of quicksilver by The Free Dictionary
Quicksilver - definition of quicksilver by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/quicksilver
Related to quicksilver: billabong , Roxy
quick·sil·ver
See mercury .
adj.
Unpredictable; mercurial: "a quicksilver character, cool and willful at one moment, utterly fragile the next" (Sven Birkerts).
[Middle English, from Old English cwicseolfor, living silver (translation of Latin argentum vīvum) : cwic, cwicu, alive; see gwei- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots + seolfor, silver; see silver.]
quicksilver
(Elements & Compounds) another name for mercury 1
adj
rapid or unpredictable in movement or change: a quicksilver temper.
[Old English, from cwicu alive + seolfer silver]
quick•sil•ver
[before 1000; Middle English qwyksilver, Old English cwicseolfor (translation Latin argentum vīvum) literally, living silver]
quick′sil`ver•y, adj.
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Noun
1.
quicksilver - a heavy silvery toxic univalent and bivalent metallic element; the only metal that is liquid at ordinary temperatures
metal , metallic element - any of several chemical elements that are usually shiny solids that conduct heat or electricity and can be formed into sheets etc.
cinnabar - a heavy reddish mineral consisting of mercuric sulfide; the chief source of mercury
calomel , mercurous chloride - a tasteless colorless powder used medicinally as a cathartic
Adj.
1.
quicksilver - liable to sudden unpredictable change; "erratic behavior"; "fickle weather"; "mercurial twists of temperament"; "a quicksilver character, cool and willful at one moment, utterly fragile the next"
changeful , changeable - such that alteration is possible; having a marked tendency to change; "changeable behavior"; "changeable moods"; "changeable prices"
Translations
A. N → azogue m, mercurio m
B. ADJ (fig) [moods, temperament] → inconstante , caprichoso
quick
(kwik) adjective
1. done, said, finished etc in a short time. a quick trip into town. vinnig سَريع бърз rápido chvatný, rychlý schnell hurtig γρήγορος , σύντομος rápido lühi-, kiir- سریع؛ تند pikainen rapide מהיר तेज brz gyors cepat snöggur, örstuttur, skyndi- veloce , rapido すばやい 단시간의 greitas, skubus ātrs; īss (laikā) cepat vlug rask , kjapp , hurtig szybki چټك، ګړندى: تيارسۍ: بيړګندى، په بيړه: حساس: ژر توليدوونكى rápido rapid быстрый; короткий chvatný, rýchly hiter brz snabb, hastig รวดเร็ว çabuk 快的，短暫的 швидкий مختصر وقت میں کیا یا کہا گیا mau chóng 快的
2. moving, or able to move, with speed. He's a very quick walker; I made a grab at the dog, but it was too quick for me. vinnig سَريع الحَرَكَه пъргав rápido rychlý schnell hurtig ταχύς , σβέλτος rápido kiire فرز nopea rapide מהיר , זריז फुर्तीला brz eleven, élénk, gyors cepat snöggur, snar veloce 速い 움직임이 빠른 greitas, vikrus ātrs; veikls cepat snel rask , fort , snar prędki چټك rápido rapid, iute скорый rýchly hiter brz snabb, rask, kvick ที่ว่องไว hızlı 快速的 прудкий تیز رفتار سے چلنا nhanh 快速的
3. doing something, able to do something, or done, without delay; prompt; lively. He is always quick to help; a quick answer; He's very quick at arithmetic. vinnig سَريع، ذَكي، حاد الذِّهْن схватлив rápido pohotový schnell hurtig; rap γρήγορος , άμεσος , εύστροφος rápido nobe سریع välitön rapide מהיר तेज brz, ažuran gyors cepat snöggur til veloce , pronto すばやい 신속한 greitas, nuovokus tūlītējs; bez kavēšanās cepat vlug kvikk , kjapp , oppvakt szybki , bystry چټك rápido rapid; ager проворный pohotový hiter brz snar, snabb ฉับไว çabuk 敏捷的，伶俐的 кмітливий; винахідливий فوری عمل giỏi; nhanh nhẹn 敏捷的，伶俐的
adverb
quickly. quick-frozen food. vinnig سَريع، يَحْدُثُ بِسُرْعَه бързо rápido hned, rychle schnell hurtigt; rapt; lyn- γρήγορα de prisa , rápido , rápidamente kiir- به سرعت nopeasti vite מהיר फुर्ती से brzo gyorsan cepat fljótt velocemente 速く 급히 greitai ātri; strauji cepat snel- fort deg! ; skynd deg! ; rask på! szybko په بيړه، په چټكۍ rápido repede быстро , скорее rýchlo hitro brzo fort, snabbt อย่างรวดเร็ว çabuk , çabucak 快速地 швидко جلد nhanh 快速地
ˈquickly adverb
vinnig بِسُرْعَه бързо rapidamente rychle schnell hurtigt; omgående γρήγορα de prisa , rápido , rápidamente kiiresti به سرعت nopeasti vite מהר फुर्ती से brzo gyorsan dengan cepat snögglega, fljótt rapidamente , alla svelta 速く 빨리 greitai ātri; strauji dengan cepat vlug raskt , fort , kjapt prędko په بيړه، په چټكۍ rapidamente repede быстро , скоро rýchlo hitro brzo fort, snabbt อย่างรวดเร็ว çabuk çabuk 快速地 швидко تیزی سے nhanh chóng 快速地
ˈquicken verb
to make or become quicker. He quickened his pace. versnel يُسَرِّعُ، يَحُثُّ забързвам apressar zrychlit (se) beschleunigen sætte farten op επιταχύνω , γίνομαι πιο γρήγορος acelerar , aligerar kiirendama, kiirenema تند کردن nopeuttaa accélérer לְהֵיעָשוֹת מָהִיר יוֹתֵר तेज ubrzati meggyorsít mempercepat hraða accelerare 早める 빠르게 하다 (pa)spartinti, (pa)greitinti paātrināt mempercepatkan versnellen raske på , framskynde , sette opp farten przyspieszyć ژوند وركول، ژوندى كول: لمسول، پارول: ګړندي كول apressar a (se) grăbi ускорять zrýchliť (sa) pospešiti ubrzati påskynda เร่งเร้า hızlanmak 加快 пожвавлювати تیز کرنا یا ہونا trở nên nhanh hơn 加快
ˈquickness noun
vinnigheid سُرْعَه бързина rapidez rychlost die Schnelligkeit hurtighed γρηγοράδα , σβελτάδα , ευστροφία rapidez nobedus تندی nopeus rapidité מהירות शीघ्रता, जल्दी brzina gyorsaság kecepatan hraði, snerpa rapidità , prontezza 速さ 민첩, 빠름 greitumas ātrums kecepatan vlugheid raskhet szybkość ژوندى rapidez rapiditate быстрота rýchlosť hitrost brzina snabbhet, raskhet ความเร็ว çabukluk, sürat 快速 швидкість پھرتی sự nhanh chóng; sự lanh lợi 快速
ˈquicklime noun
lime which has not been mixed with water. ongebluste kalk جير حَي، كِلْس غَيْر مُطْفَأ негасена вар cal viva nehašené vápno ungelöschter Kalk brændt kalk ασβέστης που δεν έχει αναμειχθεί με νερό cal viva kustutamata lubi آهک زنده kalkki chaux vive סִיד חָי अबुझा चूना živo vapno oltatlan mész gamping brennt kalk calce viva 生石灰 생석회 negesintos kalkės nedzēsti kaļķi kapur tohor ongebluste kalk brent kalk wapno niegaszone چونه cal viva var nestins негашёная известь nehasené vápno živo apno živi kreč osläckt kalk ปูนขาวที่ยังไม่ได้ผสมกับน้ำ sönmemiş kireç 生石灰 негашене вапно بغیر پانی ملایا ہوا چونا vôi sống 生石灰
ˈquicksands noun plural
(an area of) loose, wet sand that sucks in anyone or anything that stands on it. dryfsand رِمالٌ مُتَحَرِّكَه плаващ пясък areia movediça pohyblivé písky der Treibsand kviksand κινούμενη άμμος arenas movedizas vesiliiv باتلاق شنی juoksuhiekka sables mouvants חוֹל טוֹבעָנִי चोर बालू živ pijesak folyós homok pasir berpusar kviksandur sabbie mobili 流砂 유사(流砂) dribsmėlis plūstošās smiltis pasir jerlus drijfzand kvikksand lotne piaski لمدى شګې (ريګ) چې سړى پكښې ډوبيږي areia movediça nisipuri mişcătoare зыбучие пески pohyblivý / tečúci piesok živi pesek živi pesak kvicksand ทรายดูด yutan kum, bataklık kumu 流沙［區］ сипучий пісок, пливун دلدل vùng cát lầy 流沙（区）
ˈquicksilver noun
mercury. kwik زِئْبَق живак mercúrio rtuť das Quecksilber kviksølv υδράργυρος mercurio elavhõbe جیوه elohopea mercure כספית पारा živa higany air raksa kvikasilfur mercurio 水銀 수은 gyvsidabris dzīvsudrabs merkuri kwikzilver kvikksølv żywe srebro اره ( سيماب mercúrio argint viu ртуть ortuť živo srebro živa kvicksilver ปรอท cıva 水銀 ртуть سیال پارہ thuỷ ngân 水银
ˌquick-ˈtempered adjective
easily made angry. liggeraak, opvlieënd سَريع الغَضَب избухлив irritadiço vznětlivý hitzig opfarende ευέξαπτος de genio vivo äkiline زود خشم äkkipikainen soupe au lait חמום מוח चिड़चिड़ा nagao hirtelen haragú cepat marah uppstökkur collerico , irascibile 短気な 성급한 karštas, ūmus ātras dabas; viegli aizkaitināms cepat marah opvliegend hissig , oppfarende porywczy قهر irritadiço iute la mânie вспыльчивый prchký vzkipljiv naprasit lättretad, hetlevrad โมโหง่าย çabuk öfkelenen 易怒的 запальний, гарячий جسے جلد غصّہ آ جائے nóng tính 易怒的
ˌquick-ˈwitted adjective
thinking very quickly. a quick-witted policeman. skerpsinnig سَريع الذَّكاء схватлив vivo bystrý schlagfertig opvakt εύστροφος vivo , agudo , perspicaz taibukas تیز هوش nopeaälyinen à l'esprit vif מְהִיר תְּפִיסָה चतुर, हाजिर जवाब oštrouman éles eszű berpikir cepat skjótráður, skarpur perspicace , svelto , sveglio 気転のきく 머리 회전이 빠른 nuovokus, sumanus attapīgs; apķērīgs tajam akal snel reagerend snarrådig ; slagferdig rozgarnięty ځیرک vivo ager la minte находчивый bystrý iznajdljiv dovitljiv kvicktänkt, fyndig ซึ่งมีไหวพริบ zeki 機智的 винахідливий تیز فہم nhanh trí 机智的
ˌquick-ˈwittedly adverb
skerpsinnig بِسُرْعَة ذَكاء схватливо com agudeza bystře schlagfertig opvakt με ευστροφία, έξυπνα con agudeza/perspicacia taibukalt با تیز هوشی nopeaälyisesti avec de la vivacité d'esprit תָּפַס בִּמהִירוּת चतुराई से oštroumno éles elmével dengan berpikir cepat með skjótráðum hætti (con prontezza di spirito) 気転をきかせて 눈치 빠르게 nuovokiai, sumaniai attapīgi; apķērīgi tajam akal snel reagerend snarrådig ; slagferdig przytomnie په ځیرکی com agudeza cu agerime находчиво bystro iznajdljivo dovitljivo kvicktänkt, fyndigt อย่างมีไหวพริบ zekice 機智地 винахідливо برّاقی کے ساتھ nhanh trí 机智地
ˌquick-ˈwittedness noun
gevatheid سُرْعَة ذَكاء схватливост agudeza bystrost die Schlagfertigkeit opvakthed ευστροφία agudeza , perspicacia taibukus تیز هوشی sanavalmius vivacité d'esprit מְהִירוּת תְפִיסָה चतुराई oštroumnost fürge észjárás kecepatan berpikir skjótræði (prontezza di spirito) 気転 눈치 빠름 nuovokumas, sumanumas attapīgums; apķērība ketajaman akal snel reactievermogen snarrådighet ; slagferdighet przytomność umysłu, bystrość ځیرکی agudeza agerime находчивость bystrosť iznajdljivost dovitljivost kvicktänkthet ความมีไหวพริบ zekilik 機智 винахідливість برّاقی sự nhanh trí 机智
| Mercury (newspaper) |
What type of pie is particularly associated with American Thanksgiving dinners? | 10 Interesting Facts About Mercury (Element)
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What are the Seven Wonders of the World
Mercury is a very rare element in the Earth's crust. It accounts for only about only 0.08 parts per million (ppm). It is mainly found in the mineral cinnabar, which is mercuric sulfide. Mercuric sulfide is the source the red pigment called vermilion.
Mercury generally is not allowed on aircraft because it combines so readily with aluminum, a metal that is common on aircraft. When mercury forms an amalgam with aluminum , the oxide layer that protects aluminum from oxidizing is disrupted. This causes aluminum to corrode, in much the same way as iron rusts.
Mercury does not react with most acids.
Mercury is a relatively poor conductor of heat. Most metals are excellent thermal conductors. It is a mild electrical conductor. The freezing point (-38.8 degrees Celsius) and boiling point (356 degrees Celsius) of mercury are closer together than for any other metals.
Although mercury usually exhibits a +1 or +2 oxidation state, sometimes it has a +4 oxidation state. The electron configuration causes mercury to behave somewhat like a noble gas. Like noble gases, mercury forms relatively weak chemical bonds with other elements. It forms amalgams with all the other metals, except for iron. This makes iron a good choice to make containers to hold and transport mercury.
The element Mercury is named for the Roman god Mercury. Mercury is the only element to retain its alchemical name as its modern common name. The element was known to ancient civilizations, dating back to at least 2000 BC. Vials of pure mercury have been found in Egyptian tombs from the 1500s BC.
Mercury is used in fluorescent lamps, thermometer, float valves, dental amalgams, in medicine, for the production of other chemicals, and to make liquid mirrors. Mercury(II) fulminate is an explosive used as a primer in firearms. The disinfectant mercury compound thimerosal is an organomercury compound sound in vaccines, tattoo inks, contact lens solutions, and cosmetics.
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What is the longest book in the Old Testament ? | The Shortest and Longest Books of the Bible
The Shortest and Longest Books of the Bible
10 Shortest Books in the Bible
l. 3 John --- 1 chapter, 14 verses, 299 words
2. 2 John --- 1 chapter, 13 verses, 303 words
3. Philemon --- 1 chapter, 25 verses, 445 words
4. Jude --- 1 chapter, 25 verses, 613 words
5. Obadiah --- 1 chapter, 21 verses, 670 words
6. Titus --- 3 chapters, 46 verses, 921 words
7. 2nd Thess. ---3 chapters, 47 verses, 1042 words
8. Haggai --- 2 chapters, 38 verses, 1131 words
9. Nahum --- 3 chapters, 47 verses, 1285 words
10. Jonah --- 4 chapters, 48 verses, 1321 words
* * * *
10 Longest Books in the Bible
1. Psalms -- 150 chapters, 2461 verses, 43,743 words
2. Jeremiah -- 52 chapters, 1364 verses, 42,659 words
3. Exekiel -- 48 chapters, 1273 verses, 39,407 words
4. Genesis -- 50 chapters, 1533 verses, 38,267 words
5. Isaiah -- 66 chapters, 1292 verses, 37,044 words
6. Numbers -- 36 chapters, 1288 verses, 32,902 words
7. Exodus -- 40 chapters, 1213 verses, 32,602 words
8. Deut. --34 chapters, 959 verses, 28,461 words
9. 2nd Chron. -- 36 chapters, 822 verses, 26,074 words
10. Luke -- 24 chapters, 1151 verses, 25,944 words
* * * *
10 Old Testament Books Most referred to in the New Testament
l. Isaiah, referred to 419 times in 23 N. T.
2. Psalms, 414 times in 23 books
3. Genesis, 260 times in 21 books
4. Exodus, 250 times in 19 books
5. Deuteronomy, 208 times in 21 books
6. Ezekiel, 141 times in 15 books
7. Daniel, 133 times in 17 books
8. Jeremiah, 125 times in 17 books
9. Leviticus, 107 times in 15 books
10. Numbers, 73 times in 4 books
| Psalms |
With which instrument is jazz musician 'Kid' Ory principally associated ? | King James Bible Statistics
King James Bible Statistics
By Nic Kizziah
This article is � Copyrighted by Theological Research, a department of The Believers Organization. Permission is granted to copy and distribute this article, or any portion of it, as long as it's not for profit and not edited in any manner whatsoever. If you wish to use this article in a profit making capacity then permission must be granted by the author. Contact Nic Kizziah, President, The Believers Organization, P. O. Box 40862, Tuscaloosa, AL 35404, phone: (205) 462-1873, email: [email protected] , visit their website: www.thebelieversorganization.org .
Many books and websites list faulty statistics on the King James Bible. Of course the number of books (66) and chapters (1,189) are fairly easy to count. However when it comes to verses, words and letters, there are a wide variety of numbers floating around. For example when it comes to verses I have read and heard preachers and teachers say there are 31,000 verses, 31,101 verses, 31,102 verses, 31,170 verses and 31,175 verses.
Many use the latter number and then proceed to tell you the middle verse is Psalm 118:8. It reads as follows: It is better to trust in the Lord than to put confidence in man. Wow, what a verse to be right in the middle of your Bible. Then they tell you to count the words in this middle verse. There are fourteen. That's seven plus seven. That's the number of completeness and spiritual perfection doubled. Then they direct you to the middle two words and they read "the Lord". So the King James Bible has the words "the Lord" right in the center of it.
I have read this in numerous books and on several websites. I have heard it on tapes. I have also received e-mails informing me of this information. On top of all this I have heard my two most favorite preachers proclaim it from the pulpit. It's funny how people copy from one another. Here's the problem. They started off with a faulty statistic. They were taught there were 31,175 verses in the King James Bible and that's not true.
Hey but it gets even worse. If there were 31,175 verses the middle verse would not be Psalm 118:8. It would be Psalm 104:16. This is the 15,588th verse in the King James Bible. It reads as follows: The trees of the LORD are full of sap; the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted; - hey nothing very astounding there that jumps off the page and slaps you in the face and makes you say wow! In order for Psalm 118:8 (the 15,968th verse in the KJB) to be the middle verse there would have to be 31,935 verses in the King James Bible, which is simply not the case.
One thing that is real ironic about all this is that the New King James Version has kept this verse intact as it is written in the King James Bible. Nevertheless they did not hesitate to tamper with the previous seven verses in Psalm 118. Apparently some one on that committee was aware of all this stuff going on in the center of the Bible. It makes me laugh just to think about it.
The truth is there are 31,102 verses in the King James Bible. Therefore there is no single middle verse. You cannot have a middle verse with an even number of verses. However there are two middle verses. These would be verses 15,551 and 15,552 (Psalms 103:1-2.)
PSALM 103
B
LESS the LORD, O my soul: and all that is within me, bless his holy name. 2 Bless the LORD, O my soul, and forget not all his benefits:
These are the middle two verses of the King James Bible. Both verses start with "Bless the LORD, O my soul". Verse 1 continues - and all that is within me, bless his holy name. Verse 2 concludes with - and forget not all his benefits. These are powerful words coming from the two center verses of the Book.
Now let's count the words in these two middle verses. There are twenty-eight. That's twice as many as in the imaginary middle we discussed earlier. That's seven quadrupled (7 times 4) instead of seven doubled (7 times 2.) Here we have seven compounded twice as much. The truth is always better than fiction. Any one that knows their Bible knows that God loves the number seven.
Now let's see if we can find some middle words in the center of God's middle verses. Yes, I see four (bless his holy name.) There are twelve words on one side of this phrase and twelve words on the other side. So the King James Bible has bless his holy name right in the center of the two middle verses! Once again that's twice as many words as in the imaginary center.
This phrase also has exactly twice as many words (12) on each side of it. God loves the number twelve also. Next to the number seven, it is his favorite number. He uses it a lot in his word. For example there were twelve apostles and twelve tribes of Israel. There are twelve manner of fruits bared by the tree of life. It is the number of authority and power. What else would you expect in the center of God's Holy Bible? Bless his holy name.
In conclusion to all this middle of the King James Bible stuff consider this verse of scripture, PSALM 138:2...I will worship toward thy holy temple, and praise thy name for thy lovingkindness and for thy truth: for thou hast magnified thy word above all thy name.
We see here God thinks quite a bit about his holy name and his word has been magnified above it! So if the Bible is the word of God, and it is, and the King James Bible is the Bible, and it is, then how do you think we should treat it? The answer should be obvious: with honour and respect.
Total Books in the King James Bible
66
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Which King of England was married to Anne of Bohemia ? | Anne of Bohemia and her contribution to Richard II's treasure
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On 20 January 1382 Richard II married Anne of Bohemia (1366-94), daughter of the Emperor Charles IV and sister of Wenceslas IV of Bohemia, 'this tiny scrap of humanity', as the Westminster chronicler described her. Two days later she was crowned. One of the royal crowns had been recovered from pawn in London for her coronation. Contemporaries criticised the marriage on two grounds: Anne had no dowry, and she was escorted by a large and expensive suite of Bohemian ladies and gentlemen, to some of whom Richard granted annuities.
Although the union was childless, this seems to have been a marriage of true affection. Anne nearly always accompanied Richard as he travelled about England. Little is known of her character, but she fulfilled the traditional role of a queen in acting as intercessor for those who had incurred the king's anger. Richard was deeply grieved at her death in 1394. He ordered the manor at Sheen where she had died to be torn down. Anne was buried in the Confessor's chapel behind the high altar in Westminster Abbey.
The double tomb
Anne of Bohemia and Richard II. Detail from the double tomb (London, Westminster Abbey)
In 1395 Richard sealed contracts for a monument for himself and for Anne. This was an innovation, the first time a double tomb was ordered for an English royal burial. Contracts for the base of Purbeck marble were sealed with two London masons, Henry Yevele and Stephen Lote, and for the two life size effigies with Nicholas Broker and Godfrey Prest, both coppersmiths of London. Designs, now lost, were supplied to both sets of craftsmen. The coppersmiths' contract stipulated that the effigies were to be made of gilded copper and latten and to lie under canopies. They were to be crowned, their right hands were to be joined, and they were to hold sceptres in their left hands.
Although the crowns and other attributes are lost, as are the small images of saints and angels, the beautiful decoration on the effigies depicting the badges of the king and queen in pointillé pointillé - pattern formed of dots incised with a fine point still survives. After his deposition and murder in 1400, Richard was buried at Langley in Buckinghamshire. His body was moved to lie beside Anne only on Henry V's accession in 1413.
Jewels and plate of Anne of Bohemia
We do not know what valuables Anne brought with her from Bohemia, but five jewelled collars with one or both of her badges of the fern and the ostrich are described in the treasure roll.
Ostrich badge in pointillé. Detail from the double tomb (London, Westminster Abbey).
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R 63 Item, un coler de la livere la roigne que dieu assoille, garnis' ove rubis en hostrich', xvij gross' perlez , xxxv autres plus petitz perlez, pois' vij unc', et vaut outre vj li., donnt la somme, Cxiij li. xviijs. iiijd.
[Item, a collar of the livery of the late queen, may God have mercy on her soul, set with rubies in an ostrich, seventeen great pearls, thirty-five other smaller pearls, weighing 7 oz., additional value £6, total value, £113 18s. 4d.]
R 80 Item, un coler d'or de la ferne de la livere la roigne ove un ostrich enaymelle blanc et j diamant, pois' xj unc', summa, xxxiiij li. xiijs. iiijd.
[Item, a gold collar of the fern of the livery of the queen with an ostrich enamelled white and a diamond, weighing 11 oz., total, £34 13s. 4d.]
Also listed in the roll are basins, bottles and spiceplates, all large, all in pairs and of silver-gilt, marked with the impaled arms impaled arms - two coats of arms set side by side on a shield of 'the Emperor' (presumably Anne's arms, derived from her father, Charles IV, 1316-78), and of 'the king'. Some of these could perhaps have come from Anne's trousseau, but at least one pair of basins marked in this way seems to postdate her arrival in England and to have been a gift. It had a livery collar of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Richard's uncle, around the arms. Among the chapel goods a pax pax - tablet of precious metal, ivory, etc., decorated with a sacred image, for transferring the kiss of peace at the mass from the celebrant to the clergy and laity is described as having Anne's arms and those of Richard II.
| Richard II of England |
Which British city forms the background to the 2013 TV series The Fall starring Gillian Anderson and Jamie Doran ? | Married at Westminster Abbey
Married at Westminster Abbey
Westminster Abbey Interments and Memorials
Top Surnames
Edmund Crouchback (1245 - 1296)
"Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Leicester and Lancaster (16 January 1245 – 5 June 1296), was the second surviving son of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence. In his childhood he ha...
This project identifies the royal couples who were married at Westminster Abbey, London, England (UK).
Overview
The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, popularly known as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic church, in Westminster, London, England (UK), located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English, later British and later still (and currently) monarchs of the Commonwealth Realms. Westminster Abbey has a long tradition as venue for royal weddings although there were no royal weddings for more than five centuries between 1382 (Richard II to Anne of Bohemia) and 1919. There were only two weddings by reigning monarchs (Henry I and Richard II).
Royal weddings
11 November 1100: King Henry I of England was married to Matilda of Scotland
9 April 1269: Edmund of Crouchback, 1st Earl of Leicester and Lancaster, son of King Henry III was married to Lady Aveline de Forz
30 April 1290: Joan of Acre, daughter of King Edward I was married to the 7th Earl of Gloucester
8 July 1290: Margaret of England, daughter of King Edward I was married to John II, son of Duke of Brabant
20 January 1382: King Richard II of England was married to Anne of Bohemia
27 February 1919: Princess Patricia of Connaught was married to Commander Alexander Ramsay
28 February 1922: The Princess Mary, daughter of King George V was married to Viscount Lascelles
26 April 1923: The Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), second son of King George V was married to Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (later to become The Queen Mother).
29 November 1934: The Prince George, Duke of Kent, son of King George V was married to Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark
20 November 1947: The Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), elder daughter of King George VI was married to Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten RN (later Duke of Edinburgh).
6 May 1960: The Princess Margaret, second daughter of King George VI was married to Antony Armstrong-Jones (later Earl of Snowdon)
24 April 1963: Princess Alexandra of Kent was married to Angus Ogilvy
14 November 1973: The Princess Anne, only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II was married to Captain Mark Phillips
23 July 1986: The Prince Andrew, Duke of York, second son of Queen Elizabeth II, was married to Miss Sarah Ferguson.
29 April 2011 Prince William of Wales was married to Kate Middleton, becoming the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge.
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In the Bible who was the father of twin sons, Jacob and Esau ? | Esau and Jacob | Genesis 25-27 | Bible Storyteller
Bible Storyteller
Esau and Jacob
Based on Genesis 25-27
Isaac's wife Rebekah gives birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. As the first born it should be Esau who inherits God's promise of a land and many descendants, but Esau swaps his birthright for a bowl of stew and Jacob tricks Isaac into giving him the blessing that will put him in charge of the land when his father dies.
Copyright Gavin Owen 2005
Way back near the beginning of Bible times, lived a man called Abraham and his wife Sarah. They were very special people because God had made them two promises. He'd promised to give them a land of their own. Can you imagine having your own country to live in? And he'd promised to give them a family that one day would be so large it would be like the stars in the sky, too many to count. God was quick to keep the promise about the special land – he took them to a beautiful place called Canaan and they settled down to live there. But the promise about the family, well, that took a bit longer! You see, it wasn't until Abraham was one hundred years old and Sarah was ninety that she finally gave birth to a beautiful baby boy and they called him Isaac.
Now when Isaac grew up he married a girl called Rebekah and they had to wait a long time to have children too. But when the time came they were fortunate, they had two babies at once – twins. The first little baby boy was born covered from head to foot in hair. Can you imagine having a hairy baby? So they called the little boy Esau, because the name Esau means “hairy”. Think of his first day at school – “What's your name?” the teacher would ask him, “Hairy,” he would reply, “Oh come on! What's your name?” “Hairy!” The second little boy was born straight after the first, he just popped right out because the Bible says he was holding on to his brother's ankle. So they called this boy Jacob, because the name Jacob means “holding the heel”.
As the two boys grew up it soon became obvious that they didn't just look different, they were different kinds of people. Esau was more your outdoors sort of boy, if you'd asked him he would have said,“I like to be in the fields with the animals, I like running and fishing and most of all I like hunting!” But Jacob was more your indoors sort of boy, if you'd asked him he would have said, “I like mathematics and cookery and organising things, but most of all I like to stay at home with mumsy!” Isaac's favourite son was Esau because he loved to hear his stories about hunting and eat the fresh meat that he brought back with him. But Rebekah's favourite son was Jacob because he always stayed at home and kept her company. Everybody knew that when Isaac died Esau would become head of the family and the whole land of Canaan because he had been born first. But everybody also knew that Jacob would be much better at the job. But there was nothing that could be done about it ... or so they thought.
One day, years later, Jacob was in the kitchen making a big pot of stew when along came his brother, Esau. Esau had been away hunting, he'd been gone for days and he was tired and thirsty, but most of all he was hungry. Esau sniffed the air:
“Mmmmm! What's that lovely smell?” he asked.
“I'm making some stew” Jacob replied. “Would you like some?
“Yes, please!”
So Jacob picked up a bowl and he was about to fill it with stew when suddenly he had an idea.
“I say brother, what will you give me in return for this bowl of stew?”
“I don't know, what do you want?”
“I want,” Jacob declared, quick as a flash, “to be head of the family and the land of Canaan when father dies”.
Let's face it, only a complete dummy would swap a whole country for a bowl of stew. But luckily for Jacob, Esau was a complete dummy!
“If I don't eat something soon I'll starve to death and I won't be head of the family and the land then, so I don't suppose it makes any difference. You be in charge, it's fine with me.”
“Do you promise?” asked Jacob.
“You have my word” said Esau and he took his bowl of stew and left.
Jacob hurried off to tell his mother what had happened. But Rebekah understood that it wasn't as simple as that. It wasn't up to Esau who would be the next head of the land of Canaan, it was Isaac's decision. Isaac would give his special blessing to the one he chose – he would put his hands on their shoulders and pray for them, giving them the land, and once it was done there was no going back – and Rebekah knew, Isaac wanted to give the blessing to Esau.
Years and years went by until the day came when Isaac was so old that he knew he didn't have much longer to live, so he called his son Esau to him.
“My son, go hunting and bring me fresh meat and then I will give you my blessing. Off you go!”
Isaac didn't know it, but his wife Rebekah was just outside the tent and she heard everything that he said. She went at once to her other son, Jacob.
“Quickly my son,” she told him, “go to your father now and ask him to give you his special blessing.”
“But mother,” Jacob protested, “Father wants to give his blessing to Esau, he won't give it to me.”
“Don't worry about that,” Rebekah reassured him, “Your father is nearly blind now, he won't realise you're not Esau.”
“But what if he touches me?” Jacob warned, “He'll feel that I'm not all hairy like my brother and then he'll know that I'm not Esau.”
Now that was a problem. Rebekah thought for a minute and then she had an idea. She rushed off and soon returned with armfuls of hairy, smelly goatskins. She wrapped them around Jacob's arms and put one across the back of his neck, and then she dressed him in Esau's finest robe.
“There, that should do the trick,” she said, “Now off you go!”
So Jacob went straight to his father's tent, pushed back the curtain and stepped inside.
“Hello father, I've come for the special blessing.”
“Erm, Esau? Is that you? You sound more like your brother Jacob.”
“Oh, er, no, no, it's definitely me, Esau” Jacob replied, trying his best to sound like his big brother.
“Hmmm,” Isaac muttered, “come closer.”
So trembling with fear, Jacob stepped towards his father who reached out his hands and ran them up and down his son's arms.
“Well, you certainly feel like Esau ... and you definitely smell like him! Alright, kneel down boy and I'll give you my blessing.”
So Jacob knelt down in front of his father who placed his hands on Jacob's shoulders and prayed for him, making him head of the family, giving him the land of Canaan, and once it was done there was no going back.
As soon as it was over, Jacob hurried off to tell his mother what had happened. At that very moment Esau returned from the hunt. He went straight to Isaac's tent and greeted him, “Here I am father! I've brought you fresh meat, now give me your blessing.”
The moment the poor old man heard the voice, his heart began to break.
“Oh my son, your brother came here pretending to be you and I gave him my special blessing!”
“What?” demanded Esau, “Take it back! Give it to me!”
“I can't!” groaned Isaac, “Once the blessing has been given it cannot be taken back.”
“Well what's left for me?”
“Nothing,” the old man murmured.
“JACOB!” Esau roared, “When I get my hands on him I'm going to kill him!”
When Rebekah heard that Esau was threatening to kill his brother she called Jacob to her.
“Gather your things and get out of here,” she commanded him, “head for the town of Haran and when you get there ask for my brother, Laban, he'll take care of you.”
So Jacob packed his bags and without stopping to look back he ran and he didn't return until his brother had calmed down. He was gone for twenty years! While he was away he had the most amazing series of adventures, but that's a story for some other time.
| Isaac (disambiguation) |
The musical Man of La Mancha is based on the story of which hero ? | Jacob and Esau - Jewish History
Jewish History
Jacob Receives Isaac’s Blessing
Birth of the Twins
Twenty years had passed since Isaac’s and Rebecca’s marriage, but as yet, they had not been blessed with children. Finally, G‑d answered Isaac’s prayers, and Rebecca gave birth to twins. The first child to be born was covered with hair like a fully grown person. His parents called him Esau (from the Hebrew word “osso” -- finish). The second child followed Esau, holding on to his brother’s heel, and Isaac called him Jacob (Yaakov, “One that takes by the heel”).
Jacob and Esau Grow Up
Although the children were twins and grew up together, they displayed a difference in character. Jacob spent all his time at home, engaged in study with his father and grandfather Abraham. Esau, however, resorted to countless tricks to avoid studying, and spent most of his time in the fields. He enjoyed hunting and killing, and was often absent from his home for many days.
Abraham’s Death
Abraham lived to a ripe and happy old age, and died at the age of one hundred and seventy-five. His sons, Isaac and Ishmael, buried him in the Cave of Machpelah.
Esau Kills Nimrod
On the day of Abraham’s death, Esau had been out in the fields as usual. He had lost his way and was trying to find his way back, when King Nimrod arrived with two servants. Esau hid behind a rock, and when Nimrod was left unguarded, he killed him and fought the two servants who rushed to the aid of their master. Esau escaped with King Nimrod’s clothes. These were Adam’s garments which later became the property of Noah; Noah’s son Ham, who was Nimrod’s grandfather, had subsequently become their owner, and finally Nimrod had acquired them. These divine clothes had made Nimrod a powerful and skillful hunter and a mighty ruler over all other kings. Now Esau had come into possession of the most valuable and cherished property a hunter could desire.
Jacob Buys the Birthright
The birthright was a sacred privilege enjoyed by the first-born son. This privilege made the first-born the real heir and successor to his father, as the head of the family. Isaac’s first-born son was to be devoted to the service of G‑d and to the sacred traditions of the family. But in the case of Esau, it soon became apparent that he was not the one to fulfill this sacred duty. Esau did not wish to shoulder this responsibility, preferring a happy and carefree life as a hunter and man of the fields. Jacob, on the other hand, seemed the ideal inheritor and successor. The day that Esau returned from that fateful hunting trip, his clothes still covered with the spatter of mud and blood, Jacob rebuked him for neglecting his holy duty as first-born. Esau, however, ridiculed Jacob and spoke very mockingly of the birthright. Jacob was shocked to hear such abuse of, and disrespect towards, the sacred privilege of the first-born, and proposed to buy the birthright from Esau who willingly agreed to make the deal. Thus Jacob came into the possession of something he cherished more than all the treasures of the world.
Isaac Goes To Philistina
After Abraham’s death, famine again swept over the land of Canaan. Isaac wanted to follow the example of his father Abraham and go to Egypt. However, G‑d ordered him never to leave the land that had been promised to his father and to him, and Isaac traveled down only to the land of the Philistines. Isaac took the same precaution his father had taken when he sojourned among the Philistines. He said that Rebecca was not his wife, but his sister. King Abimelech desired to marry Rebecca, for she was the fairest woman he had ever seen. But when he found out that Rebecca was really Isaac’s wife, he was afraid to touch her or Isaac. When Isaac grew very prosperous, the Philistines became envious and requested him to leave. Isaac went to Beer Sheba, where his father Abraham had dwelt. Soon after, Abimelech paid Isaac a friendly visit, desiring to make up for his former unfriendly act. Abimelech asked Isaac to make a treaty of peace with him. This Isaac did, and Abimelech returned to his land.
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Which playwright was the designer of Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard ? | Discover the imaginative genius of Sir John Vanbrugh, architect of Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard - Discover Britain
Discover the imaginative genius of Sir John Vanbrugh, architect of Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard
Feb 2, 2015
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Claire Masset
Learn more about the life and work of Sir John Vanbrugh, who, without any training, went on to outshine the most respected architects of his time.
Blenheim Palace
Bold, daring and dramatic, Vanbrugh was as adventurous in life as he was in his architecture. Such were his skill and lively mind that he became in turn a merchant, soldier, playwright and architect during his 62-year life. Blessed with a penchant for business, a powerful way with words, a keen eye for beauty and drama, and clearly a good dose of courage and intellect, Vanbrugh fashioned an incredibly varied and exciting life for himself.
Castle Howard
John Vanbrugh (1664–1726) was a staunch Protestant and played a part in the scheme to overthrow the Catholic king, James II. From 1686, he worked undercover and helped bring about the invasion of William of Orange, who eventually ousted James II and became the new King. On his way back from bringing messages to William in the Hague, Vanbrugh was arrested in France on suspicion of espionage in September 1688 and imprisoned for four years. The conditions of his release stated that he should spend three months in Paris, and so – free to move around but unable to leave the country – he had ample time to see the city’s architecture. Four years behind bars would also have offered plenty of opportunity for reading and study.
Wollaton Hall. © Les Churchman
On his return to England in 1693, Vanbrugh joined the navy, but again this was short-lived. Within two years he had swapped army life for the theatre and was making a name for himself as a thought-provoking playwright and producer. The Relapse (1696) and The Provok’ed Wife (1697) – both witty and risqué comedies – quickly became stage favourites in the West End.
With success already at his door, no one really knows why the 35-year-old Vanbrugh decided to launch into yet another career, this time as a novice architect. But in 1699 he took on one of the grandest architectural commissions of the time – the design of a palatial house in Yorkshire for the 3rd Earl of Carlisle. Given that he had no experience or training, how did Vanbrugh achieve this feat? No doubt his membership of the Kit-Cat Club helped greatly. This political and cultural gathering of prominent Whigs included the Earl of Carlisle (as well as the Duke of Marlborough, who later commissioned Vanbrugh to design Blenheim Palace). By 1702, Vanbrugh was such a respected architect that he was made Comptroller of the Queen’s Works. And no doubt thanks greatly to his achievements as an architect, he was knighted by King George I in 1714.
How did the untrained Vanbrugh become the most prominent architect of his time? His charm, intellect and connections of course helped. But this inspired amateur was also gifted with extraordinary powers of the imagination and an ability to visualise in three dimensions. His earlier work as a playwright and producer of plays must certainly have honed his eye for the theatrical. In his first two major projects – Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace – he was lucky to be assisted by the highly experienced architect Nicholas Hawksmoor, who had learnt his trade in the office of Sir Christopher Wren. While Vanbrugh was free to let his imagination run riot, Hawksmoor was the firm hand whose attention to detail was the perfect complement to Vanbrugh’s flamboyant creativity.
Perhaps thanks to his lack of training, Vanbrugh was able to approach designs with flexibility and combine elements which other architects never dared to mix, creating powerful juxtapositions. Classical features were enlivened with a Baroque approach to design, and sometimes supplemented with elements of castle architecture such as battlements and towers. Vanbrugh was keen to inject his buildings with, what he called, ‘something of the castle air’.
His time in France had acquainted him with the palatial Baroque style of the Palace of Versailles. His reading ensured a good knowledge of Italian classical architecture. And his travels in England included a tour, in the summer of 1699, of some the country’s great Elizabethan houses, such as Burghley House , Wollaton Hall , Hardwick Hall and Bolsover Castle . Their imposing towers and busy rooflines proved a strong influence.
Vanbrugh’s three biggest and boldest architectural achievements, Castle Howard, Blenheim Palace and Seaton Delaval , can all be visited. And hugely memorable they are too.
Castle Howard’s immediate success quickly led to Vanbrugh’s most famous commission, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire. While Castle Howard was palatial, Blenheim was truly titanic. Built to celebrate the victory of the Duke of Marlborough against the French at the Battle of Blenheim, this was a building conceived, as Vanbrugh put it, ‘more as a Monument to the Queen’s glory than a private Habitation for the Duke’.
While Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace were built with the assistance of Hawksmoor, Seaton Delaval (1721-28) in Northumberland wasn’t. And though smaller than the other two, it is now seen as Vanbrugh’s most powerful and original design. It has been described as the Baroque version of a Norman keep. Fusing classical and castellar features, it is an unusual yet highly successful hybrid. Built for Admiral George Delaval, a successful naval officer, the building speaks of strength and confidence. Its solid mass, rustic stonework, confident use of light and shade, and restrained ornamentation create an imposing presence. Sadly Seaton Delaval was devastated by fire in 1822, but the National Trust has restored the fabric of the house, which is now open to visitors.
Vanbrugh designed and remodelled many other less well-known though equally interesting country houses, including King Weston in Gloucestershire, Grimsthorpe Castle in Lincolnshire and Kimbolton Castle in Cambridgeshire. Here his leaning for castle architecture is even more pronounced, hence the reason why they are sometimes called ‘enchanted castles’. Enchanted Vanbrugh’s life certainly was too – for he turned his dreams into a magnificent and long-lasting reality. And for that we should be grateful.
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Which organ of the body is affected by nephritis ? | Castle Howard Revisited | Sotheby's
Castle Howard Revisited
by Clive Aslet | 08 Jun 2015
Castle Howard in Yorkshire is one of a select group of country houses that must be seen as complete works of art. Visitors to the great domed palace, set in the gentle hills northeast of York, may be bowled over by the panache of the architecture and the beauty of the landscape, or they may be dazzled by the collections of pictures, porcelain and furniture inside. But the experience is more than the sum of each of those elements taken singly. The house and its contents, together with the land, show why the English country estate has so often been regarded as a beacon of civilisation and the art of living well.
Yet Castle Howard is more even than this, because written into its stones is the story of the extraordinary characters who created it. Its builder, the 3rd Earl of Carlisle, a descendant of the Elizabethan 4th Duke of Norfolk through a younger son, was a politician and courtier who rose to become First Lord of the Treasury under William and Mary in the 17th century. Like other members of the exuberant Kit-Cat Club, he enjoyed theatre, music, poetry – and gambling (though he was self-disciplined enough to leave the tables in London while he was ahead and take his winnings home to the North; in some years they constituted as much as a third of his income).
A PORTRAIT OF HENRY VIII FROM THE WORKSHOP OF HANS HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER (£800,000–1,200,000) HANGS INSIDE THE CASTLE WITH OTHER PICTURES.
At court, the Earl moved in a circle for whom architecture and what it could say about one’s position in the world was a major preoccupation, shared by the King himself. Carlisle had a particular stimulus to build: in 1693, the year after he inherited the family seat in Yorkshire from his father, it had burnt down. In 1698, he identified the village of Henderskelfe as the site of a new one. To build it, he turned first to William Talman, the Duke of Devonshire’s architect at Chatsworth; but Talman was a difficult character and they fell out. John Vanbrugh saw his chance.
Vanbrugh had, at this stage, built precisely nothing. Now in his thirties, after having served as a soldier and spent several years languishing in French prisons following his arrest in Calais for lacking the correct papers, he burst onto the London scene as a saucy playwright and wit. It was not unusual for architects to come to the profession late; Sir Christopher Wren had been a mathematician and astronomer before designing St. Paul’s Cathedral. But we have no idea how Vanbrugh had prepared himself for his new career. The satirist Jonathan Swift poked fun at Vanbrugh’s inexperience by writing “Van’s genius without Thought or Lecture/Is hugely turned to architecture.”
THE BESSBOROUGH VASE: A MONUMENTAL QUARTZ DIORITE VASE FROM ROMAN EGYPT, CIRCA 1ST CENTURY BC, FROM NERO’S NYMPHAEUM, ACQUIRED BY THE 5TH EARL IN 1801 (£400,000–600,000).
Yet with amazing confidence, Vanbrugh sketched out an enormous house, the centrepiece of which was – for the first and nearly the last time in British domestic architecture – a dome. Fortunately, the diligent, diffident Nicholas Hawksmoor was on hand to help with the practicalities of such an endeavour. Perhaps Vanbrugh’s experience in the theatre had imbued him with an innate feeling for stage effects, for Castle Howard is nothing if not dramatic. Giant pilasters rise up the full height of the centre block, wings sweep forward on either side and statues gesticulate along the skyline. Vanbrugh’s genius was made for the flamboyant Baroque style, of which Castle Howard is one of Britain’s principal examples. The classical repertoire of columns and pediments was deployed to create effects of movement, contrast and light and shade. A painted and gilded hall rises up 70 feet into the dome.
BERNARDO BELLOTTO’S VENICE, A VIEW OF THE GRAND CANAL LOOKING SOUTH FROM THE PALAZZO FOSCARI (£2,500,000–3,500,000) SHOWN BOTTOM RIGHT.
The ambition of Castle Howard, though excessive for a relatively minor northern peer, had been in keeping with Carlisle’s role in state affairs. But when the Tory-leaning Queen Anne came to the throne in 1714, his Whig face ceased to fit. Rather than scaling back on his work in Yorkshire, Carlisle made the remarkable decision to change course. He turned away from the architecture – even though that meant leaving the west wing to be finished by the next generation at the hand of his pedestrian relative Sir Thomas Robinson – and refocused his resources onto the landscape. The change put Castle Howard at the forefront of the Picturesque Movement, by which gentlemen conceived the parks around their houses as a living equivalent of the masterpieces by Claude Lorrain that they had seen on the Grand Tour.
It was Vanbrugh who had been the first to suggest the concept of the Picturesque in a letter to the Duchess of Marlborough, justifying his (illicit) restoration of Woodstock Manor at Blenheim (for his own use; Vanbrugh went on to design that other Baroque masterpiece, Blenheim Palace). At Castle Howard, he had the opportunity to build mock ramparts, in memory of the Roman fort that had once stood on the site, as well as a pyramid. Credit for the mausoleum goes to Hawksmoor. Set on a hill, its great stone drum crowned by a shallow dome and surrounded by Doric columns, it was, quipped Horace Walpole, enough to “tempt one to be buried alive.”
ONE OF A PAIR OF ITALIAN PIETRE DURE MOUNTED, INLAID EBONY CABINETS, CIRCA 1625 (£800,000–1,200,000).
It was perhaps the largest monument of its kind ever to have been constructed in Britain to date and probably the first funerary structure to have been built outside consecrated ground since Saxon times, reflecting Carlisle’s anti-clerical views.
The 3rd Earl of Carlisle lived until 1738. His astounding achievement in architecture and landscape was followed by the zeal for collecting shown by the 4th and 5th Earls; indeed, the works offered in London this summer were acquired by these two avid collectors. Henry Howard, the 4th Earl, shared his father’s passion for Italy, and, during a trip there in 1738, acquired one of the most extensive groups of vedute bought by a British patron in the 18th century. Among these were a number of works by Canaletto’s nephew Bernardo Bellotto, whose Venice, A View of The Grand Canal Looking South From The Palazzo Foscari will be part of the Old Master Paintings sale this summer. It will be joined by another example of the 4th Earl’s taste in the form of a pair of extremely rare Italian pietre dure inlaid cabinets produced in Rome in the 17th century and possibly commissioned by a member of the Borghese family, which may have influenced Lord Carlisle’s desire to acquire them.
Frederick Howard, 5th Earl of Carlisle, collected more broadly, embracing contemporary British pictures as well as Old Masters. His acquisitions transformed the collection at Castle Howard into one of the most significant in Britain. Included in this sale is Portrait of a Boy by Ferdinand Bol, one of Rembrandt’s favourite and most talented pupils, offered with two of the 5th Earl’s other acquisitions: a late 16th-century bust of a nobleman and a superb Baroque bust of Anne of Austria, mother of King Louis XIV.
JACOPO SANSOVINO’S RELIEF WITH THE MADONNA AND CHILD (£400,000–600,000).
The sale also contains a work that relates to the historical antecedents of the Earls of Carlisle: a portrait of King Henry VIII from the workshop of Hans Holbein. The likeness is dated 1542, the year when the King’s fifth wife, Catherine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk, the ancestor of the Earls of Carlisle, was beheaded on the grounds of alleged adultery.
Always spectacular, by the mid-20th century, the castle came to symbolise the desperate plight of country houses after the Second World War. As such it was one of the inspirations of Evelyn Waugh’s doom-laden Brideshead Revisited (and was used as the setting for the hugely popular television serialisation of the novel in the 1980s). Not the least remarkable part of the Castle Howard story is that of the past 60 years, which have seen it recover from the doldrums of requisitioning and a fire that destroyed the dome, to rise again with new vigour.
Clive Aslet is Editor-at-Large of Country Life.
Works from the Collection of the Earls of Carlisle will be on view in London from 4–7 July. Auctions: 8 July. Enquiries: +44 (0)20 7293 5000.
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The Jewish language Yiddish is based on which other language ? | Judaism 101: Yiddish Language and Culture
Yiddish Language and Culture
Yiddish was the language of Ashkenazic Jews, but not Sephardic Jews
Yiddish is based on German, Hebrew and other languages
Yiddish uses an alphabet based on Hebrew
There are standards for transliterating Yiddish
Yiddish was criticized as a barrier to assimilation
Yiddish developed rich literature, theater and music
S'iz shver tsu zayn a Yid
(It's tough to be a Jew)
- Yiddish folk saying
[Yiddish] ... a language without rules, mutilated and unintelligible without our circle, must be completely abandoned.
- David Friedlander, a member of the Haskalah Jewish enlightenment movement
1978
Yiddish has not yet said its last word.
- Isaac Bashevis Singer, upon receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature for his writings in Yiddish
The Yiddish Language
Yiddish was at one time the international language of Ashkenazic Jews (the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe and their descendants). A hybrid of Hebrew and medieval German, Yiddish takes about three-quarters of its vocabulary from German, but borrows words liberally from Hebrew and many other languages from the many lands where Ashkenazic Jews have lived. It has a grammatical structure all its own, and is written in an alphabet based on Hebrew characters . Scholars and universities classify Yiddish as a Germanic language, though some have questioned that classification.
Yiddish was never a part of Sephardic Jewish culture (the culture of the Jews of Spain, Portugal, the Balkans, North Africa and the Middle East). They had their own international language known as Ladino or Judesmo, which is a hybrid of medieval Spanish and Hebrew in much the same way that Yiddish combines German and Hebrew.
At its height less than a century ago, Yiddish was understood by an estimated 11 million of the world's 18 million Jews, and many of them spoke Yiddish as their primary language. Yiddish has fallen on hard times, a victim of both assimilation and murder. Today, less than a quarter of a million people in the United States speak Yiddish, about half of them in New York. Most Jews know only a smattering of Yiddish words, and most of those words are unsuitable for polite company. But in recent years, Yiddish has experienced a resurgence and is now being taught at many universities. There are even Yiddish Studies departments at Columbia and Oxford , among others, and many Jewish communities provide classes to learn Yiddish. Many Jews today want to regain touch with their heritage through this nearly-lost language.
Yiddish is referred to as "mame loshn" ("loshn" rhymes with "caution"), which means "mother tongue," although it is not entirely clear whether this is a term of affection or derision. Mame loshn was the language of women and children, to be contrasted with loshn koydesh, the holy tongue of Hebrew that was studied only by men. (And before the feminists start grinding their axes, let me point out that most gentile women and many gentile men in that time and place could not read or write at all, while most Jewish women could at least read and write Yiddish).
The word "Yiddish" is the Yiddish word for "Jewish," so it is technically correct to refer to the Yiddish language as "Jewish" (though it is never correct to refer to Hebrew as "Jewish"). At the turn of the century, American Jews routinely referred to the Yiddish language as "Jewish," and one of my elderly aunts continues to do so. However, that usage has become unfashionable in recent years and people are likely to think you are either ignorant or bigoted if you refer to any language as "Jewish." Likewise, the Yiddish word "Yid" simply means "Jew" and is not offensive if used while speaking Yiddish or in a conversation liberally sprinkled with Yiddish terms, but I wouldn't recommend using the word in English because it has been used as an offensive term for far too long.
The History of Yiddish
It is generally believed that Yiddish became a language of its own some time between 900 and 1100 C.E. , but it is difficult to be certain because in its early days, Yiddish was primarily a spoken language rather than a written language. It is clear, however, that at this time even great biblical scholars like Rashi were using words from local languages written in Hebrew letters to fill in the gaps when the Hebrew language lacked a suitable term or when the reader might not be familiar with the Hebrew term. For example, in his commentary on Gen. 19:28, when Rashi comes across the Hebrew word qiytor (a word that is not used anywhere else in the Bible), he explains the word by writing, in Hebrew letters, "torche b'la-az" (that is, "torche in French").
It is believed that Yiddish began similarly, by writing the local languages in the Hebrew characters that were more familiar to Yiddish speakers, just as Americans today often write Hebrew in Roman characters (the letters used in English).
The Yiddish language thrived for many centuries and grew farther away from German, developing its own unique rules and pronunciations. Yiddish also developed a rich vocabulary of terms for the human condition, expressing our strengths and frailties, our hopes and fears and longings. Many of these terms have found their way into English, because there is no English word that can convey the depth and precision of meaning that the Yiddish word can. Yiddish is a language full of humor and irony, expressing subtle distinctions of human character that other cultures barely recognize let alone put into words. What other language distinguishes between a shlemiel (a person who suffers due to his own poor choices or actions), a shlimazl (a person who suffers through no fault of his own) and a nebech (a person who suffers because he makes other people's problems his own). An old joke explains the distinction: a shlemiel spills his soup, it falls on the shlimazl, and the nebech cleans it up!
As Jews became assimilated into the local culture, particularly in Germany in the late 1700s and 1800s, the Yiddish language was criticized as a barbarous, mutilated ghetto jargon that was a barrier to Jewish acceptance in German society and would have to be abandoned if we hoped for emancipation. Yiddish was viewed in much the same way that people today view Ebonics (in fact, I have heard Yiddish jokingly referred to as "Hebonics"), with one significant difference: Ebonics is criticized mostly by outsiders; Yiddish was criticized mostly by Jews who had spoken it as their native language. Thus the criticism of Yiddish was largely a manifestation of Jewish self-hatred rather than antisemitism.
At the same time that German Jews were rejecting the language, Yiddish was beginning to develop a rich body of literature , theater and music .
Yiddish Literature
From the earliest days of the language, there were a few siddurim (prayer books) for women written in Yiddish, but these were mostly just translations of existing Hebrew siddurim.
The first major work written originally in Yiddish was Tsena uRena (Come Out and See), more commonly known by a slurring of the name as Tsenerena. Written in the early 1600s, Tsenerena is a collection of traditional biblical commentary and folklore tied to the weekly Torah readings . It was written for women, who generally did not read Hebrew and were not as well-versed in biblical commentary, so it is an easier read than some of the Hebrew commentaries written for men, but it still packs a great deal of theological rigor. Translations of this work are still in print and available from Artscroll Publishers .
In the mid-1800s, Yiddish newspapers began to appear, such as Kol meVaser (Voice of the People), Der Hoyzfraynd (The Home Companion), Der Yid (The Jew), Di Velt (The World) and Der Fraynd (The Friend), as well as socialist publications like Der Yidisher Arbeter (The Jewish Worker) and Arbeter-Shtime (Workers' Voice). Some Yiddish language newspapers exist to this day, including Forverts (the Yiddish Forward), founded in 1897 and still in print, both in English and Yiddish versions.
At about the same time, secular Jewish fiction began to emerge. The religious authorities of that time did not approve of these irreverent Yiddish writings dealing with modern secular and frivolous themes. Some strictly observant people refused to even set type for these writers because they were so offended by their works, but Jewish people throughout Europe embraced them wholeheartedly.
The first of the great Yiddish writers of this period was Sholem Yankev Abramovitsch, known by the pen name Mendele Moykher Sforim (little Mendel, the bookseller). Abramovitsch was a respected writer in Hebrew and used the pen name when writing in the second-class language of Yiddish. He wrote stories that were deeply rooted in folk tradition but focused on modern characters. Perhaps his greatest work is his tales of Benjamin the Third, which is thematically similar to Don Quixote. Mendele's works gave Yiddish a literary legitimacy and respectability that it was lacking before that time. I have been told that there is a street in Jerusalem called Mendele Mocher Sefarim Street.
The next of the great Yiddish writers was Yitzhak Leib Peretz. (I.L. Peretz). Like Mendele, his stories often had roots in Jewish folk tradition, but favored a modern viewpoint. He seemed to view tradition with irony bordering on condescension.
Perhaps the Yiddish writer best known to Americans is Solomon Rabinovitch, who wrote under the name Sholem Aleichem (a Yiddish greeting meaning, "peace be upon you!"). Sholem Aleichem was a contemporary of Mark Twain and is often referred to as "the Jewish Mark Twain," although legend has it that Mark Twain, upon meeting Sholem Aleichem, described himself as "the American Sholem Aleichem"! Americans know Sholem Aleichem for his tales of Tevye the milkman and his daughters, which were adapted into the musical Fiddler on the Roof . How true is the musical to the stories? Based on my readings of the stories, I would say that Fiddler is a faithful adaptation of the plotlines of the Tevye stories, but the theme of "tradition" that pervades the musical is artificially imposed on the material. The stories certainly turn on the tension between the old world and the modern world, but Tevye's objections to his daughters' marriages are not merely because of tradition. For example, in the original stories, Tevye opposes Hodel's marriage to Ferfel not so much because of tradition, but because Ferfel is being sent to prison for his socialist political activities! Also, there is no fiddler in Sholem Aleichem's stories.
One last Yiddish writer deserves special note: Isaac Bashevis Singer (middle name pronounced "buh-SHEH-viss"), who in 1978 won a Nobel Prize for Literature for his writings in Yiddish. He gave his acceptance speech in both Yiddish and English, and spoke with great affection of the vitality of the Yiddish language. Singer was born in Poland, the son of a Chasidic rabbi . He wrote under his full name, Isaac Bashevis Singer or I.B. Singer, to avoid confusion with his older and (at the time) better-known brother, Israel Joshua Singer, who wrote as I. Singer. Isaac Bashevis Singer wrote mostly short stories, but also some novels and stories for children. Like the others, his stories tended to deal with the tension between traditional views and modern times. Many of these are available in print in English. Perhaps the best known of his many writings is Yentl the Yeshiva Boy, which was adapted into a stage play in 1974 and later loosely adapted into a movie starring Barbara Streisand. It is worth noting that although the movie was quite popular, Singer hated the movie and wrote a brutal editorial in the New York Times about it (January 29, 1984). He thought that Streisand placed too much emphasis on the Yentl character (which she played) to the exclusion of other characters, and that her revised ending (Yentl immigrating to America instead of moving on to another Polish religious school) was untrue to the character.
Yiddish Theater
Yiddish culture has a rich theatrical tradition. It has been suggested that Yiddish theater began with the "Purimshpil," outrageous comedic improvisational plays based on the biblical book of Esther, performed in synagogues by amateurs as part of the drunken festivities related to the Purim holiday.
Professional Yiddish theater began with Abraham Haim Lipke Goldfaden, who wrote, produced and directed dozens of Yiddish plays in the last quarter of the 19th century. Goldfaden and his troupe traveled throughout Europe performing Yiddish plays for Jewish audiences, and later moved to New York City where they opened a theater.
Many traveling Yiddish theater groups also performed Yiddish versions of existing plays, most notably Shakespeare and Goethe. With apologies to Star Trek fans ... Shakespeare's Hamlet cannot be fully appreciated until it is seen in the original Yiddish.
Permanent Yiddish theaters sprung up in cities around the world, including Odessa, Vilna and New York City. In New York, Yiddish theater was jump-started by 12-year-old immigrant Boris Thomashefsky, who fell in love with the European Yiddish show tunes sung by his coworkers in a tobacco sweatshop. He persuaded a rich tavern owner to finance the endeavor and introduced Yiddish theater to New York with an Abraham Goldfaden play in 1881. Over the next few decades, Yiddish theater grew substantially in New York, but most of these theaters no longer exist. New York's Folksbiene Yiddish Theater , founded in 1915, is the oldest continuous venue for Yiddish theatre in the world and continues to have an active calendar of Yiddish-language productions, now with "English supertitles" at all performances.
Yiddish plays tended to be melodramas with strong traditional Jewish values, often with song and dance numbers incorporated into the serious plots. Yiddish theater also included many comedies, in America often focusing on intergenerational conflicts between the immigrants and their American-born children.
Yiddish Music
Like Yiddish theater, Yiddish music ultimately has its roots in Jewish religion. The Jewish love of music is seen in the earliest stories in the Bible: in Exodus 15, both Moses and Miriam lead the Children of Israel in song after G-d drowns the pursuing Egyptians in the sea; King David is often portrayed playing musical instruments. Music is an integral part of Jewish worship: most of the prayers are sung or chanted. Even the Torah is read to a traditional chant. It has been customary for hundreds of years for synagogues to have a professional chazzan , a person with musical skills to lead the song-filled prayer services .
Yiddish culture has produced a wealth of music, from lullabies to love songs, from mournful songs of loss and exile to the wild dance music of klezmer.
Yiddish music traditionally was played on string instruments (fiddle, viola, etc.), the tsimbl (a Jewish instrument similar to a dulcimer) and flute, perhaps because these instruments were relatively quiet and would not attract the attention of hostile gentiles. In later days, however, the clarinet became a staple of Yiddish music because of it's ability to emulate the wailing or laughing sound of the human voice.
The style of music most commonly associated with Yiddish culture is klezmer. The word "klezmer" comes from the Hebrew words "klei zemer" which means "instruments of song," and probably indicates the important role that instruments played in this kind of music. You've probably heard klezmer music in the background of television shows or movies featuring Jews: it is normally characterized by the wailing, squealing sounds of clarinets. It has also influenced some modern bands: I was in a bookstore a while ago and heard what I thought was klezmer music, only to be told it was Squirrel Nut Zipper! The klezmer style is based on cantoral singing in synagogue: simple melodies in a minor key with extensive ornamentation, such as fast trills and sliding notes. It's hard to explain unless you've heard it.
You can hear some traditional Yiddish music in the samples of Best of Yiddish Songs and Klezmer Music on Amazon.com. The track Doyne/Kiever Freylekhs is a particularly good example of klezmer dance music.
Alef-Beyz: The Yiddish Alphabet
Yiddish is written with Hebrew letters , but the letters are used somewhat differently than in Hebrew. In fact, the first time I saw the familiar Yiddish phrase "oy vey" written in Yiddish letters, I thought the spelling must be a mistake!
The Yiddish alphabet is called the alef-beyz for its first two letters.
The biggest difference between the Hebrew alefbet and the Yiddish alef-beyz is in the use of vowels: in Hebrew, vowels and other pronunciation aids are ordinarily not written, and when they are written, they are dots and dashes added to the text in ways that do not affect the physical length of the text. In Yiddish, however, many of the Hebrew letters have been adapted to serve as vowels and the pronunciation aids in Hebrew are reflected in the consonants. Vowels and other pronunciation aids are always written unless the Yiddish word comes from Hebrew, in which case the Yiddish word is written as it is in Hebrew, without the vowel points but with the dagesh (dot in the middle).
When a Hebrew word is combined with a Yiddish suffix, the Hebrew part is spelled as in Hebrew and the Yiddish part as in Yiddish. For example, the Yiddish word "Shabbesdik" (for the Sabbath ; festive) combines the Hebrew word Shabbat (Sabbath), spelled as in Hebrew, with the Yiddish adjective suffix "-dik" (set aside for, suitable for, in the mood for, "-ish"), spelled as in Yiddish.
In addition, some of the most common Hebrew letters are rarely used in Yiddish, being used only if the Yiddish word comes from Hebrew. These rarely-used letters all have the same sound as another Hebrew letter, and reducing their use simplifies spelling when bringing words in from languages that weren't originally written using these letters. For example, there are three different Hebrew letters that make the sound "s": Samekh, Sin and the soft sound of Tav (according to Ashkenazic pronunciation ). Which one do you use? It depends on the origin of the word. Words brought in from Hebrew use the original Hebrew spelling, which may be any of these three letters, but words brought in from other languages will always use Samekh. The word vaser (water, from the German wasser) is spelled with a Samekh, but the word simkhah (celebration, from Hebrew) is spelled with a Sin and the word Shabbes (Sabbath, from Hebrew) ends with a Sof.
The illustration below shows the Yiddish alphabet. You may wish to review the Hebrew alphabet to see the differences.
To hear how these letters are pronounced, check out the alef-beyz page on YIVO's website (requires Real Player), which pronounces the name of the Yiddish letter, then a Yiddish word that begins with the sound, then the English translation of that word. Unfortunately, YIVO lacks audio for many of the vowel sounds, but they provide explanations of pronunciation.
Here some things to notice:
The letter Alef, which is always silent in Hebrew, has three versions in Yiddish: one that is silent, one that is pronounced "ah" (like the "a" in "father"), and one that is pronounced "o" or "aw" (a bit like the "o" in "or" or "more").
In Hebrew, Vav can be pronounced as V, O (as in home) or U (like the oo in room). In Yiddish, Vov alone is pronounced "u"; a Double-Vov is pronounced "v," and the nearest equivalent of the Hebrew "o" sound is the "oy" sound of Vov-Yud.
In Yiddish, the letter Yud can be pronounced as a "y" sound (as in "yellow") or a short "i" sound (as in "it"); in Hebrew, it is always either a "y" sound or silent (identifying and modifying a preceding vowel).
There are combinations of letters in Yiddish to account for consonant sounds that do not exist in Hebrew, such as zh (like the second "g" in "garage" or the "s" in "measure"), dzh (j as in judge) and tsh (like the "ch" in chair).
Combinations of Vov and Yud are used to handle additional vowel sounds.
Melupm Vov and Khirek Yud are used to clarify that the Vov or Yud is not to be combined with an adjacent letter into a different pronunciation. For example Double-Yud is a letter combination pronounced as the "ey" in "they," but the word "Yiddish" begins with two separate Yuds: one for the Y and one for the i. To clarify that these Yuds are not combined into an "ey" sound, the word Yiddish begins with a Yud, then a Khirek Yud. See the illustration in the heading of this page.
As in Hebrew, some letters are drawn differently when they occur at the end of the word. Most of these letters are named "langer" (longer) because, well, they are! The final version of Mem, which is not longer, is named Shlos Mem.
In Hebrew, the dot in the middle of Kaf, Pei and Tav and on top of Sin is written only in pointed texts. In Yiddish, it is always written. Note that Shin in Yiddish, unlike Hebrew, never uses a dot. Remember, though, that Kof, Sin and Tof are rarely used in Yiddish.
The Yiddish letter Sof is equivalent to the soft sound of the Hebrew letter Tav, which is used in Ashkenazic pronunciation but is not used in Sephardic pronunciation. Remember, though, that Sof is rarely used in Yiddish.
Yiddish Transliteration
Transliteration is the process of writing a language in a different alphabet than its native alphabet. The Yiddish language began by transliterating Germanic words into the Hebrew alphabet , so I find it unspeakably amusing that we now take Yiddish and convert it back into the original alphabet!
In Yiddish, unlike Hebrew, there is a widely-accepted standard for transliterating Yiddish into the Roman alphabet (the alphabet used in English). This standard was developed by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research , the recognized world authority on Yiddish language, history and culture. Although the YIVO standard is widely accepted in general, it is routinely ignored for Yiddish words that have a widely-used, familiar spelling. For example, a certain Yiddish word appears in many American dictionaries spelled "chutzpah," but the correct YIVO transliteration would be "khutspe"!
A Few Useful Yiddish Words
Here are a few fun Yiddish or Yiddish-derived words that would not require your mother to wash your mouth out with soap. Many of them have found their way into common English conversation. Most of them are spelled as I commonly see them, rather than in strict accordance with YIVO transliteration rules. I've tried to focus on words that are less commonly heard in English (gentile English, anyway).
Bupkes (properly spelled bobkes and pronounced "BAUB-kess," but I usually see it spelled this way and pronounced to rhyme with "pup kiss")
Literally means "beans" in Russian; usually translated as "nothing," but it is used to criticize the fact that an amount is absurdly smaller than expected or deserved. Examples: "I was assigned to work on that project with Mike and he did bupkes!" or "I had to change jobs; the work wasn't bad, but they paid bupkes."
Chutzpah (rhymes with "foot spa", with the throat-clearing "kh" sound)
Nerve, as when the Three Stooges say, "The noive of that guy!!! Why, I oughta
" It expresses an extreme level of bold-faced arrogance and presumption. Example: "She asked me to drive her home, and once we were on the road she told to stop at the supermarket so she could pick something up. What chutzpah!"
Frum (like "from," but with the "u" sound in "put"; sort of sounds like the imitation of a car noise: brrrum-brrrum, but not vroom like in the car commercials)
Observant of Jewish law . Almost always used to describe someone else; almost never to describe yourself. "He wasn't raised very strict, but when he went away to college he became very frum." The Yiddish name "Fruma," derived from this word, was once quite popular.
Nu (rhymes with "Jew")
An all-purpose word that doesn't really mean anything, like "well," "so" or "wassup?" I usually hear it as a prompt for a response or explanation. A friend of mine who worked for a Jewish history museum joked that they answered the phone "Jew mu, nu?" When someone takes too long to respond in an online chat or trails off in the middle of a thought, I might type "nu?" (are you still there? are you answering?) If someone says something that doesn't seem to make any sense, you might say, "nu?" (what's that supposed to mean?)
Shmutz (rhymes with "puts")
Dirt. Refers to a trivial amount of nuisance dirt, not real filth. Example: "You have some shmutz on your shirt; brush it off."
Shmooze (rhymes with "booze")
Having a long, friendly chat. Can be used as a noun, but is usually used as a verb. Examples: "Come to our party! Eat, drink and shmooze!" or "Our salesman is very good at shmoozing the clients."
Tchatchke (almost rhymes with "gotcha")
1) Little toys; knick-knacks. 2) A pretty young thing, like a trophy wife. Examples: "The collector had so many tchatchkes that he had to buy a bigger house!" or "when my mother visits, she always brings tchatchkes for the kids" or "The boss divorced his wife; now he's dating some little tchatchke." The Yiddish spelling of the word uses the letter Tsadek, so it should be pronounced "tsatske," but I've always heard the word pronounced as if it were the "ch" in "chair."
Yiddish Links
There are many Yiddish sites on the web and many of them maintain a better list of links than I could ever hope to. I will point out only a few that I find useful, along with their links to other sites.
Forverts is a weekly American Jewish newspaper written in Yiddish. This is an excellent source if you want to try reading some useful, day-to-day Yiddish. It is written in the Yiddish alphabet, not transliteration.
The Yiddish Voice is a weekly Yiddish-language radio show based in the Boston area, which is available on streaming audio over the Internet. Their site has a nice list of Yiddish links .
YIVO Institute for Jewish Research is an organization dedicated to studying and preserving the history, society and culture of Ashkenazic Jewry . YIVO is the recognized leader in the study of the Yiddish language. They have a page of the alef-beyz with transliteration (Romanization) and pronunciation guides and an extensive list of Yiddish links .
Dr. Rafael Finkel, a computer science professor at the University of Kentucky, has a marvelous Yiddish typewriter online. Type a word in transliteration (Roman letters, according to YIVO rules of transliteration), and it will show you what it looks like in Yiddish letters. He also maintains a Yiddish song list and a number of Yiddish texts, as well as an extensive list of Yiddish links. See his index .
Suggestions for Further Reading, Viewing or Listening
The New Joys of Yiddish ( Paperback ): The original edition by Leo Rosten was the first Jewish book I ever owned. It examines a wide variety of useful Yiddish words, many of which have found their way into English, and puts them into their cultural context, illustrating the use of words through classic humorous stories and jokes. The original edition is no longer in print -- much of what it said has become remarkably dated in the 50 or so years since it was written. This new edition has gotten mixed reviews because, rather than merely updating some of the dated slang and references, the new edition merely adds a lot of politically-correct footnotes. For example, after Rosten's original text defines "shlock house" using the expression "gyp joint," the revisor goes off on a lengthy rant about what a terrible term "gyp joint" is, because the term "gyp" comes from "Gypsy" and the Gypsies have been horribly oppressed, all of which is true, but none of which provides any insight into the meaning of the term "shlock house."
Tales of Mendele the Book Peddler ( Paperback ): Two stories by the first great Yiddish writer, Mendele Moykher Sforim, including his masterpiece, Benjamin the Third, with a lengthy scholarly introduction discussing the author and the time and place where he lived and wrote. Translated into English.
In my Father's Court ( Paperback ): Autobiographical short stories by Isaac Bashevis Singer, the Nobel Prize winning Yiddish writer. These stories tell of his childhood in a Polish community with his father, a Chasidic rabbi . Translated into English.
Vini-Der-Pu ( Paperback ): Want to try reading some Yiddish? Why not start with that that classic children's favorite, Winnie the Pooh! Leonard Wolf has provided a very direct, literal translation of Winnie the Pooh into Yiddish. Printed in transliterated Yiddish (Yiddish in familiar Roman letters), with the first paragraph of each story presented in the Yiddish alphabet as well, Vini-Der-Pu is a fun place to start reading Yiddish. You may also want to buy the English original for comparison. Oy gevalt, hot Pu gezogt! (Oh, bother, said Pooh).
Avi Hoffman's Too Jewish ( DVD from Hoffman's website ): I saw this video on PBS's pledge drive one year, and absolutely had to own it. This one-man-show (or rather two man, including his pianist and assistant, Ben "give that man a bagel" Schaechter) is a loving tribute to Yiddish culture and language, sometimes touching and usually hilarious, full of Yiddish songs both traditional and not so traditional, jokes and stories. My favorite part is his translation of Broadway show tunes in Yiddish (Veyn nisht far mir Argentina...) and Yinglish (Oyyyyyyyyy...glaucoma ven you can't see foither den yer nose...). Unfortunately, the version I bought does not have the on-screen translations nor the closed-captioning that were shown on PBS, but most of the Yiddish is either self-explanatory or explained by Avi Hoffman.
Mamaloshen ( Audio CD ) Well-known actor Mandy Patinkin shows his Jewish pride with this CD. Half of the songs are traditional Yiddish songs like Belz and Oyfn Pripichik; half are songs written in English by American Jews but translated into Yiddish, such as Maria, Take Me Out to the Ballgame, and Paul Simon's American Tune. Some have quibbled with his pronunciations and some have criticized him for being - dare I say? - a bit of a ham, but Patinkin's affection and enthusiasm for the material are overwhelming and infectious through every song.
Rise Up ( Audio CD ) A recent CD by the Grammy award-winning The Klezmatics , a modern band mixing klezmer and jazz. They won the Grammy for their CD Wonder Wheel , which puts their (mostly klezmer) music to Woody Guthrie lyrics. They also drew from the Woody Guthrie well on Woody Guthrie's Happy Joyous Hanukkah , which puts klezmer music to Chanukkah-related songs that Guthrie wrote.
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History & Development of Yiddish
For nearly a thousand years, Yiddish was the primary, and sometimes only, language that Ashkenazi Jews spoke.
Advertisement for New York performance of King Lear in Yiddish, early 1900s.
Unlike most languages, which are spoken by the residents of a particular area or by members of a particular nationality, Yiddish - at the height of its usage - was spoken by millions of Jews of different nationalities all over the globe. The decimation of European Jewry during the Holocaust in the mid-twentieth century marked the end of Yiddish as a widely spoken language and of the unique culture the language generated. Today, select groups of ultra-Orthodox Jews continue to use Yiddish as their primary language. Yiddish language is now widely studied in the non-Jewish and academic worlds.
- ... And its Resurrection
The Development of Yiddish: Four Stages
Linguists have divided the evolution of Yiddish into four amorphous periods. Over the course of the greater part of a millennium, Yiddish went from a Germanic dialect to a full-fledged language that incorporated elements of Hebrew, Aramaic, Slavic languages, and Romance languages. Because no decisive dates are known that contributed to modifications in the languages, the history can be charted using general dates as turning points: 1250, 1500, and 1750.
Early History
Beginning in the tenth century, Jews from France and Northern Italy began to establish large communities in Germany for the first time. Small communities had existed, and spoken German, for some time, but the new residents along the Rhine river arrived speaking a Jewish-French dialect known as Laaz. The new arrivals punctuated their German speech with expressions and words from Laaz; additionally, they probably reached into Scriptural and Rabbinic literature and incorporated idioms into their daily speech. Thus, a modified version of medieval German that included elements of Laaz, biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew, and Aramaic came to be the primary language of western European Jews. The collective isolation that came to characterize Jewish communities in the aftermath of the Crusades probably contributed to the shift from regular German to a modified, more Jewish form.
Old Yiddish
In the thirteenth century, the Jews tended to migrate eastward to escape persecution. Thus, Yiddish arrived in eastern Germany , Poland , and other eastern European territories for the first time. The exposure of Yiddish to the Slavic languages prevalent in the east changed it from a Germanic dialect to a language in its own right. Consequently, a division began to develop between the eastern Yiddish of the Jews living in Slavic lands, and the western Yiddish of the Jews who had remained in France and Germany .
Middle Yiddish
By the sixteenth century, eastern Europe, particularly Poland , had become the center of world Jewry. Thus, the language of the Jews increasingly incorporated elements of Slavic, and the divide between the two main dialects of Yiddish grew. It was also in this period that Yiddish became a written language in addition to a spoken one. Yiddish was, and is, written using Hebrew characters.
Modern Yiddish
After about 1700, western Yiddish began a slow and inevitable decline, and the eastern dialect became the more important and widely spoken one. The ebbing of the former was due in large part to the Haskalah and emancipations sweeping through western Europe , while the latter was aided by the Yiddish culture that flourished primarily in eastern Europe. By the mid-twentieth century, however, the Holocaust and the repression of Soviet Jews under Stalin resulted in the dramatic decline in the usage of either strain of Yiddish.
The Role of Yiddish in Jewish History
The central role of Yiddish played in Jewish life, and its eventual decline, are in part attributable to important events and trends in Jewish history . For example, in the aftermath of the First Crusade in 1096, and the rampant persecution of Jews that followed, Jews increasingly isolated themselves from non-Jewish society. This isolation simultaneously facilitated and was aided by the role of Yiddish in Jewish society. The fact that the Jews had a language of their own that was not understood by outsiders made it easy to separate themselves by developing a highly centralized economic and cultural life. The common language allowed them to live in the same areas, trade amongst themselves, and maintain vast international networks among the numerous Yiddish speaking Jewish communities in Europe. At the same time, the development of Yiddish itself was affected by the new self-segregation. Without interference from non-Jews, and unaware of the linguistic trends of the secular languages, Yiddish moved off in directions of its own, while maintaining many elements of medieval German that were no longer to be found in the outside world.
The decline of Yiddish in western Europe was largely a result of contemporary historical trends as well. The Haskalah , which began in the late eighteenth century and gathered steam throughout the nineteenth, promoted secular education and acculturation to the outside society. As a result, German Jews began to enter secular schools where the language of instruction was German; to work in professions that required a knowledge of secular language in order to communicate with non-Jews; and to look down on Yiddish as a product of the insular, unworldly Jewish Shtetl, a product to be disdained and discarded as soon as possible. One maskil put it this way: "Yiddish grates on our ears and distorts. This jargon is incapable in fact of expressing sublime thoughts. It is our obligation to cast off these old rags, a heritage of the dark Middle Ages." 1 This prevailing attitude also led to the resurgence of the long dormant Hebrew language , which was seen as a "purer language."
The attitudes of the western European Jews, who were desperate to be integrated into their surroundings, were largely informed by the non-Jewish attitude toward Yiddish. Because the language was incomprehensible to them, and because of the general hatred of Jews throughout Europe, Yiddish had long been regarded with suspicion. In the eyes of the masses, it had come to symbolize the "moral corruption" of the Jews. In a letter, the maskil David Friedlaender described this phenomenon: "Given this frame of mind (the speaking of Yiddish).... the intellect and most likely the manners of the people were increasingly corrupted." 2
Eager to escape this stereotype, the Jews were more than happy to give up the language. Of course, it should be noted that the Haskalah , and the accompanying disdain for Yiddish, existed in the east as well; many maskilim were enamored with the Russian language in particular. However, two factors ensured that Yiddish remained central to Jewish communities in the east. Firstly, the maskilim there, knowing that they were dealing with a population that was by and large less educated and worldly than their western counterparts, were more willing to maintain Yiddish, and use it as a means of convincing the Jews that the other elements of the Haskalah should be adopted. Second, Yiddish culture was so rich in the east that the language had fewer detractors, and was seen as being more central to Jewish identity, than it was in the west.
Yiddish Culture in Eastern Europe
Beginning in the nineteenth century, Yiddish became more than merely a language of utility, used in everyday speech and writing. Jews' creative energy, which had no outlet in the surrounding society, began to be expressed through literature, poetry, drama, music, and religious and cultural scholarship. For the first time, the language became a means of expressing and describing the vibrant internal life that had developed in the ghettos and Shtetls of eastern Europe. Yiddish, and to a lesser extent, Hebrew, were the media of choice for this fledgling culture.
Yiddish literature had existed to some extent for hundreds of years, in the form of folk tales, legends, and religious homilies. The nineteenth century literature differed in that novels, poetry, and short stories were now being written for the first time. A more important difference, however, was the self-consciousness of the new authors, who recognized from the outset that they were creating a brand new literary culture, not merely writing stories. For example, Russian born Sholem Jacob Abramowitz, popularly know by the pseudonym Mendele Mocher Sforim ("Mendele the bookseller"), is today considered the "father of Yiddish literature." He wrote his stories, he said, in order to "have pity for Yiddish, that rejected daughter, for it was time to do something for our people." 3
Other important Yiddish authors of the nineteenth century included Shalom Aleichem , and Isaac Leib Peretz. Today, they are considered important literary figures by non-Jewish and Jewish critics alike.
Yiddish drama was another important new development in this era. Numerous drama troupes traveled throughout Russia and Poland , performing in big cities and tiny Shtetls to universal accolades. Their performances ranged from popular plays translated into Yiddish (ironically, works as decidedly non-Jewish as The Merchant of Venice were translated and performed), to specifically Jewish pieces written and performed only in Yiddish.
The Yiddish press was perhaps the most widespread manifestation of the language's prominence in this period. Yiddish periodicals ranged from the daily newspaper The Forward to various scholarly journals, which dealt with political, religious, and social issues. More so than literature or drama, Yiddish journalism also spread to locations outside of eastern Europe, where the majority of Yiddish speakers lived. The American Jewish community in New York, for example, quickly founded their own newspapers within a short period of immigrating, several of which, most notably The Forward, are published to this day.
In certain cases, Yiddish and the culture it spawned became the bases of important Jewish political movements as well. The Bund, for example, a Russian Jewish socialist party, considered the retension of the Yiddish language, as opposed to Russian or Hebrew, to be a central part of its platform
The Death of Yiddish...
The six million European Jews who died in the Holocaust comprised the majority of the world's Yiddish speakers. Thus in a period of six years, between 1939 and 1945, Yiddish was dealt a near mortal blow. The majority of those Jews who escaped Europe and made it to Israel or to the United States soon learned the local language and made Yiddish their secondary tongue, at best. The large number of Yiddish-speaking Jews who remained in the Soviet Union found Yiddish outlawed by Stalin during and after the Holocaust . Because of the Holocaust and these repressive Soviet measures, Yiddish came to an almost immediate standstill. The post-Holocaust generations were being taught the local vernaculars, not Yiddish. It was predicted that Yiddish would quickly become a dead tongue.
...and its Resurrection
Despite these obstacles, Yiddish is today enjoying a resurgence. Several populations use it as their main language: primarily the generation that lived during and immediately after the Holocaust , and the ultra-Orthodox populations living in New York and parts of Israel. But more significantly, Yiddish is today receiving attention from the non-Jewish scholarly community as a real language, and not as the "corrupted tongue" that it was considered throughout history. Many universities worldwide offer courses and even degree programs in Yiddish linguistics, and the literature of the Yiddish cultural period is receiving attention for its astute depiction of contemporary Jewish existence. Even linguists of the German language are learning Yiddish, because the development of the German language, is related to the medieval versions of it that today are manifested only in Yiddish.
Sources: "Germany." Encyclopedia Judaica ; Zvi Gitelman. A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russian and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present. Indiana University Press, 2001.
Mendes-Flohr, Paul, and Judah Reinharz. The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History . Oxford University Press. New York, 1995; Photos courtesy of Bergen County (NJ) Public Schools
1. Osip Aronowich Rabinowich [Russia Our Native Land: Just as We Breathe Its Air We Must Speak Its Language], Razsvet, no. 16 (Odessa, 1861), pp. 200. Translated by R. Weiss.
2. David Freidlaender, Sendschreiben an seine Hochwuerdigen, Herrn Oberconsistorialrat und Probst Teller zu Berlin, von einigen Hausvaetern juedischer Religion (Berlin 1799), pp. 27. Translated by S. Weinstein.
3. In A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russian and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present. Zvi Gitelman. Indiana University Press, 2001.
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Which jazz singer was known as 'The King of Hi de Ho' ? | Hi De Ho (1947) - IMDb
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Cab Calloway plays himself in a plot about jealousy, night clubs, and gangsters. Ends with a series of musical numbers.
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Title: Hi De Ho (1947)
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Young Cab Calloway's mother is concerned, because Cab spends his days listening to the radio, pretending to lead a miniature orchestra. A deacon passing by the apartment hears him singing ... See full summary »
Director: Roy Mack
"Swing cat" Louis Prima and his jazz quintet play songs and accompany featured singers and dancers.
Director: Roy Mack
This jazz musical short has a comedy plot about marital infidelity.
Director: Fred Waller
An all-female orchestra plays popular songs of the day.
Stars: The Ingenues
Musical and dance acts perform, first at a night club, then at a "rent party."
Director: Roy Mack
In Hell, Satan appears to tell us that rhythm is coming to life again, then we're taken to a sound stage where Jimmie Lunceford conducts his dance orchestra. He's in black tie and a tuxedo ... See full summary »
Director: Joseph Henabery
Four convicts escape from a chain gang. Shortly thereafter, changes are made at the prison, because a blue ribbon commission will be investigating conditions there. The changes include ... See full summary »
Director: Roy Mack
Leon brags about his "super-deluxe" gas station, which he claims is run by chorus girls.
Director: Roy Mack
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5.7/10 X
A performance film showing Arnheim and his tuxedo-clad musicians playing their instruments, facing the viewer. Two cameras are used, one taking a long view of the band, the other, medium close ups of the men as they do their various solos.
Stars: Gus Arnheim and His Orchestra, Gus Arnheim, Sunny Howard
An elderly barber shop owner wins a sweepstake and uses the winnings to elaborately remodel his run-down shop. For in-house entertainment he hires his musician friends as the jazz orchestra and the four shoeshiners are skilled tap dancers.
Director: Joseph Henabery
State College is a coeducational school where the athletics are more important than academics. All there are preparing for a big multi-sport match with arch rival Dale College. Students ... See full summary »
Director: Roy Mack
A "Broadway Brevity" short from Vitaphone shot in Technicolor that spoofs the Hollywood studio set-up. When the ballerina star of a musical feature walks off in a huff, aided by the ... See full summary »
Director: Bobby Connolly
Edit
Storyline
Bandleader Cab Calloway is tiring of his sexy girlfriend Minnie, who in turn is jealous of Cab's manager Nettie. When Nettie gets Cab a job at the Brass Hat Club, Minnie retaliates for his imagined infidelity by setting gangster Boss Mason, owner of a rival club, against him. Will she regret her action before it's too late? (This plot resolves halfway through the film; the rest is a series of 'soundies' featuring the Calloway band's inimitable jive). All-black cast. Written by Rod Crawford <[email protected]>
9 May 1947 (USA) See more »
Filming Locations:
Did You Know?
Goofs
When Cab takes the wounded Minnie back into his room, the furniture has changed position - the bed is now away from the wall and in the middle of the room, and the chair is in the corner of the room where the bed used to be. See more »
Connections
Hi-De-Ho (1947) was a mostly excellent musical showcase for Cab Calloway
18 July 2008 | by tavm
(Baton Rouge, La.) – See all my reviews
At first, I wasn't too thrilled about this movie because of Cab's rough treatment of Minnie (Jeni Le Gon) and her insolent attitude in return. And the idea of Calloway going to an audition arranged by his manager Nettie (Ida James) when, at this point in his life, he had already entertained millions of people in several movies, on radio, and in concerts makes this very much a plot for the birds. Good thing then that not too much time is spent on the "story" though Minnie's tragic end was a little touching with Cab granting her last wish. From then on, it's just a variety show starring Cab with his orchestra along with The Peters Sisters (a talented group of full-figured women singers), and the tap-dancing Millers and Lois (their tap routines are some of the best I've seen). While just every number performed by the Hi-De-Ho man is great, he's especially compelling on the "St. James Infirmary" number. And seeing the wedding number with Cab, Ida without the glasses, and Augustus Smith as the preacher makes an excellent finale for the picture. So on that note, I highly recommend Hi-De-Ho (1947 version since Cab previously made a couple of shorts with this name, one of which I reviewed in February). P.S. David Betha who plays the Brass Hat Owner here was previously in The Green Pastures (another movie I reviewed in February) as Aaron, Ms. Le Gon was born in my birth town of Chicago, Ill., Mr. Smith was born in Jacksonville, Fl., a place I lived in from 1987-2003.
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| Cab Calloway |
Pashto and Dari are the two official languages of which country ? | The Hi de Ho blog | Created by Jean-François PITET in 2006, is dedicated to Cab Calloway, his music and his musicians.
The Hi de Ho blog
Cotton Club Revue Season #2: 1958, from Miami to...
“Cab Calloway ’68”: the everlasting album with Bugs Bower
“From Cab Calloway to Duke Ellington” series: the perfect career
Zanzibar Cafe, New York: home of Cab Calloway
Cab Calloway: the freemason and his brothers musicians
ON THIS DAY: The Calloway Almanac
Discover the many stories of the singer, leader, musician, MC, dandy, gamer, father, seducer…
Minnie The Moocher and Company
Hi de Ho and jumpin’ jive are here to entertain you and make you feel that life is a swinging moment.
Behind The Leader, The Artists
Dizzy Gillespie, Ben Webster, Jonah Jones and so many forgotten jazzmen are to be (re-)discovered.
Get The Latest About The Heppest
Cab in the news, gigs and tributes all around the world... and sometime near you!
A musician I want you to meet
The trombone expert in Jitterbug
Watch Cab struttin’
GONE album “Cotton Club Revue of 1958”
Released in March 1958 to support the Cotton Club Revue, which was then touring in Miami and the USA (see our forthcoming article), this LP is Cab Calloway’s very first album – in the modern sense. Despite genuine qualities, this record went straight into the dustbin of discographers and jazz critics. It seems nevertheless to warrant some interest since, besides its two releases at the time, an unofficial vinyl emerged 30 years ago and an official release even popped up on CD in August 2014. Read the full story →
Lammar WRIGHT as told by Wilmer WISE, his bandstand friend
Lammar WRIGHT (1905-1973) was an incredibly talented trumpeter who played in Cab’s orchestra between 1930 and 1944. He was one of the Missourians when Cab grabbed the band. Wilmer WISE (born in 1936) is another incredibly talented trumpeter, who has been playing in many fields, from big bands, Broadway pits, philharmonic orchestras, to rock and soul studio groups. We were honored to meet and interview him in October 2011 about his bandstand friend, Lammar Wright with whom he worked between 1956 and 1967. Read the full story →
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Which acid has the chemical formula HNO3 ? | Nitric acid | HNO3 | ChemSpider
Nitric acid
CSID:919, http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.919.html (accessed 22:13, Jan 19, 2017)
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Validated by Experts, Validated by Users, Non-Validated, Removed by Users
Nitric acid [ACD/IUPAC Name] [Wiki]
Acid, Nitric
Acide nitrique [French] [ACD/IUPAC Name]
Acidum nitricum
not >70% nitric acid [UN2031] [Corro
sive]
Validated by Experts, Validated by Users, Non-Validated, Removed by Users
02650_FLUKA [DBID]
-40 °C Alfa Aesar 33260 , 33261
-51 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 16002 , 16003
-42 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 16002 , 16003
-41.59 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 22336
120.5 °C Alfa Aesar 87920 , 38748 , 38747 , 33260 , 10984
181 F (82.7778 °C) NIOSH QU5775000
121 C / 69 mmHg (210.3616 °C / 760 mmHg) (Oil) Oxford University Chemical Safety Data (No longer updated) More details
Very soluble in water and ether. Decomposes in alcohol Alfa Aesar 87920
Miscellaneous
Colorless, yellow, or red, fuming liquid with an acrid, suffocating odor. [Note: Often used in an aqueous solution. Fuming nitric acid is concentrated nitric acid that contains dissolved nitrogen diox ide.] NIOSH QU5775000
colourless liquid with a choking odour Oxford University Chemical Safety Data (No longer updated) More details
DANGER: CORROSIVE, burns skin and eyes Alfa Aesar 10984 , 33260 , 38747 , 38748 , 87920
DANGER: OXIDIZER, CORROSIVE, burns skin and eyes Alfa Aesar 10984 , 33260 , 33261
WARNING: CORROSIVE, burns skin and eyes Alfa Aesar 35624 , 35626
WARNING: CORROSIVE, irritates skin and eyes Alfa Aesar 35624 , 35626
Predicted data is generated using the ACD/Labs Percepta Platform - PhysChem Module
Density:
83.0±9.0 °C at 760 mmHg
Vapour Pressure:
49.8±0.3 mmHg at 25°C
Enthalpy of Vaporization:
Predicted data is generated using the US Environmental Protection Agency’s EPISuite
Log Octanol-Water Partition Coef (SRC): Log Kow (KOWWIN v1.67 estimate) = 0.21 Boiling Pt, Melting Pt, Vapor Pressure Estimations (MPBPWIN v1.42): Boiling Pt (deg C): 492.56 (Adapted Stein & Brown method) Melting Pt (deg C): 189.14 (Mean or Weighted MP) VP(mm Hg,25 deg C): 8.08E-010 (Modified Grain method) Subcooled liquid VP: 4.23E-008 mm Hg (25 deg C, Mod-Grain method) Water Solubility Estimate from Log Kow (WSKOW v1.41): Water Solubility at 25 deg C (mg/L): 9.09e+004 log Kow used: 0.21 (estimated) no-melting pt equation used Water Sol Estimate from Fragments: Wat Sol (v1.01 est) = 57149 mg/L ECOSAR Class Program (ECOSAR v0.99h): Class(es) found: Neutral Organics Henrys Law Constant (25 deg C) [HENRYWIN v3.10]: Bond Method : 2.45E-002 atm-m3/mole Group Method: 2.45E-002 atm-m3/mole Henrys LC [VP/WSol estimate using EPI values]: 7.251E-016 atm-m3/mole Log Octanol-Air Partition Coefficient (25 deg C) [KOAWIN v1.10]: Log Kow used: 0.21 (KowWin est) Log Kaw used: 0.001 (HenryWin est) Log Koa (KOAWIN v1.10 estimate): 0.209 Log Koa (experimental database): None Probability of Rapid Biodegradation (BIOWIN v4.10): Biowin1 (Linear Model) : 0.7180 Biowin2 (Non-Linear Model) : 0.8936 Expert Survey Biodegradation Results: Biowin3 (Ultimate Survey Model): 3.0621 (weeks ) Biowin4 (Primary Survey Model) : 3.7583 (days ) MITI Biodegradation Probability: Biowin5 (MITI Linear Model) : 0.5277 Biowin6 (MITI Non-Linear Model): 0.6760 Anaerobic Biodegradation Probability: Biowin7 (Anaerobic Linear Model): 0.8361 Ready Biodegradability Prediction: YES Hydrocarbon Biodegradation (BioHCwin v1.01): Structure incompatible with current estimation method! Sorption to aerosols (25 Dec C)[AEROWIN v1.00]: Vapor pressure (liquid/subcooled): 5.64E-006 Pa (4.23E-008 mm Hg) Log Koa (Koawin est ): 0.209 Kp (particle/gas partition coef. (m3/ug)): Mackay model : 0.532 Octanol/air (Koa) model: 3.97E-013 Fraction sorbed to airborne particulates (phi): Junge-Pankow model : 0.951 Mackay model : 0.977 Octanol/air (Koa) model: 3.18E-011 Atmospheric Oxidation (25 deg C) [AopWin v1.92]: Hydroxyl Radicals Reaction: OVERALL OH Rate Constant = 0.3600 E-12 cm3/molecule-sec Half-Life = 29.711 Days (12-hr day; 1.5E6 OH/cm3) Ozone Reaction: No Ozone Reaction Estimation Fraction sorbed to airborne particulates (phi): 0.964 (Junge,Mackay) Note: the sorbed fraction may be resistant to atmospheric oxidation Soil Adsorption Coefficient (PCKOCWIN v1.66): Koc : 14.3 Log Koc: 1.155 Aqueous Base/Acid-Catalyzed Hydrolysis (25 deg C) [HYDROWIN v1.67]: Rate constants can NOT be estimated for this structure! Bioaccumulation Estimates from Log Kow (BCFWIN v2.17): Log BCF from regression-based method = 0.500 (BCF = 3.162) log Kow used: 0.21 (estimated) Volatilization from Water: Henry LC: 0.0245 atm-m3/mole (estimated by Group SAR Method) Half-Life from Model River: 0.8223 hours (49.34 min) Half-Life from Model Lake : 74.99 hours (3.125 days) Removal In Wastewater Treatment: Total removal: 90.51 percent Total biodegradation: 0.02 percent Total sludge adsorption: 0.40 percent Total to Air: 90.09 percent (using 10000 hr Bio P,A,S) Level III Fugacity Model: Mass Amount Half-Life Emissions (percent) (hr) (kg/hr) Air 37.4 713 1000 Water 56.5 360 1000 Soil 5.99 720 1000 Sediment 0.105 3.24e+003 0 Persistence Time: 172 hr
Click to predict properties on the Chemicalize site
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| Nitric acid |
What is a young whale usually called ? | What is the formula for nitric acid? | Reference.com
What is the formula for nitric acid?
A:
Quick Answer
The chemical formula for nitric acid is NHO3. The molecule has a central nitrogen atom that is bonded in a triangular formation to three oxygen atoms.
Full Answer
One of the oxygen atoms is single-bonded to the nitrogen atom, one is double-bonded and one is single-bonded to the nitrogen with an additional bond to a single hydrogen atom. All of the atoms are on the same plane. Nitric acid is polar, as the central nitrogen atom is positively charged, while the lone single-bonded oxygen atom is negatively charged. This makes nitric acid soluble in water. However, nitric acid also reacts with water to generate heat.
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Which sharp-tasting red fruit is used to make a sauce popular at Xmas and at Thanksgiving dinners ? | 1000+ images about Thanksgiving/Christmas food on Pinterest | Pecan cheesecake, Thanksgiving and Electric roaster ovens
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Cranberry Pecan Wild Rice makes a nice gluten-free alternative to stuffing. I make this Cranberry Pecan Wild Rice when I want something a little bit fancier than basic Rice Pilaf or Roasted Potatoes. It pairs perfectly with Slow-cooker Cornish Game Hens with Grand Marnier Sauce. But it also just feels like the perfect American side dish, with crunchy toasted pecans...Read More »
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| Cranberry |
Which King of England was married to Caroline of Ansbach ? | Thanksgiving Dinner Menu , What's Cooking America
Cornbread Stuffing with Fresh Figs, Morels, and Foie Gras – If you really want to be fancy and step up your Thanksgiving dinner, try this unusual and wonderful dressing. – Learn about Foie Gras .
Potato Choices plus Gravy:
Making Perfect Turkey Gravy – Homemade turkey gravy, made using the turkey giblet stock, pan drippings, and meat juices from the roast turkey, is an essential part of a traditional Thanksgiving dinner. Hints and tips for making that perfect turkey gravy.
Perfect Mashed Potatoes – This easy-to-make mashed potato recipe is perfect for Thanksgiving and Christmas. This recipe is classic and simple.
Make-Ahead Mashed Potatoes – Save your valuable kitchen time on Thanksgiving day by using this easy-to-make mashed potato dish. This recipe is especially great when serving a crowd as it eliminates the mess and last-minute hassle of whipping potatoes.
Browned Butter Smashed Potatoes with Butternut Squash – Try something new and impress your family and guests with this delicious combination of potatoes and butternut squash.
Asiago and Sage Scalloped Potatoes – This is my family’s favorite scalloped potato recipe. I especially like to make it during the holidays. This can be made ahead of time.
Perfect Baked Potato – The perfect baked potato has crisp golden skin on the outside and is pure white and fluffy on the inside. It is very easy to bake the perfect potato. If you follow the easy guidelines, you will always have perfect baked potatoes!
Slow Cooker Garlic Roasted Baby Potatoes – Least amount of effort to dump and roast these delicious garlic baby potatoes. No peeling or mashing required!
Cranberries and Gelatin Salads:
It is up to you to decide how many side dishes you serve with your dinner. The more family and/or friends invited to dinner, the more side dishes. Our tradition is that each family invited will bring a side dishes to the dinner to help out with all the preparation involved in preparing the dinner. If you also do this, be sure and decided in advance what you want everyone to bring, so you do not end up the 3 or 4 versions of the same dish!
Cranberry Relish – My son-in-law makes this wonderful family recipe for Thanksgiving and Christmas dinner every year.
Cranberry Sauce with Raspberry Vinaigrette – This traditional sauce is enhanced by raspberry vinegar. Very delicious!
Blueberry JELL-O Salad – You will find this dessert commonly served at holiday gatherings and special occasions. Even people that do not typically like Jell-O dishes love the texture of this dessert and ask for seconds!
Fiesta Carrot Pineapple JELL-O Salad – This Fiesta Carrot Pineapple JELL-O Salad is a classic JELL-O recipe that is light and refreshing! The whole family devours this JELL-O salad. While the pineapple-carrot flavor combination is unique, they work very well together.
Red Hot Applesauce JELL-O Salad – Another classic holiday JELL-O salad recipe from the 1950’s. Red Hot candies are used to add a tasty cinnamon flavor. Also apple sauce and citrus soda add a nice thicker consistency and texture to to this dish.
Salads:
Kale Harvest Salad – A perfect combination of autumn fruits and vegetables. Featuring kale as the star ingredient, along with roasted squash, dried cranberries, apples, nuts, and seeds to create a bowlful of goodness.
Caesar Salad – My all-time favorite salad is the Caesar Salad. To many, including myself, this is the King of salads. Caesar salads are very easy to make and can be prepared in advance. This salad will definitely impress your dinner guests.
Following is my delicious low-fat version of Caesar Salad. I promise you that your guests will never know the difference! I make this low-fat and easy-to-make version all the time. I serve this salad with Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners. Low Fat Caesar Salad Recipe
Kale Caesar Salad – For an unusual salad that is delicious and is considered very healthy. For your vegan family or friends, take out the anchovies and toss the salad with a vegan salad dressing.
Fresh Fruit Salad with 1-2-3 Fruit Dressing – This is very refreshing and delicious fruit salad. I use whatever fresh fruit is in season when making this salad. The combination of citrus fruits in the dressing gives the salad a wonderful delicious flavor!
Green Pea Salad – This is a family favorite that I enjoyed when I was young, and still do today. It is a very easy-to-make vegetable salad. Great for taking to a potluck or even Thanksgiving dinner. Your family will love this recipe!
Bread or Roll Choices:
Homemade rolls and breads are always preferred, but it you do not have the time to make your own, purchase top-quality rolls and breads at a local bakery.
Honey Butter – Honey Butter is a must when serving cornbread and biscuits for our family.
Make Ahead Butter Rolls – This is one my favorite roll recipe to use for holiday dinners, especially Thanksgiving and Christmas dinner. Very easy to make ahead and bake at the last minutes.
Perfect Flaky Buttermilk Biscuits – Homemade biscuits are so easy to make, and if you follow a few simple rules, they will always turn out fluffy and delicious.
Northwest Cornbread – My family loves cornbread! It is easy to make and so good. Cornbread made in the Northwest is a little sweeter and lighter than the traditional southern cornbread.
Various Yeast Breads – In order not to have to heat rolls in my oven, I sometimes make various homemade breads the day before Thanksgiving. This saves me a lot of time on Thanksgiving day and pleases my guests.
Thanksgiving Desserts (lots of great ideas and choices):
Most families serve at least two (2) dessert choices.
Pumpkin Pie – Thanksgiving Pumpkin Pie – How about making this very easy and traditional pumpkin pie for your Thanksgiving dinner?
Pumpkin Swirl Gingersnap Cheesecake – Here is a fun twist for your pumpkin cheesecake. The delicate swirling of the pumpkin in the cheesecake makes a beautifully festive holiday dessert. I usually make this cheesecake ahead of time and freeze it. See .
Pumpkin Chiffon Pie – This very light pumpkin chiffon pie will be a big hit at your Thanksgiving dinner. People who are not a big fan of the traditional pumpkin pie, like this version.
Pumpkin Empanadas – Pumpkin empanadas are made both on Thanksgiving and Christmas for some Mexican-style Thanksgiving Dinners.
Devonshire Cream or creme fraiche or sweetened whipped cream to top your pies.
Pecan Praline Pie – There is the plain pecan pie and there is this “souped-up” version that the Southern people make for Thanksgiving dinner. This is a delicious alternate to the classic pecan pie.
Pecan Pie – The only way this pie could be better tasting is to serve it warm and topped with a big scoop of vanilla ice cream.
Buttermilk Pie – This is a delicious, old-fashion Buttermilk Pie. Do not be put off by the buttermilk – this is a sweet and flavorful pie. My aunt made five pies for a family reunion, and this pie was definitely my favorite!
Old-Fashioned Mincemeat Pie – This has been my favorite holiday pie since I was a little girl. My mother and grandmother used to make her own homemade mincemeat.
Mom’s Apple Pie – This is my Mother’s apple pie recipe. You can never do wrong serving this pie. It is so good!
Lighter Dessert Ideas:
Spiced Pumpkin Mousse Trifle – How about a light dessert? Wouldn’t this be an excellent dessert for your Thanksgiving Dinner?
Pumpkin Parfait – A light alternative to pumpkin pie for Thanksgiving dinner.
Finale:
Now is the time to sit back and relax. Forget about the mess in the kitchen and just relax and enjoy your family and/or friends. (I know, the mess is still in your kitchen waiting to be cleaned up) but now is not the time to jump up and start cleaning. Just relax and visit!
How To Use a French Press – coffee press, plunger press and/or press coffee
Honey-Glazed Ham Dinner Menu – (with recipes)
Ham 101 – Learn all about the different types of ham and how to cook them.
Roasted Crown of Pork Loin – Truly one of the most magnificent of all holiday entrees! Impress your guest with this attractive Roasted Crown Loin of Pork. It is a real show stopper!
Tofurky/Tofurkey Recipe with Vegan Gravy – For your vegetarian and vegan family and friends.
Turkey Variations:
How about substituting your oven-roasted turkey for:
Barbecued or Grilled Whole Turkey – This is a very easy and efficient way to cook your Thanksgiving turkey. No mess in your oven or the kitchen. A whole turkey may be prepared on either a gas grill or a charcoal grill. This method requires a covered barbecue grill and heavy duty aluminum foil. Your turkey will be crisp outside and juicy inside.
Cajun Fried Turkey – This is the best way of cooking a turkey I have ever tasted. The turkey is anything but greasy as the deep-frying process seals the outside and the turkey remains incredibly juicy, while the skin gets wonderfully crispy.
Smoked Turkey – Learn how to smoke a whole turkey.how to smoke a whole turkey.
Turducken – This regional delight has become one of the latest food fads. From the outside it looks like a turkey, but when you cut through it, you see a series of rings making up the three birds and three stuffings.
For your vegetarian and vegan family and friends.
Southwest/Mexican Thanksgiving:
Mexican Americans and others have put their own gastronomical twist on Thanksgiving meals. These are not “tradition,” nor are they found at all Thanksgiving celebrations, which include Latin American foods, but they are the foods many consider a Thanksgiving meal in the Southwest.
Turkey in Mole Sauce (Mole Poblano de Guajolote) – A Southwest and Mexican Thanksgiving favorite.
Turkey Hints and Tips:
Turkey Basics – How to purchase, stuff, and roast a turkey. Choosing a fresh or frozen turkey. How to thaw a frozen turkey. How to prepare turkey for stuffing.
Thanksgiving Planning – Stress-Free Thanksgiving – How to plan and prepare your Thanksgiving dinner in advance without stress.
Guidelines for Brining Poultry – The secret to juicy chicken breast is simple – brine them before grilling or baking! It is very easy and economical, and requires no special cookware.
Guidelines For Roasting a Whole Turkey – Learn how to safely and easily prepare and roast your turkey.
Advice on Stuffing a Turkey Safely – As the Thanksgiving and Christmas holiday draws near, learn how to safely stuff your turkey.
Using a Cooking or Meat Thermometer – Have you ever cut into a turkey to see if it has finished cooking?
Cooking thermometers take the guesswork out of cooking, as they measures the internal temperature of your cooked meat and poultry to assure that a safe temperature has been reached, harmful bacteria have been destroyed, and your turkey is cook perfectly.
Making Perfect Turkey Gravy – Hints and tips for making that perfect turkey gravy.
Handling Leftovers Safely – Leftover” foods are cooked foods that you or your family do not eat within 2 hours after they are cooked. Improper handling or storing cooked food is one of the most common causes of food poisoning in the home.
Let’s Make Turkey Stock – My favorite thing to do the morning after Thanksgiving is to make homemade turkey stock from the turkey carcass. It is so easy to do and so delicious! The turkey stock can be used for a delicious soup or frozen for future use.
Food Safety Pages:
Buffet and Party Safety – Also includes what to do if your guests have been delayed at least an hour
Golden Rules of Food Safety – IF IN DOUBT, THROW IT OUT! If you have any question in your mind about the freshness or safety of eating a food product, throw it out. It is better to be safe than sorry!
Etiquette, Entertaining, and Party Planning Help
Dining Etiquette Guide – Restaurant and Dinner Party Manners and Etiquette
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Who scored the winning goal of the 2013 FA Cup final ? | Ben Watson's winning goal for Wigan vs Manchester City, FA Cup Final 2013 - YouTube
Ben Watson's winning goal for Wigan vs Manchester City, FA Cup Final 2013
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Published on May 12, 2013
Ben Watson scores the most historic goal in Wigan's history...
To find out more about the The FA Cup visit:
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Which musical is based on the play The Matchmaker by Thornton Wilder ? | Wigan Beat Manchester City To Win FA Cup
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Wigan Beat Manchester City To Win FA Cup
Wigan Athletic make footballing history by stunning Premier League giants Manchester City in the FA Cup final at Wembley.
19:17, UK, Saturday 11 May 2013
Video: Wigan's Wembley Magic Moment
Mail
Wigan Athletic fans are celebrating after the team defeated big-spending Manchester City 1-0 to win the FA Cup at Wembley in one of the biggest final upsets the tournament has seen.
The Latics snatched the trophy in the dying moments of the game when Ben Watson headed in the winner in the 90th minute.
Manchester City finished the match with 10 men after Pablo Zabaleta was sent off with six minutes left.
Image Caption: Ben Watson celebrates after scoring the winning goal
It is the first time the club have won the FA Cup in their 81-year history, and the victory sent Wigan's 30,000 fans at Wembley into raptures.
Wigan manager Roberto Martinez said the match was a "David and Goliath" battle.
"We saw the underdogs play with incredible bravery, incredible belief and they defied the odds again," he said. "That's the FA Cup."
The Latics now have to make sure they don't become the first team to win the FA Cup and be relegated in the same season.
Wigan, who are currently in the third relegation spot and three point away from safety, play Arsenal on Tuesday and Aston Villa on Sunday.
Club chairman Dave Whelan said: "There is no celebration. We have two massive games. We’re going straight back and the players will be in training tomorrow.
"They are all aware that they are not celebrating until Sunday. No champagne, nothing to drink at all. They can celebrate when they stay in the Premier League."
Whelan played for Blackburn Rovers in the 1960 cup final, but the side were defeated 3-0 by Wolverhampton Wanderers. He was taken off in the first half after suffering a broken leg.
For City, the defeat means a trophy-less campaign, raising further questions over the future of manager Roberto Mancini.
City exited the Champions League in the group stage for the second successive season, and fell behind Manchester United in the Premier League race, with United eventually winning the title with four games to go.
Video: Martinez 'Proud' Of Wigan Win
Some reports say Malaga's Manuel Pellegrini has been approached to replace Mancini.
Martinez, already widely admired in management, will be in demand even more - especially with Everton looking to replace Manchester United-bound David Moyes.
Wigan were put together for roughly £20m, reports say, while City's squad is estimated to cost more than £200m.
Mancini said: "I am disappointed we lost. We conceded a goal in the last seconds in a game and we didn't play very well - but we didn't deserve to lose.
"We had two or three incredible chances, but in the end we didn't play like we usually do.
"If anyone else had to win I am pleased it is Roberto Martinez, he has done a tremendous job at Wigan."
Mancini was asked about speculation linking Pellegrini with his job and whether the Italian thought he was about to get sacked.
"You have been talking about this for the last six months," he said.
"This did not happen last season when Manchester United failed to win the league or the FA Cup. Why you write this is your decision."
Wigan were only admitted to the Football League in 1978.
They were not promoted to the top flight until 2005, and have spent the past four years battling against relegation.
In the final, they started with confidence and ultimately managed to outplay City, a team of multi-millionaires brought to the club on massive transfer fees and contracts.
Martinez said he and the players felt down at half-time because they had not taken their chances.
"This group of players never know anything other than to keep fighting and keep believing.
"I am really proud of these winners."
Wigan's victory marks the biggest shock in an FA Cup final since Wimbledon upset Liverpool in 1988.
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The four bronze lions that surround Nelson's column in Trafalgar Square were sculpted by which British artist ? | Trafalgar Square Lions (Landseer's Lions) - Bob Speel's Website
Landseer's Lion Statues in Trafalgar Square
The famous statues of four lions in Trafalgar Square , surrounding Nelson's Column , are commonly known as the �Landseer Lions� after the artist who created them. It had not been intended that Landseer would sculpt the lions � the commission had gone first to the sculptor Thomas Milnes , now totally obscure, and he had made a set of four stone lions for the site. However, these were judged not impressive enough for the memorial to Nelson, and were in the end bought by Titus Salt, and sent to his village of Saltaire, where they remain today. So Edwin Landseer, the famous painter known above all for his dogs, and horses, was asked to design the lions in 1858. Landseer had in fact already made a series of paintings of lions, but was not a sculptor, but accepted the commission. He worked slowly, and four years on, was still sketching them; in the words of the Art Journal, he: �was now very accurately studying the habits of lions, and was to be seen in the Zoological Gardens making himself thoroughly acquainted with their attitudes�.
Landseer's lions from different perspectives
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After another year, the Athenaeum was moved to write: �Look at the column of our Great Naval hero in Trafalgar Square. Every Sunday and holiday, it is the playing-place of a crowd of blackguard boys, who chase one another round and round the pedestal without a word being said to them. When the lions, which Sir Edwin Landseer has taken so many years to think about, are fixed in their places, they, no doubt, will greatly add to the amusements of the young urchins who now scramble over the various blocks of granite.�
By this time there was criticism of Landseer for the excessive length of time which had gone past, some direct, some ironic: �The public was agreeably surprised during the past month to find a huge boarding placed round Trafalgar Square. It was received as evidence that Sir Edwin Landseer had awakened from his sleep, and that the lions were about to be in their places. Soon, however, it was ascertained that the paviour [paving stone layer] and not the painter was busied in finishing the very ill-used locality, and the public was doomed to another disappointment.� In the event, it was only in 1866 that the first of the four lions was completed, and they were finally emplaced in 1867, almost a decade after Landseer had been awarded the commission.
Landseer's lions, beloved of tourists and much climbed over
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Almost a century and a half later though, the Trafalgar Square lions have become among the most popular of London�s statues ( see this page for a list of the others), and as predicted by the Athenaeum in 1863, they are indeed being continually climbed upon, though by tourists and native Londoners rather than merely �urchins�. The view above shows the top end of Whitehall as a backdrop.
Lion statue with Canada House behind
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The Trafalgar Square lion statues are not identical, though their sitting positions (�couchant� in heraldic terms) with front paws symmetrically forward, and tails curled elegantly around and by their sides, are the same, for they differ in the detail of mane and face. Despite their great size, among the largest of bronze sculptures in the country, they are dwarfed by Nelson�s column, which is thicker at the base than they are long, and despite their raised up position, each on a great plinth, they are easily concealed behind the other sculpture in the Square or by each other, so that from most vantages we see typically just two of them. Their positions, pointing outwards at the corners of a square, mean that the lions can be appreciated in front of a variety of splendid backdrops.
Three of the four Lions
Lion statues are of course extremely common in British sculpture, but apart from one � that by the sculptor George Simonds in Reading � there are none so large as the Trafalgar Square specimens. Lots of examples of lion statues are to be found on a separate page on this site .
Landseer Lion, Big Ben, London bus - typical iconic view
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| Edwin Henry Landseer |
What is a young eel usually called ? | Lions of London | London Hotels Blog
Posted: 26 January 2013 | Laura Porter on London , London Super Bloggers | Comments: 0
A lion symbolises bravery, strength and royalty. Lions have been used in English heraldry since the 12th century as King Henry II is thought to have used a coat of arms with two lions on it.
Statues of lions can be spotted all over London. Indeed, there is a book about the 10,000 Lions of London but I won’t go that far. Here are some of my favourite lions to be seen in London.
Trafalgar Square
It would be foolish to not start a list of lion statues in London with any others. The four bronze lions at the base of Nelson’s Column in Trafalgar Square were sculpted by Edwin Landseer, an English artist otherwise known for his paintings of horses, dogs and stags.
(c) Laura Porter
Trafalgar Square was constructed in the 1830s and Nelson’s Column was added in 1843. The lions came even later as they arrived in 1868.
Interestingly, Edwin Landseer had studied the animals kept at the Tower of London before they all moved to London Zoo when it opened in 1828. Wild animals were often given as gifts from a monarch or a country to England’s king or queen so there was a fine Royal Menagerie at the Tower of London for over 600 years! There is now a Royal Beasts exhibition at the Tower of London explaining the story further.
River Lions
On the river walls of the River Thames, either side Westminster Bridge, you can see lions head’s with rings in their mouths. These mooring rings are a flood warning and were sculpted by Timothy Butler for Sir Joseph Bazalgette’s great sewage works in 1868-70.
(c) Laura Porter
If the Thames ever rose high enough to cover them the city would be in danger of flooding but thankfully the occasion has never occurred. We have this rhyme to remind us why the lion’s are there:
“When the lions drink, London will sink”
“When it’s up to their manes, we’ll go down the drains”
“When the water is sucked, you can be sure we’re all … in trouble”
South Bank Lion
This 13 ton lion was originally positioned on top of the Lion Brewery on the South Bank and was painted bright red. It stayed there from 1837 until the brewery was demolished in 1950 to make way for the Royal Festival Hall and the Festival of Britain in 1951.
(c) Laura Porter
King George VI ensured the lion was saved and it was taken to Waterloo Station. In 1966 it was moved to its present location at the start of the South Bank next to County Hall, on the south side of Westminster Bridge, opposite Big Ben.
The lion was modelled by W.F. Woodington and is a casting rather than a carving. It is made from Coade stone from a once secret recipe for a very hard artificial stone invented by Eleanor Coade. Her factory created the mould for this lion which was fired in a kiln for two days at 2,000F.
St George’s Church, Bloomsbury
This English Baroque church was designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor and was built between 1716 and 1731. This was the sixth, and final, of his London churches. On the tower you can see the lion and unicorn, symbols of England and Scotland.
(c) Steve Fareham
St George’s was reopened to the public in 2006 following a five-year restoration initiated and managed by the World Monuments Fund in Britain. The tower and steeple of St George’s is one of Hawkmoor’s most inspired dramatic and theatrical designs. It is based on the Roman author Pliny the Elder’s description of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (Bodrum, in Turkey). One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was famed for its superb sculptures and friezes, fragments of which are now on display in the British Museum, close to the church.
Like the famed Mausoleum, St George’s spire is adorned with sculpture, but major elements of it were removed in a restoration of the 1870′s. Gigantic lions and unicorns originally clung to the four corners of the steeple. As part of the most restoration, these extraordinary sculptures were recreated and restored to the building by the Cambridge based Architectural Carvers and Stonemasons, Fairhaven of Anglesey Abbey Ltd (now Fairhaven and Woods Ltd).
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Who founded Body Shop in 1976 ? | Welcome to AnitaRoddick.com by Anita Roddick, founder of The Body Shop.
Founder of The Body Shop
I was born in Littlehampton in 1942. As the child of an Italian immigrant couple in an English seaside town, I was a natural outsider, and I was drawn to other outsiders and rebels. James Dean was my schoolgirl idol. I also had a strong sense of moral outrage, which was awakened when I found a book about the Holocaust at the age of ten. I trained as a teacher but an educational opportunity on a kibbutz in Israel eventually turned into an extended working trip around the world. Soon after I got back to England, my mother introduced me to a young Scotsman named Gordon Roddick. Our bond was instant. Together we opened first a restaurant, and then a hotel in Littlehampton. We married in 1970, me with a baby on my back and another in my belly.
I started The Body Shop in 1976 simply to create a livelihood for myself and my two daughters, while my husband, Gordon, was trekking across the Americas. I had no training or experience and my only business acumen was Gordon�s advice to take sales of �300 a week. Nobody talks of entrepreneurship as survival, but that's exactly what it is and what nurtures creative thinking. Running that first shop taught me business is not financial science, it�s about trading: buying and selling. It�s about creating a product or service so good that people will pay for it. Now 30 years on The Body Shop is a multi local business with over 2.045 stores serving over 77 million customers in 51 different markets in 25 different languages and across 12 time zones. And I haven�t a clue how we got here!
It wasn�t only economic necessity that inspired the birth of The Body Shop. My early travels had given me a wealth of experience. I had spent time in farming and fishing communities with pre-industrial peoples, and been exposed to body rituals of women from all over the world. Also the frugality that my mother exercised during the war years made me question retail conventions. Why waste a container when you can refill it? And why buy more of something than you can use? We behaved as she did in the Second World War, we reused everything, we refilled everything and we recycled all we could. The foundation of The Body Shop's environmental activism was born out of ideas like these
I am aware that success is more than a good idea. It is timing too. The Body Shop arrived just as Europe was going 'green�. The Body Shop has always been recognisable by its green colour, the only colour that we could find to cover the damp, mouldy walls of my first shop. I opened a second shop within six months, by which time Gordon was back in England. He came up with the idea for 'self-financing' more new stores, which sparked the growth of the franchise network through which The Body Shop spread across the world. The company went public in 1984. Since then, I have been given a whole host of awards, some I understand, some I don�t and a couple I think I deserve.
Businesses have the power to do good. That�s why The Body Shop�s Mission Statement opens with the overriding commitment, �To dedicate our business to the pursuit of social and environmental change.� We use our stores and our products to help communicate human rights and environmental issues.
In 1993 I met a delegation of Ogoni people from Nigeria. They were seeking justice and reparations against the giant oil multinational Shell that was ravaging their lands through oil exploration and production. Working with other NGOs, we turned their campaign into an international cause celebre. Tragically, the Ogoni�s key spokesperson, Ken Saro-Wiwa and 8 other Ogoni, were executed in 1995 by the Nigerian Government. But our campaign continued and eventually 19 other imprisoned Ogoni were released. In 1997, after 4 years of unrelenting pressure, Shell issued a revised operating charter committing the company to human rights and sustainable development. A year later, they launched their �Profits and Principles� advertising campaign declaring their recognition of the interests of � a much wider group of stakeholders in our business�. I like to think we had a hand in getting Shell to think about what it really means to be a corporate citizen.
In September 2001 I joined forces with The Body Shop and Greenpeace, and many thousands of other organisations and individual consumers in an international campaign against Exxon-Mobil (Esso), the world�s largest oil and gas company, and �No 1 Global Warming Villain�. This is the company that refuses to accept a direct link between the burning of fossil fuels and global warming, and that has turned its back on investing even a single penny on renewable alternatives, such as wind and solar.
For me, campaigning and good business is also about putting forward solutions, not just opposing destructive practices or human rights abuses. One key area where my business and personal interests naturally combine is through The Body Shop community trade initiatives. It all started in 1989 when I attended the gathering at Altamira of Amazonian Indian tribes protesting against a hydro-electric project which would have flooded thousands of acres of rainforest, submerging native lands. There had to be something practical I could do to help these people preserve their environment and culture. Nuts? Specifically brazil nuts, which the Indians gathered sustainably from the forest and which when crushed produce a brilliant oil for moisturising and conditioning. This first trading relationship with forest people, unused to any real commercial activity, was fraught with pitfalls and dangers. But 13 years on we�re still trading with them and have even set up a Green Pharmacy project producing remedies based on traditional knowledge of forest plants � reducing dependency on inappropriate and expensive modern pharmaceuticals. Every year I travel to a number of our projects. In November 1999 I visited our long-term partners Teddy Exports in southern India and GPI in Nepal and our new partners, the Chepang indigenous people who grow herbs for our Ayurvedic range. In January 2001 I visited the 130 sesame seed oil farmers in Nicaragua who receive a fair and stable price for their seed. As a result the farmers have built up a sustainable business that as well as offering marketing clout, runs a subsidised store, a credit union, and employs a Cuban agronomist specialising in organic methods. The deal with The Body Shop isn't going to make the farmers financially rich, but it does enable them to maintain their chosen way of life and through co-operation achieve autonomy. I�m immensely proud of our efforts to make fair or community trade relationships more mainstream. The Body Shop now has 29 such projects in 23 countries and we aim to develop more.
The Body Shop and I have always been closely identified in the public mind. Today, it is impossible to separate the company values from the issues that I care passionately about � social responsibility, respect for human rights, the environment and animal protection, and an absolute belief in Community Trade. But The Body Shop is not, and nor was ever, a one-woman-show � it�s a global operation with thousands of people working towards common goals and sharing common values. That�s what has given it a campaigning and commercial strength and continues to set it apart from mainstream business.
Though I no longer sit on executive committees, I still spend time on The Body Shop business. I source new products during travels abroad, work as part of the creative team and spearhead campaigns. And I constantly question myself: how can I bring values into an industry that is certainly not values-laden? The only way I can do it, is to perhaps bring back an idea for a trading initiative with an economically impoverished community in Mexico or Africa, or find inspiration for a new company commitment, just as my 1990 trip to Romania spurred the Romanian Relief Drive (now called Children on the Edge) and a visit to Glasgow led to our partnerships with Soapworks a local factory that produces our soaps.
The most exciting part of my life is now � I believe the older you get, the more radical you become. There�s a Dorothy Sayers quote I love, �A woman in advancing old age is unstoppable by any earthly force�. In November 1999, I flew to Seattle to speak out against the role of the World Trade Organisation and witnessed the �Battle of Seattle�. I�m fascinated by the publishing industry: in 2000 I published my autobiography Business and Unusual and in 2001 I edited Take it Personally, a collection of provoking thought pieces to challenge the myths of globalisation and the power of the WTO.
I launched my own website www.AnitaRoddick.com in 2001 and an activism portal www.TakeItPersonally.org in 2004. I am overwhelmed by the potential of the web to link like-minded people and move them to mass-action. We are excited to experiment in other media too � perhaps subversive billboards, or a television program, or other print projects. As someone once said, we are only limited by our imaginations.
Two of my greatest passions now are the campaigns we�ve undertaken as part of Anita Roddick Publications. One focuses on sweatshop labour by multinational corporations. We�ve joined forces with the National Labor Committee on this and helped foster creative resistance that has made some noticeable inroads. And we�ve joined with a group of human-rights activists to free the American political prisoners known as the Angola Three. These three men, who were black political activists in the 1970s, have served over 35 years in solitary confinement in Angola prison for crimes they did not commit. It is my intention to do whatever it takes, for as long as it takes, to see that their story is told and they are set free.
With The Body Shop and Anita Roddick Publications, I will continue fighting for human rights and against economic initiatives and structures that abuse and ignore them. That�s a tall enough order to keep me busy for the next 30 years.
Career 1962-76
Worked in Library of International Herald Tribune, Paris
Teacher of English and History, England
Worked in Women's Rights Dept. of International Labor Organization (ILO), based at UN in Geneva
Owner and manager of restaurant and hotel in Littlehampton
Opened The Body Shop (Int. PLC) in Brighton, Sussex, England in 1976.
Trustee/Board Member
1984 - present - The Body Shop International Plc
1989 - present - The Body Shop Foundation
1994 - 2001 - Mother Jones Magazine - Foundation for National Progress, USA
1996 - 1997 - Human Rights Watch, USA
1999 - present - The Ruckus Society, USA
2003 - present - Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, USA
Patron
1991 - present - Schumacher College for Human Scale Education
1994 - present - Association for Creation Spirituality
1996 - present - Body and Soul (women & families with HIV and AIDS)
1998 - present - EMMA (Ethnic Minority Media Awards)
2002 - present - Findhorn Foundation College
2002 - present - My Acre Of Africa, South Africa
Campaigns involved in with The Body Shop and personally
1985 - Stop the dumping of toxic waste in North Sea, Greenpeace
1986 - Campaign against whaling of sperm whales, Greenpeace
1987 - Acid Rain pollution, Friends of the Earth
1987 - Published first 'Green' Diary, Friends of the Earth
1980s - Against Animal Testing for cosmetics, collected 4 million signatures through shops
1990 - The Body Shop Foundation set-up. Over first 6 years of operation donated more than 3.5 million pounds to 180 charitable groups
1990 - Set-up project to refurbish 3 Romanian orphanages. Work extended into Albania and Bosnia
1991 - Funded Unrepresented Nations and Peoples organization
1993-98 - Ogoni Campaign against Shell and Nigeria
1994 - Marked 50th anniversary of UN Declaration of Human Rights, launched 'Make Your Mark' campaign with Dalai Lama, in partnership with Amnesty International. 3 million thumbprints collected in 34 countries. 17 prisoners of conscience released
1997 - Self-Esteem Campaign with its controversial mascot, Ruby, exposes myth of the perfect body
2000 - The Body Shop Human Rights Award launched, biennial award of $300,000 to selected grassroots groups fighting for human rights globally
2001 - present - Challenging Exxon-Mobil, World's No 1 Global Warming Villain and campaigning for renewable energy for world's 2 billion poorest people, Greenpeace
2001 - present - Challenging Globalization/Free Trade agenda of WTO, Trade Justice Coalition
2001 - present - Sweatshop Labor and workers' rights in Free Trade Zones, National Labour Committee
2001 - present - Free the Angola Three
2001 - 2002 - Positive Energy Campaign with Greenpeace
2002 - The Body Shop Human Rights Award. This second award was on the issue of the right to housing.
2003- present - Help Stop Violence in the Home � Domestic Violence Campaign with Refuge (the UK�s largest single provider of accommodation and support to women and children experiencing domestic violence)
Campaign groups personally supported
| Anita Roddick |
In the Arabian Nights, what was the name of the giant bird of prey supposedly able to carry off elephants ? | "Tributes to the Original Green Pioneer; Ethical Beauty: Anita Roddick, Who Died Last Night, Founded the Hugely Successful Body Shop in 1976" - The Evening Standard (London, England), September 11, 2007 | Online Research Library: Questia
Article excerpt
Byline: EMILY PARSONS
TRIBUTES to Dame Anita Roddick from charities, business leaders andpoliticians poured in today after the death of the the Body Shop founder.
They were led by Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who called her one of thiscountry's "true pioneers" and said he was "deeply saddened". He said: "Shecampaigned for green issues for many years before it became fashionable to doso and inspired millions to the cause by bringing sustainable products to amass market.
"As one of this country's most successful businesswomen she was an inspirationto women striving to "As one of this country's most successful was aninspiration to women striving to set up and grow their own companies.
She will be much missed and my thoughts are with her family and friends." DameAnita, 64, died at St Richard's Hospital in Chichester yesterday evening.
She had suffered a brain haemorrhage.
Her husband Gordon and daughters Sam and Justine were at her side.
Keith Croft, who has known the Roddicks for more than 35 years, said: "I'vespoken to Gordon and he's coping OK - as well as can be expected. But obviouslyhe's very upset. Above all Anita was a family person and her death is going tobe a major loss." The family are reported to be at their home in Slindon, nearArundel.
Dame Anita founded The Body Shop in 1976, selling eco-friendly products thatwere not tested on animals. Other causes to which she was passionatelycommitted included human rights, Aids awareness, Third World debt relief andthe abolition of the death penalty.
Born in Littlehampton to Italian immigrant parents, she said her "moral outragewas awakened" when, at the age of 10, she found a book about the Holocaust. …
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An orrery is a mechanical device used to illustrate what ? | Geocentric concept watch puts an orrery on your wrist
Geocentric concept watch puts an orrery on your wrist
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When it comes to timepieces I’m firmly in the camp that thinks the digital watch is the pinnacle of time telling technology. It imparts its information at a glance with no need to waste time adding or subtracting minutes in multiples of five, or estimating if the big hand is two or three minutes between markers – if there are markers at all. I will concede, however, that for many people watches are as much a fashion statement as a means to tell time and as such designers are always looking to redefine the humble watch in different and interesting ways. The latest eye-catching timepiece to catch our eye is the Geocentric concept watch that uses a motion similar to planets rotating around a sun to tell time.
The brainchild of designer Geoffrey Cooper , the Geocentric watch displays the time through the position of three rotating rings on the face of the watch, giving it the appearance of a mini orrery – the mechanical devices used to illustrate the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons in the solar system. That appears to be Cooper’s intention, stating that the watch was inspired by science and science fiction. As with an orrery, the rings are in constant motion and the visibility of the watch’s interior mechanism only adds to what Copper calls, “a mesmerizing spectacle".
It isn’t clear exactly how one reads time from the device, but presumably it is based on where each of the rings comes into contact with each other. Although the Geocentric watch is only a concept at this stage, it’s an analogue watch I’m willing to make time for.
... and in case you were wondering, we're indebted to Charles Boyle, Earl of Orrery (1676–1731) for the wonderful term given an apparatus that represents the position and motion of the planets. One of the first modern orrerys was made for Boyle in the early 1700s by George Graham and Thomas Tompion, although the idea has been around since classical times.
| Solar System |
Which sporting event, first held in July 1903, was the idea of Geo Lefevre, a journalist on L'Auto newspaper ? | Orrery - Wikipedia, Photos and Videos
Orrery
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WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE
This article is about the mechanical device. For the British peerage, see Earl of Orrery .
A small orrery showing earth and the inner planets
An orrery is a mechanical model of the solar system that illustrates or predicts the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons , usually according to the heliocentric model . It may also represent the relative sizes of these bodies; but since accurate scaling is often not practical due to the actual large ratio differences, a subdued approximation may be used instead. Though the Greeks had working planetaria , the first orrery that was a planetarium of the modern era was produced in 1704, and one was presented to Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery – whence came the name. They are typically driven by a clockwork mechanism with a globe representing the Sun at the centre, and with a planet at the end of each of the arms.
Contents
Antikythera mechanism (main fragment), ca. 125 BC
Carlo G Croce, reconstruction of Dondi's Astrarium , originally built between 1348 and 1364 in Padova
Astronomical clock (Venus-Mercury side), Eberhard Baldewein et al., Marburg-Kassel, 1563–1568 - Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon, Dresden - DSC08057
The Antikythera mechanism , discovered in 1900 in a wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera and extensively studied, exhibited the diurnal motions of the Sun , Moon , and the five known planets . It has been dated between 150 and 100 BC. The Antikythera hand driven mechanism is now considered one of the first orreries, but for many decades was ignored as it was thought to be far too complex to be genuine. [1] It was geocentric and used as a mechanical calculator designed to calculate astronomical positions.
According to Cicero , the Roman philosopher who was writing in the first century BC, Posidonius constructed a planetary model.
In 1348, Giovanni Dondi built the first known clock driven mechanism which displays the ecliptical position of Moon , Sun , Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn according to the complicated ptolemeic planetary theories. [2] [3] The clock itself is lost, but Dondi left a complete description of the astronomic gear trains of his clock.
As late as 1650, P. Schirleus built a geocentric planetarium with the Sun as a planet, and with Mercury and Venus revolving around the Sun as its moons . [4]
At the court of William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel two complicated astronomic clocks were built in 1561 and 1563-1568, which show on four sites the ecliptical position of Sun , Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn , the Moon , Sun and Dragon (Nodes of the Moon) according to Ptolemy , a Calendar, the Sunrise and Sunset and an automated celestial sphere with an animated Sun symbol which, for the first time on a celestial globe, show the real position of the sun, including the equation of time. [5] [6] The clocks are now on display in Kassel at the Astronomisch-Physikalisches Kabinett and in Dresden at the Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon.
In De revolutionibus orbium coelestium , published in Nuremberg in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the Western teaching of a geocentric universe in which the Sun revolved daily around the Earth . He observed that some Greek philosophers had proposed a heliocentric universe. This simplified the apparent epicyclic motions of the planets, making it feasible to represent the planets' paths as simple circles. This could be modelled by the use of gears. Tycho Brahe 's improved instruments made precise observations of the skies (1576–1601), and from these Johannes Kepler (1621) deduced that planets orbited the Sun in ellipses . In 1687 Isaac Newton explained the cause of elliptic motion in his theory of gravitation . [7]
A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (ca. 1766) by Joseph Wright of Derby
Clock makers George Graham and Thomas Tompion built the first modern orrery around 1704 in England. [8] Graham gave the first model, or its design, to the celebrated instrument maker John Rowley of London to make a copy for Prince Eugene of Savoy . Rowley was commissioned to make another copy for his patron Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery , from which the device took its name in English . [9] This model was presented to Charles' son John, later the 5th Earl of Cork and 5th Earl of Orrery . Independently, Christiaan Huygens published details of a heliocentric planetary machine in 1703, which he built while resident in Paris between 1665 and 1681. He calculated the gear trains needed to represent a year of 365.242 days, and used that to produce the cycles of the principal planets. [4]
Joseph Wright 's painting A Philosopher giving a Lecture on the Orrery in which a lamp is put in place of the Sun (ca. 1766), which hangs in Derby Museum and Art Gallery , depicts a group listening to a lecture by a natural philosopher . The Sun in a brass orrery provides the only light in the room. The orrery depicted in the painting has rings, which give it an appearance similar to that of an armillary sphere . The demonstration was thereby able to depict eclipses . [10]
To put this in chronological context, in 1762 John Harrison 's marine chronometer first enabled accurate measurement of longitude . In 1766, astronomer Johann Daniel Titius first demonstrated that the mean distance of each planet from the Sun could be represented by the following progression:
4
.
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {4+0}{10}},{\frac {4+3}{10}},{\frac {4+6}{10}},{\frac {4+12}{10}},{\frac {4+24}{10}},{\frac {4+48}{10}},.....}
That is, 0.4, 0.7, 1.0, 1.6, 2.8, 5.2 ... The numbers refer to astronomical units , the mean distance between Sun and Earth, which is 1.496 × 10⁸ km (93 × 10⁶ miles). The Derby Orrery does not show mean distance, but demonstrated the relative planetary movements.
Eisinga's Planetarium was built from 1774 to 1781 by Eise Eisinga in his home in Franeker , in the Netherlands. It displays the planets across the width of a room's ceiling, and has been in operation almost continually since it was created. [11] This orrery is a planetarium in both senses of the word: a complex machine showing planetary orbits, and a theatre for depicting the planets' movement. Eisinga house was bought by the Dutch Royal family who gave him a pension.
A 1766 Benjamin Martin Orrery, used at Harvard
In 1764, Benjamin Martin devised a new type of planetary model, in which the planets were carried on brass arms leading from a series of concentric or coaxial tubes. With this construction it was difficult to make the planets revolve, and to get the moons to turn around the planets. Martin suggested that the conventional orrery should consist of three parts: the planetarium where the planets revolved around the Sun, the tellurion (also tellurian or tellurium) which showed the inclined axis of the Earth and how it revolved around the Sun, and the lunarium which showed the eccentric rotations of the Moon around the Earth. In one orrery, these three motions could be mounted on a common table, separately using the central spindle as a prime mover. [1]
Explanation[ edit ]
All orreries are planetariums or planetaria (alternative plural). The term orrery has only existed since 1714. A grand orrery is one that includes the outer planets known at the time of its construction. The word planetarium has been captured, and now usually refers to hemispherical theatres in which images of the night sky are projected onto an overhead surface. Planetariums (orreries) can range widely in size from hand-held to room-sized. An orrery is used to demonstrate the motion of the planets, while a mechanical device used to predict eclipses and transits is called an astrarium .
An orrery should properly include the Sun, the Earth and the Moon (plus optionally other planets). A model that only includes the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is called a tellurion or tellurium, and one which only includes the Earth and the Moon is a lunarium . A jovilabe is a model of Jupiter and its moons. [12]
Planet
122
-6.4 days
A planetarium will show the orbital period of each planet and the rotation rate, as shown in the table above. A tellurion will show the earth with the moon revolving around the sun. It will use the angle of inclination of the equator from the table above to show how it rotates around its own axis. It will show the earth's moon, rotating around the earth. [13] A lunarium is designed to show the complex motions of the moon as it revolves around the earth.
Orreries are usually not built to scale . Some fixed Solar System scale models have been built and are often many kilometres in size. Human orreries, where humans move about as the planets, have also been constructed, but most are temporary. There is a permanent human orrery at Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland , which has the six ancient planets, Ceres , and comets Halley and Encke . Uranus and beyond are also shown, but in a fairly limited way. Another is at Sky's the Limit Observatory and Nature Center in Twentynine Palms, CA. This is a true to scale (20 billion to one), true to position (accurate to within four days) human orrery. The first four planets are relatively close to one another, but the next four require a certain amount of hiking in order to visit them.
A normal mechanical clock could be used to produce an extremely simple orrery with the Sun in the centre, Earth on the minute hand and Jupiter on the hour hand; Earth would make 12 revolutions around the Sun for every 1 revolution of Jupiter. Note however that Jupiter's actual year is 11.86 Earth years long, so this particular example would lose accuracy rapidly. A real orrery would be more accurate and include more planets, and would perhaps make the planets rotate as well.
Projection orreries[ edit ]
Many planetariums (buildings) have a projection orrery , which projects onto the dome of the planetarium a Sun with either dots or small images of the planets. These usually are limited to the planets from Mercury to Saturn , although some include Uranus . The light sources for the planets are projected onto mirrors which are geared to a motor which drives the images on the dome. Typically the Earth will circle the Sun in one minute, while the other planets will complete an orbit in time periods proportional to their actual motion. Thus Venus, which takes 224.7 days to orbit the Sun, will take 37 seconds to complete an orbit on an orrery, and Jupiter will take 11 minutes, 52 seconds.
Some planetariums have taken advantage of this to use orreries to simulate planets and their moons. Thus Mercury orbits the Sun in 0.24 of an Earth year, while Phobos and Deimos orbit Mars in a similar 4:1 time ratio. Planetarium operators wishing to show this have placed a red cap on the Sun (to make it resemble Mars) and turned off all the planets but Mercury and Earth. Similar tricks can be used to show Pluto and its five moons.
An orrery made by Robert Brettell Bate , circa 1812. Now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum .
Shoemaker John Fulton of Fenwick, Ayrshire, built three between 1823 and 1833. The last is in Glasgow's Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum .
The Franeker Planetarium built by a wool carder named Eise Eisinga in his own living room, in the small city of Franeker in Friesland , is in fact an orrery. It was constructed between 1774 and 1781. The "face" of the model looks down from the ceiling of a room, with most of the mechanical works in the space above the ceiling. It is driven by a pendulum clock, which has 9 weights or ponds. The planets move around the model in real time. [14]
An innovative concept is to have people play the role of the moving planets and other Solar System objects. Such a model, called a human orrery, has been laid out with precision at the Armagh Observatory .
The Passau Footpath of the Planets[ edit ]
The project was instigated in 2007 and was known as the “Passauer Planetenpfad” i.e. “Passau Footpath of the Planets” by the Passau secondary schools "Giselagymnasium", "Gymnasium Leopoldinum" primarily led by "Fachoberschule/Berufsoberschule Passau” under the direction of senior teacher Dr. Reinhold Haggenmüller.
A depiction of the Sun at heart of the "Passau Footpath of the Planets".
It starts at the utmost point of the headland of the ancient City of Passau , called "Ort” (which means: place), where all of the three rivers ( Danube , Inn and Ilz ) meet, with a depiction of the sun. On a scale of 1:1 Billion (1:109) it’s diameter is 55,12 inches (140 cm) and the thickness of its satin-finished wall made of bronze is 0.31 inches (8 mm). It’s weight is 661.38 pounds (300 kg) and it was produced by the bell foundry of Perner at Passau, that has been well known for it’s magnificent bells and now has withdrawn it’s service. Next to it some additional plates are showing details of the solar system.
True to scale of the real distances all over the path steles made of granite have been erected, each representing one planet resp. 1 asteroid of our solar system. Every single stele as well as the splendid sculpture of the sun has been sponsored by local companies. The height of the steles amount to 1.09 yard (1m) in front, the side length is 12.99 inches (33 cm) and the tilt angle of the plates is 50°.
On each of them an information panel made from steel is fixed (size app. 12.21 x 15.35 inches, i.e. 31 x 39 cm), sustaining the depiction of one of the following planets resp. the asteroid “Passau” in the adequate scale in half-relief right in the order of their appearance: 1. Mercury, 2. Venus, 3. Earth, 4. Mars, 5. the asteroid called Passau, 6. Jupiter, 7. Saturn, 9. Uranus, 10. Neptun as well as further specifications. To scale the length of the path reaches a total of 5 miles (5914 m) towards south-west/south up the river Inn. The whole construction was finalized in 2011.
The York Solar System Model Orrery[ edit ]
The York Solar System Model Orrery, was constructed over a period of about 6 months at the end of 1999. [15] This scale model of the Solar System is spread out along 6.4 miles of the old East Coast main-line railway. Along it you can find scale models of all the planets in our solar system as well as models of the Cassini and Voyager spacecraft. The Sun is made from 2 fibreglass hemispheres manufactured for a septic tank. A hole was cut into one of the hemisphere and then the two halves were fiber glass together. Next the internal steel work to support the Sun was installed and the sphere sealed before being painted gold. The supporting steel-work was manufactured by Minster Engineering. The foundations were prepared, 10 tons of concrete poured in and finally the finished model was installed.
Meccano Planetaria[ edit ]
The first Meccano Orrery was described in June 1918 Meccano Manual, though it is in the last quarter of the 20th century that Alan Partridge, John Nuttall, Pat Briggs and Michael Whiting have experimented with the limitations and possibilities of this medium. There are six methods of building orreries: [16]
Telescopic concentric tubing, though the tubing is not a Meccano part. For a full 9-planet system, 18 concentric tubes and 19 geared motions are needed
Nested hollow turntables with internal gearing. A 1984 Jovilabe showing Jupiter and the 14 then known moons required 14 turntables and 324 gears; it is accurate to within 0.01%
Fixed central rod, with top drive and sun and planet gearing. In this method, the sun drives the first planet and this then drives the second and so on. The errors are thus cumulative, but non-Meccano gearing can keep this within 0.02%
Fixed central tube, with bottom drive and sun and planet gearing. This removes the need for an overhead gantry, improving the appearance
Two component epicyclic gearing.
Fixed Central Rod, Epicyclic gearing, top drive by 'by-pass gearing' from below.
Salish Sea Walk of the Planets[ edit ]
The Salish Sun - Heart of the Salish Sea Walk of the Planets Orrery. The eye is clearly and intentionally off-center symbolizing the imbalance in the Earth's biosphere and especially in the Salish Sea.The fish are herring, the critical fish needed by the food chain and now dangerously reduced from the billions that used to be there so few years ago.Overall the circular shape is that of the Salish whorl used in Coast Salish Art. The Salish symbols dominate all objects in the sculpture. The "Eye" will align with the rising sun on the summer solstice. Created by First Nations Coast Salish Artist, Chris Paul circa 2015.
The first virtual orrery was created inside Google Maps in 2013 by Cattle Point Foundation [17] volunteers at Cattle Point DARK SKY Urban Star Park. [18] The orrery is called "The Salish Sea Walk of the Planets". [19] It was built on Google Maps as there was a contentious local issue that the vernal pools by the edge of the Salish Sea , where the globally rare Macoun's Meadowfoam and Victoria Owl-Clover [20] exist, might be damaged by creating steles , or cairns and by encouraging walkers to explore the Orrery.
As well as highlighting the plight of the rare plants, the Orrery has served to put the spotlight on the Coast Salish and specifically the local clan, the Lkwungen [21] upon whose traditional land Cattle Point Star Park lies. [22]
The same spotlight also illuminates the unique Salish Sea "stories" from several sciences. Biologists recognize that the marine waters off Cattle Point DARK SKY Star Park are critical habitat for the Orcas of the Salish Sea . The sea is also a good habitat for the Giant Pacific Octopus ; and, in the Southern Salish Sea, the greatly overfished Pacific Herring - resulting in the relatively low abundance of birds; [23] Ornithologists appreciate the Marbled Murrelets , and Rhinoceros Auklets which are of great interest to visiting birdwatchers especially flying by day and night, in and out of the DARK SKY star park; noting that Cattle Point is surrounded by the historic Victoria Harbour Migratory Bird Sanctuary (est. Oct.27, 1923) . This was established to control hunting in 1923, and now harbours amazing urban life; geologists note that the Orrery's SUN sits on top of the Leech River/Devils Mountain fault line ; and archaeologists celebrate the large number of archaeological sites from the SUN to MERCURY (i.e. within the Star park down along the seafront to the mouth of Bowker Creek), all part of an ancient Lkwungen seaport known as Sitchanalth [24] hypothesized to have been destroyed by the great Tsunami of 930AD. [25] The Orrery quickly evolved from being contained within the Star Park, to taking on a size previously unimagined by the volunteers. It is now over 8,500 km (5,300 mi) in size reaching out to communities along the Salish Sea's North West Pacific edge and then up along the West coast of Vancouver Island. As an example, the furthest "planet" PLUTO is located in Bamfield. [26] The most distant "object" in the Solar System is the Oort Cloud and has been positioned (approximately, virtually and symbolically) at the Canadian Embassy in Beijing . [27] This effectively serves to illustrate the enormous distances involved in the solar system. "The Salish Sea Walk of the Planets" name symbolizes the fictional journey of the Coast Salish riding inbound inside a long period Comet from Proxima Centauri to Earth many thousands of years ago.
In popular culture[ edit ]
A large orrery is a key feature in the climactic scene of the film Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001).
An orrery is used to determine when total eclipses occur in Pitch Black .
The orrery is an artificial construct consisting of life-sized planets and a sun in Green Lantern: New Guardians . [28]
The third level of Fireproof Games' popular smartphone game The Room occurs in and around a Talisman Co. Heliocentric Orrery.
An orrery is one of the rooms in Andrew Plotkin 's interactive fiction game The Dreamhold . It contains multiple items vital to completing the game.
An orrery can be seen on board the spaceship Juggernaut in Prometheus .
A complex orrery is used in a pivotal scene of The Dark Crystal .
In Prince of Persia: The Forgotten Sands , the Prince manoeuvers through a gigantic water-powered orrery to get to the other side of one of the palace's towers; it is inaccurately named "the Astrolabe" in-game.
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Which country declared war on Japan - the day before the atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki ? | BBC ON THIS DAY | 9 | 1945: Atom bomb hits Nagasaki
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1945: Atom bomb hits Nagasaki
American forces have dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki - the second such attack on Japan in three days.
The bomb was dropped by parachute from an American B29 Bomber at 1102 local time.
It exploded about 1,625 ft (500m) above the ground and is believed to have completely destroyed the city, which is situated on the western side of the Japanese island of Kyushu.
Ignorant of the contamination risks they were taking, they were bussed to Nagasaki for transfer to Okinawa
In a statement issued from Guam, General Carl A Spaatz, Commander of the US Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, said: "The second use of the atomic bomb occurred at noon, August 9, at Nagasaki.
"Crew members report good results. No further details will be available until the mission returns."
Important port
American airmen flying many miles from Nagasaki have said smoke from fires in the city was rising 50,000ft (15,240m).
Nagasaki is one of Japan's most important ports providing vital access to and from Shanghai.
Three days ago a similar device was dropped on the city of Hiroshima on Japan's largest island, Honshu.
The extent of the damage caused to Hiroshima is not yet known but Japanese broadcasts indicate that "enormous devastation" has been done.
No reaction to the Nagasaki attack has yet been given by Japan but pressure is growing on the country to surrender. Yesterday the USSR joined forces with the allies and declared war on Japan.
The Americans have also warned the Japanese people that further attacks of a similar nature will be made unless they petition their emperor to surrender.
More than three million leaflets were dropped over the country today from American aeroplanes warning the Japanese people that more atomic weapons would be used "again and again" to destroy the country unless they ended the war forthwith.
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In the coalition government who is the Business Secretary ? | Nagasaki
Nagasaki
▼ Primary Sources ▼
Nagasaki
In 1942 the Manhattan Engineer Project was set up in the United States under the command of Brigadier General Leslie Groves . Scientists recruited to produce an atom bomb included Robert Oppenheimer (USA), David Bohm (USA), Leo Szilard (Hungary), Eugene Wigner (Hungary), Rudolf Peierls (Germany), Otto Frisch (Germany), Niels Bohr (Denmark), Felix Bloch (Switzerland), James Franck (Germany), James Chadwick (Britain), Emilio Segre (Italy), Enrico Fermi (Italy), Klaus Fuchs (Germany) and Edward Teller (Hungary).
Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt were deeply concerned about the possibility that Germany would produce the atom bomb before the allies. At a conference held in Quebec in August, 1943, it was decided to try and disrupt the German nuclear programme. In February 1943, SOE saboteurs successfully planted a bomb in the Rjukan nitrates factory in Norway . As soon as it was rebuilt it was destroyed by 150 US bombers in November, 1943. Two months later the Norwegian resistance managed to sink a German boat carrying vital supplies for its nuclear programme.
Meanwhile the scientists working on the Manhattan Project were developing atom bombs using uranium and plutonium. The first three completed bombs were successfully tested at Alamogordo , New Mexico on 16th July, 1945. James Chadwick later described what he saw during the test: "An intense pinpoint of light which grew rapidly to a great ball. Looking sideways, I could see that the hills and desert around us were bathed in radiance, as if the sun had been turned on by a switch. The light began to diminish but, peeping round my dark glass, the ball of fire was still blindingly bright ... The ball had then turned through orange to red and was surrounded by a purple luminosity. It was connected to the ground by a short grey stem, resembling a mushroom."
By the time the atom bomb was ready to be used Germany had surrendered. James Franck and Leo Szilard drafted a petition signed by just under 70 scientists opposed to the use of the bomb on moral grounds. Franck pointed out in his letter to Truman: "The military advantages and the saving of American lives achieved by the sudden use of atomic bombs against Japan may be outweighed by the ensuing loss of confidence and by a wave of horror and repulsion sweeping over the rest of the world and perhaps even dividing public opinion at home. From this point of view, a demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the yes of representatives of all the United Nations, on the desert or a barren island. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America could say to the world, "You see what sort of a weapon we had but did not use. We are ready to renounce its use in the future if other nations join us-in this renunciation and agree to the establishment of an efficient international control."
However, the advice of the scientists was ignored by Harry S. Truman, the USA's new president, and he decided to use the bomb on Japan . General Dwight Eisenhower agreed with the scientists: "I voiced to him my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan was already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking world opinion by the use of a weapon whose employment was, I thought, no longer mandatory as a measure to save American lives. It was my belief that Japan was, at that very moment, seeking some way to surrender with a minimum loss of face."
At Yalta , the Allies had attempted to persuade Joseph Stalin to join in the war with Japan. By the time the Potsdam meeting took place, they were having doubts about this strategy. Winston Churchill in particular, were afraid that Soviet involvement would lead to an increase in their influence over countries in the Far East. On 17th July 1945 Stalin announced that he intended to enter the war against Japan.
President Truman now insisted that the bomb should be used before the Red Army joined the war against Japan. Leslie Groves , the head of the Manhattan Project, wanted the target to be Kyoto because as it had been untouched during previous attacks, the dropping of the atom bomb on it would show the destructive power of the new weapon. However, the Secretary of War, Henry Stimson , argued strongly against this as Kyoto was Japan's ancient capital, a city of immense religious, historical and cultural significance. General Henry Arnold supported Stimson and Truman eventually backed down on this issue.
President Truman wrote in his journal on 25th July, 1945: "This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Secretary of War, Mr Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we, as leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop this terrible bomb on the old capital or the new. He & I are in accord. The target will be a purely military."
Truman's military advisers accepted that Kyoto would not be targeted but insisted that another built-up area should be chosen instead: "While the bombs should not concentrate on civilian areas, they should seek to make a profound a psychological impression as possible. The most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers' houses."
Winston Churchill insisted that two British representives should witness the dropping of the atom bomb. Squadron Leader Leonard Cheshire and William Penny , a scientist working on the Manhattan Project , were chosen for this task. Churchill ordered them to learn "about the taqctical aspects of using such a weapon, reach a conclusion about its future implications for air warfare and report back to the Prime Minister."
General Thomas Farrell , Commander of the Manhattan Project, explained to Cheshire and Penny that they had produced two types of bomb. Fat Man relied upon implosion: a 12 lb sphere of plutonium would be abruptly squeezed to super-critically by the detonation of an envelope of explosive. Little Boy functioned by a gun mechanism which fired two subcritical masses of uranium 235 together.
President Harry S. Truman eventually decided that the bomb should be dropped on Hiroshima. It was the largest city in the Japanese homeland (except Kyoto ) which remained undamaged, and a place of military industry. However, Truman, after listening from advice of General Curtis LeMay , refused permission for Leonard Cheshire and William Penny to witness the event. Leslie Groves , according to Cheshire, "said firmly that there was no room for either of us; in any case he couldn't see why we needed to be there, for we would receive a full written report and could ask to see any documentation we wanted."
On 6th August 1945, a B29 bomber piloted by Paul Tibbets , dropped an atom bomb on Hiroshima. Michihiko Hachiya was living in the city at the time: "Hundreds of people who were trying to escape to the hills passed our house. The sight of them was almost unbearable. Their faces and hands were burnt and swollen; and great sheets of skin had peeled away from their tissues to hang down like rags or a scarecrow. They moved like a line of ants. All through the night, they went past our house, but this morning they stopped. I found them lying so thick on both sides of the road that it was impossible to pass without stepping on them."
Later that day President Harry S. Truman made a speech where he argued: "The harnessing of the basic power of the universe. The force from which the sun draws its power has been used against those who brought war to the Far East. We have spent $2,000,000,000 (about $500,000,000) on the greatest gamble in history, and we have won. With this bomb we have now added a new and revolutionary increase in destruction to supplement the growing power of our armed forces. In their present form these bombs are now in production and even more powerful forms are in development."
Truman then issued a warning to the Japanese government: "We are now prepared to obliterate more rapidly and completely every productive enterprise the Japanese have above ground in any city. We shall destroy their docks, their factories and their communications. Let there be no mistake, we shall completely destroy Japan's power to make war. It was to spare the Japanese people from utter destruction that the ultimatum of July 26 was issued from Potsdam. Their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum. If they do not now accept our terms they may expect a rain of run from the air the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with a fighting skill of which they have already become well aware."
Fat Man
Hideki Tojo , Japan's Foreign Minister, told Emperor Hirohito on 8th August, 1945, that Hiroshima had been obliterated by an atom bomb and advised surrender. Others raised doubts about whether the United States had more than one of these bombs. The Supreme Council decided to convene a meeting on the morning of 9th August. As they had not immediately surrendered President Truman ordered that a second atom bomb should be dropped on Japan.
Major Charles Sweeney was selected to lead the mission and Nagasaki was chosen as the target. This time it was agreed that Leonard Cheshire and William Penny , could travel on the aircraft that was to take photographs of the attack on 9th August. When they reached Nagasaki they found the city covered in cloud and Kermit Beahan , the bombardier, was at first unable to find the target. Eventually, the cloud parted and Beahan dropped the bomb a mile and a half from the intended aiming point.
William Laurence was a journalist who was invited by Leslie Groves to be on Sweeney's aircraft: "We watched a giant pillar of purple fire, 10,000 feet high, shoot up like a meteor coming from the earth instead of outer space. It was no longer smoke, or dust, or even a cloud of fire. It was a living thing, a new species of being, born before our incredulous eyes. Even as we watched, a ground mushroom came shooting out of the top to 45,000 feet, a mushroom top that was even more alive than the pillar, seething and boiling in a white fury of creamy foam, a thousand geysers rolled into one. It kept struggling in elemental fury, like a creature in the act of breaking the bonds that held it down. When we last saw it, it had changed into a flower-like form, its giant petals curving downwards, creamy-white outside, rose-coloured inside. The boiling pillar had become a giant mountain of jumbled rainbows. Much living substance had gone into those rainbows."
Leonard Cheshire later recalled in his book, The Light of Many Suns (1985): "The ultra-dark glasses we each had round our foreheads to protect our eyes from the blinding light of the bomb were not needed because we were about fifty miles away. By the time I saw it, the flash had turned into a vast fire-ball which slowly became dense smoke, 2,000 feet above the ground, half a mile in diameter and rocketing upwards at the rate of something like 20,000 feet a minute. I was overcome, not by its size, nor by its speed of ascent but by what appeared to me its perfect and faultless symmetry. In this it was unique, above every explosion that I had ever heard of or seen, the more frightening because it gave the impression of having its immense power under full and deadly control.... The cloud lifted itself to 60,000 feet where it remained stationary, a good two miles in diameter, sulphurous and boiling. Beneath it, stretching right down to the ground was a revolving column of yellow smoke, fanning out at the bottom to a dark pyramid, wider at its base than was the cloud at its climax. The darkness of the pyramid was due to dirt and dust which one could see being sucked up by the heat. All around it, extending perhaps another mile, were springing up a mass of separate fires. I wondered what could have caused them all."
Fumiko Miura was a 16 year-old girl working in Nagasaki at the time: "I was doing some clerical work for the Japanese imperial army. At about 11 o'clock, I thought I heard the throbs of a B-29 circling over the two-storey army headquarters building. I wondered why an American bomber was flying around above us when we had been given the all-clear.... At that moment, a horrible flash, thousands of times as powerful as lightning, hit me. I felt that it almost rooted out my eyes. Thinking that a huge bomb had exploded above our building, I jumped up from my seat and was hit by a tremendous wind, which smashed down windows, doors, ceilings and walls, and shook the whole building. I remember trying to run for the stairs before being knocked to the floor and losing consciousness. It was a hot blast, carrying splinters of glass and concrete debris. But it did not have that burning heat of the hypocentre, where everyone and everything was melted in an instant by the heat flash. I learned later that the heat decreased with distance. I was 2,800m away from the hypocentre."
After a long debate Emperor Hirohito intervened and said he could no longer bear to see his people suffer in this way. On 15th August the people of Japan heard the Emperor's voice for the first time when he announced the unconditional surrender and the end of the war. Naruhiko Higashikuni was appointed as head of the surrender government.
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What is a cloud of gas and dust called in space ? | What do you call a cloud in space that is composed of dust and gas? | Reference.com
What do you call a cloud in space that is composed of dust and gas?
A:
Quick Answer
A cloud in space that is composed of dust and gas is call a nebula. The word "nebula" is derived from the Latin word for "cloud," and nebulae in space are indeed large interstellar clouds made up of dust, hydrogen, helium and plasma.
The study of nebulae is of particular interest to astronomers because they indicate much about stellar and planetary formations. There are four types of nebula, characterized by different gaseous and particulate composition. They are:
Planetary nebula
Some of the largest known and identified nebulae in the Milky Way are:
Crab Nebula
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"Which work by Elgar is dedicated to ""My Friends Pictured Within"" ?" | The Outer Planets: A Star is Born
A Star is Born
Summary: Stars form in cold, dense regions of space called molecular clouds. When the force of gravity pulling in on the cloud is greater than the strength of internal pressure pushing out, the cloud collapses into a protostar.
Sections:
WHERE DO STARS FORM?
Stars form in the densest regions of the interstellar medium, or ISM, called molecular clouds. The ISM is the name given to the gas and dust that exists between the stars within a galaxy. It is 99% gas and 1% dust, by mass.
Properties of ISM gas in our region of the Milky Way Galaxy:
70% hydrogen
2% elements heavier than helium
The Orion Nebula
(click for more images)
Molecular clouds are perfect star-forming regions because the combination of these atoms into molecules is much more likely in very dense regions.
This photograph shows the Orion Nebula, an interstellar cloud in which star systems - and possibly planets - are forming. Our own solar system presumably formed as gravity caused the collapse of a similar large cloud of gas. The piece of cloud that formed our Solar System is known as the solar nebula.
Click the photo to the left to see more images of the Orion Nebula.
WHY DO STARS FORM?
A star forms when a molecular cloud collapses under its own gravity forming a dense core sustained by nuclear fusion. This happens only when the force of gravity pulling in exceeds the outward push of pressure. High-density molecular clouds have stronger forces of gravity pushing in, making it easier to overcome the total pressure within the cloud. SHOW ME
THE MATH
Once started, the collapse of the solar nebula continues because the force of gravity exerted on the cloud grows stronger as the cloud shrinks in size. The universal law of gravitation is written mathematically:
Fg is the force of gravitational attraction, M1 and M2 are the masses of the two objects, and d is the distance between their centers. The symbol G is known as the gravitational constant. Its value is G = 6.67 · 10-11kg·m2/s2.
Before its collapse began, the gas that made up the solar nebula was probably spread out over a roughly spherical region a few light-years in diameter. This gas was extremely low in density and extremely cold.
Possible causes for the start of a collapse:
Shock wave from a nearby exploding star
Collision of 2 molecular clouds
The Crab Nebula
(click to enlarge)
This is a picture of the Crab Nebula taken with the Hubble Space Telescope. The Crab Nebula was created when a star exploded. Our Solar System is thought to have formed from particles expelled from a supernova explosion over 4 billion years ago.
As the solar nebula shrinks in size, its density, temperature and shape all undergo dramatic changes.
HEATING: The temperature of the solar nebula increases as it collapses. As the cloud shrinks, its gravitational potential energy is converted to the kinetic energy of individual gas particles falling inward. These particles crash into one another, converting their kinetic energy into thermal energy.
SPINNING: Like an ice skater pulling in her arms as she spins, the solar nebula rotates faster and faster as it shrinks in radius. This increase in rotation rate represents conservation of angular momentum. The rotation of the cloud may have been imperceptibly slow before its collapse began, but the cloud's shrinkage makes fast rotation inevitable.
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What is the name of Victoria and David Beckham's daughter ? | David Beckham reveals novel idea behind Harper Seven's name | Life and style | The Guardian
Harper Seven Beckham
David Beckham reveals novel idea behind Harper Seven's name
Victoria and David Beckham use Facebook and Twitter to share pictures of daughter Harper Seven and explain name
David Beckham holding his daughter Harper Seven Beckham which was posted on Victoria Beckham's Twitter page. Photograph: Victoria Beckham/Twitter/PA
Harper Seven Beckham
David Beckham reveals novel idea behind Harper Seven's name
Victoria and David Beckham use Facebook and Twitter to share pictures of daughter Harper Seven and explain name
Press Association
Sunday 17 July 2011 13.57 EDT
First published on Sunday 17 July 2011 13.57 EDT
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This article is 5 years old
Cradled in the arms of her parents, Harper Seven Beckham looks blissfully unaware she is already one of the most famous babies in the world as the first photos of her are released to the public.
Both Victoria and David Beckham have posted pictures of the newborn on social networking sites.
Victoria used her Twitter account to share a photo of her husband and the baby with her 1.5 million followers.
In the black-and-white picture, David is touching noses with Harper, who is wrapped in a blanket and wearing a pale hat with her eyes shut.
The fashion designer has added the caption: "Daddy's little girl!"
On Facebook , David posted a black-and-white photo of Victoria asleep with the baby dozing on her chest with the caption: "I took this picture of my two girls sleeping."
During a game against Real Madrid on Saturday, the LA Galaxy footballer sported a pair of football boots with the names of all four of his children stitched on in pink.
On Friday he posted a video on his Facebook page explaining the reasons for naming the little girl, who was born on 10 July, Harper Seven.
He ended days of speculation by confirming the baby was named after To Kill A Mockingbird author Harper Lee , saying: "Victoria's favourite book is To Kill A Mockingbird, it's a very strong, passionate book and the author was Harper Lee, and that is where Harper came from."
He added that while most people had assumed the name Seven was a reference to his shirt number at Manchester United, he said that was only part of the reason.
"The main reason behind Seven was it symbolises spiritual perfection – the seven wonders of the world, the seven colours of the rainbow – and in many cultures it is a lucky number.
"We love the name and we love Harper Seven. We are very happy to have her in our lives and in our family, and it is an amazing time for our family right now."
| harper seven |
In what decade were Zebra crossings introduced into law in the UK ? | David Beckham reveals meaning behind baby Harper Seven's name | Daily Mail Online
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After a week of speculation, David Beckham has finally revealed the reasons behind his newborn daughter Harper Seven's unusual name.
Despite a long-held rumour that his wife Victoria has never read a book, the footballer said they had named their daughter after Harper Lee - the author of Posh's favourite book To Kill A Mockingbird.
In a series of videos posted on his official Facebook page, the LA Galaxy player speaks about his joy as becoming a father for the fourth time.
What's in a name: David Beckham explains the reasons he and wife Victoria chose Harper Seven's names in a Facebook video
Inspiration: Victoria's favourite book To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee
Dismissing speculation they named Harper Seven off a character from Disney TV show Wizards Of Waverly Place or Harper's Bazaar magazine, David said the name had a literary meaning for them.
He said: 'A lot of thought goes into our children's names and Harper was a name that we've loved for a long time for a couple of reasons.
'One reason is Harper's an old English name which we loved and one of the other reasons was Victoria's favourite book is To Kill A Mockingbird and the author was Harper Lee. It's a very strong, passionate book. That's where Harper came from.'
The revelation that is is Victoria's favourite book may surprise some fans, because it was widely thought she had never read a book.
However in an interview six years ago, she insisted she did read books, but didn't usually get a chance to finish them due to her busy schedule.
The footballer went on to admit her former shirt number 7 while he played for Manchester United and England had also played a strong part in them choosing Seven as a middle name.
'Having a daughter is a whole new thing': Beckham admitted he was getting used to the pink and lilac in the house
He explained: 'And then Seven you know, a lot of people have assumed its just because of my shirt number that I wore for many years and part of it is because I had so much luck around wearing that number, wearing it for England, wearing it for Manchester United.
'It was such an influential number throughout my career and a lucky number... but that wasn't the main reason.
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'The other reasons behind Seven was because it symbolises spiritual perfection, the Seven Wonders Of The World, seven colours of the rainbow and in many cultures around the world it's regarded as a lucky number.
Man on the run: David was seen at training with LA Galaxy yesterday afternoon
Joining in: The couple's sons Brooklyn and Romeo appeared to be enjoying themselves on the pitch
'So we love the name, we love Harper Seven. We're very proud of having her in our lives and in our family and it's an amazing time for our family right now.
In a second video, the father-of-four admitted he was adjusting to life with a girl in the house after so long with just the couple's three sons Brooklyn, 12, Romeo, eight, and Cruz, six.
He said: 'To have another girl in the family is really incredible. We've got three beautiful healthy boys already and we're so lucky to have that and now to have a beautiful little girl.
Day out: The pair's youngest son Cruz also accompanied the footballer at training
Monkeying around: While Romeo and Brooklyn played football, Cruz seemed more interested in standing on his head
'Having a daughter is a whole new thing. Having pink in the house, having lilac in the house... and you have to be a lot more delicate with girls than boys and I'm not used to that so it's a whole new experience.
It's an amazing experience to have that little bundle of joy in your hands, making her little noises and opening their eyes, it really is an incredible moment for us.'
Blessed: Victoria Beckham shared her joy about becoming a mother to her daughter Harper Seven on her Twitter page
Beckham's online video comes a day after his wife spoke of her joy as becoming a mother to little Harper.
The ex-Spice Girl delivered the 7lbs, 10oz baby at 7:55am on Sunday morning via caesarean section.
She Tweeted: 'Baby Harper is the most beautiful baby girl I have ever seen, I have fallen in love all over again!!!
Expanding their family: Victoria and husband David, pictured at the Royal Wedding in April, now have four children
'We all feel so blessed and the boys love their baby sister so much!!! X VB.'
Harper's birth was announced by her proud husband David on his Facebook page hours after the baby's arrival.
He wrote: 'I am so proud and excited to announce the birth of our daughter Harper Seven Beckham. She weighed a healthy 7lbs 10oz and arrived at 7.55 this morning, here in LA. Victoria is doing really well and her brothers are delighted to have a baby sister.'
Lucky number: David wearing a number 7 Manchester United shirt in 1999 (left) and a 7 England shirt last year
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Which character in a novel by Charles Dickens lived at Satis House ? | The symbol of Satis House in Great Expectations from LitCharts | The creators of SparkNotes
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Satis House is a symbol of frustrated expectations. The word "satis" comes from the Latin word for "enough," and the house must have been given its name as a blessing or as a premonition that its residents would be satisfied with the lives they led between its walls. Yet throughout the novel, Satis House houses nothing but dashed dreams and bitter disappointments. Miss Havisham turns the house into a shrine to her betrayal by Compeyson for twenty years. Likewise, Pip's most tenderly cherished expectation—that he will marry Estella—is formed and destroyed at Satis House. The disappointments Satis House contains can only be repaired at the expense of the house itself. Thus, Miss Havisham rediscovers her heart just as her wedding chambers are destroyed by fire. Thus, Pip and Estella look towards a happier relationship only after the house is razed.
Satis House Quotes in Great Expectations
The Great Expectations quotes below all refer to the symbol of Satis House. For each quote, you can also see the other characters and themes related to it (each theme is indicated by its own dot and icon, like this one:
). Note: all page and citation info for the quotes below refers to the Dover Publications edition of Great Expectations published in 2001.
Book 1, Chapter 15 Quotes
Miss Havisham and Estella and the strange house and the strange life appeared to have something to do with everything that was picturesque.
Related Characters: Pip Pirrip (speaker), Estella Havisham, Miss Havisham
Related Symbols: Satis House
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Satis House Symbol Timeline in Great Expectations
The timeline below shows where the symbol Satis House appears in Great Expectations. The colored dots and icons indicate which themes are associated with that appearance.
Book 3, Chapter 43
...of shopping for more gentlemanly goods). Told at Richmond that Estella has gone back to Satis House , Pip feels disconcerted—he has always chaperoned her trip in the past. (full context)
Pip travels back to the village to visit Satis House and is surprised to run into Bentley Drummle at the Blue Boar. The two have... (full context)
Book 3, Chapter 44
Pip goes to Satis House and explains to Miss Havisham and Estella that he has met his patron but doesn't... (full context)
Book 3, Chapter 49
Pip asks about Estella's past. Miss Havisham tells him Mr. Jaggers brought Estella to Satis House after Miss Havisham asked him to find her an orphan girl. She does not know... (full context)
Book 3, Chapter 59
Still, Pip secretly wishes to revisit the site of Satis House for Estella's sake. He has heard that she has been abused by and separated from... (full context)
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Ross, Margaret. "Great Expectations Symbols: Satis House." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 16 Sep 2013. Web. 19 Jan 2017.
Ross, Margaret. "Great Expectations Symbols: Satis House." LitCharts. LitCharts LLC, 16 Sep 2013. Web. 19 Jan 2017.
Ross, Margaret. "Great Expectations Symbols: Satis House." LitCharts LLC, September 16, 2013. Retrieved January 19, 2017. http://example.org/lit/great-expectations/symbols/satis-house.
Ross, Margaret. "Great Expectations Symbols: Satis House." LitCharts LLC, September 16, 2013. Retrieved January 19, 2017. http://example.org/lit/great-expectations/symbols/satis-house.
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| Miss Havisham |
Which Conservative MP resigned as Government Chief Whip after the 'Plebgate' scandal ? | Example Essays: Great Expectations Charles Dickens Estella Havisham
1. Great Expectations character analysis on estella
In the novel "Great ExpectationsaE by Charles Dickens Estella is an important character in both the literal and figurative development of the story.In the story Estella is a very unforgettable character because of her enchanting beauty, cold hearted personality, and superior behavior. ... When Pip is invited by Miss Havisham to come play with Estella he becomes very fascinated by the elegance and fortune they have. ... Pip assumes that the benefactor is Miss Havisham who wants make him a worthy husband for Estella.Estella"s character is used by the author Charles Dickens to represent e...
Word Count: 1211
2. Forms of characterization in
Characterization in "Great ExpectationsaEIn the book Great Expectations, Charles Dickens uses many forms of characterization to reveal his characters. ... Charles Dickens uses direct, and indirect characterization. ... Charles Dickens shows proof of Estella"s beauty through Pip. ... Havisham asks Pip what he thinks of Estella ,he says "I think she is very pretty.aE (pg. 692).Pip is surprised to see that Estella can be so beautiful ,and still be so cruel. ... Havisham"s creation. ...
Word Count: 374
3. great expectations
Great Expectations essayWritten in 1860, Great Expectations by Charles Dickens is a fascinating book and can be considered to be one of Dickens"s greatest works. Dickens is known for his great writing style which incorporates lots of detail and frameworks of different reoccurring themes. Many themes can be noticed in the book Great Expectations however, one that stands out the most is the theme of love. It can be said that Great Expectations is a treatise on love which one recognizes through the different characters in the book. ... Dickens uses Estella"s character to represent apathy and love...
Word Count: 1145
4. Character Analysis of Estella from Great Expectations
Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens, is a book filled with ups and downs, twists and turns and is all linked together by the main character, Pip. ... In Great Expectations, Charles Dickens shows his amazing ability to create and develop compelling characters in his beautifully written novels. ... For Pip accepting his Great Expectations, if Estella had not been in the book, he would be more reluctant to accept his Great Expectations. ... In Pip"s being chosen for his Great Expectations, Estella played a large role. ... Great Expectations by Charles Dickens shows Dickens" true writing abilit...
Word Count: 1216
5. Great Expectations
In Charles Dickens' Great Expectations, the reader is taken through the journey of a little boy as he pursuits his dream and great expectations beyond his common self. ... These great expectations of Pip lead him into believing that he is better than Joe and Biddy. ... Pip is troubled by his own shortcomings, but is so caught up in his great expectations and love for Estella that he does not know how to handle his own downfall.Pip continually believes that Miss Havisham is his benefactor and expects he will soon marry Estella. ... Pip lays aside his expectations of greatness and prote...
Word Count: 2287
6. Charles Dickens and Great Expectations
Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, England on February 7th, 1812. ... Finally in 1859 Dickens wrote Great Expectations, a novel that reflected the society of England through the eyes of a young man, which represented him as a child.The book begins with the main character, Pip, standing in the graveyard of his parents. ... Miss Havisham had her heart broken by a man earlier in her life so she began teaching a girl who lives with her, Estella, to break men"s hearts to get revenge. ... He later returns to the Satis House to see Estella and finds Miss Havisham about to commit suicide. ......
Word Count: 778
7. Great Expectations - Ending Comparrison
Charles Dickens" Great Expectations is the tale of Philip Pirrip and his longing to become a gentleman and not the commoner he is born as. ... His great expectation is to one day become a gentleman and marry Estella, hopefully under the support of Miss Havisham. ... It also happened to be quite ironic, because Estella, before living with Miss Havisham, is the daughter of Magwitch, who is a criminal and of a lower social class then Pip anyway. ... Pip goes on to work at his brother-in-law"s smithy; with his great expectations now just a memory. ... The original ending of Great Expectations i...
Word Count: 1222
8. Great Expectations
Charles Dickens has left the revised ending of Great Expectations open to interpretation by the individual reader. ... We now empathise with him and as a response will not be satisfied for him to be punished for his mistakes.The revised ending of Great Expectations is Pips "Cinderella" story. ... This book is not a love story about Pip and Estella, but since it was Pips infatuation with Estella that lead him to his great expectations, their story needs to have an element of romance. Therefore Great Expectations should end like all fairytales and good romances, the hero gets his girl and they ...
Word Count: 2210
9. Great Expectations
Great Expectations by Charles Dickens outlines and follows the life of the young boy Pip who grows up to live the life he has always dreamed of. ... When Dickens was twelve years old things had eventually proved too much for the Dickens family to manage as Charles" father, John Dickens was imprisoned for debt at Marshlsea Prison. This altered Charles" life dramatically as the rest of his family was imprisoned with his father whilst Charles was forced to work at Warren"s Blacking Factory to pay off his fathers debts. ... She plays with the feelings of both Pip and Estella as she encourages Este...
Word Count: 4209
10. Great Expectations
Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens, tells of a young child, Pip, and his revelation from childhood to adulthood. ... His sister is strict and has great respect in their small town. ... On top of leading him on to be his benefactor Miss Havisham, old selfish women, later admits that she is the reason that he fell in love with Estella. ... aE He also he forgives himself for Miss Havisham and Estella. It is his fault for falling for Estella and trusting Miss Havisham, but looking from a different of view these two important characters helps him in his maturation.All the characters ...
Word Count: 585
11. Great Expectations
In the novel, Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens the principal character, Pip, undergoes a tremendous change in character. ... Pip"s transition into snobbery is, I believe, a steady one from the moment that he first meets Miss Havisham and Estella. ... It is here that he forms his "Great ExpectationsaE. ... If Pip never met Miss Havisham and Estella, and Magwitch still became his benefactor, I believe that he might not have been quite so consumed by snobbery. ... Yet without a doubt the major incidents that lead to the formation of the "gentlemanaE that Pip becomes took place...
Word Count: 681
12. Great Expectations and Dickens
When you think of Charles Dickens you immediately think of A Christmas Carol. ... Charles Dickens was born in 1812, in Portsmouth, England. ... His more popular works included Great Expectations, A Tale of Two Cities and A Christmas Carol.Charles Dickens was mostly happy but his marriage was basically a waste. He wrote Great Expectations while he was getting a divorce. ... Shaw said, "Its beginning is unhappy, its middle is unhappy, and the happy ending ruins it.aECharles Dickens has a lot of critics. ...
Word Count: 2825
13. Great Expectations/Oliver Twi
Great Expectations and Oliver Twist: A Comparison and ContrastTwo of Charles Dickens" masterpieces, Great Expectations and Oliver Twist, are representatives of the many kinds of differences and similarities found within his volume of works. ... Meanwhile, in Great Expectations, Miss Havisham's house is often made to sound depressing, old, and lonesome. ... Instead of telling how he played cards all day while being ridiculed and criticized by Estella and Miss Havisham, he claimed that they played with flags and swords all day after having wine and cake on gold plates (Dickens, Expectations...
Word Count: 1452
14. Redemption in Dickens' Great Expectations
Charles Dickens', "Great Expectations," is a tale of forgiveness. ... The titular great expectations are laid upon Pip by Magwitch, a former convict who was so struck by Pip's kindness towards him at a young age that he spends years attempting to scrape together enough money to finance Pip's education and gentrification. ... Havisham was financing him and implicitly stating her desire for Pip and Estella (Mrs. Havisham's adoptive daughter and the Pip's beloved) to be wed. ... Havisham was the benefactor. ...
Word Count: 798
15. Great Expectations
Research Paper: Great ExpectationsIn the novel Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens, he uses Pip as his narrator to describe his ideals, opinions, and thoughts. ... In the case of Pip, he was kind until he met Estella, Miss Havisham, and the Satis House. ... Frank Magil says that because of his great expectations of Miss Havisham being his unknown benefactor, Pip regards himself to be better than Joe and Biddy, and makes a pompous fool of himself. ... Dickens suggests that pride leads to isolation, as in the case of Estella and Miss Havisham. ... But Estella, too, scars Miss Havisham and...
Word Count: 1520
16. Great Expectations Themes
In Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, imagery is used to link themes such as, love, death, guilt, revenge and class together. Using imagery Charles Dickens is able to describe in detail the events and settings in the novel. ... In Great Expectations imagery can also be used to describe buildings as seen with the description of the Satis House. He uses the description not only to describe the house but to link the house with the characters, Miss Havisham and Estella. ... Maybe because I was looking for it, I feel that I have never read a book with as many imageries as Great Expectations. ...
Word Count: 823
17. Great Expectations
In Charles Dickens' novel, Great Expectations, there are several differences between the illusion and the truth. ... Throughout the book, Charles Dickens emphasizes the difference between appearance and reality through Pip's expectations of something better, social status, and settings in the book.The most important illusion Great Expectations is Pip's confident expectations of a better life. ... Havisham, Estella's adoptive mother, was the benefactress. ... Havisham was his benefactress, Pip anticipated that Estella was meant for him. ... "Miss Havisham's intentions t...
Word Count: 1658
18. Overview of Great Expectations
SynopsisGreat Expectations by Charles Dickens is the classic story of "rags to richesaE seen from the eyes of a young boy, Pip. ... He lives in his imagination assuming that it is Miss Havisham, preparing him to marry Estella the girl of Pip"s dreams. He has great expectations of himself as he tries to improve himself morally and socially.Joe-Pip"s brother-in-law and village blacksmith. ... Estella-raised by Miss Havisham after being orphaned as a young child. ... Time and SettingGreat Expectation is set in early Victorian England, a time a great social change. ...
Word Count: 680
19. Great Expectations
Characteristics of characters in the novel Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Pip:In the beginning, and almost throughout the novel the Pip is guilty conscious and ashamed. ... Havisham. She is one of the many characters from the novel Great Expectations by Charles Dickens. ... Havisham has trained Estella to treat men as horribly as she does. ... Estella is a very interesting character of Great Expectation. ...
Word Count: 1605
20. gret expectations
In Charles Dickens' novel, Great Expectations, there are several differences between the illusion and the truth. ... Throughout the book, Charles Dickens emphasizes the difference between appearance and reality through Pip's expectations of something better, social status, and settings in the book. The most important illusion Great Expectations is Pip's confident expectations of a better life. ... Havisham, Estella's adoptive mother, was the benefactress. ... Havisham was his benefactress, Pip anticipated that Estella was meant for him. ...
Word Count: 1660
21. Great ExpectationsTypes of love in
Great Expectations is a story in which the characters all have their own views on love and all use the emotion of love in their own ways. ... This is exactly what Miss Havisham, as well as Estella, wanted. ... Great Expectations offered many different types and views on love. ... Charles Dickens presented the reader with a book that did not just revolve around one certain form of love; it focused on the countless viewpoints of love from the various types of characters within. ... Great Expectations is a true book for those who find interest in the variety of opinions around....
Word Count: 997
22. Great Expectations- To be or not to be
In Great Expectations, written by Charles Dickens, this relates to the main character Pip. ... Havisham"s was negative, causing Pip hard times.Joe Gargery, who was married to Pip"s sister, had a great effect on Pip"s childhood, and also as he grew up. ... Havisham teaches her adopted daughter, Estella, that all men are rude and deceitful. She then uses Estella"s beauty to get back at all men. ... The convict had definitely changed Pip by being his benefactor and donor of all of his fortunes, and also being a great friend and "second father.aE In the novel, Great Expectations, a big lesso...
Word Count: 1218
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"The death of which world leader in April 1945 prompted Goebbels to exclaim: ""Bring out our best champagne!"" ?" | Astrology of Winston Churchill with horoscope chart, quotes, biography, and images
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill�British Statesman, Prime Minister 1940-1945, 1951-1955
Orator, Author, Historian, Artist: November 30, 1874, Blenheim Palace, England, 1:30 AM, LMT. (Source: entry in father�s diary, and a letter written by his father. Rectified to 1:19 AM by T. Pat Davis). Died, January 25, 1965, London, England.
(Ascendant, Virgo {some suggest Libra}; Midheaven, Gemini; Sun Sagittarius with Venus also in Sagittarius; Moon and Uranus in Leo; Mercury in Scorpio; Mars conjunct Jupiter in Libra; Saturn in Aquarius; Neptune in Aries; Pluto in Taurus)
Winston Churchill was undoubtedly one of the greatest statesmen of the twentieth century. So many and varied were his notable achievements, that few can equal the scope, depth and variety of his impact upon the progress and welfare of the human race. He was a man of extraordinary vitality and resilience, imagination, intelligence and daring�a truly great patriot, leader and defender of the values of Western civilization, one of humanity�s most inspiring orators, an author and historian of the first rank, a talented amateur painter, and a writer with a masterful command of the English language. Although the positive aspects of his character overshadowed by far his liabilities, these too, were significant and surprising�excessive and ill-considered zeal, stubbornness, arrogance, inconsistency and a kind of perpetual adolescence exacerbated by an immoderate use of alcohol.
Humanity owes an inestimable debt of gratitude to Winston Churchill. Without exaggeration it can be said that the heroic valor of his spirit was a decisive force in preventing the enslavement of humanity by the horrific tyranny loosed upon the world by the Nazi regime. Churchill (and the soul of Britain he inspired in those dark days in the early 1940�s) held out, virtually alone, against the murderous onslaught of the world�s mightiest military machine (the German Army) directed by malicious and hateful individuals who were obsessed by a vision of world conquest and domination. The odds were overwhelmingly against Britain�s survival. Once the Luftwaffe unleashed its full fury against the English cities and military bases, it was conservatively estimated that the country would fall in less than three months. The German war machine seemed invincible and hope but a cruel illusion.������
In terms of men and materiel the situation was, indeed, desperate, but wars are not won and lost on the basis of physical realities alone. Deep-seated psychological and spiritual factors played their crucial part, and it is here that Churchill�s character was worth millions of soldiers in the field. Well he knew that Western civilization (not just Britain) was in mortal peril. So deep was his love of that civilization and its cherished values, that his will was strengthened to a point inconceivable by normal standards. If the selfish and sadistic rulers of Nazi Germany were obsessed by members of the Black Lodge, then Winston Churchill was, equally, obsessed by the �Forces of Light�, by the �Good�. No doubt the Masters of the Wisdom directed towards him potent streams of vitalizing energy and inspiration, to sustain this man whose spirit stood as a bulwark between a besieged civilization and the yawning abyss. Had Britain fallen, Germany would not have been forced to fight a war on two fronts, and, through the concentration of its superbly trained forces, may well have prevailed over the Soviet Union. With all of Europe and the Soviet Union subdued, America, threatened from the West by Japanese aggression, and still inadequately armed compared to Germany, would have been gravely endangered. World enslavement under Germany and the Axis Powers would have been conceivable, and with it, the beginning of a thousand years of darkness�a �re-initiation into the Earth��. The Tibetan described the dire possibility in this way:�������
�If this does not take place [humanity�s ability to �use the mind as a reflector of soul purpose�], the present situation will turn into something far worse�a situation wherein the mass of men will be �re-initiated into the Earth and forced to turn their backs upon the dawning light.� A dark period of civilisation will ensue. Instead of the dark cave of initiation wherein the light of the initiate's own nature illumines the darkness and so demonstrates his command of light, the dark cave of materialism and of physical, animal control will take the place of the �lighted Way.� The earthy aspect of Capricorn, the lowest concrete aspect of the mind and an increased control by the Taurian spirit in its worst form will take the place of the divine possibility of entrance into greater light,�� (EA 543) (It should be noted that a number of Nazi leaders were powerfully conditioned by Taurus and Capricorn�Hitler especially�and by Scorpio as well.)���������������
That this terrible fate was possible (and even probable) was the conviction of the Spiritual Hierarchy of our planet Who, in the latter days of 1942, were preparing to withdraw from contact with humanity, convinced that the human race would indeed go down to defeat, and that the Black Lodge would triumph.
But Britain did not collapse. It stood, with firm and unflinching steadfastness before an overwhelming superiority of men and arms. This resolute refusal to give up was the glory of the British soul�yes�but that glory was magnificently inspired by the valiant spirit/soul of one man who insisted that not only would Britain stand, but that it would prevail in victory over Hitler and his Germany. With one-pointed almost superhuman intent, Churchill willed Hitler�s defeat�and it came to pass. He held the blazing torch of fiery resistance to evil when so few fires of freedom flamed against the encroaching darkness. Churchill. consumed in the fires of the Will-to-Good, burned with such persistence that, at length, the many lesser torches were ignited; a roaring bonfire at last arose and, directed against the aggressor, consumed it completely.
Winston Churchill and his Britain could not have won the war without the tremendous sacrifices of the United States, the Soviet Union and all their allies, but at a time when few seemed to care, or care enough, about the fate of humanity, he, at least, refused to lose the war�thereby buying precious time in which those, less alert to the peril than he recognized, could awaken and mobilize their forces. In the development of all great conflicts there are pivotal moments�hinge points�upon the outcome of which the future is decisively determined. The Battle of Britain was such a moment. Britain survived still strong; Germany paused and changed direction, divided its focus and was, at length, drawn into a war on two fronts which it could not sustain. Thus, did Germany meet its final defeat. The Battle of Britain and the victory of� the British resistance were the beginning of the end of German invincibility.
Which is the Correct Astrological Chart for Winston Churchill?
For many years it was supposed that the proper Ascendant for Winston Churchill�s astrological chart was Scorpio. Indeed, his powerful Scorpio qualities were easily discerned and the assumption seemed logical and astrologically valid.�����������
Some however, suggested a Libra Ascendant. Again, Libra is a sign evident in Churchill�s nature (he has two planets, Mars and Jupiter in this sign), and often appears in the charts of generals, public figures, and those who do not so much start wars as finish them.
Then, a letter from Winston Churchill�s father, Randolph Churchill, and an entry from his diary were discovered, stating that Winston�s birth had occurred at 1:30 AM, and not a few hours later as had been supposed. Although the 1:30 AM time is under suspicion as being, at least, slightly rounded-off, it gives an Ascendant different from those used previously (an Ascendant in the last degree of Virgo)�which might seem an unlikely Rising Sign for one of the world�s most resolute and willful wartime statesmen. Yet, this Ascendant has been accepted by many astrologers and rectified by some. Some have rectified this time slightly forward to as to produce, again, a Libra Ascendant. At least one other has rectified the time to about ten minutes earlier, to produce an Ascendant unequivocally in Virgo.
Some Justifications for the Virgo-Rising Chart
As one examines the chart with the Virgo Ascendant, number of convincing justifications emerge.
1. Physiognomically, the Virgo Ascendant makes sense. The 28th degree of Virgo, for instance, lies in the Taurus decanate of Virgo. Churchill�s decidedly �bull-dog� appearance is, therefore, at least partially accounted for. A close examination of the facial structure of those born in the any of the three decanates of Virgo, will show the last decanate (20� - 30�), all things being equal, to be the �beefiest�. As with both Mercurial signs (Virgo and Gemini) the physiognomy will depend much upon the position of Mercury (as in the case of a well-known triple-Gemini individual, Queen Victoria, who had physiognomically-determining Mercury in Taurus).
2. A Virgo Ascendant would emphasize the importance of the planet Mercury, placed in Scorpio. A Scorpio Ascendant, on the other hand, contradicts the birth information found in the letter and diary entry of Churchill�s father. A rectification producing a Libra Ascendant emphasizes the importance of Venus rather than Mercury. Venus is important, and can be seen in the Churchill�s fair and florid appearance, but Mercury in Scorpio is even more important�both physiognomically and psychologically.�
a. Churchill was a war correspondent (Mercury in Scorpio), a master of irony, sarcasm and biting humor (Mercury in Scorpio), and was, perhaps, the greatest war-time orator in modern history (Mercury in Scorpio in the second house ruling the voice).
b. His caustic criticism�so characteristically Churchillian�makes far more sense if the clarity and sharpness of critical Virgo reinforce the sting of the Scorpionic Mercury. This would be the case were Virgo the Ascendant.
c. He was a master of English prose (grammatical Virgo rising) and claimed to understand �the essential structure of the normal British sentence�which is a noble thing� (a skill, by imputation, beyond the capacity of most writers).
d. Churchill was, of course, a great writer�in fact receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953, for his history in six volumes, The Second World War. After 1899, he made his living through the pen�thus his Mercury in the second house of personal finances is a convincing placement. This Mercury position is, of course, emphasized considerably if the Ascendant is Virgo.
e. It must further be remarked that Churchill�s thrilling exactitude in the use of words is far more Virgoan than Libran.
f. The emphasis upon Mercury through a Virgo Ascendant accounts for Churchill�s extraordinary mobility�for instance, his eagerness during both wars to go wherever he might be needed�to the front lines, to meet on numerous occasions Franklin Roosevelt, to fly to Russia to meet with Stain�he was simply always ready to go.
g. Perhaps, as well, the presence of the Vulcanian cane or walking-stick is a hint about the importance of Virgo/Vulcan. Vulcan was a �god with a limp�.
3. Thus, we notice quite a number of Virgoan traits in this great leader. It should be pointed out that, were Libra the Ascendant, there would be no astrological influence of Virgo in the chart, but with Virgo as the Ascendant, the astrological influence of Libra is still very much present, through the Mars/Jupiter conjunction in Libr
4. When one thinks of Churchill�s emphatic character, his remarkable stamina, his refusal to give up or give in, it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that Vulcan (the planet of persistence and endurance) is mightily important. The Virgo Ascendant, esoterically ruled by Moon-Veiled Vulcan (and Neptune), gives the necessary Vulcanian emphasis.. It seems that in the case of advanced Virgo individuals, one must often, if not always, choose between the importance of Vulcan or Neptune. In Churchill�s case, Vulcan is the obvious choice, though Neptune (planet of romanticism) should not be discounted.
5. The Taurus decanate of Virgo does offer an important Venusian sub-influence, but again, an esoteric rulership by Vulcan is important. Thus, twice, Vulcan emerges within the context of a Virgo Ascendant, and not at all with a Libra Ascendant. We must remember that Vulcan rules �men of will�. (cf. EA 264)
6. Remembering that the principal esoteric ruler of Virgo is the Moon, Churchill�s Moon in Leo, conjunct Regulus, the �Heart of the Lion� is a highly significant placement. Here is great star of law and command, emphasizing, because conjoined with the Moon, Churchill�s tremendous personal authority and magnetism. He became the very embodiment (Leo, and the Moon as the �Mother of the Form�) of Britain�s courage and greatness of heart (Leo).
7. Of course, there are matters of timing which suggest the importance of a late Virgo Ascendant, giving, as it does, a late Gemini Midheaven.
a. The Nobel Prize for Literature was received on a conjunction of Jupiter to the late Gemini MC.
b. Churchill resigned the office of Prime Minister of Great Britain within the range of a solar eclipse which occurred within less than a degree of the 27�Gemini22� MC of the 1:19 AM rectified chart. He resigned on April 5, 1955 and the eclipse occurred on June 20, 1955. An earlier solar eclipse at 2�Capricorn59� on December 25th, 1954, would also be considered effective (especially in an early Libra-rising chart) but other matters of timing make such a chart less likely.
c. There are a number of aspects and eclipses to indicate his marriage on September 12, 1908, but, interestingly, the progressed Ascendant of the rectified Virgo chart, has reached natal Jupiter (indicator of marriages, and, also, orthodox ruler of his Pisces seventh house cusp�the marriage cusp). If the time were a little earlier than the 1:19 AM proposed by T. Pat Davis, the accuracy of the P-Ascendant/N-Jupiter conjunction would be even more exact. There is also a lunar eclipse at 23�Sagittarius04', about four degrees off the 27�Gemini22� MC of the 1:19 AM chart. Again, a slightly earlier time would make it closer, and also tighten the T-Jupiter to MC aspect on his reception of the Nobel Prize for Literature.
d. In January of 1919, Churchill became Secretary of War. A lunar eclipse occurred on Dec 18 1918 at 25�Ge03' (just two degrees of the proposed Gemini MC). Again, the eclipse suggests a time slightly earlier than 1:19 AM, but would be effective in any case. It would not be effective with a Libra Ascendant and a consequent Capricorn MC.
e. In the autumn of 1922, Churchill became the worst casualty of the fall of an already shaky coalition government; shortly afterwards had an attack of appendicitis (Virgo and Scorpio), and was unable to campaign properly, losing the election for which he was standing by a humiliating margin. There is a solar eclipse at on Sep 21 1922 at 27�Virgo25', just 34 minutes of arc from the 27�Virgo59' Ascendant proposed by T. Pat Davis. Again, a slightly earlier time of birth would render the already close eclipse even more exact. (There is a trend here which points to the validity of a time of birth perhaps slightly earlier than 1:19 AM.)
f. As a final �pi�ce de resistance�, marshaled for the purpose of validating the Virgo Ascendant, the Sabian Symbol for the 28th degree of Virgo rising is almost supernaturally congruent with Churchill�s image: �A Bald-Headed Man Who Has Seized Power�, or �A Bald-Headed Man Dominates a Gathering of National Figures�; �The sheer power of personality in times that call for decision�; �The Power of the Will�. These images are uncannily accurate, given the nature of Churchill�s character and the circumstances which brought him to his greatest power. Can the individual who rectified the chart from 1:30 AM to 1:19 AM have been aware of this symbol, and was it his principal reason for choosing that time? Probably not, as there are a number of other convincing astrological confirmations (especially matters of timing) and, in any case, the same symbol would have been in effect with a birth time as early as 1:13:30 AM�more the five minutes from the chosen time of 1:19 AM. The Sabian Symbols were derived in the earlier part of the century, and indicate a specific quality of energy which inheres in each of the 360 degrees. Are they universally accurate and useful? This has yet to be convincingly determined. In this case, the symbol for the proposed degree of Churchill�s Ascendant captures a description of character which is, to say the least, remarkably apt.
g. Perhaps the foregoing reasons will offer a sufficiently convincing justification for a Virgo Ascendant to allow us to proceed confidently with the interpretation.
Hypotheses Regarding Winston Churchill�s Rays
The Soul Ray: Ray I
There can be little doubt that Winston Churchill�s soul ray is the first Ray of Will and Power. Almost single-handedly, Churchill saved European civilization from barbarism. He did so by sheer force of character, and by a refusal to surrender no matter how punitively savage the attacks against Britain. He persisted; he endured; he stood and at the same time inspired his countrymen to dogged resistance and heroic countermeasures and offensives against the enemy. Clearly, these are all first ray virtues, and of them, Churchill was an outstanding example.
Astrological Conduits for the First Ray
The astrological conduits for the first ray force are noteworthy and important. Constellationally, the first ray signs Aries and Leo are tenanted�Aries holding Neptune, the North Node, the planetoid, Chiron, and the asteroid, Pallas Athene; Leo holds the all important Leo Moon, for which we may substitute the planet Uranus (already in Leo), thus adding weight to the Moon position as a conduit of the first ray. The star, Regulus, within less than a degree and a half from the Moon, adds its first ray, regulatory and directorial, power. Churchill was not a dictator, but his powers of persuasion were immense, strengthened (at least during the war) by his irresistible force of character.������
Uranus, monadically a first ray planet, is in the first ray sign Leo, in the house of idealistic group action, the eleventh. It opposition to Saturn (with its own first ray component) in Aquarius strengthens the first ray, creating a tension concerning how the first ray shall be applied�whether conservatively (Saturn) or creatively (Uranus), or both.
If sixth ray Neptune is considered one of the veiled esoteric rulers of Virgo, its placement in first ray Aries creates a combination of the first and sixth rays, and, thus, augments the power to inspire.
The importance of Vulcan�that most willful planet�has already been stressed. Following the presently useful rule of thumb that Vulcan should be no more than eight degrees on either side from the Sun�s position (many say, toward Mercury), the probability is that it would be found in Sagittarius (the sign of inspiration), but a possibility also exists that it might be found in the last degree of Scorpio. If found in Sagittarius, again the first ray (Vulcan) and the sixth ray Sagittarius are combined. Churchill was the master of the �set speech� over which he took enormous pains (fourth ray as �Corrector of the Form�), rather than the impromptu. A comment attributed to F. E. Smith, a British lawyer and politician illustrates this: �Winston has devoted the best years of his life to preparing his impromptu speeches�. The politician Lord Balfour, the Conservative leader said of him, that he carried �heavy by not very mobile guns�. Churchill knew how to take aim with those big guns, and Vulcan in Sagittarius would promote the undeniable power of his oratory to move and inspire. Churchill�s tremendous power of resistance, his one-pointed willfulness, suggests a Vulcan closer to the Sun rather than farther.
Pluto, another conduit of the first ray, must be mentioned, placed as it is in Vulcan�s sign, Taurus, and opposite the all-important ruling planet Mercury in Scorpio, a sign which Pluto rules. The ability to transmit will through the word, is thereby many times increased. Churchill was gifted with the word-power to destroy obstacles in the mental field. He was master of morale, rousing the British to unexpected heights of courage and resistance. Churchill spoke frankly of Britain�s dire situation: �I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat�, but this brutal frankness had the effect not of depressing the nation, but of summoning its valor to the fore. The T-square between Pluto, Uranus and Mercury, with Uranus on the short leg, represents the ability to mobilize group-courage (Uranus in Leo) through the compelling force (Pluto) of speech (Mercury). From yet another perspective, the Pluto/Mercury opposition can be seen as contributing to Churchill�s speech defect�the impediment of lisping and stuttering�which at length he overcame through sheer determination and oratorical power.����������
Sometime first ray Saturn reinforces by sextile the Sagittarian Sun, and Mars (with its own first ray component) conjunct expansive Jupiter (both in karmically motivated Libra), confers the power to retaliate against the aggressor�mobilizing the counter-blow.
Searching for the Personality Ray�Either Ray Six or Ray Four
When it comes to assigning the personality ray, we are faced with a dilemma, because both the fourth and sixth rays are so strongly represented that it is difficult to choose between them. Both of them are active on the personality level, and it is merely a question of discovering which is the principal ray and which is its sub-quality.
The Case For (and Against) a Fourth Ray Personality
1. Winston Churchill was a colorful and dramatic character, notable for his lack of discipline in a number of personal matters�he drank and smoked to excess�though, in all matters of high purpose, his focus and concentration were absolute.
2. Churchill was moody and experienced periodic bouts of heavy depression��the black dog on my back�. Depression is not an attribute of the fourth ray alone, but such natures are cyclically prone to it.
3. He was a man of temperament, with a great love expressive language and of painting. Of course, the artist, we are told by the Tibetan, is found equally on all the rays, but it cannot be denied that the fourth ray is especially connected with artistic expression. His two important planets in Libra (Jupiter and Mars) would, in part, account for this expressiveness, as well as Venus (planet of art and beauty) is partially fourth ray Sagittarius. The fourth ray Moon is self-expressive Leo is undeniably important, as well.
4. A certain British Labour politician, Aneurin Bevin, said of him, �He is a man suffering from petrified adolescence�. His frequent errors in judgment were a product of an erratic fourth ray nature as much as the over-zealousness of the sixth.
5. The factor of steadfastness�an objective most often yet to be achieved by the fourth ray personality, was already and indisputably present in Churchill�s psychological equipment. One can ask whether a fourth ray personality (with its proverbial inconstancy) could have withstood the pressures of leading Britain safely throughout the harrowing war years.
Conduits for the Fourth Ray
There can be no question that the fourth ray is prominent in Churchill�s ray chart�the question is, does it condition the personality as well as the mind (of which more shortly).
1. All three constellational conduits for the fourth ray are tenanted.
2. Scorpio, the major fourth ray constellation, holds the major planet of the fourth ray�Mercury�in its hierarchical position.
3. Sagittarius, a sign transmitting the fourth, fifth and sixth rays, holds the both the Sun and Venus (a planet which, for its capacity to harmonize, seems to have important fourth ray associations).
4. Taurus, another sign transmitting only the fourth ray (at least this is what D.K. tells us), holds the lethal planet Pluto
5. The fourth ray Moon is in a sign (Leo) which sign, itself, brings out a fourth ray quality�drama.
6. The sign Libra, associated with the process of harmonization (as is the fourth ray), holds conflict-prone Mars (thus, Mars in Libra is a �war-and-peace� position), and benevolent Jupiter (emphasizing more the harmony aspect of the fourth ray)
The Case for a Sixth ray Personality
1. Churchill was one of the most inspiring statesmen of the modern world. His powers to arouse, motivate and uplift (in even the darkest hours) were extraordinary, incomparable. The sixth ray is, above all rays, the ray of inspiration. Perhaps his greatest gift to Britain was that he never allowed its morale to flag. The power and presence of the sixth ray are unmistakable.
2. Churchill was a great orator�not because he screamed and gesticulated wildly as did Hitler, but because of the clarity and perfection of his language (Virgo), the steady, dignified and controlled emotion which underlay his delivery, and an unmistakable nobility of thought and aspiration which poured through his thrilling words�spoken with greatness and generosity of heart. The sixth ray, above all rays, makes the great orator.
3. He approached life with what some have called, �characteristic Churchillian intensity�. He threw himself into his projects with immoderate zeal. Whether he proposed to lead Britain to victory, write a book, or paint a picture, he was zealous in approach. The sixth ray is the �Ray of Undue Emphasis�. (cf., DINA I 322-323) His relish for dramatic action often led him beyond acceptable limits.
4. Churchill never wavered with regard to his major objectives. Disconcertingly, he might change tactics, sometimes unwisely, but in intent he was inflexible�a quality of the sixth ray (much reinforced by the first). One of his own statements of purpose will give the idea:�������
�I have only one purpose, the destruction of Hitler, and my life is much simplified thereby. If Hitler invaded Hell, I would make at least a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons�.
One has to laugh and simultaneously applaud. The humor of the fourth ray mind dances in these words, but the obsessive intent cannot be mistaken. The Tibetan has said of the sixth ray man, �his friends are angels, his enemies are very much the reverse� (EP I 209) This one-pointed (Sagittarius and the sixth ray) will to destroy Hitler is a perfect expression of the sixth ray.
5. Churchill�s personal energy was prodigious and almost constant. He was �down� now and then (for the fourth ray was strong), but his enormous resilience was proverbial. He drove the British Government with his immense and unrelenting energy�too intent and too focussed to be purely the product of the inconstant fourth ray on the personality level.
6. Churchill was a great idealist. When Greece, the cradle of Western civilization (as Churchill saw it) came under heavy attack, Churchill (idealistically more than strategically and wisely) diverted many badly needed troops from the North African theatre in the attempt to rescue that brave nation. He suffered the consequences, not really achieving his objective and sacrificing a nearly-achieved advantage in North Africa.
7. When the Duke of Windsor decided to abdicate his throne to marry the lady he loved (a �commoner��Wallis Warfield Simpson), Churchill quixotically and romantically defended his decision, even though public opinion was strongly against the abdication. Interestingly, that year, there was a solar eclipse within twenty-two minutes of arc of the proposed Gemini MC, and another solar eclipse on Churchill�s Venus in Sagittarius�hence his support of King Edward�s romanticism. The sixth ray, expressed through Neptune (and in a deep way through Venus) is the ray of romanticism�reinforced, of course, by the fourth.
Conduits for the Sixth ray
1. From a certain perspective, all three of the constellations/signs expressing the sixth ray are tenanted.
2. Sagittarius, of course, is the major sixth ray sign and it holds the Sun�in itself a strong indication of a possibly sixth ray personality. Venus, ruler of the third (or Taurus) decanate of the Virgo Ascendant is also of importance, and Venus is trine the sixth ray planet Neptune, which, itself, is a veiled esoteric co-ruler of the Virgo Ascendant.
3. The proposed Virgo Ascendant also transmits the sixth ray. Virgo is ruled by Mercury, placed in Scorpio, a sign strongly conditioned by sixth ray Mars. Virgo is also ruled by the veiled Vulcan and Neptune. Vulcan is probably placed in sixth ray Sagittarius and sixth ray Neptune is placed in Aries, which, like Scorpio, is a sign conditioned by sixth ray Mars.
4. The Equatorial Ascendant (not insignificant, especially as it is conjuncting the normal Ascendant) is placed in sixth ray Virgo.
5. The Anti-Vertex is also found is sixth ray Virgo, conjunct both the Equatorial Ascendant and the Ascendant, and the Vertex (which sign is significant for the quality of fated encounters) is placed in sixth ray Pisces.
6. Vesta, asteroid of devotional commitment, is opposed the Sun.
7. Mars and Jupiter, both planets of enthusiasm (Mars with a strong sixth ray, and Jupiter with sixth ray resonances on some level of its expression) are conjunct each other.
8. Sixth ray Neptune in sixth ray Mars-ruled Aries is closely trine the Moon (which presides largely over the sixth or watery astral plane of emotions.
Choosing the Personality Ray
As we can see, there are good reasons for choosing either of these rays (sixth or fourth) as the personality ray. While both rays share the �pros�, perhaps there are more �cons� against the fourth ray. Churchill�s unremitting zeal in the defense of his nation and the pursuit of Hitler, suggests more the sixth ray than the fourth. His Nazi opponent, was, in the author�s new estimation, also a first ray soul, and very reasonably a sixth ray personality. If Churchill possessed a sixth ray personality, then the two of them were matched fatefully and equally�engaged in a relentless battle to the death. Curiously, Hitler almost �courted� Churchill, feeling rather like a rejected suitor when Churchill refused Hitler�s frequent secret overtures for Anglo-German cooperation. Hitler, it seems, loved England in a strange way�identifying Englishmen with the Aryan Race. Churchill, on the other hand, simply hated Hitler (however, impersonally) and all that he stood for�without, however, hating Germany.�����������
Churchill spoke so often against the irresolution of the British leaders who preceded him, that a double fourth ray would be unlikely�the potential for the very irresolution that he deplored would be too great.�����
Perhaps the reader will find the following quotation from the Encyclopedia Britannica a convincing testimony to the strength of Churchill�s sixth ray�most reasonably assigned to the personality level:
�In a sense, the whole of Churchill's previous career had been a preparation for wartime leadership. An intense patriot; a romantic believer in his country's greatness and its historic role in Europe, the empire, and the world; a devotee of action who thrived on challenge and crisis; a student, historian, and veteran of war; a statesman who was master of the arts of politics, despite or because of long political exile; a man of iron constitution, inexhaustible energy, and total concentration, he seemed to have been nursing all his faculties so that when the moment came he could lavish them on the salvation of Britain and the values he believed Britain stood for in the world�.
Note the keywords: �intense patriot�, �romantic believer�, �devotee of action�, a man capable of �total concentration��there is nothing here to suggest the vacillation of the fourth ray, should both the personality and mind be qualified by that ray.
It is the conclusion of the author, therefore, that assigning Churchill a sixth ray personality has the greatest explanatory power, accounting most for his character and behavior. The Sun (so strong a contributor to the quality of the personality ray) is in the major sixth ray sign, which sign also expresses the fourth ray. It is reasonable to think of Churchill therefore as colored in his personality by both rays, but predominantly and preeminently by the sixth and modified by the fourth�a ray which almost certainly is the main ray of the concrete mental vehicle.
The Ray of the Mind: Ray 4, Sub-Ray 1
Here there can be little doubt: the planet of the fourth ray, Mercury, is the exoteric ruler of the Ascendant and placed in a sign which is, during this world period, most identified with the expression of the fourth ray�Scorpio.� Further, Mercury in Scorpio is found in the second house, associated with Taurus, another fourth ray sign. It must be said however, that Mercury is quite close to the house of communication, the house three (by the Placidus house system) where it would have a certain suitability. Mercury can also be �read into� the third house, because its sign is the same as the sign on the cusp of the third house.
For his noble prose, his constant colorful contrasts, for the delightful and arresting surprises in his turns of phrase, for the exhaustive labor he expended upon his choice of words, for his refinement and harmony of expression, for his irony and pungent humor, and for the power of his evocative imagery�for all these reasons, assigning the fourth ray as the ray of the mind seems incontestable.
Perhaps a few quotations from his various speeches and writings will demonstrate the fourth ray quality with clarity.�����������
�So they told me how Mr. Gladstone read Homer for fun, which I thought served him right��from My Early Life, Ch. 2.
Note the element of surprise, playful irreverence and unpredictability characteristic of the fourth ray.
�Those who can win a war well can rarely make a good peace and those who could make a good peace would never have won the war��from My Early Life, Ch. 26.
Here the fourth ray ability to compare, contrast and oppose one thing to another is demonstrated. Churchill�s frequent symmetry of phrasing suggests the use of the fourth ray.
�In defeat unbeatable; in victory unbearable��referring to Viscount Montgomery, commander of the North African forces.
Here the fourth ray, which might be called the �Ray of Contradiction�, is used to emphasize (with a mixture of praise and humor) the contradictions in Montgomery�s character.
�The is the sort of English up with which I will not put��taken from Churchill�s commentary in the margin of a report in which a Civil Servant had used an awkward construction to avoid ending a sentence with a proposition.
This is one of Churchill�s most humorous grammatical remarks (perfectly in keeping with his proposed Virgo Ascendant) . It uses the fourth ray method of exaggeration to prove the point
�Men will forgive anything except bad prose��from an election speech, 1906.
Again, Churchill surprises us. We have to remember that Uranus (the planet of surprises) is quite closely square to his Mercury in Scorpio. He simply does not say what is expected. The fourth ray uses this technique to shock (and delight) by contrast and thus engage the reader�s attention.
�I cannot forecast to you the action of Russia. It is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma��from a Broadcast Talk, October 1, 1939.
Here Churchill is doing some fourth ray word painting, creating a very evocative effect overall.
�We are waiting for the promised invasion. So are the fishes��from a radio broadcast to the French People, October 21, 1940.
Here we have the fourth ray love of humorous contrast. Always the fourth ray in the mind offers the possibility of the surprising non-sequitur.
�This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning��referring to the Battle of Egypt in a speech on November 10, 1942.
Here again is the fourth ray love of word-play, creating so many contrasts that the reader is made to think.
�There are few virtues which the Poles do not possess and there are few errors they have ever avoided��from a speech before the House of Commons, 1945.
Here again (as in the reference to Montgomery) is the fourth ray method of apportioning praise and blame through contrast. This method is also psychologically revelatory�it clarifies through contrast.
An appeaser is one who feed a crocodile�hoping that it will eat him last��attributed.
In his frustration with the blindness and denial of the government in power during the menacing build-up of German might, Churchill had the following to say. It is remarkable for its series of ironic contradictions:������
Here we find the undeniable stamp of the fourth ray as paradox is piled upon paradox, inconsistency upon inconsistency, for the purpose of revealing� the untenable position of the timid pre-war British government in all its cowardly hesitation.
A First Ray Component to the Mind
The fourth ray for the mental vehicle seems an unmistakably clear choice, but there are powerful displays of first ray energy through Churchill�s thought as well. Mercury is in Scorpio (which is ruled by Mars and Pluto�both of which have strong first ray components). In addition, Scorpio (the sign of Hercules) can be conceived as transmitting the first ray constellationally. Not only does Scorpio add the first ray coloring to the mind (and its thought and speech), but first ray Pluto is opposed to the Mercury position, adding its destructive power to the thought process.
The Rays of the Emotional Vehicle: Ray 6
Given the passion and ardor of his oratory, his great devotion to his country and his family, and his enthusiastic zeal in pursuit of any objective, there can be little doubt that his emotional vehicle was qualified by the sixth Ray of Devotion and Idealism.
The Ray of the Physical Vehicle: Ray 3 with Ray 1
Winston Churchill had small use for formalities. Though he labored tirelessly over his speeches to create the perfect oratorical effect, his actions on the physical plane were spontaneous and unpredictable. He showed little talent for strictly administrative projects or posts (which would appeal to those with a strong seventh ray). There was little about his life which exemplified seventh ray regularity. Rather, he was in constant motion, traveling where needed on the spur of the moment. (Uranus square Mercury promoted this.) A man of prodigious energy, his expenditures of vitality were equally prodigious. Evidence points to an etheric-physical body upon the third ray, reinforced by the first, for, equally, he was a man of �iron constitution and inexhaustible energy�.
Astrological Conduits for the Third Ray
Of the three constellations/signs which transmit the third ray, only Libra is tenanted, but it holds the powerful Mars/Jupiter conjunction. The Earth (heliocentrically placed in Gemini, representing the third ray and having much to do with the etheric/physical body) receives a trine from third ray Saturn in Aquarius. Mercury, with its third ray component, is ruler of the proposed Virgo Ascendant. The third ray is not found in Churchill�s psycho/mental vehicles, but it may be important as a factor conditioning the highest and lowest levels of his energy system.
Considerations Related to the Monadic Ray
As always, hypotheses upon the quality of the monadic ray are simply speculations supported by reason and inference.
Whatever the subray of the monad, its major ray must in all cases be the first, second or third. First ray monads are rare and even rarer in full expression at this time of history. A �pure� first ray type (by which may be meant, the individual with both a first ray soul and a first ray monad) are not presently to be found in the ranks of humanity, as the human race would not be ready for such an focussed application of pure will.������
The degree to which a subray of the monad will have a powerful modifying effect upon the expression of the monadic ray is worthy of careful consideration. The first ray (like any other ray) may be found as a subray on the monadic level. Or, in the event that the principal monadic ray were the first, the modifying influence of the monadic subray might be so powerful, that the prohibition against the appearance of a pure first ray type would be preserved. This would mean that an individual could have both a first ray monad and first ray soul, but that the monadic subray (being other than the first) would buffer the expression of the first.�����
Given, however, the breadth and diversity of Churchill�s multiple interests and accomplishments, his outstanding intelligence, his love of the written and spoken word, his passion for history and his proficiency as a historian, as well as the enormous activity he typically displayed, it is not unreasonable to hypothesize the major monadic ray as the Third�the Ray of Activity and Creative Intelligence. Churchill�s great commitment was to the values of Western civilization. The preservation of values is the task of those upon the first ray; dedication to the creative life as an enhancement of civilization is pursued by those upon the third ray. Churchill was a man of brilliant mentality�reasonably a reflection of the third ray monad. The gentler, slower, more unitive second ray seems less a part of his make-up.
Another great first ray soul, who displayed an outstanding talent for writing and for historical analysis, was H.P. Blavatsky, for whom a monad upon the third ray may also be a reasonable hypothesis. H.P.B. (incarnated as Cagliostro in the eighteenth century), had a close relationship to the Comte de St. Germain (later known as Master R.) This connection may have occurred on the third ray, for Master R. (now the Lord of Civilization and director of the entire greater third ray Ashram which includes ashrams upon the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh rays) is certainly a third ray monad. If H.P.B.�s monadic ray is principally the third, then the subray would almost certainly have to be the first.
(Parenthetically, when thinking of both Master Morya and Master Koot-Hoomi, we can with all reason understand them to have soul rays which are the same as their monadic rays. (Although They have no longer has a causal body, They do have a triad/soul.)� In the case of Master M, there would be a first ray monad and a predominantly first ray spiritual triad. In the case of Master K.H., there would be a second ray monad and a predominantly second ray spiritual triad. We may ask, �For how many of their leading disciple/initiates would this be similarly the case?� For instance, could AAB (a leading disciple/initiate of KH�s) be considered to have both a second ray monad and a second ray triad/soul? And what about H.P.B. in this regard? And yet, the counter-indications to identical rays for both monad and soul are there in H.P.B.�s case, so it may be best to avoid premature generalization.)
The point opposite the Sun Sign is considered, in any one life, an important conduit for the monadic ray. In the case of Churchill, it is the third ray/second ray Earth (in Gemini, heliocentrically). The Earth is the hierarchical ruler of Gemini. The placement of Earth in the ninth house, accentuates the global and historical perspectives, and would be an effective source of service (Earth) in the field of international statesmanship carried forward within the context of a deep understanding of the meaning of civilization.
It the matter of discerning the monadic ray, it may be the subray of the monad which comes into prominence before the major ray of the monad is detectible. This seems to be the case for Master Hilarion Whose monadic subray can be considered the fifth (as he is a Chohan upon the fifth ray and directs the entire fifth ray ashram), his major monadic ray being almost certainly the first. It is often difficult to determine which of two rays (sensed as conditioning the monadic aspect) should be considered major and which minor. Only if one of such rays is a Ray of Attribute, is the matter easy to decide, as no Ray of Attribute can be a major monadic ray.
Combining the Principal Ray and Astrological Indications
1. The first ray of the soul in combination with the proposed Ascendant, Virgo, confers the capacity to discern the highest values of civilization and culture, and the strength and endurance to preserve and defend them.
2. The first ray of the soul in combination with the Sagittarian Sun Sign, confers the power to strengthen the will (first ray) to achieve the envisioned ideal (Sagittarius). Churchill demanded victory over Hitler no matter what might be the cost. He envisioned total victory and was unrelenting in its pursuit.
3. The sixth ray of the personality in combination with the Virgo Ascendant renders one a devotee of excellence. In Churchill�s case the excellence to be achieved was in the field of thought and language, and in the area of aesthetics.
4. The sixth ray of the personality in combination with the Sagittarian Sun sign confers full and unrestrained devotion to a higher vision�so often for Churchill, the vision of powerful British Empire upholding and sustaining its rightful place in a dangerous world.
Ray Hypothesis for Winston Churchill
Monad: Ray Three, speculatively, Is the monadic subray the first? The fourth?
Soul: Ray I (with certainty); Sub-Ray 4 or 6
Personality: Ray 6/strong Sub-4
Etheric-Physical Vehicle: Ray 3, with strong Ray 1
.
Important Features in Winston Churchill�s Astrological Chart
1. From the perspective of elemental balance, we see five major planets (Sun, Venus, Moon, Uranus, Neptune) and a major asteroid and planetoid (respectively Pallas and Chiron) in fire signs. Essentially we have two grand trines in fire endowing Churchill with his seemingly inexhaustible energy and his undeflectable ardor. All air signs are tenanted (if we include Vesta in Libra), two of the earth signs and one water sign. Water (representing feeling and emotional sensitivity), therefore, is Churchill�s weakest element, and yet Mercury, the planet found therein, in Scorpio, is very powerful in the chart. We might say of him that he was a fiery romantic�not a languid and sentimental romantic. Even Neptune and the Moon (the most �watery� of planets) are placed in fire signs.
2. We have already discussed the importance of the proposed Virgo Ascendant, which made of Churchill a discriminating thinker and astute historian, masterful in the perfection of his prose, and in the choice of the oratorically apt word and phrase. Through Virgo, we can understand him as well as an individual intent on the preservation of cherished values, fighting (using other strengths of his chart) against anything that would compromise them.��
Virgo is also a sign of purification and eventual perfection. The two great wars, in which Churchill played so large a part, were part of humanity�s terrible purificatory process preparatory to the re-emergence of a new civilization inspired by the Spiritual Hierarchy of the planet. Perhaps Winston Churchill did not realize this for, like certain other great leaders, he may purposefully (before incarnation) have relinquished knowledge of his affiliations with Hierarchy for the sake of greater effectiveness in service to the race. He was, nevertheless, one of the leading warriors in the �Army of Maitreya�, helping to make the way safe for the emergence of the Christ Consciousness in the hearts and minds of humanity (Virgo) and for the tangible Reappearance of the Christ. Had his Nazi opponents prevailed, the Christ could not have returned�worse, the Hierarchy would have been forced to withdraw from contact with humanity.���������
Beneath his more obvious struggles as war-leader and statesman was a ongoing struggle for perfection of thought, for perfection of literary and artistic expression. Largely through his heroic efforts, the freedom without which no true culture can thrive was preserved. His various writings (and especially his histories) contributed significantly to the elevation of culture.
3. Churchill�s Sun is in the first decanate of Sagittarius. This was one of his greatest assets. Under its influence he became the most inspiring leader of the Second World War�a prophet (Sagittarius) alerting his country and the world to dangers they refused to see, an orator who vitalized the morale of his countrymen and inspired all lovers of freedom at a time when psychological depression would have meant defeat.��
Note that the Sun is placed in the third house�the house of communication, thought and the word through which thought is communicated. The Sun does not make many major aspects: a sextile to regulatory Saturn in the fifth house (steadying his resolve, and welding his Sagittarian zeal to group responsibility, for Saturn is in the group sign, Aquarius). Although the square would be wide, Saturn, actually, can be read as square to Mercury�yet another indication of the speech impediment and stuttering which he overcame so magnificently. Demosthenes, the greatest orator of ancient Greece, also stuttered as a youth. That Saturn is in the fifth house of personal self-expression only reinforced the initial inhibition, and acted as a check against spontaneity of expression.�����������
The Sun is also found in septile to Mars (the �God of War� in Libra, one of the karmic signs). The septile is often considered an aspect of fate. This septile creates a link between Sagittarian inspiration and the will to fight back against the aggressor (retaliatory Mars in justice-conscious Libra).����
The Sun is also quintile to the proposed Ascendant degree, making of his thought, speech and oratory an intelligent and creative servant of the soul-purpose indicated by the Virgo Rising Sign. His inspiring words were spoken and written in service to the refined values he sought to see preserved.
4. The Moon in the last degree of Leo, conjunct Regulus, and veiling, in this case, the electric fire of Uranus, is a position powerful for the expression of individual authority�and, the authority and indisputable leadership of the first ray soul. The grand trine between the Moon, Neptune and Venus (all in fire signs) is potent for intuition and artistic inspiration. It is a uniquely aesthetic triangle, combining imagination, beauty and deeply dramatic instincts. Occultly it signifies the alignment of buddhi with manas, and their embodiment in the persona.
5. The importance of Mercury has been much discussed. Churchill destroyed and purified (two powers of Shamballa) chiefly through the mind and its expression through speech. It is not a gentle vibration which reverberates through his words. Relying upon lethal Scorpio, he explodes one illusion after another. The mind of humanity is much clarified after it has been subjected to his perception. The two World Wars were principally battles against glamor, illusion and maya. Though his Pluto-empowered, Uranianly electrified, Saturninely chastened Mercury, Churchill was through and attacked the three-headed Dweller. The critique (spurred by perfectionistic Virgo) was complete. No flaw went undetected or unexposed. All stupidity and corruption were brought to light. A verbal blow has been struck against the forces of obstruction and obscuration.
6. Mercury holds an exalted relation to Virgo and is the hierarchical ruler of Scorpio. Hierarchical rulers come into play in those individuals who possess the initiate consciousness�and Winton Churchill may have been one. The power of the mind to access the intuition and, thereby, triumph over illusion is indicated by this hierarchical position.
Was the war won on the physical plane or in the mind and psyche? Surely, there was a tremendous battle for the hearts and minds of men, and Churchill�s hierarchical Mercury in Scorpio made him an fierce warrior in this subjective battle. His greatest opponent was more the Nazi thoughtform than the Nazis, themselves. He was one of the principal warriors committed to the destruction of Nazi glamor and illusion, and hierarchical Mercury in Scorpio (clear, deadly and uncompromising) was one of his greatest weapons. He saw Nazism for what it was. Could any good and reasonable person hearing his speeches and reading his words see otherwise?
7. Venus, representing the light and love of the soul, the higher values and aesthetic ideals, is found in Sagittarius in the third house of thought and word. Venus is also retrograde, pointing to a more reserved and introverted expression. Surely he was capable of many tender and romantic words�in private.��
Venus (reinforced by the trines from Neptune and the Moon) gave him his love of the arts, of beautiful verbal expression, and of the creative process in general. It contributed also to the harmony of his written and spoken words. The secret of his inspired oratory lies not only in its power, its incisiveness and arresting contrasts, but in the beauty of sound of the chosen words. Venus is a ruler of the Taurus decanate of the proposed Virgo Ascendant, and esoteric ruler of his MC. Clearly, through Venus, Churchill was carrying the inspiring �Word of the Soul�, and his many words (servants of the One Word), turned his readers and listeners inward to their own soul as a source of strength. He carried people beyond their smaller, personal concerns into a state of self-sacrifice and even heroism�of which each soul is ever capable.����������
Churchill�s marriage was a long and happy one. The grand trine in which Venus plays its part and the close sextile to Venus from felicitous Jupiter in Libra, the sign of relationship, beneficently condition this one area of his life in which harmony prevailed. There was a time, also, when, as the man who held the light, he merged with the soul of Britain, ruled by the opposite sign, Gemini. Under the influence of Venus and responsive to Sagittarius, he offered Britain the opportunity to see in the light of the soul, and tread the path of the soul. Through illumined and illuminating Venus, he became the �Guide in the Night�. The prominent fixed star, Polaris, also had a important part to play in offering this spiritual guidance to his nation and, by extension, to the world.
8. Mars in Libra makes the fighter for justice and right relations. Hesitant as an aggressor, it is determined to finish any fight forced upon it�in the interests of karmic redress. This position in Churchill�s chart contributed to the continual disruption of any harmony he managed to achieved. It also contributed to the creative ferment of his psyche.������
The parallel of declination between Mars and Juno (in a chart distinctive for its lack of such parallels) contributed to his romantic ardor. He was a devoted husband, father of five children (of whom one died early) and, in all matters concerning relationships between men and women, a romantic�as his defense of the abdicating Edward VII demonstrated.
9. Though a zealot in his stance first against Nazism and then Communism, Churchill knew how to cooperate and accept the advice of others when there was the possibility that it might be sound. The fourth ray, which was so often used by him to emphasize contrasts, could also be used to promote harmony and accord. Jupiter (a major planet of unification) in Libra (the sign of peace) could only be helpful in his attempt to promote cooperation. During the Second World War Churchill presided over a coalition government, which held together admirably under the circumstances. We see that this Jupiter-in-Libra ability to promote cooperation is furthered by a trine from Jupiter to the Midheaven. Churchill was a firebrand, but, gradually, he learned his lessons, emerging as a mature statesman. It is easily realized that Jupiter in Libra contributes to popularity�especially, when, as in Churchill�s case, it is sextile to Venus (planet of love and magnetism), the exoteric ruler of Libra. Since Jupiter is conjuncted the South Node, it would appear that Churchill brought these conciliatory and unifying abilities with him from previous life cycles. In order to hold to his first purpose and priority of defeating Hitler, he was even willing to join forces with the Communists. His cooperative overtures, however, always served a higher purpose.
10. Saturn in Aquarius in the fifth house is part of a grand-cross involving, by translation of light, Mercury, Uranus, and Pluto (to which Saturn is not, in itself, really square). Mundanely, Churchill lost a child (Saturn in the house of children opposed to Uranus, ruler of that house) and had trouble and pressures with some of the others. He also labored under the pressure to become an ever more creative individual, and attempted to overcome his inherent inhibitions (Saturn) to the creative process.���
His life was extraordinarily responsible. There were sudden and apparently irresponsible flights from duty (and from wise judgment), but, on the whole, his life path was not one of amusement (Saturn in the fifth house) but one of ceaselessly intensifying pressure�until his last ten synthetic and reflective years.��
Was Churchill a progressive (Uranus) a conservative (Saturn) or both and neither? The fourth ray enters the equation with all its attendant paradoxes. He took very individual stands on differing issues�sometimes Uranus predominated, sometimes Saturn. Their opposition caused him another of those sources of strain and tension which sought release in writing, art and war.����������
As an indicator of group responsibility, Saturn in Aquarius is important. It signifies one who takes on burdens for the collective.
11. First ray Uranus is in the first ray sign, Leo, in the house of creative group endeavor (the eleventh)�and also the house which represents the Spiritual Hierarchy as a creative Organism. This position points to Churchill as a dramatically expressive individuality offering his creative gifts to the greater group�thus shaking and electrifying the group. He stood uncompromisingly in his own uniqueness (Uranus and the Moon both in Leo), and re-mobilized his nation through force of character. Uranus is trine the midpoint of the Sun and Venus in Sagittarius. His words of inspiration led to great and revolutionary changes�first of all, in the conduct of war. We can see this position as one of the most important conduits through which his first ray soul could work.����������
In synastry, we find Churchill�s Uranus on Hitler�s Saturn�disrupting the permanent structure which Hitler was seeking to build. The two were really deadly enemies, with strong Pluto, Mars and Mercury aspects�mostly oppositions and conjunctions. It appears, as well, that their soul, personality, mental and emotional rays were also the same.
12. Intuitive Neptune is in Aries, sign of the �new�. Neptune is involved in a grand-trine with Venus and Moon, and opposes Jupiter in Libra. It also is in close and supportive sextile to the MC. Exoterically, this eighth house position of Neptune contributed to his alcoholism, because the grand-trine is not only artistic and inspirational, but self-indulgent. The eight house, as well, has not only to do with transformation and triumph, but with that which one must transform and over which one must triumph. So there is some self-undoing occurring in this very psychological �mansion�.�����
The opposition of Neptune to Jupiter shows strong heart center activation. Although Churchill was not principally a second ray type, any world leader of his stature, must have a strong heart center activation, or he could not be the focal point for a national (and even international) group. It is clear that Churchill was great-hearted. Many are the heart indications: the Moon in Leo conjunct the �Heart of the Lion��Regulus; Uranus (associated with the rhythmic pulse of the heart) in Leo, the sign of the heart; Jupiter and Neptune (the first being the disciplic ruler of the heart center, and the second being the ruler of the �solar flames� of the �Heart of the Sun�) in opposition, and Venus, another planet with heart center associations, related to all these planets�Neptune, Uranus, Moon, and Jupiter.������
Courage arises in the mature heart. We can say that Churchill held the British Nation (and also the Commonwealth) in his heart. In his person he absorbed and magnified the courage of the British People. Here is what he said�so beautifully, so nobly, with such humility�exemplifying his relation to the heart of his nation.�
�The nation had the lion�s heart. I had the luck to give the roar��said on his 80th birthday.
This is a deeply soul-inspired statement. The �lion�s heart� was the second ray soul of Britain expressed through its first ray personality. London, the center of the British Empire, has Leo (the Lion) as its soul sign. The �roar� was the magnificent, magical oratory without which Britain would not have survived. The poignancy of this statement lies in his humble recognition of the priceless privilege it was to serve the soul of his nation. Through the word, �luck�, Churchill, recognizes the work of fate in the role he played�he was but an instrument.
13. Pluto is, technically, in the sign of its detriment, Taurus. It is, perhaps, not so important by sign as it is in aspect and house position. Placed in the ninth house it serves as a prophet of dire danger and impending catastrophe, and as the destroyer of illusions�principally the illusion of peace in which England �slept�.����
Further, Churchill knew Nazism as an abomination, a world-view which threatened all that was best in human civilization and culture. He thought much the same of Bolshevism (Red Communism). He threw himself against these perspectives, seeking to destroy them not only on the physical plane, but on the plane of mind. This was part of his clearing, purifying, destroying dharmic work for humanity. As Pluto was the ruler of his third house of communication, thought and speech, he had the destructive mental power to wage war on the mental plane against philosophies he considered perverse and revolting.����
In some ways, he may have gone too far. His vision of a continuingly prominent British Empire made him the enemy of the self-rule of Britain�s colonies. He dismissively said of India, for instance: �India is a geographical term. It is no more a united nation than the Equator�. Gandhi, another great disciple/initiate, can not have liked to hear that.
14. We find the North Node in the eighth house and the South Node in the second. It may have been Churchill�s personal desire to preserve the status quo�in which the political and financial (second house) role of Britain in the world was secure and undisputed�but he was obliged to throw himself into the destructive processes of war (eighth house) to salvage his country�s freedom. Churchill�s life saw little of peace�first the Boer War, then the Great War, then the Second World War. His life and times called for struggle and triumph.
Testimony of Asteroids and Other Lesser Factors
Of the several larger asteroids (including the planetoid, Chiron) there are two significant positions.
1. The mother asteroid Ceres, is in a sign congenial to its expression, Cancer, and in the prominent tenth house. Under this influence, he preferred a paternal/maternal role for Britain, rather than the relinquishment of the colonies. More positively, there is a tenderness which emerges in his most moving oratory; his care for his nation and his sympathy for his countrymen were profound.
2. Chiron is placed in often-imprudent Aries, which indicates that one will be injured by what one initiates and one will learn therefrom. Churchill�s reputation was, on several occasions, badly damaged by ill-conceived initiatives�causing him to lose popularity, elections and posts. It is instructive to see that Mars, the dispositor of Chiron (since it is the orthodox ruler of Aries) stands opposed to Chiron. This aspect ensured that impulsively or hastily conceived action would come to grief. He always had abundant boldness and zeal in excess; these needed to be tempered and over time they were. Sobering Saturn is in quintile relationship to Chiron. The Second World War forced upon Britain great economies, and upon Churchill caution as a counterbalance to audacity.
Testimony of the Fixed Stars
1. We have already discussed the power of the royal star, Regulus. Regulus is not within a degree of the Moon, but it is within a degree and a half. The theme of Regulus (according to Brady) is �success if revenge is avoided�. Regulus is also called, �The Crushing Foot� and �King of the Heavenly Sphere�.� Churchill was the eternal warrior, fighting with the full powers of his impressive personality. But he was large-minded, as well, and although he could wither an opponent with a few well-chosen words, he was not mean-spirited or petty.
His antipathy for Hitler was not, essentially, personal. Hitler represented a monstrous ideology which had to be destroyed (for the sake of humanity). Hitler focussed his full �Will-to-Destroy� upon Hitler and his Reich, but he was not consumed by an ignoble and debilitating hatred. The impersonal force of the Good fed his intent, and avoiding the vengefulness which can accompany the influence of Regulus, he went on to victory. The forcefulness of Regulus contributed greatly to Churchill�s influence as a war-time leader.
Regulus is considered the most powerful of the four royal stars. Conjunct the Moon, it suggests a noble past instinctively accessed.
2. Antares, another of the royal stars, is closely conjunct Churchill�s Sun. Thus, there are two stars, Regulus and Antares which confer military prowess. Just as Regulus is the �Heart of the Lion�, Antares is the �Heart of the Scorpion�. Again the heart theme and its life-power are emphasized.
Antares is called the �Watcher in the West�, and can lead to great success if success does not turn to obsession. In a way, Churchill was obsessed or possessed by his mission�the salvation of Western civilization. His entire psyche was captured by the �Good�, in the same way that Hitler and his �evil gang� were overshadowed by evil entities. However, Churchill did not let his obsession consume him to the point of losing his larger perspective�the reason why obsession leads to downfall.������
Churchill�s extraordinary vitality was at least partially augmented by this star of extreme focus--working in combination with the one-pointedness of Sagittarius. With single-minded intent he pursued the defeat of Germany and victory for the Allies�he would accept nothing less.������
Antares is known as �Anti-Aries��the rival of Mars. This was clearly a force useful in countering Hitler�s Martian aggression. Churchill�s oratorical Mercury in Scorpio (no insignificant weapon) was, in fact, opposed Hitler�s Mars. Antares, conjunct Churchill�s Sun was widely opposed Hitler�s Pluto. Antares with the Sun confers mental alertness, strategic ability, courage and risk-taking bordering on foolhardiness. A headstrong self-destructiveness and obstinacy are indicated in the undeveloped, and firm will and great strength in battle in those more advanced. If there were any star to render Churchill a warrior, it would be Antares.
3. Mercury is in very close conjunct (just 02� of arc) with Zuben Elschamali, the star of �negative social reform� according to Brady. The negativity of this star and the more positive reformative tendencies of companion star, Zuben Elgenubi, cannot be taken too literally. Suffice it to say that both stars represent powerful forces which change the pattern of society; to this one can add Churchill�s Uranus (the planet of reformation) in Leo in the eleventh house of social reformation. It was the power of Churchill�s thoughts and words which changed the tide of the early European War. Churchill regenerated the morale of his country and Zuben Elschamali assisted.
4. A very different indication is afforded by Mirach conjunct Churchill�s well-aspected Neptune. Mirach confers harmony and receptivity; beauty, brilliance, beneficence and good fortune in marriage all attend its influence. Venus (the planet of marriage) is trine to Neptune (conjunct Mirach).� Mirach would influence positively the artistic, aesthetic side of Churchill�s nature.
5. Perhaps the most important fixed star contacts are the close conjunctions of both Betelgeuse and Polaris with the proposed Midheaven. These are two extremely important stars. Betelgeuse is said to give complete success (without complications) and is considered one of the most fortunate stars in the sky. It gives martial honors and great military fortune, preferment, wealth, fame, command and perfection in the arts and sciences. With Orion it is said to give a heart which presses on with unflagging energy in spite of every trial. We can see how well these descriptors fit with Churchill�s considerable attainments and lofty� reputation.
6. Polaris is a major �Star of Direction� and of �Reorientation�. It confers a good sense of direction and the ability to conceive and realize one�s aims.� The power to offer guidance is considerable. This quality is entirely applicable to Churchill in relation to his nation (especially during the Second World War). He was the captain of the ship of state, and successfully guided the entire process of the war.����������
Polaris confers the art of �refacing and recovering that which is lost�.� Britain began the war at a terrible disadvantage�so much had already been lost; European culture had been thrown down. But through the guidance Churchill offered, that which was lost was recovered and reestablished. The people of Europe found their way back to the soul and the threatening darkness was dissipated.
7. Note that both of these stars are only conjunct the Midheaven within one degree if that Midheaven is in the 28th degree of Gemini, pointing again to the explanatory usefulness of the late Virgo Ascendant, especially an Ascendant in the 28th degree of Virgo.
Some Important Events in Churchill�s Life, Astrologically Considered
1. In 1895, he father died tragically after a slow and painful syphilitic illness. Churchill entered the Fourth Hussars.�����
T-Pluto opposed the progressed natal Sun�within 2 degrees. There was a solar eclipse on the natal Moon later that year. In some ways the death was a liberation, as transiting Jupiter was crossing the MC. As well, the progressed Sun was conjuncting the IC�the place of family and tradition, often indicating the father. Later in the year, there was a solar eclipse very close to his proposed Virgo Ascendant, indicating his new military career. Because of the death, Churchill was forced to establish himself in the world and found the opportunity to do so.�����
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Sep 15 1894 NS����������� 13:31��� 22�Pi18' D�������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Aug 20 1895 NS22:08��� 27�Le14' D������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Sep 19 1895 NS����������� 05:44��� 25�Vi40' D�������
2. In 1899, he resigned his military commission to enter politics, and make a living by the pen. T-Uranus was, conjuncting the N-Sun and the Nodes were transiting conjunct the MC/IC. Later in the year, there is a solar eclipse on his N-Sun and also a lunar eclipse involving his MC/IC axis.���������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 3 1899 NS 09:57��� 10�Sg41' D������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 17 1899 NS10:26��� 24�Ge56' D������
3. In 1908 he won an important election and later that year, and on September 12th, he married the beautiful Clementine Hozier; it was a marriage of unbroken affection that provided a secure and happy background for his turbulent career.�����
There is a lunar eclipse on June 14, 1908, involving a conjunction with Venus. T-Uranus conjuncted the progressed Sun, The progressed Moon conjuncted N-Mercury. Importantly, P-Asc conjuncted N-Jupiter, ruler of H7 in the 1:19 AM Chart. T-Jupiter also conjuncted N-Moon. These are certainly sufficient indications of a time of active affections, happiness and emotional expression.��������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Jun 14 1908������ 23:05��� 23�Sg04' D������
4. He was transferred to the Admiralty in 1911, and went to work with a conviction of the need to bring the navy to a pitch of instant readiness.����
There were important eclipses involving his progressed Vertex and natal Pluto. As well, there was a solar eclipse on his progressed Ascendant in late Libra. T-Pluto hovered very near his MC, and had been so for two years.�
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Nov 17 1910���� 09:21��� 23�Ta47' D������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 13 1911���� 14:55��� 21�Sc21' D������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Oct 22 1911����� 13:12��� 7�Li39'D����������
5. In 1915 Churchill came under heavy political attack after the failure of the naval campaign in the Dardanelles. He was removed from his post as Lord of the Admiralty in 1915 and demoted to the Duchy of Lancaster. Disheartened, he rented a farm to retreat from public life and reflect upon the circumstances of his removal.���
The progressed Moon was in the area of N-Saturn and then P-Saturn. T-Uranus (bringing reversals) was conjunct the P-Moon and P-Saturn. Transiting Saturn. T-Saturn (bringing career pressures) had been hovering about the MC for about a year. Jupiter, however, was transiting through the fifth house of creativity, offering new opportunity. Jupiter was also opposed N-Uranus bringing unexpected openings. T-Uranus was also conjuncting the progressed IC, bringing a new basis to the life, and new activities which could be pursued in private. There is a solar eclipse widely opposed the expressive Leo Moon. More importantly, there is a solar eclipse conjunct N-Uranus (again a fresh start). At that time, T-Uranus (the liberator) was transiting N-Saturn, which had been involved in inhibition of expression. There was now scope for new expression and an end to old restraints.������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Feb 14 1915����� 13:33��������������� 24�Aq25' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Aug 11 1915���� 07:52��������������� 17�Le12' D������
6. In January of 1919, Churchill became Secretary of War, presiding over the cutting of military expenditures with surprising zeal.�������
Progressed Moon was just moving into Aries across the Descendant, giving a new burst of energy. There was a solar eclipse on the Sagittarian Sun on December 4, 1918 and a lunar eclipse involving the MC and IC on December 18th, 1918. Toward the middle of the year, there was another solar eclipse in Gemini, exactly opposite the N-Sun. T-Saturn had been quite active nearly conjuncting the N-Moon (economy) and sextile the MC. It was an important moment for the advancement of his career, and as was so often the case at such times, eclipses were activated in relation to his natal Sun position.
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 4 1918������ 00:22��� 10�Sg40' D������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 18 1918���� 04:06��� 25�Ge03' D������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 29 1919���� 22:08��� 07�Ge06' D������
7. In the autumn of 1922 the insurgent Turks appeared to be moving toward a forcible reoccupation of the Dardanelles neutral zone, which was protected by a small British force at Chanak . Churchill was foremost in urging a firm stand against them, but a political debacle (prompted by fears of a new war)ensued, bringing the government down in ruins. He was also gripped by a sudden attack of appendicitis, could not campaign properly for office in the forthcoming election, and was humiliatingly defeated.
Saturn was crossing the Descendant (popularity) by solar arc direction and the Nodes were also making their transit of the Ascendant/Descendant. On April 21, 1922 there was an lunar eclipse which included the Nodal Axis and involved Chiron (sickness) as well. Later, a solar eclipse on September 21 1922, occurred exactly on the proposed Virgo Ascendant (to the degree). The Ascendant is also a health indicator, and, interestingly, Virgo is a sign related to the intestines and the bowel, to which the appendix is attached.
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Apr 12 1922����� 05:31��� 21�Li09' D�������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Sep 21 1922����� 13:40��� 27�Vi25' D�������
8. At home there was one grievous, characteristic, romantic misreading of the political and public mood, when, in Edward VIII�s abdication crisis of 1936, he vainly opposed prime minister� Baldwin by a public championing of the King's cause.���������
The MC had progressed to a conjunction with his Leo Moon. There was a solar eclipse exactly on his Gemini MC, and also a solar eclipse, later that year, on his natal Venus.���
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Jun 19 1936������ 14:19��������������� 27�Ge44' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 14 1936���� 08:27��������������� 21�Sg49' D������
9. Churchill was deeply alarmed by the developments in 1938�the appeasement which gave Czechoslovakia to the Germans. He recognized that Britain, without firing a shot, had sustained a great defeat.���������
There is a solar eclipse within three degrees of his Sagittarian Sun. A lunar eclipse involves progressed Mars and also natal Pluto. Another solar eclipse takes place opposite the natal Sun. Finally a solar eclipse occurs exactly square the natal Moon.
Churchill was moving towards prominence. He was empowered by these eclipses, and Britons began to think of him as the only man who could lead them during an increasingly threatening situation.�
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 3 1937������ 08:05��������������� 10�Sg22' D������
MonLEcl��������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 14 1938���� 17:43��������������� 22�Sc54' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 29 1938���� 22:50��������������� 07�Ge31' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Nov 22 1938���� 08:51��������������� 29�Sc01' D������
10. On Sept. 3, 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Chamberlain appointed Churchill to his old post in charge of the Admiralty. The signal went out to the fleet: �Winston is back.��
T-Uranus is conjunct N-Pluto. There is a solar eclipse on natal Neptune, co-ruler of the seventh house. Neptune, Lord of the Sea is involved with the appointment to the highest level of the Navy�the Admiralty. There is also a solar eclipse on natal Mars��
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Apr 20 1939����� 01:44��������������� 28�Ar44' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Oct 13 1939����� 05:39��������������� 18�Li37' D�������
11. On May 10, 1940, after a great and growing demand for his leadership, Churchill was appointed prime minister and received the highest seals of office.�
The progressed Moon had entered Capricorn in H4, P-Venus was near the IC and solar arc directed Jupiter was� near IC.�����
The Vertex was closing on the proposed MC, Uranus was transiting conjunct Pluto, and there was a solar eclipse on natal Chiron�the guide and mentor.�������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Apr 8 1940������� 05:20��������������� 17�Ar52' D������
12. It is significant that during the period when Britain faced the greatest danger (1940-1942), the Vertex (the �Point of Fate�) was cresting by progression the top of Churchill�s chart, conjuncting the Midheaven. Indeed, he was �walking with destiny�.
13. Churchill wrote a six volume history of World War II, for which he received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. That same year he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II. (T-Jupiter was conjuncting MC in the latter part of 1953. It is opposing N-Venus which is the esoteric ruler of the MC. There is a solar eclipse conjunct N-Uranus (which is the ruler of house five, the house of creativity and is natally placed in house eleven, the house of culture and its rewards). There is also a solar eclipse opposed the natal Leo Moon and conjunct the progressed Sun in late Aquarius�again in house five, the house of creativity.)��������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Feb 14 1953����� 09:58��������������� 25�Aq03' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Aug 10 1953���� 00:55��������������� 16�Le45' D������
14. Aging and in declining health, Winston Churchill resigned his post as prime minister on April 5, 1955, at the age of eighty. There was a solar eclipse within less than a degree of his proposed late Gemini Midheaven, emphasizing an important, precipitating event in the field of his vocation and public career. T-Nodes were also conjunct MC/IC. Later in the year there was a solar eclipse conjunct Venus in Sagittarius (Venus, being the esoteric ruler of his Gemini MC). T-Pluto (finality) was opposing progressed Sun in late Aquarius and at the end of the year the progressed Sun changed sign to Pisces�the sign of retirement��������� .
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Jun 20 1955������ 13:09��������������� 28�Ge05' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 14 1955���� 16:01��� ����������� 21�Sg31' D������
15. Just after Christmas 1964, Churchill suffered another stoke and developed a bad cough. He died peacefully at 8:00 AM of 1/25/1965 at the age of 90, London.��
We see a solar eclipse within four degrees of his natal Sun. These solar eclipses have always been found at particularly important points in the life.���������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 4 1964������ 10:30��������������� 11�Sg56' D������
Discussion of Winston Churchill�s Initiatory Level
It becomes clear that even among initiates of the third degree, no perfection of character can be expected. One sees greatness, and accompanying it, an imperfection which, in an ideal world, should have been outlived. One sees this with H.P.B, with Krishnamurti (both in their last incarnations, initiates of the fourth degree). One sees this with the extraordinarily gifted Richard Wagner�an artistic and mental giant who behaved shamefully at times (at least if judged by �conventional� standards). And, perhaps, one sees this in Winston Churchill�a leading �general� in the human battalion of the Army of Maitreya.
Winston Churchill is certainly the proverbial �Rich Young Man�. His accomplishments were many, varied, and one of them, at least (his heroic defense of Britain), was indispensable to the survival of Western civilization and thus, to the progress of all humanity. Surely he was, even technically, a �world disciple�, an individual who guided the destiny of millions and inspired many more.
For all his irregularities of habit, his unconventionality, his apparent irreverence, his disconcerting manners�the vastly more important part of him was solidly in the first ray ashram.
One simply must laugh at the following anecdote. When lunching with the Arab Leader Ibn Saud, and learning that the king�s religion forbade smoking and alcohol, he became typically Churchillian:������
What can one say? Is this an initiate speaking? After a pause, one must simply say, �Yes�. There are parts of every human being which don�t enter the Ashram, with which the Master has simply no concern. These things refine in time as perfection is reached. At the third degree�the stage of true world-discipleship�perfection is not reached, but a sense of planetary wholeness is� .
What would the world be today without an Einstein, a Schweitzer, a Beethoven, a Bach, a Leonardo, a Newton�and without a Winston Churchill? The stature of these great individuals shows that they stand with the Hierarchy and within the Ashram�regardless of their personal shortcomings.
We must, therefore, conclude that Winston Churchill saw human civilization and culture as from the mountain top�imperfectly, yes, (as his attitude towards India and other colonies demonstrated), but still comprehensively and with deep understanding. It is this large, impersonal vision of wholeness which the third degree confers, and the power to identify with and reveal this vision to others so that they may be inspired to leave behind lesser things.
The contrast between Churchill and Hitler is instructive. Hitler, brilliant in his own way, disciplined in his own way, and pure�in his own perverted way�was the example of a second degree initiate who went wrong. He made the choice (Libra Ascendant) and followed the �Left-Hand Path�. Churchill, wider, healthier, robustly larger in heart and mind (yet equally fierce upon the first and sixth rays) choose to champion the Path of Freedom, and thus came under the influence of Sirius and its Law of Freedom which is consciously recognized by initiates of the third degree. Hitler refused the Christ; Churchill, though he was not of a specifically �religious� temperament, embraced Him and in so doing, served the Hierarchy and humanity as few have done or can hope to do.
Astrology and Initiation
Does Winston Churchill�s astrological chart reveal some of the customary signatures of initiation? Surely the signatures of the second degree are there�with the Sun in idealistic Sagittarius and purificatory Virgo rising. Sagittarius gives purification by fire (the process of war throughout his life) and purification of the mind proceeds through Virgo. As well, Mars, the Moon and Uranus are all related�Mars in semisquare to the Moon and in sextile to Uranus.
Sagittarius relates specifically to the first two initiations, but as the Sun progresses other opportunities are offered. Capricorn relates to the third degree (as well as all of the first five) and Aquarius to the third and fourth degrees (as well as the second). There came a time in later 1942 ( very dangerous time for humanity), when the Sun, the Moon and Saturn gathered conjunct in the fifth house (the causal body) in the sign Aquarius (in preparation for a new lunation�progressed Sun/Moon conjunction), buddhic Neptune was crossing the Ascendant, the progressed Ascendant was conjuncting Mercury in Scorpio, and progressed Venus had just moved into transfigurative Capricorn, still conjunct the fourth house cusp. A solar eclipse had just occurred on Uranus, and within less than a year preceding, solar eclipses had occurred exactly on the Ascendant and very close to the Descendant. Deep opportunities were offered by these alignments and emphases. It is impossible to tell whether they were taken�but there is a good chance they were.
Summary and Conclusion
Some have speculated that Winston Churchill was the reincarnation of both Alexander the Great and Napoleon (the relationship between whom can easily be seen)�but returning chastened, and determined to fight against tyranny rather that impose it. However the truth may be, certainly, without Churchill, the free world as we know it might not have survived.
To think of the valor of his �finest hour�, is to find the unconquerable spirit in every human heart. Humanity will always be severely tested before it can proceed into greater livingness. Now that Shamballa draws ever closer, the tests will be increasingly severe. Courage will always be needed on the Path of Occultism. We all have it, but some have yet to find it. To think on Churchill�his words, his deeds�it so come closer to the undying Spirit-Source of that courage.
In a stirring documentary called, �Churchill�s War�, the following words are heard, and with them we will end:������
�In sullen fear-laden camps across the huge bleak expanse of Nazi-occupied Europe, prisoners often with no other language in common, would exchange in greeting a single whispered word��Churchill�. �Churchill��in that name, lay the hope beyond despair.�
Noteworthy Quotations
1. �I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.��from his maiden speech as prime minister, May 13, 1940.���������
These words ring with the first ray power to face adversity without flinching. By speaking directly of the inevitability of the very worst, he evoked the very best�for he understood that the spirit, in its own essence, will not accept defeat.
2. �Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty, and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, �This was their finest hour�.��from a speech given before the House of Commons, June 18, 1940, announcing the fall of France, and the start of the Battle of Britain.�����
The moment was desperate. France had fallen and the Battle of Britain was about to begin. Here he displays the first ray/sixth ray power to evoke in his countrymen a soaring strength based upon their love of the British Empire. His call was to their patriotism and nobility of spirit. The vision of a splendid future is given; the suggestion is planted�the Commonwealth will last for a thousand years; there will be no Thousand Year Reich. All that is required is that we face the peril�braced and ready to perform our duty to the uttermost. Churchill is lifting the morale of his nation, preparing it for battle.
3. �Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.��from a speech before the House of Commons, London, August 20, 1940, in which he referred to the pilots who fought the Battle of Britain.�����
Gratitude pours through these words which could not help but evoke gratitude from every British citizen. The heroism of the pilots calls for heroism on the part of all. His fourth ray power of contrast is at work.
4. �This is no war for domination or imperial aggrandisement or material gain.... It is a war ... to establish, on impregnable rocks, the rights of the individual and it is a war to establish and revive the stature of man.��from a speech before the house of Commons, London, September 3, 1939, on the day of the declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France.������
Here Churchill is speaking for the preservation of civilized values. As a historian, he understands that the Nazi peril is not just an attack against certain nations, but against the very progress of humanity.
5. �Outside the storms of way may blow and the lands may be lashed with the fury of its gales, but in our own hearts this Sunday morning there is peace. Our hands may be active but our consciences are at rest.��spoken by Churchill to Parliament on the day that Hitler invaded Poland.�����������
Here in image and metaphor he comforts the people, assuring them that theirs is a righteous cause and that they are on the side of the �Good�. It is a spiritual message, reinforcing the alignment of the nation with the subtle spiritual potencies.
6. �I felt as if I were walking with destiny, and that all my past life had been but a preparation for this hour and this trial��from The Gathering Storm, p. 38.���
Churchill realizes that there is a guiding providence. He is under the direction of his soul and realizes that he is an instrument of impersonal destiny. This is a first ray realization.
7. �Sure I am of this, that you have only to endure to conquer. You have only to persevere to save yourselves.��from his first wartime address, September 4, 1914, London.��
Some of his leading thoughts were already fashioned during the First World War. We see the themes of endurance and perseverance. These are Vulcanian themes and relate to the holding power of the first ray.
8. �Do not let us speak of darker days; let us rather speak of sterner days. These are not dark days: these are great days�the greatest days our country has ever lived.��from a speech at Harrow School, England, October 29, 1941.���������
Here Churchill is lifting his listeners out of the looming darkness into the promising light. He is altering the quality of their perception by speaking from a elevated perspective which sees all circumstance with the eye of history, perhaps, though unconsciously, from the perspective of those who are the hidden source of his spiritual inspiration. He insists upon an unrelenting positivity which does not allow the spirit/soul to capitulate even subjectively. Using the Sagittarian energy, as well as the sixth and first rays, he is subtly transforming how the British perceive their situation and prospects. Refusing to be negatively conditioned by apparently dire circumstance, he, instead, insists upon a reinterpretation which infallibly evokes inner strength and resilience.
9. �A fanatic is one who can�t change his mind and won�t change the subject.��quoted in the New York Times, July 5, 1954.������
This quotation comes from post-war years. It is humorous and precisely true. As usual, his fourth ray mind and razor-sharp words, make the statement memorable.
10. �You ask what is our policy�I will say, it is to wage war by sea, land and air, with all our might, and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the darkened, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, �What is our aim?� I can answer in one word, �Victory��victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory however long and hard the road may be.���
Here are not only the �Will-to-Persist� and �Will-to-Victory� of his first ray would, but the great historical compassion of one who has seen too much of grief and human misery over the centuries, over the millennia. A mature and chastened soul is speaking, and his resolve is born of a vast and encompassing perspective.
11. �I want a war. I want a war��Churchill�s rousing daily exhortation to himself. When this was reported to Hitler, he became disconcerted, unable to understand Churchill�s continued defiance and resistance.�
The first and sixth rays are at work, causing the fiery energy in his own system to rise up and beat back any thought of negativity or depression.
12. �You do your worst, and we will do our best��addressed to Hitler in a speech on July 14, 1941.��������
A simple epigram dividing Good from evil, and simultaneously strengthening his countrymen, aligning them with the Good. The reader or listener is affirmed�exactly sure of where everyone stands, and that he or she is standing with the �Good�.
13. �We shall not flag or fail. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender��from a speech to the House of Commons, June 4, 1940.��
Churchill is actually leading the battle. With these words he becomes pervading presence in every place of conflict, infusing himself into every moment of struggle. This affirmation drives all Britons forward with an irresistible strength. Churchill has invoked the first ray with its motion of �Progress Onward�. Every thoughtform of failure is driven back. The vision of victory is firmly implanted in the psyche of his countrymen�they have no choice but to follow it and prevail.
14. �In Franklin Roosevelt there died the greatest American friend we have ever known and the greatest champion of freedom who has ever brought help and comfort from the New World to the Old��from The Second World War.�����
Roosevelt and Churchill were great friends (and only occasional rivals). These healing words bind the old wounds which arose during the Revolutionary War. They convey a recognized reciprocity. The Geminian brother/sister nations are harmonized and united. Churchill, himself, was the son of a British aristocrat and an American socialite.
Together Churchill and Roosevelt celebrated Freedom; unconsciously they were working under the Sirian Law of Freedom, and the Atlantic Charter is a testimony to their alignment with this great stellar Source. Both of them had Virgo Ascendants, within four degrees of each other; as the two major leaders of the free world, they were working, together for the purification of humanity and the Reappearance of the Christ.
15. �In war: resolution. In defeat: defiance. In victory: magnanimity. In peace: goodwill.�from an epigram used by Sir Edwin Marsh who called this �a moral of the work� in Churchill�s book.��������
Here we see the breadth, heart and highest virtues of the first Ray of Will and Power. This epigram expresses the Will-to-Good in action.
A joke is a very serious thing.
A lie gets halfway around the world before the truth has a chance to get its pants on.
A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.
A politician needs the ability to foretell what is going to happen tomorrow, next week, next month, and next year. And to have the ability afterwards to explain why it didn't happen.
A prisoner of war is a man who tries to kill you and fails, and then asks you not to kill him.
All the great things are simple, and many can be expressed in a single word: freedom, justice, honor, duty, mercy, hope.
(Sun & Venus in Sagittarius)
Although personally I am quite content with existing explosives, I feel we must not stand in the path of improvement.
Although prepared for martyrdom, I preferred that it be postponed.
(Mars in Libra)
Although present on the occasion, I have no clear recollection of the events leading up to it.
An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last.
Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference.
Broadly speaking, the short words are the best, and the old words best of all.
(Mercury in Scorpio opposition Pluto.)
Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities... because it is the quality which guarantees all others.
Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak; courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.
Criticism may not be agreeable, but it is necessary. It fulfils the same function as pain in the human body. It calls attention to an unhealthy state of things.
Danger - if you meet it promptly and without flinching - you will reduce the danger by half. Never run away from anything. Never!
(Moon in Leo)
Hyde Park Gate, London, England
Early life
Churchill's legal surname was Spencer-Churchill (he was related to the Spencer family), but starting with his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, his branch of the family used the name Churchill in their public life.
Winston Churchill was a descendant of the first famous member of the Churchill family, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Winston's politician father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was the third son of the 7th Duke of Marlborough; Winston's mother was Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome), daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome.
Winston Churchill was born in Blenheim Palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire; he was delivered unexpectedly when his mother went into labour during a carriage ride. The common myth that he was born in the ladies room during a ball is untrue.
As was typical for upper-class boys at that time, he spent much of his childhood at boarding schools. He sat the entrance exam for Harrow School, but, famously, on confronting the Latin paper, carefully wrote the title, his name, and the number 1 followed by a dot, and could not think of anything else to write. He was accepted despite this, but placed in the bottom division where they were primarily taught English, at which he excelled. Today, this famous ancient public school offers an annual Churchill essay-prize on a subject chosen by the head of the English department.
He was rarely visited by his mother (then known as Lady Randolph), whom he loved very dearly, despite his letters begging her to either come or let his father permit him to come home. In later years, after Winston reached adulthood, he and his mother became closer, developing a kinship more like a brother and a sister than son and mother, coupled by a strong friendship.
He followed his father's career keenly but had a distant relationship with him. Once, in 1886, he is reported to have proclaimed, "My daddy is Chancellor of the Exchequer and one day that's what I'm going to be." His desolate, lonely childhood stayed with him throughout his life. On the other hand, as a child he was very close to his nanny, Elizabeth Anne Everest. Churchill did badly at Harrow, regularly being punished for poor work and lack of effort. He had an independent, rebellious nature and he failed to achieve much academically, failing some of the same courses numerous times and refusing to study the classics (that is, Latin and Greek). He showed ability in other areas such as history, in which he was sometimes top of his class. The view of Churchill as a failure at school is one which he himself propagated. He did, however, become the school's fencing champion.
The Army
Churchill attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Upon his graduation at age 20, Churchill joined the army as a Subaltern of the IV (Queen's Own) Hussars Cavalry regiment. This regiment was stationed in Bangalore, India. On arriving in India, Churchill dislocated his shoulder while reaching from his boat for a chain on the dock and being thrown against the quay. This shoulder gave him trouble in later years, occasionally dislocating from its socket.
In India the main occupation of Churchill's regiment was polo, a situation which did not appeal to the young man, hungry for more military action. He devoted his time to educating himself from books which he had sent out.
While stationed in India, he began to seek out wars. In 1895 he and Reggie Barnes obtained leave to travel to Cuba to observe the Spanish battles against Cuban guerrillas. Churchill obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic newspaper. To Churchill's delight he came under fire for the first time on his twenty-first birthday. On his way to Cuba he also made his first visit to the United States, being introduced to New York society by one of his mother's lovers, Bourke Cockran. In 1897 Churchill attempted to travel to the Greco-Turkish War but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. He therefore continued on to England on leave before hearing of the Pathan revolt on the North West Frontier and rushing back to India to participate in the campaign to put it down.
Sir Bindon Blood, the commander of this expedition, had promised Churchill could be involved; he participated in the six-week campaign, also writing articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph at £5 an article. By October 1897 Churchill was back in Britain and his first book, The Story of the Malakand Field Force, on that campaign, was published in December.
While still officially stationed in India, and having obtained a long period of leave, Churchill attempted to get himself assigned to the army being put together and commanded by Lord Kitchener and intended to achieve the reconquest of the Sudan. Kitchener opposed the assignment but Churchill pulled strings, including a telegram to Kitchener from the Prime Minister the Marquess of Salisbury. In the end, Churchill was able to obtain a posting to the 21st Lancers—a force whose composition was chosen by the War Office, not Kitchener. He also served as a war correspondent for the Morning Post, at a rate of £15 per column. While in the Sudan, Churchill participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge at the battle of Omdurman. By October 1898, he had returned to Britain and begun work on the two-volume The River War, published the following year.
In 1899 Churchill left the army and decided upon a parliamentary career. He stood as a Conservative candidate in Oldham in a by-election of that year. He came in third (Oldham was at that time a two-seat borough), failing to be elected.
On 12 October 1899 the second Anglo-Boer war between Britain and the Afrikaners broke out in South Africa. Churchill set off as a war correspondent for the Morning Post, receiving £250 a month for four months. Once in South Africa, he accepted a lift on a British Army Armoured Train under the command of Aylmer Haldane; this train was derailed by a Boer ambush and explosion. Churchill, though not officially a combatant, took charge of operations to get the track cleared and managed to ensure that the engine and half the train, carrying the wounded, could escape. Churchill, however, was not so lucky and, together with other officers and soldiers, was captured and held in a POW camp in Pretoria, despite uncertainty about his combatant status. Churchill would claim, in My Early Life, published in 1930, that he had been captured by General Louis Botha, subsequently prime minister of the then Union of South Africa, but this claim has been challenged, notably by Churchill's grand-daughter Celia Sandys in her book Churchill Wanted Dead or Alive.
Churchill managed to escape from his prison camp, resulting in a long-running criticism and controversy as it was claimed that he did not wait for Haldane and another man who had planned the escape, but who were unable, or unwilling, to risk slipping over the fence when Churchill did. Once outside the Pretoria prison camp, Churchill travelled almost 300 miles (480 km) to Portuguese Lourenço Marques in Delagoa Bay, with the assistance of an English mine manager who hid him down his mine and smuggled him onto a train headed out of Boer territory. His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain, though instead of returning home he took ship to Durban and rejoined General Redvers Buller's army on its march to relieve Ladysmith and take Pretoria. This time, although continuing as a war correspondent, Churchill gained a commission in the South African Light Horse Regiment. He fought at Spion Kop and was one of the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria; in fact, he and the Duke of Marlborough, his cousin, were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria, where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer guards of the prison camp there.
Churchill's two books on the Boer war, London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and Ian Hamilton's March, were published in May and October 1900 respectively.
Parliament
After returning from South Africa, Churchill again stood as a Conservative party candidate in Oldham, this time in the 1900 general election, or Khaki election.
He was duly elected, but rather than attending the opening of Parliament, he embarked on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States, by means of which he raised ten thousand pounds for himself. (Members of Parliament were unpaid in those days and Churchill was not rich by the standards of the time.) While in the United States, one of his speeches was introduced by Mark Twain. He dined with Theodore Roosevelt, however, they did not take to each other.
In February 1901, Churchill arrived back in Britain to enter Parliament, and became associated with a group of Tory dissidents led by Lord Hugh Cecil and referred to as the Hughligans, a play on "Hooligans". During his first parliamentary session, Churchill provoked controversy by opposing the government's army estimates, arguing against extravagant military expenditure. By 1903, he was drawing away from Lord Hugh's views. He also opposed the Liberal Unionist leader Joseph Chamberlain, whose party was in coalition with the Conservatives. Chamberlain proposed extensive tariff reforms intended to protect the economic pre-eminence of Britain behind tariff barriers. This earned Churchill the detestation of his own supporters — indeed, Conservative backbenchers staged a walkout once while he was speaking. His own constituency effectively deselected him, although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election.
In 1904, Churchill's dissatisfaction with the Conservatives and the appeal of the Liberals had grown so strong that, on returning from the Whitsun recess, he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party. As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade. He won the seat of Manchester North West (carefully selected for him) in the 1906 general election.
Churchill as a young manFrom 1903 until 1905 Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill, a two-volume biography of his father which came out in 1906 and was received as a masterpiece. However, filial devotion caused him to soften some of his father's less attractive aspects.[citation needed]
Ministerial office
When the Liberals took office, with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as Prime Minister, in December 1905 Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies. Serving under the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin, Churchill dealt with the adoption of constitutions for the defeated Boer republics of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony and with the issue of 'Chinese slavery' in South African mines. He also became a prominent spokesman on free trade. Churchill soon became the most prominent member of the Government outside the Cabinet, and when Campbell-Bannerman was succeeded by Herbert Henry Asquith in 1908, it came as little surprise when Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Under the law at the time, a newly appointed Cabinet Minister was obliged to seek re-election at a by-election. Churchill lost his Manchester seat to the Conservative William Joynson-Hicks but was soon elected in another by-election at Dundee constituency. As President of the Board of Trade he pursued radical social reforms in conjunction with David Lloyd George, the new Chancellor of the Exchequer.
In 1910 Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary, where he was to prove somewhat controversial. A famous photograph from the time shows the impetuous Churchill taking personal charge of the January 1911 Sidney Street Siege, peering around a corner to view a gun battle between cornered anarchists and Scots Guards. His role attracted much criticism. The building under siege caught fire. Churchill denied the fire brigade access, forcing the criminals to choose surrender or death. Arthur Balfour asked, "He [Churchill] and a photographer were both risking valuable lives. I understand what the photographer was doing but what was the Right Honourable gentleman doing?"
1910 also saw Churchill preventing the army being used to deal with a dispute at the Cambrian Colliery mine in Tonypandy. Initially Churchill blocked the use of troops fearing a repeat of the 1887 'bloody Sunday' in Trafalgar Square. Nevertheless troops were deployed to protect the mines and to avoid riots when thirteen strikers were tried for minor offences, an action that broke the tradition of not involving the military in civil affairs and led to lingering dislike for Churchill in Wales.
In 1911, Churchill became First Lord of the Admiralty, a post he would hold into World War I. He gave impetus to reform efforts, including development of naval aviation, tanks, and the switch in fuel from coal to oil, a massive engineering task, also reliant on securing Mesopotamia's oil rights, bought circa 1907 through the secret service using the Royal Burmah Oil Company as a front company.
The development of the battle tank was financed from naval research funds via the Landships Committee, and, although a decade later development of the battle tank would be seen as a stroke of genius, at the time it was seen as misappropriation of funds. The tank was deployed too early and in too few numbers, much to Churchill's annoyance. He wanted a fleet of tanks used to surprise the Germans under cover of smoke, and to open a large section of the trenches by crushing barbed wire and creating a breakthrough sector.
In 1915 Churchill was one of the political and military engineers of the disastrous Gallipoli landings on the Dardanelles during World War I. Churchill took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government, the Conservatives demanded Churchill's demotion as the price for entry. For several months Churchill served in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, before resigning from the government feeling his energies were not being used. He rejoined the army, though remaining an MP, and served for several months on the Western Front commanding a battalion. During this period his second in command was a young Archibald Sinclair who would later lead the Liberal Party.
Return to power
In December 1916, Asquith resigned as Prime Minister and was replaced by Lloyd George. The time was thought not yet right to risk the Conservatives' wrath by bringing Churchill back into government. However, in July 1917 Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions. He was the main architect of the Ten Year Rule, but the major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". He secured from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation — and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine. He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State. Churchill always disliked Éamon de Valera, the Sinn Féin leader.
Career between the wars
In 1920, as Secretary for War and Air, Churchill had responsibility for quelling the rebellion of Kurds and Arabs in British-occupied Iraq, which he achieved by authorising the use of poison gas. At the time he wrote, "I am strongly in favour of using poison gas against uncivilised tribes" - although Churchill's intention was 'to cause disablement of some kind but not death' (from pages 179-181 of Simons, Geoff. "IRAQ: FROM SUMER TO SUDAN". London: St. Martins Press, 1994). This was the first recorded use of poison gas against a civilian population.
In October 1922, Churchill underwent an operation to remove his appendix. Upon his return, he learned that the government had fallen and a General Election was looming. The Liberal Party was now beset by internal division and Churchill's campaign was weak. He lost his seat at Dundee to prohibitionist, Edwin Scrymgeour, quipping that he had lost his ministerial office, his seat and his appendix all at once. Churchill stood for the Liberals again in the 1923 general election, losing in Leicester, but over the next few months he moved towards the Conservative Party in all but name. His first electoral contest as an Independent candidate, fought under the label of "Independent Anti-Socialist," was narrowly lost in a by-election in a London riding -- his third electoral defeat in less than two years. However, he stood for election yet again several months later in the General Election of 1924, again as an Independent candidate, this time under the label of "Constitutionalist" although with Conservative backing, and was finally elected to represent Epping (a statue in his honour in Woodford Green was erected when Woodford Green was part of the Epping constituency). The following year he formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that "Anyone can rat [change parties], but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat."
He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924 under Stanley Baldwin and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard, which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926. This decision prompted the economist John Maynard Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard would lead to a world depression. Churchill later regarded this as one of the worst decisions of his life; he was not an economist and that he acted on the advice of the Governor of the Bank of England, Montagu Norman.
During the General Strike of 1926, Churchill was reported to have suggested that machine guns be used on the striking miners. Churchill edited the Government's newspaper, the British Gazette, and during the dispute he argued that "either the country will break the General Strike, or the General Strike will break the country." Furthermore, he controversially claimed that the Fascism of Benito Mussolini had "rendered a service to the whole world," showing, as it had, "a way to combat subversive forces" — that is, he considered the regime to be a bulwark against the perceived threat of Communist revolution. At one point, Churchill went as far as to call Mussolini the "Roman genius ... the greatest lawgiver among men." [1]
The Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 General Election. In the next two years, Churchill became estranged from the Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule, which he bitterly opposed. He denigrated the father of the Indian independence movement, Mahatma Gandhi, as "a half-naked fakir" who "ought to be laid, bound hand and foot, at the gates of Delhi and then trampled on by an enormous elephant with the new viceroy seated on its back". When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet. He was now at the lowest point in his career, in a period known as "the wilderness years". He spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, including Marlborough: His Life and Times — a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough — and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (which was not published until well after WWII). He became most notable for his outspoken opposition towards the granting of independence to India (see Simon Commission and Government of India Act 1935).
Soon, though, his attention was drawn to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the dangers of Germany's rearmament. For a time he was a lone voice calling on Britain to strengthen itself to counter the belligerence of Germany. [2] Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler, leading the wing of the Conservative Party that opposed the Munich Agreement which Chamberlain famously declared to mean "peace in our time". [3] He was also an outspoken supporter of King Edward VIII during the Abdication Crisis, leading to some speculation that he might be appointed Prime Minister if the King refused to take Baldwin's advice and consequently the government resigned. However, this did not happen, and Churchill found himself politically isolated and bruised for some time after this.
Role as wartime Prime Minister
Yousuf Karsh portrait of Winston Churchill on cover of Life magazine.At the outbreak of the Second World War Churchill--after a brief offer by Chamberlain to appoint him as a minister without portfolio--was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and a member of the War Cabinet, just as he was in the first part of the First World War. According to myth, the Navy sent out: "Winston's back!"
In this job he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called "Phony War", when the only noticeable action was at sea. Churchill advocated the pre-emptive occupation of the neutral Norwegian iron-ore port of Narvik and the iron mines in Kiruna, Sweden, early in the War. However, Chamberlain and the rest of the War Cabinet disagreed, and the operation was delayed until the German invasion of Norway, which was successful despite British efforts.
On 10 May 1940, hours before the German invasion of France by a surprising lightning advance through the Low Countries, it became clear that, following failure in Norway and general incompetence, the country had no confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The commonly accepted version of events states that Lord Halifax turned down the post of Prime Minister because he believed he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords instead of the House of Commons. Although traditionally the Prime Minister does not advise the King on the former's successor, Chamberlain wanted someone who would command the support of all three major parties in the House of Commons. A meeting with the other two party leaders led to the recommendation of Churchill, and as a constitutional monarch, George VI asked Churchill to be Prime Minister and to form an all-party government. Churchill, breaking with tradition, did not send Chamberlain a message expressing regret over his resignation. [4]
Churchill's greatest achievement was that he refused to capitulate when defeat by Germany was a strong possibility and he remained a strong opponent of any negotiations with Germany. Few others in the Cabinet had this degree of resolve. By adopting this policy Churchill maintained Britain as a base from which the Allies could attack Germany, thereby ensuring that the Soviet sphere of influence did not also extend over Western Europe at the end of the war.
In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war, Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence. He immediately put his friend and confidant, the industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook, in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's astounding business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering that eventually made the difference in the war.
Churchill's speeches were a great inspiration to the embattled British. His first speech as Prime Minister was the famous "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat" speech. He followed that closely with two other equally famous ones, given just before the Battle of Britain. One included the immortal line, "We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." The other included the equally famous "Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour.' " At the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few", which engendered the enduring nickname "The Few" for the Allied fighter pilots who won it. One of his most memorable war speeches came on 10 November 1942 at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at Mansion House in London. That day, word had come that American and British troops had surrounded the port of Casablanca in Africa. As most people were saying it was the beginning of the end, Churchill famously said
"This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning"
This was not his final involvement with the RAF. Churchill issued orders to raze German cities to the ground using "terror bombing" raids. He encouraged these "impressive acts of terror and wanton destruction" through "other pretexts", which were to depress German morale and "de-house" the German population. [1] Implementation of the plan resulted in the destruction by relentless firebombing of historic German cities such as Cologne, Hamburg and Dresden.
Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in 1943His good relationship with Franklin D. Roosevelt secured vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes. It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt immediately set about implementing a new method of not only providing military hardware to Britain without the need for monetary payment, but also of providing, free of fiscal charge, much of the shipping that transported the supplies. Put simply, Roosevelt persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the USA; and so Lend-lease was born. Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter, Europe first strategy, the Declaration by the United Nations and other war policies. Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare, which established, conducted and fostered covert, subversive and partisan operations in occupied territories with notable success; and also the Commandos which established the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces. The Russians referred to him as the "British Bulldog".
Churchill's health suffered, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia.
Churchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-WWII European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by Harry S. Truman, Churchill, and Stalin at Potsdam. At the second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and together with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a toned down version of the original Morgenthau Plan, where they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender "into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character."[5]
The settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union and between Germany and Poland, was viewed as a betrayal in Poland during the post-war years, as it was established against the views of the Polish government in exile. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders. As he expounded in the House of Commons in 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions." However the resulting expulsions of Germans was carried out by the Soviet Union in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to amongst others a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons, the death of over 2,100,000. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences.
On 9 October 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow, and that night they met Joseph Stalin in the Kremlin, without the Americans. Bargaining went on throughout the night. Churchill wrote on a scrap of paper that Stalin had a 90 percent "interest" in Romania, Britain a 90 percent "interest" in Greece, both Russia and Britain a 50 percent interest in Yugoslavia. When they got to Italy, Stalin ceded that country to Churchill. The crucial questions arose when the Ministers of Foreign Affairs discussed "percentages" in Eastern Europe. Molotov's proposals were that Russia should have a 75 percent interest in Hungary, 75 percent in Bulgaria, and 60 percent in Yugoslavia. This was Stalin's price for ceding Italy and Greece. Eden tried to haggle: Hungary 75/25, Bulgaria 80/20, but Yugoslavia 50/50. After lengthy bargaining they settled on an 80/20 division of interest between Russia and Britain in Bulgaria and Hungary, and a 50/50 division in Yugoslavia. U.S. Ambassador Harriman was informed only after the bargain was struck. This gentleman's agreement was sealed with a handshake.
The most critical study of Churchill is the revisionist work of John Charmley. Charmley sees Neville Chamberlain as having a sound appreciation of the nation's military and diplomatic strengths and weaknesses. Churchill, says Charmley, repeatedly overestimated British strength and forced a commitment to total war and total victory. But that led to national economic exhaustion, and the end of empire, as Britain was eclipsed by the U.S. and the USSR. Furthermore he argues Churchill had a deeply flawed character, exerted poor leadership, schemed and intrigued for war. Charmley believes the best policy in 1940-1942 was a negotiated peace with Germany and appeasement of Japan. [6]. This interpretation does not address the political and moral impracticality of leaving Europe under Nazi domination, nor how Britain could have survived indefinitely in a relationship with such a state.
After World War II
Although the importance of Churchill's role in World War II was undeniable, he had many enemies in his own country. His expressed contempt for a number of popular ideas, in particular public health care and better education for the majority of the population, produced much dissatisfaction amongst the population, particularly those who had fought in the war. Immediately following the close of the war in Europe, Churchill was heavily defeated in the 1945 election by Clement Attlee and the Labour Party. [7] Some historians think that many British voters believed that the man who had led the nation so well in war was not the best man to lead it in peace. Others see the election result as a reaction not against Churchill personally, but against the Conservative Party's record in the 1930s under Baldwin and Chamberlain.
Winston Churchill was an early supporter of the pan-Europeanism that eventually led to the formation of the European Common Market and later the European Union (for which one of the three main buildings of the European Parliament is named in his honour). Churchill was also instrumental in giving France a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (which provided another European power to counterbalance the Soviet Union's permanent seat). Churchill also occasionally made comments supportive of world government. For instance, he once said (see[2]):
Unless some effective world supergovernment for the purpose of preventing war can be set up… the prospects for peace and human progress are dark… If… it is found possible to build a world organization of irresistible force and inviolable authority for the purpose of securing peace, there are no limits to the blessings which all men enjoy and share.
At the beginning of the Cold War, he famously popularised the term "The Iron Curtain", which had been used before by Nazi leaders Hitler and Goebbels. The term entered the public consciousness after a speech given on 5 March 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, when Churchill, a guest of Harry S. Truman, famously declared:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere.
Second term
Churchill was restless and bored as leader of the Conservative opposition in the immediate post-war years. After Labour's defeat in the General Election of 1951, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His third government — after the wartime national government and the brief caretaker government of 1945 — would last until his resignation in 1955. During this period he renewed what he called the "special relationship" between Britain and the United States, and engaged himself in the formation of the post-war order.
Churchill with Canadian Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent in 1954His domestic priorities were, however, overshadowed by a series of foreign policy crises, which were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power, Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action.
The Mau Mau Rebellion
Main article: Mau Mau Uprising
In 1951, grievances against the colonial distribution of land came to a head with the Kenya Africa Union demanding greater representation and land reform. When these demands were rejected, more radical elements came forward, launching the Mau Mau rebellion in 1952. On 17 August 1952 a state of emergency was declared, and British troops were flown to Kenya to deal with the rebellion. As both sides increased the ferocity of their attacks, the country moved to full-scale civil war.
In 1953, the Lari massacre, perpetrated by Mau-Mau insurgents against Kikuyu loyal to the British, changed the political complexion of the rebellion and gave the public-relations advantage to the British. Churchill's strategy was to use a military stick combined with implementing many of the concessions that Attlee's government had blocked in 1951. He ordered an increased military presence and appointed General Sir George Erskine, who would implement Operation Anvil in 1954 that broke the back of the rebellion in the city of Nairobi. Operation Hammer, in turn, was designed to root out rebels in the countryside. Churchill ordered peace talks opened, but these collapsed shortly after his leaving office.
Malayan Emergency
Main article: Malayan Emergency
In Malaya, a rebellion against British rule had been in progress since 1948. Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and once again Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not. He stepped up the implementation of a "hearts and minds" campaign and approved the creation of fortified villages, a tactic that would become a recurring part of Western military strategy in Southeast Asia. (See Vietnam War).
The Malayan Emergency was a more direct case of a guerrilla movement, centred in an ethnic group, but backed by the Soviet Union. As such, Britain's policy of direct confrontation and military victory had a great deal more support than in Iran or in Kenya. At the highpoint of the conflict, over 35,500 British troops were stationed in Malaya. As the rebellion lost ground, it began to lose favour with the local population.
While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer plausible. In 1953, plans were drawn up for independence for Singapore and the other crown colonies in the region. The first elections were held in 1955, just days before Churchill's own resignation, and in 1957, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden, Malaya became independent.
Family and Personal Life
A young Winston Churchill and fiancée Clementine Hozier shortly before their marriage in 1908.On 12 September 1908 at the socially desirable St. Margaret's, Westminster, Churchill married Clementine Hozier, a woman whom he met at a dinner party that March (he had proposed to actress Ethel Barrymore but was turned down). They had five children: Diana; Randolph; Sarah, who co-starred with Fred Astaire in Royal Wedding; Marigold (1918 - 1921), who died in early childhood; and Mary, who has written a book about her parents. Churchill's son Randolph and his grandsons Nicholas Soames and Winston all followed him into Parliament. The daughters tended to marry politicians and support their careers.
Clementine's mother was Lady Blanche Henrietta Ogilvy, second wife of Sir Henry Montague Hozier and a daughter of the 7th Earl of Airlie. Clementine's paternity, however, is open to debate. Lady Blanche was well known for sharing her favours and was eventually divorced as a result. She maintained that Clementine's father was Capt. William George "Bay" Middleton, a noted horseman. But Clementine's biographer Joan Hardwick has surmised, due to Sir Henry Hozier's reputed sterility, that all Lady Blanche's "Hozier" children were actually fathered by her sister's husband, Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, better known as a grandfather of the infamous Mitford sisters of the 1920s.
When not in London on government business, Churchill usually lived at his beloved Chartwell House in Kent, two miles south of Westerham. He and his wife bought the house in 1922 and lived there until his death in 1965. During his Chartwell stays, he enjoyed writing as well as painting, bricklaying, and admiring the estate's famous black swans.
Like many politicians of his age, Churchill was also a member of several English gentlemen's clubs - the Reform Club and the National Liberal Club whilst he was a Liberal MP, and later the Athenaeum, Boodle's, Bucks, and the Carlton Club when he was a Conservative. Despite his multiple memberships, Churchill was not a habitual clubman; he spent relatively little time in each of these, and preferred to conduct any lunchtime or dinner meetings at the Savoy Grill or the Ritz, or else in the Members' Dining Room of the House of Commons when meeting other MPs.
Churchill's fondness for alcoholic beverages was well-documented. While in India and South Africa, he got in the habit of adding small amounts of whisky to the water he drank in order to prevent disease. He was quoted on the subject as saying that "by dint of careful application I learned to like it." [3] He consumed alcoholic drinks on a near-daily basis for long periods in his life, and frequently imbibed before, after, and during mealtimes. He is not generally considered by historians to have been an alcoholic, however, since his drinking produced few, if any, noticeable negative effects on either his ability to govern or his personal life. The Churchill Centre states that Churchill made a bet with a man with the last name of Rothermere (possibly one of the Viscounts Rothermere) in 1936 that Churchill would be able to successfully abstain from drinking hard liquor for a year; Churchill apparently won the bet. [4]
For much of his life, Churchill battled with depression, (or perhaps a sub-type of manic-depression) which he called his black dog [5].
Last days
Aware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally, Churchill retired as Prime Minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden, who had long been his ambitious protégé. (Three years earlier, Eden had married Churchill's niece, Anne Clarissa Spencer-Churchill, his second marriage.) Churchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell House in Kent, two miles south of Westerham.
In 1963 U.S. President John F. Kennedy named Churchill the first Honorary Citizen of the United States. Churchill was too ill to attend the White House ceremony, so his son and grandson accepted the award for him.
On 15 January 1965 Churchill suffered another stroke — a severe cerebral thrombosis — that left him gravely ill. He died nine days later, aged 90, on 24 January 1965, 70 years to the day after his father's death.
By decree of the Queen, his body lay in State in Westminster Hall for three days and a state funeral service was held at St Paul's Cathedral. [8] This was the first state funeral for a non-royal family member since 1914, and no one other of its kind has been held since.
As his coffin passed down the Thames on the Havengore, the cranes of London's docklands bowed in salute. The Royal Artillery fired a 19-gun salute (as head of government), and the RAF staged a fly-by of sixteen English Electric Lightning fighters. The state funeral was the largest gathering of dignitaries in Britain as representatives from over 100 countries attended, including French President Charles de Gaulle, Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson, Prime Minister of Rhodesia Ian Smith, other heads of state and government, and members of royalty. It also saw the largest assemblage of statesmen in the world until the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005.
At Churchill's request, he was buried in the family plot at St Martin Church, Bladon, near Woodstock, not far from his birthplace at Blenheim.
Because the funeral took place on 30 January, people in the United States marked it by paying tribute to his friendship with Roosevelt because it was the anniversary of FDR's birth. The tributes were led byRoosevelt's children.
On 9 February 1965 Churchill's estate was probated at 304,044 pounds sterling (equivalent to about £3.8m in 2004).
One of four specially made sets of false teeth, designed to retain Churchill's distinctive style of speech, which Churchill wore throughout his life is now kept in the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons of England.
Honours
From 1941 to his death, he was the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, a ceremonial office. In 1941 Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King swore him into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. Although this allowed him to use the honorific title "The Honourable" and the post-nominal letters "P.C." both of these were trumped by his membership in the Imperial Privy Council which allowed him the use of The Right Honourable.
In 1953 he was awarded two major honours: he was invested as a Knight of the Garter (becoming Sir Winston Churchill, KG) and he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature "for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values".
A stroke in June of that year led to him being paralysed down his left side. He retired as Prime Minister on 5 April 1955 because of his health but retained his post as Chancellor of the University of Bristol, and remained a member of parliament until 1964. In 1959 he became Father of the House, the MP with the longest continuous service.
In 1955, after retiring as Prime Minister, Churchill was offered elevation to the peerage in the rank of duke. He considered the offer, and even chose the name "Duke of London". However, he then declined the title after being persuaded by his son Randolph not to accept it, since Randolph wished to pursue a political career in the House of Commons, which would be impossible if he inherited a peerage, since, at that time, there was no procedure for disclaiming a title. Since then, only British royals have been made dukes.
In 1956 Churchill received the Karlspreis (known in English as the Charlemagne Award), an award by the German city of Aachen to those who most contribute to the European idea and European peace.
In 1960, Churchill College, Cambridge was established as the national and Commonwealth memorial to Churchill.
In 1963, he became the first person to become an Honorary Citizen of the United States.
Churchill is the tenth most admired person in the 20th century, according to Gallup.
Eight schools in Canada are named in his honour, one each in Vancouver, Winnipeg, Hamilton, Kingston, St. Catharines, Lethbridge, Calgary, and Ottawa. Churchill Auditorium at the Technion is named after him.
Churchill as historian
Statue of Winston Churchill by Ivor Roberts-Jones in Parliament Square, opposite the Palace of Westminster, central London. Other casts of the same statue are found in Oslo, Norway, Canberra, Australia at the Australian National University, and similar statues in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Churchill was a prolific writer throughout his life and, during his periods out of office, attained recognition as a professional writer who was also a Member of Parliament. Despite his aristocratic birth, he inherited little money (his mother spent most of his inheritance) and always needed ready cash to maintain his lavish lifestyle and to compensate for a number of failed investments. Some of his historical works, such as A History of the English Speaking Peoples, were written primarily to raise money.
Churchill was an excellent writer who taught himself the skills of historiography. In his youth he was an avid reader of history but within a narrow range. The major influences on his historical thought, and his prose style, were Clarendon's history of the English Civil War, Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and Macaulay's History of England. He had little interest in social or economic history; he saw history as essentially political and military, driven by national character as expressed by great men rather than by economic forces or social change.
Churchill was convinced that the British people had a unique greatness and an imperial destiny, and that all British history should be seen as progress towards fulfilling that destiny. This belief inspired his political career as well as his historical writing. He never modified it or showed any interest in other schools of history. Although he employed professional historians as assistants, they had no influence over the content of his works.
Churchill's historical writings fall into three categories. The first is works of family history, the biographies of his father, Life of Lord Randolph Churchill (1906), and of his great ancestor, Marlborough: His Life and Times (four volumes, 1933–38). These are still regarded as fine biographies, but are marred by Churchill's desire to present his subjects in the best possible light. He made only limited use of the available source materials and, in the case of his father, suppressed some material from family archives that reflected badly on Lord Randolph. The Marlborough biography shows to the full Churchill's great talent for military history. Both books have been superseded by more scholarly works but are still highly readable.
The second category is Churchill's autobiographical works, including his early journalistic compilations The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898), The River War (1899), London to Ladysmith via Pretoria (1900) and Ian Hamilton's March (1900). These latter two were issued in a re-edited form as My Early Life (1930). All these books are colourful and entertaining, and contain some valuable information about Britain's imperial wars in India, Sudan and South Africa, but they are essentially exercises in self-promotion, since Churchill was already a Parliamentary candidate in 1900.
Churchill's reputation as a writer, however, rests on the third category, his three massive multi-volume works of narrative history. These are his histories of the First World War — The World Crisis (six volumes, 1923–31) — and of The Second World War (six volumes, 1948–53), and his History of the English-Speaking Peoples (four volumes, 1956–58, much of which had been written in the 1930s). These are among the longest works of history ever published (The Second World War runs to more than two million words), and earned him the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Churchill's histories of the two world wars are, of course, far from being conventional historical works, since the author was a central participant in both stories and took full advantage of that fact in writing his books. Both are in a sense, therefore, memoirs as well as histories, but Churchill was careful to broaden their scope to include events in which he played no part — the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, for example. Inevitably, however, Churchill placed Britain, and therefore himself, at the centre of his narrative. Arthur Balfour described The World Crisis as "Winston's brilliant autobiography, disguised as a history of the universe."
As a Cabinet minister for part of the First World War and as Prime Minister for nearly all of the Second, Churchill had unique access to official documents, military plans, official secrets and correspondence between world leaders. After the First War, when there were few rules governing these documents, Churchill simply took many of them with him when he left office and used them freely in his books — as did other wartime politicians such as David Lloyd George. As a result of this, strict rules were put in place preventing Cabinet ministers using official documents for writing history or memoirs once they left office.
The World Crisis was inspired by Lord Esher's attack on Churchill's reputation in his memoirs. It soon broadened out into a general multi-volume history. The volumes are a mix of military history, written with Churchill's usual narrative flair; diplomatic and political history, often written to left Churchill's own actions and policies during the war; portraits of other political and military figures, sometimes written to further political vendettas or settle debts (most notably with Lloyd George); and personal memoir, written in a colourful but highly selective manner. Today these books are not in favour as historical references. As with all Churchill's works, they have little to say about economic or social history, and are coloured by his political views — particularly in regard to the Russian Revolution. But they remain highly readable for their narrative skill and vivid portrayals of people and events.
When he resumed office in 1939, Churchill fully intended writing a history of the war then beginning. He said several times: "I will leave judgements on this matter to history — but I will be one of the historians." To circumvent the rules against the use of official documents, he took the precaution throughout the war of having a weekly summary of correspondence, minutes, memoranda and other documents printed in galleys and headed "Prime Minister's personal minutes". These were then stored at his home for future use. As well, Churchill wrote or dictated a number of letters and memorandums with the specific intention of placing his views on the record for later use as a historian.
This all became a source of great controversy when The Second World War began appearing in 1948. Churchill was not an academic historian, he was a politician, and was in fact Leader of the Opposition, still intending to return to office. By what right, it was asked, did he have access to Cabinet, military and diplomatic records which were denied to other historians?
What was unknown at the time was the fact that Churchill had done a deal with the Attlee Labour government which came to office in 1945. Recognising Churchill's enormous prestige, Attlee agreed to allow him (or rather his research assistants) free access to most documents, provided that (a) no official secrets were revealed, (b) the documents were not used for party political purposes, and (c) the typescript was vetted by the Cabinet Secretary, Sir Norman Brook. Brook took a close interest in the books and rewrote some sections himself to ensure that nothing was said which might harm British interests or embarrass the government. Churchill's history thus became a semi-official one.
Churchill's privileged access to documents and his unrivalled personal knowledge gave him an advantage over all other historians of the Second World War for many years. The books had enormous sales in both Britain and the United States and made Churchill a rich man for the first time. It was not until after his death and the opening of the archives that some of the deficiencies of his work became apparent.
Some of these were inherent in the unique position Churchill occupied as a historian, being both a former Prime Minister and a serving politician. He could not reveal military secrets, such as the work of the code-breakers at Bletchley Park (see Ultra) or the planning of the atomic bomb. He could not discuss wartime disputes with figures such as Dwight Eisenhower, Charles de Gaulle or Tito, since they were still world leaders at the time he was writing. He could not discuss Cabinet disputes with Labour leaders such as Attlee, whose goodwill the project depended on. He could not reflect on the deficiencies of generals such as Archibald Wavell or Claude Auchinleck for fear they might sue him (some, indeed, threatened to do so).
Other deficiencies were of Churchill's own making. Although he described the fighting on the Eastern Front, he had little real interest in it and no access to Soviet or German documents, so his account is a pastiche of secondary sources, largely written by his assistants. The same is true to some extent of the war in the Pacific except for episodes such as the fall of Singapore in which he was involved. His account of the U.S. naval war in the Pacific was so heavily based on other writers that he was accused of plagiarism.
The real focus of Churchill's work is always on the war in Western Europe, the Mediterranean and North Africa, but here his work is based heavily on his own documents, so it greatly exaggerates his own role. He had little access to American documents, and even those he did have, such as his letters from Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower, had to be used with caution for diplomatic reasons. Although he was, of course, a central figure in the war, he was not as central as his books suggest. Although he is usually fair, some personal vendettas are aired — against Stafford Cripps, for example.
The Second World War can still be read with great profit by students of the period, provided it is seen mainly as a memoir by a leading participant rather than as an authoritative history by a detached historian. The war, and particularly the period between 1940 and 1942 when Britain was fighting alone, was the climax of Churchill's career, and his personal account of the inside story of those days is unique and invaluable. But, since the archives have been opened, far more accurate and reliable histories have emerged.
Churchill's History of the English-Speaking Peoples was commissioned and largely written in the 1930s when Churchill badly needed money, but it was put aside when war broke out in 1939, being finally issued after he left office for the last time in 1955. While Churchill's enormous prestige ensured that the books were respectfully received and sold well, they are little read today.
| Franklin D. Roosevelt |
What is the official London residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury ? | Astrology of Winston Churchill with horoscope chart, quotes, biography, and images
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill�British Statesman, Prime Minister 1940-1945, 1951-1955
Orator, Author, Historian, Artist: November 30, 1874, Blenheim Palace, England, 1:30 AM, LMT. (Source: entry in father�s diary, and a letter written by his father. Rectified to 1:19 AM by T. Pat Davis). Died, January 25, 1965, London, England.
(Ascendant, Virgo {some suggest Libra}; Midheaven, Gemini; Sun Sagittarius with Venus also in Sagittarius; Moon and Uranus in Leo; Mercury in Scorpio; Mars conjunct Jupiter in Libra; Saturn in Aquarius; Neptune in Aries; Pluto in Taurus)
Winston Churchill was undoubtedly one of the greatest statesmen of the twentieth century. So many and varied were his notable achievements, that few can equal the scope, depth and variety of his impact upon the progress and welfare of the human race. He was a man of extraordinary vitality and resilience, imagination, intelligence and daring�a truly great patriot, leader and defender of the values of Western civilization, one of humanity�s most inspiring orators, an author and historian of the first rank, a talented amateur painter, and a writer with a masterful command of the English language. Although the positive aspects of his character overshadowed by far his liabilities, these too, were significant and surprising�excessive and ill-considered zeal, stubbornness, arrogance, inconsistency and a kind of perpetual adolescence exacerbated by an immoderate use of alcohol.
Humanity owes an inestimable debt of gratitude to Winston Churchill. Without exaggeration it can be said that the heroic valor of his spirit was a decisive force in preventing the enslavement of humanity by the horrific tyranny loosed upon the world by the Nazi regime. Churchill (and the soul of Britain he inspired in those dark days in the early 1940�s) held out, virtually alone, against the murderous onslaught of the world�s mightiest military machine (the German Army) directed by malicious and hateful individuals who were obsessed by a vision of world conquest and domination. The odds were overwhelmingly against Britain�s survival. Once the Luftwaffe unleashed its full fury against the English cities and military bases, it was conservatively estimated that the country would fall in less than three months. The German war machine seemed invincible and hope but a cruel illusion.������
In terms of men and materiel the situation was, indeed, desperate, but wars are not won and lost on the basis of physical realities alone. Deep-seated psychological and spiritual factors played their crucial part, and it is here that Churchill�s character was worth millions of soldiers in the field. Well he knew that Western civilization (not just Britain) was in mortal peril. So deep was his love of that civilization and its cherished values, that his will was strengthened to a point inconceivable by normal standards. If the selfish and sadistic rulers of Nazi Germany were obsessed by members of the Black Lodge, then Winston Churchill was, equally, obsessed by the �Forces of Light�, by the �Good�. No doubt the Masters of the Wisdom directed towards him potent streams of vitalizing energy and inspiration, to sustain this man whose spirit stood as a bulwark between a besieged civilization and the yawning abyss. Had Britain fallen, Germany would not have been forced to fight a war on two fronts, and, through the concentration of its superbly trained forces, may well have prevailed over the Soviet Union. With all of Europe and the Soviet Union subdued, America, threatened from the West by Japanese aggression, and still inadequately armed compared to Germany, would have been gravely endangered. World enslavement under Germany and the Axis Powers would have been conceivable, and with it, the beginning of a thousand years of darkness�a �re-initiation into the Earth��. The Tibetan described the dire possibility in this way:�������
�If this does not take place [humanity�s ability to �use the mind as a reflector of soul purpose�], the present situation will turn into something far worse�a situation wherein the mass of men will be �re-initiated into the Earth and forced to turn their backs upon the dawning light.� A dark period of civilisation will ensue. Instead of the dark cave of initiation wherein the light of the initiate's own nature illumines the darkness and so demonstrates his command of light, the dark cave of materialism and of physical, animal control will take the place of the �lighted Way.� The earthy aspect of Capricorn, the lowest concrete aspect of the mind and an increased control by the Taurian spirit in its worst form will take the place of the divine possibility of entrance into greater light,�� (EA 543) (It should be noted that a number of Nazi leaders were powerfully conditioned by Taurus and Capricorn�Hitler especially�and by Scorpio as well.)���������������
That this terrible fate was possible (and even probable) was the conviction of the Spiritual Hierarchy of our planet Who, in the latter days of 1942, were preparing to withdraw from contact with humanity, convinced that the human race would indeed go down to defeat, and that the Black Lodge would triumph.
But Britain did not collapse. It stood, with firm and unflinching steadfastness before an overwhelming superiority of men and arms. This resolute refusal to give up was the glory of the British soul�yes�but that glory was magnificently inspired by the valiant spirit/soul of one man who insisted that not only would Britain stand, but that it would prevail in victory over Hitler and his Germany. With one-pointed almost superhuman intent, Churchill willed Hitler�s defeat�and it came to pass. He held the blazing torch of fiery resistance to evil when so few fires of freedom flamed against the encroaching darkness. Churchill. consumed in the fires of the Will-to-Good, burned with such persistence that, at length, the many lesser torches were ignited; a roaring bonfire at last arose and, directed against the aggressor, consumed it completely.
Winston Churchill and his Britain could not have won the war without the tremendous sacrifices of the United States, the Soviet Union and all their allies, but at a time when few seemed to care, or care enough, about the fate of humanity, he, at least, refused to lose the war�thereby buying precious time in which those, less alert to the peril than he recognized, could awaken and mobilize their forces. In the development of all great conflicts there are pivotal moments�hinge points�upon the outcome of which the future is decisively determined. The Battle of Britain was such a moment. Britain survived still strong; Germany paused and changed direction, divided its focus and was, at length, drawn into a war on two fronts which it could not sustain. Thus, did Germany meet its final defeat. The Battle of Britain and the victory of� the British resistance were the beginning of the end of German invincibility.
Which is the Correct Astrological Chart for Winston Churchill?
For many years it was supposed that the proper Ascendant for Winston Churchill�s astrological chart was Scorpio. Indeed, his powerful Scorpio qualities were easily discerned and the assumption seemed logical and astrologically valid.�����������
Some however, suggested a Libra Ascendant. Again, Libra is a sign evident in Churchill�s nature (he has two planets, Mars and Jupiter in this sign), and often appears in the charts of generals, public figures, and those who do not so much start wars as finish them.
Then, a letter from Winston Churchill�s father, Randolph Churchill, and an entry from his diary were discovered, stating that Winston�s birth had occurred at 1:30 AM, and not a few hours later as had been supposed. Although the 1:30 AM time is under suspicion as being, at least, slightly rounded-off, it gives an Ascendant different from those used previously (an Ascendant in the last degree of Virgo)�which might seem an unlikely Rising Sign for one of the world�s most resolute and willful wartime statesmen. Yet, this Ascendant has been accepted by many astrologers and rectified by some. Some have rectified this time slightly forward to as to produce, again, a Libra Ascendant. At least one other has rectified the time to about ten minutes earlier, to produce an Ascendant unequivocally in Virgo.
Some Justifications for the Virgo-Rising Chart
As one examines the chart with the Virgo Ascendant, number of convincing justifications emerge.
1. Physiognomically, the Virgo Ascendant makes sense. The 28th degree of Virgo, for instance, lies in the Taurus decanate of Virgo. Churchill�s decidedly �bull-dog� appearance is, therefore, at least partially accounted for. A close examination of the facial structure of those born in the any of the three decanates of Virgo, will show the last decanate (20� - 30�), all things being equal, to be the �beefiest�. As with both Mercurial signs (Virgo and Gemini) the physiognomy will depend much upon the position of Mercury (as in the case of a well-known triple-Gemini individual, Queen Victoria, who had physiognomically-determining Mercury in Taurus).
2. A Virgo Ascendant would emphasize the importance of the planet Mercury, placed in Scorpio. A Scorpio Ascendant, on the other hand, contradicts the birth information found in the letter and diary entry of Churchill�s father. A rectification producing a Libra Ascendant emphasizes the importance of Venus rather than Mercury. Venus is important, and can be seen in the Churchill�s fair and florid appearance, but Mercury in Scorpio is even more important�both physiognomically and psychologically.�
a. Churchill was a war correspondent (Mercury in Scorpio), a master of irony, sarcasm and biting humor (Mercury in Scorpio), and was, perhaps, the greatest war-time orator in modern history (Mercury in Scorpio in the second house ruling the voice).
b. His caustic criticism�so characteristically Churchillian�makes far more sense if the clarity and sharpness of critical Virgo reinforce the sting of the Scorpionic Mercury. This would be the case were Virgo the Ascendant.
c. He was a master of English prose (grammatical Virgo rising) and claimed to understand �the essential structure of the normal British sentence�which is a noble thing� (a skill, by imputation, beyond the capacity of most writers).
d. Churchill was, of course, a great writer�in fact receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953, for his history in six volumes, The Second World War. After 1899, he made his living through the pen�thus his Mercury in the second house of personal finances is a convincing placement. This Mercury position is, of course, emphasized considerably if the Ascendant is Virgo.
e. It must further be remarked that Churchill�s thrilling exactitude in the use of words is far more Virgoan than Libran.
f. The emphasis upon Mercury through a Virgo Ascendant accounts for Churchill�s extraordinary mobility�for instance, his eagerness during both wars to go wherever he might be needed�to the front lines, to meet on numerous occasions Franklin Roosevelt, to fly to Russia to meet with Stain�he was simply always ready to go.
g. Perhaps, as well, the presence of the Vulcanian cane or walking-stick is a hint about the importance of Virgo/Vulcan. Vulcan was a �god with a limp�.
3. Thus, we notice quite a number of Virgoan traits in this great leader. It should be pointed out that, were Libra the Ascendant, there would be no astrological influence of Virgo in the chart, but with Virgo as the Ascendant, the astrological influence of Libra is still very much present, through the Mars/Jupiter conjunction in Libr
4. When one thinks of Churchill�s emphatic character, his remarkable stamina, his refusal to give up or give in, it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that Vulcan (the planet of persistence and endurance) is mightily important. The Virgo Ascendant, esoterically ruled by Moon-Veiled Vulcan (and Neptune), gives the necessary Vulcanian emphasis.. It seems that in the case of advanced Virgo individuals, one must often, if not always, choose between the importance of Vulcan or Neptune. In Churchill�s case, Vulcan is the obvious choice, though Neptune (planet of romanticism) should not be discounted.
5. The Taurus decanate of Virgo does offer an important Venusian sub-influence, but again, an esoteric rulership by Vulcan is important. Thus, twice, Vulcan emerges within the context of a Virgo Ascendant, and not at all with a Libra Ascendant. We must remember that Vulcan rules �men of will�. (cf. EA 264)
6. Remembering that the principal esoteric ruler of Virgo is the Moon, Churchill�s Moon in Leo, conjunct Regulus, the �Heart of the Lion� is a highly significant placement. Here is great star of law and command, emphasizing, because conjoined with the Moon, Churchill�s tremendous personal authority and magnetism. He became the very embodiment (Leo, and the Moon as the �Mother of the Form�) of Britain�s courage and greatness of heart (Leo).
7. Of course, there are matters of timing which suggest the importance of a late Virgo Ascendant, giving, as it does, a late Gemini Midheaven.
a. The Nobel Prize for Literature was received on a conjunction of Jupiter to the late Gemini MC.
b. Churchill resigned the office of Prime Minister of Great Britain within the range of a solar eclipse which occurred within less than a degree of the 27�Gemini22� MC of the 1:19 AM rectified chart. He resigned on April 5, 1955 and the eclipse occurred on June 20, 1955. An earlier solar eclipse at 2�Capricorn59� on December 25th, 1954, would also be considered effective (especially in an early Libra-rising chart) but other matters of timing make such a chart less likely.
c. There are a number of aspects and eclipses to indicate his marriage on September 12, 1908, but, interestingly, the progressed Ascendant of the rectified Virgo chart, has reached natal Jupiter (indicator of marriages, and, also, orthodox ruler of his Pisces seventh house cusp�the marriage cusp). If the time were a little earlier than the 1:19 AM proposed by T. Pat Davis, the accuracy of the P-Ascendant/N-Jupiter conjunction would be even more exact. There is also a lunar eclipse at 23�Sagittarius04', about four degrees off the 27�Gemini22� MC of the 1:19 AM chart. Again, a slightly earlier time would make it closer, and also tighten the T-Jupiter to MC aspect on his reception of the Nobel Prize for Literature.
d. In January of 1919, Churchill became Secretary of War. A lunar eclipse occurred on Dec 18 1918 at 25�Ge03' (just two degrees of the proposed Gemini MC). Again, the eclipse suggests a time slightly earlier than 1:19 AM, but would be effective in any case. It would not be effective with a Libra Ascendant and a consequent Capricorn MC.
e. In the autumn of 1922, Churchill became the worst casualty of the fall of an already shaky coalition government; shortly afterwards had an attack of appendicitis (Virgo and Scorpio), and was unable to campaign properly, losing the election for which he was standing by a humiliating margin. There is a solar eclipse at on Sep 21 1922 at 27�Virgo25', just 34 minutes of arc from the 27�Virgo59' Ascendant proposed by T. Pat Davis. Again, a slightly earlier time of birth would render the already close eclipse even more exact. (There is a trend here which points to the validity of a time of birth perhaps slightly earlier than 1:19 AM.)
f. As a final �pi�ce de resistance�, marshaled for the purpose of validating the Virgo Ascendant, the Sabian Symbol for the 28th degree of Virgo rising is almost supernaturally congruent with Churchill�s image: �A Bald-Headed Man Who Has Seized Power�, or �A Bald-Headed Man Dominates a Gathering of National Figures�; �The sheer power of personality in times that call for decision�; �The Power of the Will�. These images are uncannily accurate, given the nature of Churchill�s character and the circumstances which brought him to his greatest power. Can the individual who rectified the chart from 1:30 AM to 1:19 AM have been aware of this symbol, and was it his principal reason for choosing that time? Probably not, as there are a number of other convincing astrological confirmations (especially matters of timing) and, in any case, the same symbol would have been in effect with a birth time as early as 1:13:30 AM�more the five minutes from the chosen time of 1:19 AM. The Sabian Symbols were derived in the earlier part of the century, and indicate a specific quality of energy which inheres in each of the 360 degrees. Are they universally accurate and useful? This has yet to be convincingly determined. In this case, the symbol for the proposed degree of Churchill�s Ascendant captures a description of character which is, to say the least, remarkably apt.
g. Perhaps the foregoing reasons will offer a sufficiently convincing justification for a Virgo Ascendant to allow us to proceed confidently with the interpretation.
Hypotheses Regarding Winston Churchill�s Rays
The Soul Ray: Ray I
There can be little doubt that Winston Churchill�s soul ray is the first Ray of Will and Power. Almost single-handedly, Churchill saved European civilization from barbarism. He did so by sheer force of character, and by a refusal to surrender no matter how punitively savage the attacks against Britain. He persisted; he endured; he stood and at the same time inspired his countrymen to dogged resistance and heroic countermeasures and offensives against the enemy. Clearly, these are all first ray virtues, and of them, Churchill was an outstanding example.
Astrological Conduits for the First Ray
The astrological conduits for the first ray force are noteworthy and important. Constellationally, the first ray signs Aries and Leo are tenanted�Aries holding Neptune, the North Node, the planetoid, Chiron, and the asteroid, Pallas Athene; Leo holds the all important Leo Moon, for which we may substitute the planet Uranus (already in Leo), thus adding weight to the Moon position as a conduit of the first ray. The star, Regulus, within less than a degree and a half from the Moon, adds its first ray, regulatory and directorial, power. Churchill was not a dictator, but his powers of persuasion were immense, strengthened (at least during the war) by his irresistible force of character.������
Uranus, monadically a first ray planet, is in the first ray sign Leo, in the house of idealistic group action, the eleventh. It opposition to Saturn (with its own first ray component) in Aquarius strengthens the first ray, creating a tension concerning how the first ray shall be applied�whether conservatively (Saturn) or creatively (Uranus), or both.
If sixth ray Neptune is considered one of the veiled esoteric rulers of Virgo, its placement in first ray Aries creates a combination of the first and sixth rays, and, thus, augments the power to inspire.
The importance of Vulcan�that most willful planet�has already been stressed. Following the presently useful rule of thumb that Vulcan should be no more than eight degrees on either side from the Sun�s position (many say, toward Mercury), the probability is that it would be found in Sagittarius (the sign of inspiration), but a possibility also exists that it might be found in the last degree of Scorpio. If found in Sagittarius, again the first ray (Vulcan) and the sixth ray Sagittarius are combined. Churchill was the master of the �set speech� over which he took enormous pains (fourth ray as �Corrector of the Form�), rather than the impromptu. A comment attributed to F. E. Smith, a British lawyer and politician illustrates this: �Winston has devoted the best years of his life to preparing his impromptu speeches�. The politician Lord Balfour, the Conservative leader said of him, that he carried �heavy by not very mobile guns�. Churchill knew how to take aim with those big guns, and Vulcan in Sagittarius would promote the undeniable power of his oratory to move and inspire. Churchill�s tremendous power of resistance, his one-pointed willfulness, suggests a Vulcan closer to the Sun rather than farther.
Pluto, another conduit of the first ray, must be mentioned, placed as it is in Vulcan�s sign, Taurus, and opposite the all-important ruling planet Mercury in Scorpio, a sign which Pluto rules. The ability to transmit will through the word, is thereby many times increased. Churchill was gifted with the word-power to destroy obstacles in the mental field. He was master of morale, rousing the British to unexpected heights of courage and resistance. Churchill spoke frankly of Britain�s dire situation: �I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat�, but this brutal frankness had the effect not of depressing the nation, but of summoning its valor to the fore. The T-square between Pluto, Uranus and Mercury, with Uranus on the short leg, represents the ability to mobilize group-courage (Uranus in Leo) through the compelling force (Pluto) of speech (Mercury). From yet another perspective, the Pluto/Mercury opposition can be seen as contributing to Churchill�s speech defect�the impediment of lisping and stuttering�which at length he overcame through sheer determination and oratorical power.����������
Sometime first ray Saturn reinforces by sextile the Sagittarian Sun, and Mars (with its own first ray component) conjunct expansive Jupiter (both in karmically motivated Libra), confers the power to retaliate against the aggressor�mobilizing the counter-blow.
Searching for the Personality Ray�Either Ray Six or Ray Four
When it comes to assigning the personality ray, we are faced with a dilemma, because both the fourth and sixth rays are so strongly represented that it is difficult to choose between them. Both of them are active on the personality level, and it is merely a question of discovering which is the principal ray and which is its sub-quality.
The Case For (and Against) a Fourth Ray Personality
1. Winston Churchill was a colorful and dramatic character, notable for his lack of discipline in a number of personal matters�he drank and smoked to excess�though, in all matters of high purpose, his focus and concentration were absolute.
2. Churchill was moody and experienced periodic bouts of heavy depression��the black dog on my back�. Depression is not an attribute of the fourth ray alone, but such natures are cyclically prone to it.
3. He was a man of temperament, with a great love expressive language and of painting. Of course, the artist, we are told by the Tibetan, is found equally on all the rays, but it cannot be denied that the fourth ray is especially connected with artistic expression. His two important planets in Libra (Jupiter and Mars) would, in part, account for this expressiveness, as well as Venus (planet of art and beauty) is partially fourth ray Sagittarius. The fourth ray Moon is self-expressive Leo is undeniably important, as well.
4. A certain British Labour politician, Aneurin Bevin, said of him, �He is a man suffering from petrified adolescence�. His frequent errors in judgment were a product of an erratic fourth ray nature as much as the over-zealousness of the sixth.
5. The factor of steadfastness�an objective most often yet to be achieved by the fourth ray personality, was already and indisputably present in Churchill�s psychological equipment. One can ask whether a fourth ray personality (with its proverbial inconstancy) could have withstood the pressures of leading Britain safely throughout the harrowing war years.
Conduits for the Fourth Ray
There can be no question that the fourth ray is prominent in Churchill�s ray chart�the question is, does it condition the personality as well as the mind (of which more shortly).
1. All three constellational conduits for the fourth ray are tenanted.
2. Scorpio, the major fourth ray constellation, holds the major planet of the fourth ray�Mercury�in its hierarchical position.
3. Sagittarius, a sign transmitting the fourth, fifth and sixth rays, holds the both the Sun and Venus (a planet which, for its capacity to harmonize, seems to have important fourth ray associations).
4. Taurus, another sign transmitting only the fourth ray (at least this is what D.K. tells us), holds the lethal planet Pluto
5. The fourth ray Moon is in a sign (Leo) which sign, itself, brings out a fourth ray quality�drama.
6. The sign Libra, associated with the process of harmonization (as is the fourth ray), holds conflict-prone Mars (thus, Mars in Libra is a �war-and-peace� position), and benevolent Jupiter (emphasizing more the harmony aspect of the fourth ray)
The Case for a Sixth ray Personality
1. Churchill was one of the most inspiring statesmen of the modern world. His powers to arouse, motivate and uplift (in even the darkest hours) were extraordinary, incomparable. The sixth ray is, above all rays, the ray of inspiration. Perhaps his greatest gift to Britain was that he never allowed its morale to flag. The power and presence of the sixth ray are unmistakable.
2. Churchill was a great orator�not because he screamed and gesticulated wildly as did Hitler, but because of the clarity and perfection of his language (Virgo), the steady, dignified and controlled emotion which underlay his delivery, and an unmistakable nobility of thought and aspiration which poured through his thrilling words�spoken with greatness and generosity of heart. The sixth ray, above all rays, makes the great orator.
3. He approached life with what some have called, �characteristic Churchillian intensity�. He threw himself into his projects with immoderate zeal. Whether he proposed to lead Britain to victory, write a book, or paint a picture, he was zealous in approach. The sixth ray is the �Ray of Undue Emphasis�. (cf., DINA I 322-323) His relish for dramatic action often led him beyond acceptable limits.
4. Churchill never wavered with regard to his major objectives. Disconcertingly, he might change tactics, sometimes unwisely, but in intent he was inflexible�a quality of the sixth ray (much reinforced by the first). One of his own statements of purpose will give the idea:�������
�I have only one purpose, the destruction of Hitler, and my life is much simplified thereby. If Hitler invaded Hell, I would make at least a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons�.
One has to laugh and simultaneously applaud. The humor of the fourth ray mind dances in these words, but the obsessive intent cannot be mistaken. The Tibetan has said of the sixth ray man, �his friends are angels, his enemies are very much the reverse� (EP I 209) This one-pointed (Sagittarius and the sixth ray) will to destroy Hitler is a perfect expression of the sixth ray.
5. Churchill�s personal energy was prodigious and almost constant. He was �down� now and then (for the fourth ray was strong), but his enormous resilience was proverbial. He drove the British Government with his immense and unrelenting energy�too intent and too focussed to be purely the product of the inconstant fourth ray on the personality level.
6. Churchill was a great idealist. When Greece, the cradle of Western civilization (as Churchill saw it) came under heavy attack, Churchill (idealistically more than strategically and wisely) diverted many badly needed troops from the North African theatre in the attempt to rescue that brave nation. He suffered the consequences, not really achieving his objective and sacrificing a nearly-achieved advantage in North Africa.
7. When the Duke of Windsor decided to abdicate his throne to marry the lady he loved (a �commoner��Wallis Warfield Simpson), Churchill quixotically and romantically defended his decision, even though public opinion was strongly against the abdication. Interestingly, that year, there was a solar eclipse within twenty-two minutes of arc of the proposed Gemini MC, and another solar eclipse on Churchill�s Venus in Sagittarius�hence his support of King Edward�s romanticism. The sixth ray, expressed through Neptune (and in a deep way through Venus) is the ray of romanticism�reinforced, of course, by the fourth.
Conduits for the Sixth ray
1. From a certain perspective, all three of the constellations/signs expressing the sixth ray are tenanted.
2. Sagittarius, of course, is the major sixth ray sign and it holds the Sun�in itself a strong indication of a possibly sixth ray personality. Venus, ruler of the third (or Taurus) decanate of the Virgo Ascendant is also of importance, and Venus is trine the sixth ray planet Neptune, which, itself, is a veiled esoteric co-ruler of the Virgo Ascendant.
3. The proposed Virgo Ascendant also transmits the sixth ray. Virgo is ruled by Mercury, placed in Scorpio, a sign strongly conditioned by sixth ray Mars. Virgo is also ruled by the veiled Vulcan and Neptune. Vulcan is probably placed in sixth ray Sagittarius and sixth ray Neptune is placed in Aries, which, like Scorpio, is a sign conditioned by sixth ray Mars.
4. The Equatorial Ascendant (not insignificant, especially as it is conjuncting the normal Ascendant) is placed in sixth ray Virgo.
5. The Anti-Vertex is also found is sixth ray Virgo, conjunct both the Equatorial Ascendant and the Ascendant, and the Vertex (which sign is significant for the quality of fated encounters) is placed in sixth ray Pisces.
6. Vesta, asteroid of devotional commitment, is opposed the Sun.
7. Mars and Jupiter, both planets of enthusiasm (Mars with a strong sixth ray, and Jupiter with sixth ray resonances on some level of its expression) are conjunct each other.
8. Sixth ray Neptune in sixth ray Mars-ruled Aries is closely trine the Moon (which presides largely over the sixth or watery astral plane of emotions.
Choosing the Personality Ray
As we can see, there are good reasons for choosing either of these rays (sixth or fourth) as the personality ray. While both rays share the �pros�, perhaps there are more �cons� against the fourth ray. Churchill�s unremitting zeal in the defense of his nation and the pursuit of Hitler, suggests more the sixth ray than the fourth. His Nazi opponent, was, in the author�s new estimation, also a first ray soul, and very reasonably a sixth ray personality. If Churchill possessed a sixth ray personality, then the two of them were matched fatefully and equally�engaged in a relentless battle to the death. Curiously, Hitler almost �courted� Churchill, feeling rather like a rejected suitor when Churchill refused Hitler�s frequent secret overtures for Anglo-German cooperation. Hitler, it seems, loved England in a strange way�identifying Englishmen with the Aryan Race. Churchill, on the other hand, simply hated Hitler (however, impersonally) and all that he stood for�without, however, hating Germany.�����������
Churchill spoke so often against the irresolution of the British leaders who preceded him, that a double fourth ray would be unlikely�the potential for the very irresolution that he deplored would be too great.�����
Perhaps the reader will find the following quotation from the Encyclopedia Britannica a convincing testimony to the strength of Churchill�s sixth ray�most reasonably assigned to the personality level:
�In a sense, the whole of Churchill's previous career had been a preparation for wartime leadership. An intense patriot; a romantic believer in his country's greatness and its historic role in Europe, the empire, and the world; a devotee of action who thrived on challenge and crisis; a student, historian, and veteran of war; a statesman who was master of the arts of politics, despite or because of long political exile; a man of iron constitution, inexhaustible energy, and total concentration, he seemed to have been nursing all his faculties so that when the moment came he could lavish them on the salvation of Britain and the values he believed Britain stood for in the world�.
Note the keywords: �intense patriot�, �romantic believer�, �devotee of action�, a man capable of �total concentration��there is nothing here to suggest the vacillation of the fourth ray, should both the personality and mind be qualified by that ray.
It is the conclusion of the author, therefore, that assigning Churchill a sixth ray personality has the greatest explanatory power, accounting most for his character and behavior. The Sun (so strong a contributor to the quality of the personality ray) is in the major sixth ray sign, which sign also expresses the fourth ray. It is reasonable to think of Churchill therefore as colored in his personality by both rays, but predominantly and preeminently by the sixth and modified by the fourth�a ray which almost certainly is the main ray of the concrete mental vehicle.
The Ray of the Mind: Ray 4, Sub-Ray 1
Here there can be little doubt: the planet of the fourth ray, Mercury, is the exoteric ruler of the Ascendant and placed in a sign which is, during this world period, most identified with the expression of the fourth ray�Scorpio.� Further, Mercury in Scorpio is found in the second house, associated with Taurus, another fourth ray sign. It must be said however, that Mercury is quite close to the house of communication, the house three (by the Placidus house system) where it would have a certain suitability. Mercury can also be �read into� the third house, because its sign is the same as the sign on the cusp of the third house.
For his noble prose, his constant colorful contrasts, for the delightful and arresting surprises in his turns of phrase, for the exhaustive labor he expended upon his choice of words, for his refinement and harmony of expression, for his irony and pungent humor, and for the power of his evocative imagery�for all these reasons, assigning the fourth ray as the ray of the mind seems incontestable.
Perhaps a few quotations from his various speeches and writings will demonstrate the fourth ray quality with clarity.�����������
�So they told me how Mr. Gladstone read Homer for fun, which I thought served him right��from My Early Life, Ch. 2.
Note the element of surprise, playful irreverence and unpredictability characteristic of the fourth ray.
�Those who can win a war well can rarely make a good peace and those who could make a good peace would never have won the war��from My Early Life, Ch. 26.
Here the fourth ray ability to compare, contrast and oppose one thing to another is demonstrated. Churchill�s frequent symmetry of phrasing suggests the use of the fourth ray.
�In defeat unbeatable; in victory unbearable��referring to Viscount Montgomery, commander of the North African forces.
Here the fourth ray, which might be called the �Ray of Contradiction�, is used to emphasize (with a mixture of praise and humor) the contradictions in Montgomery�s character.
�The is the sort of English up with which I will not put��taken from Churchill�s commentary in the margin of a report in which a Civil Servant had used an awkward construction to avoid ending a sentence with a proposition.
This is one of Churchill�s most humorous grammatical remarks (perfectly in keeping with his proposed Virgo Ascendant) . It uses the fourth ray method of exaggeration to prove the point
�Men will forgive anything except bad prose��from an election speech, 1906.
Again, Churchill surprises us. We have to remember that Uranus (the planet of surprises) is quite closely square to his Mercury in Scorpio. He simply does not say what is expected. The fourth ray uses this technique to shock (and delight) by contrast and thus engage the reader�s attention.
�I cannot forecast to you the action of Russia. It is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma��from a Broadcast Talk, October 1, 1939.
Here Churchill is doing some fourth ray word painting, creating a very evocative effect overall.
�We are waiting for the promised invasion. So are the fishes��from a radio broadcast to the French People, October 21, 1940.
Here we have the fourth ray love of humorous contrast. Always the fourth ray in the mind offers the possibility of the surprising non-sequitur.
�This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning��referring to the Battle of Egypt in a speech on November 10, 1942.
Here again is the fourth ray love of word-play, creating so many contrasts that the reader is made to think.
�There are few virtues which the Poles do not possess and there are few errors they have ever avoided��from a speech before the House of Commons, 1945.
Here again (as in the reference to Montgomery) is the fourth ray method of apportioning praise and blame through contrast. This method is also psychologically revelatory�it clarifies through contrast.
An appeaser is one who feed a crocodile�hoping that it will eat him last��attributed.
In his frustration with the blindness and denial of the government in power during the menacing build-up of German might, Churchill had the following to say. It is remarkable for its series of ironic contradictions:������
Here we find the undeniable stamp of the fourth ray as paradox is piled upon paradox, inconsistency upon inconsistency, for the purpose of revealing� the untenable position of the timid pre-war British government in all its cowardly hesitation.
A First Ray Component to the Mind
The fourth ray for the mental vehicle seems an unmistakably clear choice, but there are powerful displays of first ray energy through Churchill�s thought as well. Mercury is in Scorpio (which is ruled by Mars and Pluto�both of which have strong first ray components). In addition, Scorpio (the sign of Hercules) can be conceived as transmitting the first ray constellationally. Not only does Scorpio add the first ray coloring to the mind (and its thought and speech), but first ray Pluto is opposed to the Mercury position, adding its destructive power to the thought process.
The Rays of the Emotional Vehicle: Ray 6
Given the passion and ardor of his oratory, his great devotion to his country and his family, and his enthusiastic zeal in pursuit of any objective, there can be little doubt that his emotional vehicle was qualified by the sixth Ray of Devotion and Idealism.
The Ray of the Physical Vehicle: Ray 3 with Ray 1
Winston Churchill had small use for formalities. Though he labored tirelessly over his speeches to create the perfect oratorical effect, his actions on the physical plane were spontaneous and unpredictable. He showed little talent for strictly administrative projects or posts (which would appeal to those with a strong seventh ray). There was little about his life which exemplified seventh ray regularity. Rather, he was in constant motion, traveling where needed on the spur of the moment. (Uranus square Mercury promoted this.) A man of prodigious energy, his expenditures of vitality were equally prodigious. Evidence points to an etheric-physical body upon the third ray, reinforced by the first, for, equally, he was a man of �iron constitution and inexhaustible energy�.
Astrological Conduits for the Third Ray
Of the three constellations/signs which transmit the third ray, only Libra is tenanted, but it holds the powerful Mars/Jupiter conjunction. The Earth (heliocentrically placed in Gemini, representing the third ray and having much to do with the etheric/physical body) receives a trine from third ray Saturn in Aquarius. Mercury, with its third ray component, is ruler of the proposed Virgo Ascendant. The third ray is not found in Churchill�s psycho/mental vehicles, but it may be important as a factor conditioning the highest and lowest levels of his energy system.
Considerations Related to the Monadic Ray
As always, hypotheses upon the quality of the monadic ray are simply speculations supported by reason and inference.
Whatever the subray of the monad, its major ray must in all cases be the first, second or third. First ray monads are rare and even rarer in full expression at this time of history. A �pure� first ray type (by which may be meant, the individual with both a first ray soul and a first ray monad) are not presently to be found in the ranks of humanity, as the human race would not be ready for such an focussed application of pure will.������
The degree to which a subray of the monad will have a powerful modifying effect upon the expression of the monadic ray is worthy of careful consideration. The first ray (like any other ray) may be found as a subray on the monadic level. Or, in the event that the principal monadic ray were the first, the modifying influence of the monadic subray might be so powerful, that the prohibition against the appearance of a pure first ray type would be preserved. This would mean that an individual could have both a first ray monad and first ray soul, but that the monadic subray (being other than the first) would buffer the expression of the first.�����
Given, however, the breadth and diversity of Churchill�s multiple interests and accomplishments, his outstanding intelligence, his love of the written and spoken word, his passion for history and his proficiency as a historian, as well as the enormous activity he typically displayed, it is not unreasonable to hypothesize the major monadic ray as the Third�the Ray of Activity and Creative Intelligence. Churchill�s great commitment was to the values of Western civilization. The preservation of values is the task of those upon the first ray; dedication to the creative life as an enhancement of civilization is pursued by those upon the third ray. Churchill was a man of brilliant mentality�reasonably a reflection of the third ray monad. The gentler, slower, more unitive second ray seems less a part of his make-up.
Another great first ray soul, who displayed an outstanding talent for writing and for historical analysis, was H.P. Blavatsky, for whom a monad upon the third ray may also be a reasonable hypothesis. H.P.B. (incarnated as Cagliostro in the eighteenth century), had a close relationship to the Comte de St. Germain (later known as Master R.) This connection may have occurred on the third ray, for Master R. (now the Lord of Civilization and director of the entire greater third ray Ashram which includes ashrams upon the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh rays) is certainly a third ray monad. If H.P.B.�s monadic ray is principally the third, then the subray would almost certainly have to be the first.
(Parenthetically, when thinking of both Master Morya and Master Koot-Hoomi, we can with all reason understand them to have soul rays which are the same as their monadic rays. (Although They have no longer has a causal body, They do have a triad/soul.)� In the case of Master M, there would be a first ray monad and a predominantly first ray spiritual triad. In the case of Master K.H., there would be a second ray monad and a predominantly second ray spiritual triad. We may ask, �For how many of their leading disciple/initiates would this be similarly the case?� For instance, could AAB (a leading disciple/initiate of KH�s) be considered to have both a second ray monad and a second ray triad/soul? And what about H.P.B. in this regard? And yet, the counter-indications to identical rays for both monad and soul are there in H.P.B.�s case, so it may be best to avoid premature generalization.)
The point opposite the Sun Sign is considered, in any one life, an important conduit for the monadic ray. In the case of Churchill, it is the third ray/second ray Earth (in Gemini, heliocentrically). The Earth is the hierarchical ruler of Gemini. The placement of Earth in the ninth house, accentuates the global and historical perspectives, and would be an effective source of service (Earth) in the field of international statesmanship carried forward within the context of a deep understanding of the meaning of civilization.
It the matter of discerning the monadic ray, it may be the subray of the monad which comes into prominence before the major ray of the monad is detectible. This seems to be the case for Master Hilarion Whose monadic subray can be considered the fifth (as he is a Chohan upon the fifth ray and directs the entire fifth ray ashram), his major monadic ray being almost certainly the first. It is often difficult to determine which of two rays (sensed as conditioning the monadic aspect) should be considered major and which minor. Only if one of such rays is a Ray of Attribute, is the matter easy to decide, as no Ray of Attribute can be a major monadic ray.
Combining the Principal Ray and Astrological Indications
1. The first ray of the soul in combination with the proposed Ascendant, Virgo, confers the capacity to discern the highest values of civilization and culture, and the strength and endurance to preserve and defend them.
2. The first ray of the soul in combination with the Sagittarian Sun Sign, confers the power to strengthen the will (first ray) to achieve the envisioned ideal (Sagittarius). Churchill demanded victory over Hitler no matter what might be the cost. He envisioned total victory and was unrelenting in its pursuit.
3. The sixth ray of the personality in combination with the Virgo Ascendant renders one a devotee of excellence. In Churchill�s case the excellence to be achieved was in the field of thought and language, and in the area of aesthetics.
4. The sixth ray of the personality in combination with the Sagittarian Sun sign confers full and unrestrained devotion to a higher vision�so often for Churchill, the vision of powerful British Empire upholding and sustaining its rightful place in a dangerous world.
Ray Hypothesis for Winston Churchill
Monad: Ray Three, speculatively, Is the monadic subray the first? The fourth?
Soul: Ray I (with certainty); Sub-Ray 4 or 6
Personality: Ray 6/strong Sub-4
Etheric-Physical Vehicle: Ray 3, with strong Ray 1
.
Important Features in Winston Churchill�s Astrological Chart
1. From the perspective of elemental balance, we see five major planets (Sun, Venus, Moon, Uranus, Neptune) and a major asteroid and planetoid (respectively Pallas and Chiron) in fire signs. Essentially we have two grand trines in fire endowing Churchill with his seemingly inexhaustible energy and his undeflectable ardor. All air signs are tenanted (if we include Vesta in Libra), two of the earth signs and one water sign. Water (representing feeling and emotional sensitivity), therefore, is Churchill�s weakest element, and yet Mercury, the planet found therein, in Scorpio, is very powerful in the chart. We might say of him that he was a fiery romantic�not a languid and sentimental romantic. Even Neptune and the Moon (the most �watery� of planets) are placed in fire signs.
2. We have already discussed the importance of the proposed Virgo Ascendant, which made of Churchill a discriminating thinker and astute historian, masterful in the perfection of his prose, and in the choice of the oratorically apt word and phrase. Through Virgo, we can understand him as well as an individual intent on the preservation of cherished values, fighting (using other strengths of his chart) against anything that would compromise them.��
Virgo is also a sign of purification and eventual perfection. The two great wars, in which Churchill played so large a part, were part of humanity�s terrible purificatory process preparatory to the re-emergence of a new civilization inspired by the Spiritual Hierarchy of the planet. Perhaps Winston Churchill did not realize this for, like certain other great leaders, he may purposefully (before incarnation) have relinquished knowledge of his affiliations with Hierarchy for the sake of greater effectiveness in service to the race. He was, nevertheless, one of the leading warriors in the �Army of Maitreya�, helping to make the way safe for the emergence of the Christ Consciousness in the hearts and minds of humanity (Virgo) and for the tangible Reappearance of the Christ. Had his Nazi opponents prevailed, the Christ could not have returned�worse, the Hierarchy would have been forced to withdraw from contact with humanity.���������
Beneath his more obvious struggles as war-leader and statesman was a ongoing struggle for perfection of thought, for perfection of literary and artistic expression. Largely through his heroic efforts, the freedom without which no true culture can thrive was preserved. His various writings (and especially his histories) contributed significantly to the elevation of culture.
3. Churchill�s Sun is in the first decanate of Sagittarius. This was one of his greatest assets. Under its influence he became the most inspiring leader of the Second World War�a prophet (Sagittarius) alerting his country and the world to dangers they refused to see, an orator who vitalized the morale of his countrymen and inspired all lovers of freedom at a time when psychological depression would have meant defeat.��
Note that the Sun is placed in the third house�the house of communication, thought and the word through which thought is communicated. The Sun does not make many major aspects: a sextile to regulatory Saturn in the fifth house (steadying his resolve, and welding his Sagittarian zeal to group responsibility, for Saturn is in the group sign, Aquarius). Although the square would be wide, Saturn, actually, can be read as square to Mercury�yet another indication of the speech impediment and stuttering which he overcame so magnificently. Demosthenes, the greatest orator of ancient Greece, also stuttered as a youth. That Saturn is in the fifth house of personal self-expression only reinforced the initial inhibition, and acted as a check against spontaneity of expression.�����������
The Sun is also found in septile to Mars (the �God of War� in Libra, one of the karmic signs). The septile is often considered an aspect of fate. This septile creates a link between Sagittarian inspiration and the will to fight back against the aggressor (retaliatory Mars in justice-conscious Libra).����
The Sun is also quintile to the proposed Ascendant degree, making of his thought, speech and oratory an intelligent and creative servant of the soul-purpose indicated by the Virgo Rising Sign. His inspiring words were spoken and written in service to the refined values he sought to see preserved.
4. The Moon in the last degree of Leo, conjunct Regulus, and veiling, in this case, the electric fire of Uranus, is a position powerful for the expression of individual authority�and, the authority and indisputable leadership of the first ray soul. The grand trine between the Moon, Neptune and Venus (all in fire signs) is potent for intuition and artistic inspiration. It is a uniquely aesthetic triangle, combining imagination, beauty and deeply dramatic instincts. Occultly it signifies the alignment of buddhi with manas, and their embodiment in the persona.
5. The importance of Mercury has been much discussed. Churchill destroyed and purified (two powers of Shamballa) chiefly through the mind and its expression through speech. It is not a gentle vibration which reverberates through his words. Relying upon lethal Scorpio, he explodes one illusion after another. The mind of humanity is much clarified after it has been subjected to his perception. The two World Wars were principally battles against glamor, illusion and maya. Though his Pluto-empowered, Uranianly electrified, Saturninely chastened Mercury, Churchill was through and attacked the three-headed Dweller. The critique (spurred by perfectionistic Virgo) was complete. No flaw went undetected or unexposed. All stupidity and corruption were brought to light. A verbal blow has been struck against the forces of obstruction and obscuration.
6. Mercury holds an exalted relation to Virgo and is the hierarchical ruler of Scorpio. Hierarchical rulers come into play in those individuals who possess the initiate consciousness�and Winton Churchill may have been one. The power of the mind to access the intuition and, thereby, triumph over illusion is indicated by this hierarchical position.
Was the war won on the physical plane or in the mind and psyche? Surely, there was a tremendous battle for the hearts and minds of men, and Churchill�s hierarchical Mercury in Scorpio made him an fierce warrior in this subjective battle. His greatest opponent was more the Nazi thoughtform than the Nazis, themselves. He was one of the principal warriors committed to the destruction of Nazi glamor and illusion, and hierarchical Mercury in Scorpio (clear, deadly and uncompromising) was one of his greatest weapons. He saw Nazism for what it was. Could any good and reasonable person hearing his speeches and reading his words see otherwise?
7. Venus, representing the light and love of the soul, the higher values and aesthetic ideals, is found in Sagittarius in the third house of thought and word. Venus is also retrograde, pointing to a more reserved and introverted expression. Surely he was capable of many tender and romantic words�in private.��
Venus (reinforced by the trines from Neptune and the Moon) gave him his love of the arts, of beautiful verbal expression, and of the creative process in general. It contributed also to the harmony of his written and spoken words. The secret of his inspired oratory lies not only in its power, its incisiveness and arresting contrasts, but in the beauty of sound of the chosen words. Venus is a ruler of the Taurus decanate of the proposed Virgo Ascendant, and esoteric ruler of his MC. Clearly, through Venus, Churchill was carrying the inspiring �Word of the Soul�, and his many words (servants of the One Word), turned his readers and listeners inward to their own soul as a source of strength. He carried people beyond their smaller, personal concerns into a state of self-sacrifice and even heroism�of which each soul is ever capable.����������
Churchill�s marriage was a long and happy one. The grand trine in which Venus plays its part and the close sextile to Venus from felicitous Jupiter in Libra, the sign of relationship, beneficently condition this one area of his life in which harmony prevailed. There was a time, also, when, as the man who held the light, he merged with the soul of Britain, ruled by the opposite sign, Gemini. Under the influence of Venus and responsive to Sagittarius, he offered Britain the opportunity to see in the light of the soul, and tread the path of the soul. Through illumined and illuminating Venus, he became the �Guide in the Night�. The prominent fixed star, Polaris, also had a important part to play in offering this spiritual guidance to his nation and, by extension, to the world.
8. Mars in Libra makes the fighter for justice and right relations. Hesitant as an aggressor, it is determined to finish any fight forced upon it�in the interests of karmic redress. This position in Churchill�s chart contributed to the continual disruption of any harmony he managed to achieved. It also contributed to the creative ferment of his psyche.������
The parallel of declination between Mars and Juno (in a chart distinctive for its lack of such parallels) contributed to his romantic ardor. He was a devoted husband, father of five children (of whom one died early) and, in all matters concerning relationships between men and women, a romantic�as his defense of the abdicating Edward VII demonstrated.
9. Though a zealot in his stance first against Nazism and then Communism, Churchill knew how to cooperate and accept the advice of others when there was the possibility that it might be sound. The fourth ray, which was so often used by him to emphasize contrasts, could also be used to promote harmony and accord. Jupiter (a major planet of unification) in Libra (the sign of peace) could only be helpful in his attempt to promote cooperation. During the Second World War Churchill presided over a coalition government, which held together admirably under the circumstances. We see that this Jupiter-in-Libra ability to promote cooperation is furthered by a trine from Jupiter to the Midheaven. Churchill was a firebrand, but, gradually, he learned his lessons, emerging as a mature statesman. It is easily realized that Jupiter in Libra contributes to popularity�especially, when, as in Churchill�s case, it is sextile to Venus (planet of love and magnetism), the exoteric ruler of Libra. Since Jupiter is conjuncted the South Node, it would appear that Churchill brought these conciliatory and unifying abilities with him from previous life cycles. In order to hold to his first purpose and priority of defeating Hitler, he was even willing to join forces with the Communists. His cooperative overtures, however, always served a higher purpose.
10. Saturn in Aquarius in the fifth house is part of a grand-cross involving, by translation of light, Mercury, Uranus, and Pluto (to which Saturn is not, in itself, really square). Mundanely, Churchill lost a child (Saturn in the house of children opposed to Uranus, ruler of that house) and had trouble and pressures with some of the others. He also labored under the pressure to become an ever more creative individual, and attempted to overcome his inherent inhibitions (Saturn) to the creative process.���
His life was extraordinarily responsible. There were sudden and apparently irresponsible flights from duty (and from wise judgment), but, on the whole, his life path was not one of amusement (Saturn in the fifth house) but one of ceaselessly intensifying pressure�until his last ten synthetic and reflective years.��
Was Churchill a progressive (Uranus) a conservative (Saturn) or both and neither? The fourth ray enters the equation with all its attendant paradoxes. He took very individual stands on differing issues�sometimes Uranus predominated, sometimes Saturn. Their opposition caused him another of those sources of strain and tension which sought release in writing, art and war.����������
As an indicator of group responsibility, Saturn in Aquarius is important. It signifies one who takes on burdens for the collective.
11. First ray Uranus is in the first ray sign, Leo, in the house of creative group endeavor (the eleventh)�and also the house which represents the Spiritual Hierarchy as a creative Organism. This position points to Churchill as a dramatically expressive individuality offering his creative gifts to the greater group�thus shaking and electrifying the group. He stood uncompromisingly in his own uniqueness (Uranus and the Moon both in Leo), and re-mobilized his nation through force of character. Uranus is trine the midpoint of the Sun and Venus in Sagittarius. His words of inspiration led to great and revolutionary changes�first of all, in the conduct of war. We can see this position as one of the most important conduits through which his first ray soul could work.����������
In synastry, we find Churchill�s Uranus on Hitler�s Saturn�disrupting the permanent structure which Hitler was seeking to build. The two were really deadly enemies, with strong Pluto, Mars and Mercury aspects�mostly oppositions and conjunctions. It appears, as well, that their soul, personality, mental and emotional rays were also the same.
12. Intuitive Neptune is in Aries, sign of the �new�. Neptune is involved in a grand-trine with Venus and Moon, and opposes Jupiter in Libra. It also is in close and supportive sextile to the MC. Exoterically, this eighth house position of Neptune contributed to his alcoholism, because the grand-trine is not only artistic and inspirational, but self-indulgent. The eight house, as well, has not only to do with transformation and triumph, but with that which one must transform and over which one must triumph. So there is some self-undoing occurring in this very psychological �mansion�.�����
The opposition of Neptune to Jupiter shows strong heart center activation. Although Churchill was not principally a second ray type, any world leader of his stature, must have a strong heart center activation, or he could not be the focal point for a national (and even international) group. It is clear that Churchill was great-hearted. Many are the heart indications: the Moon in Leo conjunct the �Heart of the Lion��Regulus; Uranus (associated with the rhythmic pulse of the heart) in Leo, the sign of the heart; Jupiter and Neptune (the first being the disciplic ruler of the heart center, and the second being the ruler of the �solar flames� of the �Heart of the Sun�) in opposition, and Venus, another planet with heart center associations, related to all these planets�Neptune, Uranus, Moon, and Jupiter.������
Courage arises in the mature heart. We can say that Churchill held the British Nation (and also the Commonwealth) in his heart. In his person he absorbed and magnified the courage of the British People. Here is what he said�so beautifully, so nobly, with such humility�exemplifying his relation to the heart of his nation.�
�The nation had the lion�s heart. I had the luck to give the roar��said on his 80th birthday.
This is a deeply soul-inspired statement. The �lion�s heart� was the second ray soul of Britain expressed through its first ray personality. London, the center of the British Empire, has Leo (the Lion) as its soul sign. The �roar� was the magnificent, magical oratory without which Britain would not have survived. The poignancy of this statement lies in his humble recognition of the priceless privilege it was to serve the soul of his nation. Through the word, �luck�, Churchill, recognizes the work of fate in the role he played�he was but an instrument.
13. Pluto is, technically, in the sign of its detriment, Taurus. It is, perhaps, not so important by sign as it is in aspect and house position. Placed in the ninth house it serves as a prophet of dire danger and impending catastrophe, and as the destroyer of illusions�principally the illusion of peace in which England �slept�.����
Further, Churchill knew Nazism as an abomination, a world-view which threatened all that was best in human civilization and culture. He thought much the same of Bolshevism (Red Communism). He threw himself against these perspectives, seeking to destroy them not only on the physical plane, but on the plane of mind. This was part of his clearing, purifying, destroying dharmic work for humanity. As Pluto was the ruler of his third house of communication, thought and speech, he had the destructive mental power to wage war on the mental plane against philosophies he considered perverse and revolting.����
In some ways, he may have gone too far. His vision of a continuingly prominent British Empire made him the enemy of the self-rule of Britain�s colonies. He dismissively said of India, for instance: �India is a geographical term. It is no more a united nation than the Equator�. Gandhi, another great disciple/initiate, can not have liked to hear that.
14. We find the North Node in the eighth house and the South Node in the second. It may have been Churchill�s personal desire to preserve the status quo�in which the political and financial (second house) role of Britain in the world was secure and undisputed�but he was obliged to throw himself into the destructive processes of war (eighth house) to salvage his country�s freedom. Churchill�s life saw little of peace�first the Boer War, then the Great War, then the Second World War. His life and times called for struggle and triumph.
Testimony of Asteroids and Other Lesser Factors
Of the several larger asteroids (including the planetoid, Chiron) there are two significant positions.
1. The mother asteroid Ceres, is in a sign congenial to its expression, Cancer, and in the prominent tenth house. Under this influence, he preferred a paternal/maternal role for Britain, rather than the relinquishment of the colonies. More positively, there is a tenderness which emerges in his most moving oratory; his care for his nation and his sympathy for his countrymen were profound.
2. Chiron is placed in often-imprudent Aries, which indicates that one will be injured by what one initiates and one will learn therefrom. Churchill�s reputation was, on several occasions, badly damaged by ill-conceived initiatives�causing him to lose popularity, elections and posts. It is instructive to see that Mars, the dispositor of Chiron (since it is the orthodox ruler of Aries) stands opposed to Chiron. This aspect ensured that impulsively or hastily conceived action would come to grief. He always had abundant boldness and zeal in excess; these needed to be tempered and over time they were. Sobering Saturn is in quintile relationship to Chiron. The Second World War forced upon Britain great economies, and upon Churchill caution as a counterbalance to audacity.
Testimony of the Fixed Stars
1. We have already discussed the power of the royal star, Regulus. Regulus is not within a degree of the Moon, but it is within a degree and a half. The theme of Regulus (according to Brady) is �success if revenge is avoided�. Regulus is also called, �The Crushing Foot� and �King of the Heavenly Sphere�.� Churchill was the eternal warrior, fighting with the full powers of his impressive personality. But he was large-minded, as well, and although he could wither an opponent with a few well-chosen words, he was not mean-spirited or petty.
His antipathy for Hitler was not, essentially, personal. Hitler represented a monstrous ideology which had to be destroyed (for the sake of humanity). Hitler focussed his full �Will-to-Destroy� upon Hitler and his Reich, but he was not consumed by an ignoble and debilitating hatred. The impersonal force of the Good fed his intent, and avoiding the vengefulness which can accompany the influence of Regulus, he went on to victory. The forcefulness of Regulus contributed greatly to Churchill�s influence as a war-time leader.
Regulus is considered the most powerful of the four royal stars. Conjunct the Moon, it suggests a noble past instinctively accessed.
2. Antares, another of the royal stars, is closely conjunct Churchill�s Sun. Thus, there are two stars, Regulus and Antares which confer military prowess. Just as Regulus is the �Heart of the Lion�, Antares is the �Heart of the Scorpion�. Again the heart theme and its life-power are emphasized.
Antares is called the �Watcher in the West�, and can lead to great success if success does not turn to obsession. In a way, Churchill was obsessed or possessed by his mission�the salvation of Western civilization. His entire psyche was captured by the �Good�, in the same way that Hitler and his �evil gang� were overshadowed by evil entities. However, Churchill did not let his obsession consume him to the point of losing his larger perspective�the reason why obsession leads to downfall.������
Churchill�s extraordinary vitality was at least partially augmented by this star of extreme focus--working in combination with the one-pointedness of Sagittarius. With single-minded intent he pursued the defeat of Germany and victory for the Allies�he would accept nothing less.������
Antares is known as �Anti-Aries��the rival of Mars. This was clearly a force useful in countering Hitler�s Martian aggression. Churchill�s oratorical Mercury in Scorpio (no insignificant weapon) was, in fact, opposed Hitler�s Mars. Antares, conjunct Churchill�s Sun was widely opposed Hitler�s Pluto. Antares with the Sun confers mental alertness, strategic ability, courage and risk-taking bordering on foolhardiness. A headstrong self-destructiveness and obstinacy are indicated in the undeveloped, and firm will and great strength in battle in those more advanced. If there were any star to render Churchill a warrior, it would be Antares.
3. Mercury is in very close conjunct (just 02� of arc) with Zuben Elschamali, the star of �negative social reform� according to Brady. The negativity of this star and the more positive reformative tendencies of companion star, Zuben Elgenubi, cannot be taken too literally. Suffice it to say that both stars represent powerful forces which change the pattern of society; to this one can add Churchill�s Uranus (the planet of reformation) in Leo in the eleventh house of social reformation. It was the power of Churchill�s thoughts and words which changed the tide of the early European War. Churchill regenerated the morale of his country and Zuben Elschamali assisted.
4. A very different indication is afforded by Mirach conjunct Churchill�s well-aspected Neptune. Mirach confers harmony and receptivity; beauty, brilliance, beneficence and good fortune in marriage all attend its influence. Venus (the planet of marriage) is trine to Neptune (conjunct Mirach).� Mirach would influence positively the artistic, aesthetic side of Churchill�s nature.
5. Perhaps the most important fixed star contacts are the close conjunctions of both Betelgeuse and Polaris with the proposed Midheaven. These are two extremely important stars. Betelgeuse is said to give complete success (without complications) and is considered one of the most fortunate stars in the sky. It gives martial honors and great military fortune, preferment, wealth, fame, command and perfection in the arts and sciences. With Orion it is said to give a heart which presses on with unflagging energy in spite of every trial. We can see how well these descriptors fit with Churchill�s considerable attainments and lofty� reputation.
6. Polaris is a major �Star of Direction� and of �Reorientation�. It confers a good sense of direction and the ability to conceive and realize one�s aims.� The power to offer guidance is considerable. This quality is entirely applicable to Churchill in relation to his nation (especially during the Second World War). He was the captain of the ship of state, and successfully guided the entire process of the war.����������
Polaris confers the art of �refacing and recovering that which is lost�.� Britain began the war at a terrible disadvantage�so much had already been lost; European culture had been thrown down. But through the guidance Churchill offered, that which was lost was recovered and reestablished. The people of Europe found their way back to the soul and the threatening darkness was dissipated.
7. Note that both of these stars are only conjunct the Midheaven within one degree if that Midheaven is in the 28th degree of Gemini, pointing again to the explanatory usefulness of the late Virgo Ascendant, especially an Ascendant in the 28th degree of Virgo.
Some Important Events in Churchill�s Life, Astrologically Considered
1. In 1895, he father died tragically after a slow and painful syphilitic illness. Churchill entered the Fourth Hussars.�����
T-Pluto opposed the progressed natal Sun�within 2 degrees. There was a solar eclipse on the natal Moon later that year. In some ways the death was a liberation, as transiting Jupiter was crossing the MC. As well, the progressed Sun was conjuncting the IC�the place of family and tradition, often indicating the father. Later in the year, there was a solar eclipse very close to his proposed Virgo Ascendant, indicating his new military career. Because of the death, Churchill was forced to establish himself in the world and found the opportunity to do so.�����
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Sep 15 1894 NS����������� 13:31��� 22�Pi18' D�������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Aug 20 1895 NS22:08��� 27�Le14' D������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Sep 19 1895 NS����������� 05:44��� 25�Vi40' D�������
2. In 1899, he resigned his military commission to enter politics, and make a living by the pen. T-Uranus was, conjuncting the N-Sun and the Nodes were transiting conjunct the MC/IC. Later in the year, there is a solar eclipse on his N-Sun and also a lunar eclipse involving his MC/IC axis.���������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 3 1899 NS 09:57��� 10�Sg41' D������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 17 1899 NS10:26��� 24�Ge56' D������
3. In 1908 he won an important election and later that year, and on September 12th, he married the beautiful Clementine Hozier; it was a marriage of unbroken affection that provided a secure and happy background for his turbulent career.�����
There is a lunar eclipse on June 14, 1908, involving a conjunction with Venus. T-Uranus conjuncted the progressed Sun, The progressed Moon conjuncted N-Mercury. Importantly, P-Asc conjuncted N-Jupiter, ruler of H7 in the 1:19 AM Chart. T-Jupiter also conjuncted N-Moon. These are certainly sufficient indications of a time of active affections, happiness and emotional expression.��������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Jun 14 1908������ 23:05��� 23�Sg04' D������
4. He was transferred to the Admiralty in 1911, and went to work with a conviction of the need to bring the navy to a pitch of instant readiness.����
There were important eclipses involving his progressed Vertex and natal Pluto. As well, there was a solar eclipse on his progressed Ascendant in late Libra. T-Pluto hovered very near his MC, and had been so for two years.�
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Nov 17 1910���� 09:21��� 23�Ta47' D������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 13 1911���� 14:55��� 21�Sc21' D������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Oct 22 1911����� 13:12��� 7�Li39'D����������
5. In 1915 Churchill came under heavy political attack after the failure of the naval campaign in the Dardanelles. He was removed from his post as Lord of the Admiralty in 1915 and demoted to the Duchy of Lancaster. Disheartened, he rented a farm to retreat from public life and reflect upon the circumstances of his removal.���
The progressed Moon was in the area of N-Saturn and then P-Saturn. T-Uranus (bringing reversals) was conjunct the P-Moon and P-Saturn. Transiting Saturn. T-Saturn (bringing career pressures) had been hovering about the MC for about a year. Jupiter, however, was transiting through the fifth house of creativity, offering new opportunity. Jupiter was also opposed N-Uranus bringing unexpected openings. T-Uranus was also conjuncting the progressed IC, bringing a new basis to the life, and new activities which could be pursued in private. There is a solar eclipse widely opposed the expressive Leo Moon. More importantly, there is a solar eclipse conjunct N-Uranus (again a fresh start). At that time, T-Uranus (the liberator) was transiting N-Saturn, which had been involved in inhibition of expression. There was now scope for new expression and an end to old restraints.������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Feb 14 1915����� 13:33��������������� 24�Aq25' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Aug 11 1915���� 07:52��������������� 17�Le12' D������
6. In January of 1919, Churchill became Secretary of War, presiding over the cutting of military expenditures with surprising zeal.�������
Progressed Moon was just moving into Aries across the Descendant, giving a new burst of energy. There was a solar eclipse on the Sagittarian Sun on December 4, 1918 and a lunar eclipse involving the MC and IC on December 18th, 1918. Toward the middle of the year, there was another solar eclipse in Gemini, exactly opposite the N-Sun. T-Saturn had been quite active nearly conjuncting the N-Moon (economy) and sextile the MC. It was an important moment for the advancement of his career, and as was so often the case at such times, eclipses were activated in relation to his natal Sun position.
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 4 1918������ 00:22��� 10�Sg40' D������
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 18 1918���� 04:06��� 25�Ge03' D������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 29 1919���� 22:08��� 07�Ge06' D������
7. In the autumn of 1922 the insurgent Turks appeared to be moving toward a forcible reoccupation of the Dardanelles neutral zone, which was protected by a small British force at Chanak . Churchill was foremost in urging a firm stand against them, but a political debacle (prompted by fears of a new war)ensued, bringing the government down in ruins. He was also gripped by a sudden attack of appendicitis, could not campaign properly for office in the forthcoming election, and was humiliatingly defeated.
Saturn was crossing the Descendant (popularity) by solar arc direction and the Nodes were also making their transit of the Ascendant/Descendant. On April 21, 1922 there was an lunar eclipse which included the Nodal Axis and involved Chiron (sickness) as well. Later, a solar eclipse on September 21 1922, occurred exactly on the proposed Virgo Ascendant (to the degree). The Ascendant is also a health indicator, and, interestingly, Virgo is a sign related to the intestines and the bowel, to which the appendix is attached.
Mon���������� LEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Apr 12 1922����� 05:31��� 21�Li09' D�������
Sun������������ SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Sep 21 1922����� 13:40��� 27�Vi25' D�������
8. At home there was one grievous, characteristic, romantic misreading of the political and public mood, when, in Edward VIII�s abdication crisis of 1936, he vainly opposed prime minister� Baldwin by a public championing of the King's cause.���������
The MC had progressed to a conjunction with his Leo Moon. There was a solar eclipse exactly on his Gemini MC, and also a solar eclipse, later that year, on his natal Venus.���
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Jun 19 1936������ 14:19��������������� 27�Ge44' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 14 1936���� 08:27��������������� 21�Sg49' D������
9. Churchill was deeply alarmed by the developments in 1938�the appeasement which gave Czechoslovakia to the Germans. He recognized that Britain, without firing a shot, had sustained a great defeat.���������
There is a solar eclipse within three degrees of his Sagittarian Sun. A lunar eclipse involves progressed Mars and also natal Pluto. Another solar eclipse takes place opposite the natal Sun. Finally a solar eclipse occurs exactly square the natal Moon.
Churchill was moving towards prominence. He was empowered by these eclipses, and Britons began to think of him as the only man who could lead them during an increasingly threatening situation.�
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 3 1937������ 08:05��������������� 10�Sg22' D������
MonLEcl��������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 14 1938���� 17:43��������������� 22�Sc54' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� May 29 1938���� 22:50��������������� 07�Ge31' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Nov 22 1938���� 08:51��������������� 29�Sc01' D������
10. On Sept. 3, 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Chamberlain appointed Churchill to his old post in charge of the Admiralty. The signal went out to the fleet: �Winston is back.��
T-Uranus is conjunct N-Pluto. There is a solar eclipse on natal Neptune, co-ruler of the seventh house. Neptune, Lord of the Sea is involved with the appointment to the highest level of the Navy�the Admiralty. There is also a solar eclipse on natal Mars��
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Apr 20 1939����� 01:44��������������� 28�Ar44' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Oct 13 1939����� 05:39��������������� 18�Li37' D�������
11. On May 10, 1940, after a great and growing demand for his leadership, Churchill was appointed prime minister and received the highest seals of office.�
The progressed Moon had entered Capricorn in H4, P-Venus was near the IC and solar arc directed Jupiter was� near IC.�����
The Vertex was closing on the proposed MC, Uranus was transiting conjunct Pluto, and there was a solar eclipse on natal Chiron�the guide and mentor.�������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Apr 8 1940������� 05:20��������������� 17�Ar52' D������
12. It is significant that during the period when Britain faced the greatest danger (1940-1942), the Vertex (the �Point of Fate�) was cresting by progression the top of Churchill�s chart, conjuncting the Midheaven. Indeed, he was �walking with destiny�.
13. Churchill wrote a six volume history of World War II, for which he received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. That same year he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II. (T-Jupiter was conjuncting MC in the latter part of 1953. It is opposing N-Venus which is the esoteric ruler of the MC. There is a solar eclipse conjunct N-Uranus (which is the ruler of house five, the house of creativity and is natally placed in house eleven, the house of culture and its rewards). There is also a solar eclipse opposed the natal Leo Moon and conjunct the progressed Sun in late Aquarius�again in house five, the house of creativity.)��������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Feb 14 1953����� 09:58��������������� 25�Aq03' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Aug 10 1953���� 00:55��������������� 16�Le45' D������
14. Aging and in declining health, Winston Churchill resigned his post as prime minister on April 5, 1955, at the age of eighty. There was a solar eclipse within less than a degree of his proposed late Gemini Midheaven, emphasizing an important, precipitating event in the field of his vocation and public career. T-Nodes were also conjunct MC/IC. Later in the year there was a solar eclipse conjunct Venus in Sagittarius (Venus, being the esoteric ruler of his Gemini MC). T-Pluto (finality) was opposing progressed Sun in late Aquarius and at the end of the year the progressed Sun changed sign to Pisces�the sign of retirement��������� .
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Jun 20 1955������ 13:09��������������� 28�Ge05' D������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 14 1955���� 16:01��� ����������� 21�Sg31' D������
15. Just after Christmas 1964, Churchill suffered another stoke and developed a bad cough. He died peacefully at 8:00 AM of 1/25/1965 at the age of 90, London.��
We see a solar eclipse within four degrees of his natal Sun. These solar eclipses have always been found at particularly important points in the life.���������
Sun SEcl���������������� (X)������ Tr-Tr��� Dec 4 1964������ 10:30��������������� 11�Sg56' D������
Discussion of Winston Churchill�s Initiatory Level
It becomes clear that even among initiates of the third degree, no perfection of character can be expected. One sees greatness, and accompanying it, an imperfection which, in an ideal world, should have been outlived. One sees this with H.P.B, with Krishnamurti (both in their last incarnations, initiates of the fourth degree). One sees this with the extraordinarily gifted Richard Wagner�an artistic and mental giant who behaved shamefully at times (at least if judged by �conventional� standards). And, perhaps, one sees this in Winston Churchill�a leading �general� in the human battalion of the Army of Maitreya.
Winston Churchill is certainly the proverbial �Rich Young Man�. His accomplishments were many, varied, and one of them, at least (his heroic defense of Britain), was indispensable to the survival of Western civilization and thus, to the progress of all humanity. Surely he was, even technically, a �world disciple�, an individual who guided the destiny of millions and inspired many more.
For all his irregularities of habit, his unconventionality, his apparent irreverence, his disconcerting manners�the vastly more important part of him was solidly in the first ray ashram.
One simply must laugh at the following anecdote. When lunching with the Arab Leader Ibn Saud, and learning that the king�s religion forbade smoking and alcohol, he became typically Churchillian:������
What can one say? Is this an initiate speaking? After a pause, one must simply say, �Yes�. There are parts of every human being which don�t enter the Ashram, with which the Master has simply no concern. These things refine in time as perfection is reached. At the third degree�the stage of true world-discipleship�perfection is not reached, but a sense of planetary wholeness is� .
What would the world be today without an Einstein, a Schweitzer, a Beethoven, a Bach, a Leonardo, a Newton�and without a Winston Churchill? The stature of these great individuals shows that they stand with the Hierarchy and within the Ashram�regardless of their personal shortcomings.
We must, therefore, conclude that Winston Churchill saw human civilization and culture as from the mountain top�imperfectly, yes, (as his attitude towards India and other colonies demonstrated), but still comprehensively and with deep understanding. It is this large, impersonal vision of wholeness which the third degree confers, and the power to identify with and reveal this vision to others so that they may be inspired to leave behind lesser things.
The contrast between Churchill and Hitler is instructive. Hitler, brilliant in his own way, disciplined in his own way, and pure�in his own perverted way�was the example of a second degree initiate who went wrong. He made the choice (Libra Ascendant) and followed the �Left-Hand Path�. Churchill, wider, healthier, robustly larger in heart and mind (yet equally fierce upon the first and sixth rays) choose to champion the Path of Freedom, and thus came under the influence of Sirius and its Law of Freedom which is consciously recognized by initiates of the third degree. Hitler refused the Christ; Churchill, though he was not of a specifically �religious� temperament, embraced Him and in so doing, served the Hierarchy and humanity as few have done or can hope to do.
Astrology and Initiation
Does Winston Churchill�s astrological chart reveal some of the customary signatures of initiation? Surely the signatures of the second degree are there�with the Sun in idealistic Sagittarius and purificatory Virgo rising. Sagittarius gives purification by fire (the process of war throughout his life) and purification of the mind proceeds through Virgo. As well, Mars, the Moon and Uranus are all related�Mars in semisquare to the Moon and in sextile to Uranus.
Sagittarius relates specifically to the first two initiations, but as the Sun progresses other opportunities are offered. Capricorn relates to the third degree (as well as all of the first five) and Aquarius to the third and fourth degrees (as well as the second). There came a time in later 1942 ( very dangerous time for humanity), when the Sun, the Moon and Saturn gathered conjunct in the fifth house (the causal body) in the sign Aquarius (in preparation for a new lunation�progressed Sun/Moon conjunction), buddhic Neptune was crossing the Ascendant, the progressed Ascendant was conjuncting Mercury in Scorpio, and progressed Venus had just moved into transfigurative Capricorn, still conjunct the fourth house cusp. A solar eclipse had just occurred on Uranus, and within less than a year preceding, solar eclipses had occurred exactly on the Ascendant and very close to the Descendant. Deep opportunities were offered by these alignments and emphases. It is impossible to tell whether they were taken�but there is a good chance they were.
Summary and Conclusion
Some have speculated that Winston Churchill was the reincarnation of both Alexander the Great and Napoleon (the relationship between whom can easily be seen)�but returning chastened, and determined to fight against tyranny rather that impose it. However the truth may be, certainly, without Churchill, the free world as we know it might not have survived.
To think of the valor of his �finest hour�, is to find the unconquerable spirit in every human heart. Humanity will always be severely tested before it can proceed into greater livingness. Now that Shamballa draws ever closer, the tests will be increasingly severe. Courage will always be needed on the Path of Occultism. We all have it, but some have yet to find it. To think on Churchill�his words, his deeds�it so come closer to the undying Spirit-Source of that courage.
In a stirring documentary called, �Churchill�s War�, the following words are heard, and with them we will end:������
�In sullen fear-laden camps across the huge bleak expanse of Nazi-occupied Europe, prisoners often with no other language in common, would exchange in greeting a single whispered word��Churchill�. �Churchill��in that name, lay the hope beyond despair.�
Noteworthy Quotations
1. �I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.��from his maiden speech as prime minister, May 13, 1940.���������
These words ring with the first ray power to face adversity without flinching. By speaking directly of the inevitability of the very worst, he evoked the very best�for he understood that the spirit, in its own essence, will not accept defeat.
2. �Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty, and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, �This was their finest hour�.��from a speech given before the House of Commons, June 18, 1940, announcing the fall of France, and the start of the Battle of Britain.�����
The moment was desperate. France had fallen and the Battle of Britain was about to begin. Here he displays the first ray/sixth ray power to evoke in his countrymen a soaring strength based upon their love of the British Empire. His call was to their patriotism and nobility of spirit. The vision of a splendid future is given; the suggestion is planted�the Commonwealth will last for a thousand years; there will be no Thousand Year Reich. All that is required is that we face the peril�braced and ready to perform our duty to the uttermost. Churchill is lifting the morale of his nation, preparing it for battle.
3. �Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.��from a speech before the House of Commons, London, August 20, 1940, in which he referred to the pilots who fought the Battle of Britain.�����
Gratitude pours through these words which could not help but evoke gratitude from every British citizen. The heroism of the pilots calls for heroism on the part of all. His fourth ray power of contrast is at work.
4. �This is no war for domination or imperial aggrandisement or material gain.... It is a war ... to establish, on impregnable rocks, the rights of the individual and it is a war to establish and revive the stature of man.��from a speech before the house of Commons, London, September 3, 1939, on the day of the declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France.������
Here Churchill is speaking for the preservation of civilized values. As a historian, he understands that the Nazi peril is not just an attack against certain nations, but against the very progress of humanity.
5. �Outside the storms of way may blow and the lands may be lashed with the fury of its gales, but in our own hearts this Sunday morning there is peace. Our hands may be active but our consciences are at rest.��spoken by Churchill to Parliament on the day that Hitler invaded Poland.�����������
Here in image and metaphor he comforts the people, assuring them that theirs is a righteous cause and that they are on the side of the �Good�. It is a spiritual message, reinforcing the alignment of the nation with the subtle spiritual potencies.
6. �I felt as if I were walking with destiny, and that all my past life had been but a preparation for this hour and this trial��from The Gathering Storm, p. 38.���
Churchill realizes that there is a guiding providence. He is under the direction of his soul and realizes that he is an instrument of impersonal destiny. This is a first ray realization.
7. �Sure I am of this, that you have only to endure to conquer. You have only to persevere to save yourselves.��from his first wartime address, September 4, 1914, London.��
Some of his leading thoughts were already fashioned during the First World War. We see the themes of endurance and perseverance. These are Vulcanian themes and relate to the holding power of the first ray.
8. �Do not let us speak of darker days; let us rather speak of sterner days. These are not dark days: these are great days�the greatest days our country has ever lived.��from a speech at Harrow School, England, October 29, 1941.���������
Here Churchill is lifting his listeners out of the looming darkness into the promising light. He is altering the quality of their perception by speaking from a elevated perspective which sees all circumstance with the eye of history, perhaps, though unconsciously, from the perspective of those who are the hidden source of his spiritual inspiration. He insists upon an unrelenting positivity which does not allow the spirit/soul to capitulate even subjectively. Using the Sagittarian energy, as well as the sixth and first rays, he is subtly transforming how the British perceive their situation and prospects. Refusing to be negatively conditioned by apparently dire circumstance, he, instead, insists upon a reinterpretation which infallibly evokes inner strength and resilience.
9. �A fanatic is one who can�t change his mind and won�t change the subject.��quoted in the New York Times, July 5, 1954.������
This quotation comes from post-war years. It is humorous and precisely true. As usual, his fourth ray mind and razor-sharp words, make the statement memorable.
10. �You ask what is our policy�I will say, it is to wage war by sea, land and air, with all our might, and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the darkened, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, �What is our aim?� I can answer in one word, �Victory��victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory however long and hard the road may be.���
Here are not only the �Will-to-Persist� and �Will-to-Victory� of his first ray would, but the great historical compassion of one who has seen too much of grief and human misery over the centuries, over the millennia. A mature and chastened soul is speaking, and his resolve is born of a vast and encompassing perspective.
11. �I want a war. I want a war��Churchill�s rousing daily exhortation to himself. When this was reported to Hitler, he became disconcerted, unable to understand Churchill�s continued defiance and resistance.�
The first and sixth rays are at work, causing the fiery energy in his own system to rise up and beat back any thought of negativity or depression.
12. �You do your worst, and we will do our best��addressed to Hitler in a speech on July 14, 1941.��������
A simple epigram dividing Good from evil, and simultaneously strengthening his countrymen, aligning them with the Good. The reader or listener is affirmed�exactly sure of where everyone stands, and that he or she is standing with the �Good�.
13. �We shall not flag or fail. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender��from a speech to the House of Commons, June 4, 1940.��
Churchill is actually leading the battle. With these words he becomes pervading presence in every place of conflict, infusing himself into every moment of struggle. This affirmation drives all Britons forward with an irresistible strength. Churchill has invoked the first ray with its motion of �Progress Onward�. Every thoughtform of failure is driven back. The vision of victory is firmly implanted in the psyche of his countrymen�they have no choice but to follow it and prevail.
14. �In Franklin Roosevelt there died the greatest American friend we have ever known and the greatest champion of freedom who has ever brought help and comfort from the New World to the Old��from The Second World War.�����
Roosevelt and Churchill were great friends (and only occasional rivals). These healing words bind the old wounds which arose during the Revolutionary War. They convey a recognized reciprocity. The Geminian brother/sister nations are harmonized and united. Churchill, himself, was the son of a British aristocrat and an American socialite.
Together Churchill and Roosevelt celebrated Freedom; unconsciously they were working under the Sirian Law of Freedom, and the Atlantic Charter is a testimony to their alignment with this great stellar Source. Both of them had Virgo Ascendants, within four degrees of each other; as the two major leaders of the free world, they were working, together for the purification of humanity and the Reappearance of the Christ.
15. �In war: resolution. In defeat: defiance. In victory: magnanimity. In peace: goodwill.�from an epigram used by Sir Edwin Marsh who called this �a moral of the work� in Churchill�s book.��������
Here we see the breadth, heart and highest virtues of the first Ray of Will and Power. This epigram expresses the Will-to-Good in action.
A joke is a very serious thing.
A lie gets halfway around the world before the truth has a chance to get its pants on.
A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.
A politician needs the ability to foretell what is going to happen tomorrow, next week, next month, and next year. And to have the ability afterwards to explain why it didn't happen.
A prisoner of war is a man who tries to kill you and fails, and then asks you not to kill him.
All the great things are simple, and many can be expressed in a single word: freedom, justice, honor, duty, mercy, hope.
(Sun & Venus in Sagittarius)
Although personally I am quite content with existing explosives, I feel we must not stand in the path of improvement.
Although prepared for martyrdom, I preferred that it be postponed.
(Mars in Libra)
Although present on the occasion, I have no clear recollection of the events leading up to it.
An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last.
Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference.
Broadly speaking, the short words are the best, and the old words best of all.
(Mercury in Scorpio opposition Pluto.)
Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities... because it is the quality which guarantees all others.
Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak; courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.
Criticism may not be agreeable, but it is necessary. It fulfils the same function as pain in the human body. It calls attention to an unhealthy state of things.
Danger - if you meet it promptly and without flinching - you will reduce the danger by half. Never run away from anything. Never!
(Moon in Leo)
Hyde Park Gate, London, England
Early life
Churchill's legal surname was Spencer-Churchill (he was related to the Spencer family), but starting with his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, his branch of the family used the name Churchill in their public life.
Winston Churchill was a descendant of the first famous member of the Churchill family, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Winston's politician father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was the third son of the 7th Duke of Marlborough; Winston's mother was Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome), daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome.
Winston Churchill was born in Blenheim Palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire; he was delivered unexpectedly when his mother went into labour during a carriage ride. The common myth that he was born in the ladies room during a ball is untrue.
As was typical for upper-class boys at that time, he spent much of his childhood at boarding schools. He sat the entrance exam for Harrow School, but, famously, on confronting the Latin paper, carefully wrote the title, his name, and the number 1 followed by a dot, and could not think of anything else to write. He was accepted despite this, but placed in the bottom division where they were primarily taught English, at which he excelled. Today, this famous ancient public school offers an annual Churchill essay-prize on a subject chosen by the head of the English department.
He was rarely visited by his mother (then known as Lady Randolph), whom he loved very dearly, despite his letters begging her to either come or let his father permit him to come home. In later years, after Winston reached adulthood, he and his mother became closer, developing a kinship more like a brother and a sister than son and mother, coupled by a strong friendship.
He followed his father's career keenly but had a distant relationship with him. Once, in 1886, he is reported to have proclaimed, "My daddy is Chancellor of the Exchequer and one day that's what I'm going to be." His desolate, lonely childhood stayed with him throughout his life. On the other hand, as a child he was very close to his nanny, Elizabeth Anne Everest. Churchill did badly at Harrow, regularly being punished for poor work and lack of effort. He had an independent, rebellious nature and he failed to achieve much academically, failing some of the same courses numerous times and refusing to study the classics (that is, Latin and Greek). He showed ability in other areas such as history, in which he was sometimes top of his class. The view of Churchill as a failure at school is one which he himself propagated. He did, however, become the school's fencing champion.
The Army
Churchill attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Upon his graduation at age 20, Churchill joined the army as a Subaltern of the IV (Queen's Own) Hussars Cavalry regiment. This regiment was stationed in Bangalore, India. On arriving in India, Churchill dislocated his shoulder while reaching from his boat for a chain on the dock and being thrown against the quay. This shoulder gave him trouble in later years, occasionally dislocating from its socket.
In India the main occupation of Churchill's regiment was polo, a situation which did not appeal to the young man, hungry for more military action. He devoted his time to educating himself from books which he had sent out.
While stationed in India, he began to seek out wars. In 1895 he and Reggie Barnes obtained leave to travel to Cuba to observe the Spanish battles against Cuban guerrillas. Churchill obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic newspaper. To Churchill's delight he came under fire for the first time on his twenty-first birthday. On his way to Cuba he also made his first visit to the United States, being introduced to New York society by one of his mother's lovers, Bourke Cockran. In 1897 Churchill attempted to travel to the Greco-Turkish War but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. He therefore continued on to England on leave before hearing of the Pathan revolt on the North West Frontier and rushing back to India to participate in the campaign to put it down.
Sir Bindon Blood, the commander of this expedition, had promised Churchill could be involved; he participated in the six-week campaign, also writing articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph at £5 an article. By October 1897 Churchill was back in Britain and his first book, The Story of the Malakand Field Force, on that campaign, was published in December.
While still officially stationed in India, and having obtained a long period of leave, Churchill attempted to get himself assigned to the army being put together and commanded by Lord Kitchener and intended to achieve the reconquest of the Sudan. Kitchener opposed the assignment but Churchill pulled strings, including a telegram to Kitchener from the Prime Minister the Marquess of Salisbury. In the end, Churchill was able to obtain a posting to the 21st Lancers—a force whose composition was chosen by the War Office, not Kitchener. He also served as a war correspondent for the Morning Post, at a rate of £15 per column. While in the Sudan, Churchill participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge at the battle of Omdurman. By October 1898, he had returned to Britain and begun work on the two-volume The River War, published the following year.
In 1899 Churchill left the army and decided upon a parliamentary career. He stood as a Conservative candidate in Oldham in a by-election of that year. He came in third (Oldham was at that time a two-seat borough), failing to be elected.
On 12 October 1899 the second Anglo-Boer war between Britain and the Afrikaners broke out in South Africa. Churchill set off as a war correspondent for the Morning Post, receiving £250 a month for four months. Once in South Africa, he accepted a lift on a British Army Armoured Train under the command of Aylmer Haldane; this train was derailed by a Boer ambush and explosion. Churchill, though not officially a combatant, took charge of operations to get the track cleared and managed to ensure that the engine and half the train, carrying the wounded, could escape. Churchill, however, was not so lucky and, together with other officers and soldiers, was captured and held in a POW camp in Pretoria, despite uncertainty about his combatant status. Churchill would claim, in My Early Life, published in 1930, that he had been captured by General Louis Botha, subsequently prime minister of the then Union of South Africa, but this claim has been challenged, notably by Churchill's grand-daughter Celia Sandys in her book Churchill Wanted Dead or Alive.
Churchill managed to escape from his prison camp, resulting in a long-running criticism and controversy as it was claimed that he did not wait for Haldane and another man who had planned the escape, but who were unable, or unwilling, to risk slipping over the fence when Churchill did. Once outside the Pretoria prison camp, Churchill travelled almost 300 miles (480 km) to Portuguese Lourenço Marques in Delagoa Bay, with the assistance of an English mine manager who hid him down his mine and smuggled him onto a train headed out of Boer territory. His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain, though instead of returning home he took ship to Durban and rejoined General Redvers Buller's army on its march to relieve Ladysmith and take Pretoria. This time, although continuing as a war correspondent, Churchill gained a commission in the South African Light Horse Regiment. He fought at Spion Kop and was one of the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria; in fact, he and the Duke of Marlborough, his cousin, were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria, where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer guards of the prison camp there.
Churchill's two books on the Boer war, London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and Ian Hamilton's March, were published in May and October 1900 respectively.
Parliament
After returning from South Africa, Churchill again stood as a Conservative party candidate in Oldham, this time in the 1900 general election, or Khaki election.
He was duly elected, but rather than attending the opening of Parliament, he embarked on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States, by means of which he raised ten thousand pounds for himself. (Members of Parliament were unpaid in those days and Churchill was not rich by the standards of the time.) While in the United States, one of his speeches was introduced by Mark Twain. He dined with Theodore Roosevelt, however, they did not take to each other.
In February 1901, Churchill arrived back in Britain to enter Parliament, and became associated with a group of Tory dissidents led by Lord Hugh Cecil and referred to as the Hughligans, a play on "Hooligans". During his first parliamentary session, Churchill provoked controversy by opposing the government's army estimates, arguing against extravagant military expenditure. By 1903, he was drawing away from Lord Hugh's views. He also opposed the Liberal Unionist leader Joseph Chamberlain, whose party was in coalition with the Conservatives. Chamberlain proposed extensive tariff reforms intended to protect the economic pre-eminence of Britain behind tariff barriers. This earned Churchill the detestation of his own supporters — indeed, Conservative backbenchers staged a walkout once while he was speaking. His own constituency effectively deselected him, although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election.
In 1904, Churchill's dissatisfaction with the Conservatives and the appeal of the Liberals had grown so strong that, on returning from the Whitsun recess, he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party. As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade. He won the seat of Manchester North West (carefully selected for him) in the 1906 general election.
Churchill as a young manFrom 1903 until 1905 Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill, a two-volume biography of his father which came out in 1906 and was received as a masterpiece. However, filial devotion caused him to soften some of his father's less attractive aspects.[citation needed]
Ministerial office
When the Liberals took office, with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as Prime Minister, in December 1905 Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies. Serving under the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin, Churchill dealt with the adoption of constitutions for the defeated Boer republics of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony and with the issue of 'Chinese slavery' in South African mines. He also became a prominent spokesman on free trade. Churchill soon became the most prominent member of the Government outside the Cabinet, and when Campbell-Bannerman was succeeded by Herbert Henry Asquith in 1908, it came as little surprise when Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Under the law at the time, a newly appointed Cabinet Minister was obliged to seek re-election at a by-election. Churchill lost his Manchester seat to the Conservative William Joynson-Hicks but was soon elected in another by-election at Dundee constituency. As President of the Board of Trade he pursued radical social reforms in conjunction with David Lloyd George, the new Chancellor of the Exchequer.
In 1910 Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary, where he was to prove somewhat controversial. A famous photograph from the time shows the impetuous Churchill taking personal charge of the January 1911 Sidney Street Siege, peering around a corner to view a gun battle between cornered anarchists and Scots Guards. His role attracted much criticism. The building under siege caught fire. Churchill denied the fire brigade access, forcing the criminals to choose surrender or death. Arthur Balfour asked, "He [Churchill] and a photographer were both risking valuable lives. I understand what the photographer was doing but what was the Right Honourable gentleman doing?"
1910 also saw Churchill preventing the army being used to deal with a dispute at the Cambrian Colliery mine in Tonypandy. Initially Churchill blocked the use of troops fearing a repeat of the 1887 'bloody Sunday' in Trafalgar Square. Nevertheless troops were deployed to protect the mines and to avoid riots when thirteen strikers were tried for minor offences, an action that broke the tradition of not involving the military in civil affairs and led to lingering dislike for Churchill in Wales.
In 1911, Churchill became First Lord of the Admiralty, a post he would hold into World War I. He gave impetus to reform efforts, including development of naval aviation, tanks, and the switch in fuel from coal to oil, a massive engineering task, also reliant on securing Mesopotamia's oil rights, bought circa 1907 through the secret service using the Royal Burmah Oil Company as a front company.
The development of the battle tank was financed from naval research funds via the Landships Committee, and, although a decade later development of the battle tank would be seen as a stroke of genius, at the time it was seen as misappropriation of funds. The tank was deployed too early and in too few numbers, much to Churchill's annoyance. He wanted a fleet of tanks used to surprise the Germans under cover of smoke, and to open a large section of the trenches by crushing barbed wire and creating a breakthrough sector.
In 1915 Churchill was one of the political and military engineers of the disastrous Gallipoli landings on the Dardanelles during World War I. Churchill took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government, the Conservatives demanded Churchill's demotion as the price for entry. For several months Churchill served in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, before resigning from the government feeling his energies were not being used. He rejoined the army, though remaining an MP, and served for several months on the Western Front commanding a battalion. During this period his second in command was a young Archibald Sinclair who would later lead the Liberal Party.
Return to power
In December 1916, Asquith resigned as Prime Minister and was replaced by Lloyd George. The time was thought not yet right to risk the Conservatives' wrath by bringing Churchill back into government. However, in July 1917 Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions. He was the main architect of the Ten Year Rule, but the major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". He secured from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation — and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine. He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State. Churchill always disliked Éamon de Valera, the Sinn Féin leader.
Career between the wars
In 1920, as Secretary for War and Air, Churchill had responsibility for quelling the rebellion of Kurds and Arabs in British-occupied Iraq, which he achieved by authorising the use of poison gas. At the time he wrote, "I am strongly in favour of using poison gas against uncivilised tribes" - although Churchill's intention was 'to cause disablement of some kind but not death' (from pages 179-181 of Simons, Geoff. "IRAQ: FROM SUMER TO SUDAN". London: St. Martins Press, 1994). This was the first recorded use of poison gas against a civilian population.
In October 1922, Churchill underwent an operation to remove his appendix. Upon his return, he learned that the government had fallen and a General Election was looming. The Liberal Party was now beset by internal division and Churchill's campaign was weak. He lost his seat at Dundee to prohibitionist, Edwin Scrymgeour, quipping that he had lost his ministerial office, his seat and his appendix all at once. Churchill stood for the Liberals again in the 1923 general election, losing in Leicester, but over the next few months he moved towards the Conservative Party in all but name. His first electoral contest as an Independent candidate, fought under the label of "Independent Anti-Socialist," was narrowly lost in a by-election in a London riding -- his third electoral defeat in less than two years. However, he stood for election yet again several months later in the General Election of 1924, again as an Independent candidate, this time under the label of "Constitutionalist" although with Conservative backing, and was finally elected to represent Epping (a statue in his honour in Woodford Green was erected when Woodford Green was part of the Epping constituency). The following year he formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that "Anyone can rat [change parties], but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat."
He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924 under Stanley Baldwin and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard, which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926. This decision prompted the economist John Maynard Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard would lead to a world depression. Churchill later regarded this as one of the worst decisions of his life; he was not an economist and that he acted on the advice of the Governor of the Bank of England, Montagu Norman.
During the General Strike of 1926, Churchill was reported to have suggested that machine guns be used on the striking miners. Churchill edited the Government's newspaper, the British Gazette, and during the dispute he argued that "either the country will break the General Strike, or the General Strike will break the country." Furthermore, he controversially claimed that the Fascism of Benito Mussolini had "rendered a service to the whole world," showing, as it had, "a way to combat subversive forces" — that is, he considered the regime to be a bulwark against the perceived threat of Communist revolution. At one point, Churchill went as far as to call Mussolini the "Roman genius ... the greatest lawgiver among men." [1]
The Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 General Election. In the next two years, Churchill became estranged from the Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule, which he bitterly opposed. He denigrated the father of the Indian independence movement, Mahatma Gandhi, as "a half-naked fakir" who "ought to be laid, bound hand and foot, at the gates of Delhi and then trampled on by an enormous elephant with the new viceroy seated on its back". When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet. He was now at the lowest point in his career, in a period known as "the wilderness years". He spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, including Marlborough: His Life and Times — a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough — and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (which was not published until well after WWII). He became most notable for his outspoken opposition towards the granting of independence to India (see Simon Commission and Government of India Act 1935).
Soon, though, his attention was drawn to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the dangers of Germany's rearmament. For a time he was a lone voice calling on Britain to strengthen itself to counter the belligerence of Germany. [2] Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler, leading the wing of the Conservative Party that opposed the Munich Agreement which Chamberlain famously declared to mean "peace in our time". [3] He was also an outspoken supporter of King Edward VIII during the Abdication Crisis, leading to some speculation that he might be appointed Prime Minister if the King refused to take Baldwin's advice and consequently the government resigned. However, this did not happen, and Churchill found himself politically isolated and bruised for some time after this.
Role as wartime Prime Minister
Yousuf Karsh portrait of Winston Churchill on cover of Life magazine.At the outbreak of the Second World War Churchill--after a brief offer by Chamberlain to appoint him as a minister without portfolio--was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and a member of the War Cabinet, just as he was in the first part of the First World War. According to myth, the Navy sent out: "Winston's back!"
In this job he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called "Phony War", when the only noticeable action was at sea. Churchill advocated the pre-emptive occupation of the neutral Norwegian iron-ore port of Narvik and the iron mines in Kiruna, Sweden, early in the War. However, Chamberlain and the rest of the War Cabinet disagreed, and the operation was delayed until the German invasion of Norway, which was successful despite British efforts.
On 10 May 1940, hours before the German invasion of France by a surprising lightning advance through the Low Countries, it became clear that, following failure in Norway and general incompetence, the country had no confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The commonly accepted version of events states that Lord Halifax turned down the post of Prime Minister because he believed he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords instead of the House of Commons. Although traditionally the Prime Minister does not advise the King on the former's successor, Chamberlain wanted someone who would command the support of all three major parties in the House of Commons. A meeting with the other two party leaders led to the recommendation of Churchill, and as a constitutional monarch, George VI asked Churchill to be Prime Minister and to form an all-party government. Churchill, breaking with tradition, did not send Chamberlain a message expressing regret over his resignation. [4]
Churchill's greatest achievement was that he refused to capitulate when defeat by Germany was a strong possibility and he remained a strong opponent of any negotiations with Germany. Few others in the Cabinet had this degree of resolve. By adopting this policy Churchill maintained Britain as a base from which the Allies could attack Germany, thereby ensuring that the Soviet sphere of influence did not also extend over Western Europe at the end of the war.
In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war, Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence. He immediately put his friend and confidant, the industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook, in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's astounding business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering that eventually made the difference in the war.
Churchill's speeches were a great inspiration to the embattled British. His first speech as Prime Minister was the famous "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat" speech. He followed that closely with two other equally famous ones, given just before the Battle of Britain. One included the immortal line, "We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." The other included the equally famous "Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour.' " At the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few", which engendered the enduring nickname "The Few" for the Allied fighter pilots who won it. One of his most memorable war speeches came on 10 November 1942 at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at Mansion House in London. That day, word had come that American and British troops had surrounded the port of Casablanca in Africa. As most people were saying it was the beginning of the end, Churchill famously said
"This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning"
This was not his final involvement with the RAF. Churchill issued orders to raze German cities to the ground using "terror bombing" raids. He encouraged these "impressive acts of terror and wanton destruction" through "other pretexts", which were to depress German morale and "de-house" the German population. [1] Implementation of the plan resulted in the destruction by relentless firebombing of historic German cities such as Cologne, Hamburg and Dresden.
Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in 1943His good relationship with Franklin D. Roosevelt secured vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes. It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt immediately set about implementing a new method of not only providing military hardware to Britain without the need for monetary payment, but also of providing, free of fiscal charge, much of the shipping that transported the supplies. Put simply, Roosevelt persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the USA; and so Lend-lease was born. Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter, Europe first strategy, the Declaration by the United Nations and other war policies. Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare, which established, conducted and fostered covert, subversive and partisan operations in occupied territories with notable success; and also the Commandos which established the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces. The Russians referred to him as the "British Bulldog".
Churchill's health suffered, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia.
Churchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-WWII European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by Harry S. Truman, Churchill, and Stalin at Potsdam. At the second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and together with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a toned down version of the original Morgenthau Plan, where they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender "into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character."[5]
The settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union and between Germany and Poland, was viewed as a betrayal in Poland during the post-war years, as it was established against the views of the Polish government in exile. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders. As he expounded in the House of Commons in 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions." However the resulting expulsions of Germans was carried out by the Soviet Union in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to amongst others a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons, the death of over 2,100,000. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences.
On 9 October 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow, and that night they met Joseph Stalin in the Kremlin, without the Americans. Bargaining went on throughout the night. Churchill wrote on a scrap of paper that Stalin had a 90 percent "interest" in Romania, Britain a 90 percent "interest" in Greece, both Russia and Britain a 50 percent interest in Yugoslavia. When they got to Italy, Stalin ceded that country to Churchill. The crucial questions arose when the Ministers of Foreign Affairs discussed "percentages" in Eastern Europe. Molotov's proposals were that Russia should have a 75 percent interest in Hungary, 75 percent in Bulgaria, and 60 percent in Yugoslavia. This was Stalin's price for ceding Italy and Greece. Eden tried to haggle: Hungary 75/25, Bulgaria 80/20, but Yugoslavia 50/50. After lengthy bargaining they settled on an 80/20 division of interest between Russia and Britain in Bulgaria and Hungary, and a 50/50 division in Yugoslavia. U.S. Ambassador Harriman was informed only after the bargain was struck. This gentleman's agreement was sealed with a handshake.
The most critical study of Churchill is the revisionist work of John Charmley. Charmley sees Neville Chamberlain as having a sound appreciation of the nation's military and diplomatic strengths and weaknesses. Churchill, says Charmley, repeatedly overestimated British strength and forced a commitment to total war and total victory. But that led to national economic exhaustion, and the end of empire, as Britain was eclipsed by the U.S. and the USSR. Furthermore he argues Churchill had a deeply flawed character, exerted poor leadership, schemed and intrigued for war. Charmley believes the best policy in 1940-1942 was a negotiated peace with Germany and appeasement of Japan. [6]. This interpretation does not address the political and moral impracticality of leaving Europe under Nazi domination, nor how Britain could have survived indefinitely in a relationship with such a state.
After World War II
Although the importance of Churchill's role in World War II was undeniable, he had many enemies in his own country. His expressed contempt for a number of popular ideas, in particular public health care and better education for the majority of the population, produced much dissatisfaction amongst the population, particularly those who had fought in the war. Immediately following the close of the war in Europe, Churchill was heavily defeated in the 1945 election by Clement Attlee and the Labour Party. [7] Some historians think that many British voters believed that the man who had led the nation so well in war was not the best man to lead it in peace. Others see the election result as a reaction not against Churchill personally, but against the Conservative Party's record in the 1930s under Baldwin and Chamberlain.
Winston Churchill was an early supporter of the pan-Europeanism that eventually led to the formation of the European Common Market and later the European Union (for which one of the three main buildings of the European Parliament is named in his honour). Churchill was also instrumental in giving France a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (which provided another European power to counterbalance the Soviet Union's permanent seat). Churchill also occasionally made comments supportive of world government. For instance, he once said (see[2]):
Unless some effective world supergovernment for the purpose of preventing war can be set up… the prospects for peace and human progress are dark… If… it is found possible to build a world organization of irresistible force and inviolable authority for the purpose of securing peace, there are no limits to the blessings which all men enjoy and share.
At the beginning of the Cold War, he famously popularised the term "The Iron Curtain", which had been used before by Nazi leaders Hitler and Goebbels. The term entered the public consciousness after a speech given on 5 March 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, when Churchill, a guest of Harry S. Truman, famously declared:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere.
Second term
Churchill was restless and bored as leader of the Conservative opposition in the immediate post-war years. After Labour's defeat in the General Election of 1951, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His third government — after the wartime national government and the brief caretaker government of 1945 — would last until his resignation in 1955. During this period he renewed what he called the "special relationship" between Britain and the United States, and engaged himself in the formation of the post-war order.
Churchill with Canadian Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent in 1954His domestic priorities were, however, overshadowed by a series of foreign policy crises, which were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power, Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action.
The Mau Mau Rebellion
Main article: Mau Mau Uprising
In 1951, grievances against the colonial distribution of land came to a head with the Kenya Africa Union demanding greater representation and land reform. When these demands were rejected, more radical elements came forward, launching the Mau Mau rebellion in 1952. On 17 August 1952 a state of emergency was declared, and British troops were flown to Kenya to deal with the rebellion. As both sides increased the ferocity of their attacks, the country moved to full-scale civil war.
In 1953, the Lari massacre, perpetrated by Mau-Mau insurgents against Kikuyu loyal to the British, changed the political complexion of the rebellion and gave the public-relations advantage to the British. Churchill's strategy was to use a military stick combined with implementing many of the concessions that Attlee's government had blocked in 1951. He ordered an increased military presence and appointed General Sir George Erskine, who would implement Operation Anvil in 1954 that broke the back of the rebellion in the city of Nairobi. Operation Hammer, in turn, was designed to root out rebels in the countryside. Churchill ordered peace talks opened, but these collapsed shortly after his leaving office.
Malayan Emergency
Main article: Malayan Emergency
In Malaya, a rebellion against British rule had been in progress since 1948. Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and once again Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not. He stepped up the implementation of a "hearts and minds" campaign and approved the creation of fortified villages, a tactic that would become a recurring part of Western military strategy in Southeast Asia. (See Vietnam War).
The Malayan Emergency was a more direct case of a guerrilla movement, centred in an ethnic group, but backed by the Soviet Union. As such, Britain's policy of direct confrontation and military victory had a great deal more support than in Iran or in Kenya. At the highpoint of the conflict, over 35,500 British troops were stationed in Malaya. As the rebellion lost ground, it began to lose favour with the local population.
While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer plausible. In 1953, plans were drawn up for independence for Singapore and the other crown colonies in the region. The first elections were held in 1955, just days before Churchill's own resignation, and in 1957, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden, Malaya became independent.
Family and Personal Life
A young Winston Churchill and fiancée Clementine Hozier shortly before their marriage in 1908.On 12 September 1908 at the socially desirable St. Margaret's, Westminster, Churchill married Clementine Hozier, a woman whom he met at a dinner party that March (he had proposed to actress Ethel Barrymore but was turned down). They had five children: Diana; Randolph; Sarah, who co-starred with Fred Astaire in Royal Wedding; Marigold (1918 - 1921), who died in early childhood; and Mary, who has written a book about her parents. Churchill's son Randolph and his grandsons Nicholas Soames and Winston all followed him into Parliament. The daughters tended to marry politicians and support their careers.
Clementine's mother was Lady Blanche Henrietta Ogilvy, second wife of Sir Henry Montague Hozier and a daughter of the 7th Earl of Airlie. Clementine's paternity, however, is open to debate. Lady Blanche was well known for sharing her favours and was eventually divorced as a result. She maintained that Clementine's father was Capt. William George "Bay" Middleton, a noted horseman. But Clementine's biographer Joan Hardwick has surmised, due to Sir Henry Hozier's reputed sterility, that all Lady Blanche's "Hozier" children were actually fathered by her sister's husband, Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, better known as a grandfather of the infamous Mitford sisters of the 1920s.
When not in London on government business, Churchill usually lived at his beloved Chartwell House in Kent, two miles south of Westerham. He and his wife bought the house in 1922 and lived there until his death in 1965. During his Chartwell stays, he enjoyed writing as well as painting, bricklaying, and admiring the estate's famous black swans.
Like many politicians of his age, Churchill was also a member of several English gentlemen's clubs - the Reform Club and the National Liberal Club whilst he was a Liberal MP, and later the Athenaeum, Boodle's, Bucks, and the Carlton Club when he was a Conservative. Despite his multiple memberships, Churchill was not a habitual clubman; he spent relatively little time in each of these, and preferred to conduct any lunchtime or dinner meetings at the Savoy Grill or the Ritz, or else in the Members' Dining Room of the House of Commons when meeting other MPs.
Churchill's fondness for alcoholic beverages was well-documented. While in India and South Africa, he got in the habit of adding small amounts of whisky to the water he drank in order to prevent disease. He was quoted on the subject as saying that "by dint of careful application I learned to like it." [3] He consumed alcoholic drinks on a near-daily basis for long periods in his life, and frequently imbibed before, after, and during mealtimes. He is not generally considered by historians to have been an alcoholic, however, since his drinking produced few, if any, noticeable negative effects on either his ability to govern or his personal life. The Churchill Centre states that Churchill made a bet with a man with the last name of Rothermere (possibly one of the Viscounts Rothermere) in 1936 that Churchill would be able to successfully abstain from drinking hard liquor for a year; Churchill apparently won the bet. [4]
For much of his life, Churchill battled with depression, (or perhaps a sub-type of manic-depression) which he called his black dog [5].
Last days
Aware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally, Churchill retired as Prime Minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden, who had long been his ambitious protégé. (Three years earlier, Eden had married Churchill's niece, Anne Clarissa Spencer-Churchill, his second marriage.) Churchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell House in Kent, two miles south of Westerham.
In 1963 U.S. President John F. Kennedy named Churchill the first Honorary Citizen of the United States. Churchill was too ill to attend the White House ceremony, so his son and grandson accepted the award for him.
On 15 January 1965 Churchill suffered another stroke — a severe cerebral thrombosis — that left him gravely ill. He died nine days later, aged 90, on 24 January 1965, 70 years to the day after his father's death.
By decree of the Queen, his body lay in State in Westminster Hall for three days and a state funeral service was held at St Paul's Cathedral. [8] This was the first state funeral for a non-royal family member since 1914, and no one other of its kind has been held since.
As his coffin passed down the Thames on the Havengore, the cranes of London's docklands bowed in salute. The Royal Artillery fired a 19-gun salute (as head of government), and the RAF staged a fly-by of sixteen English Electric Lightning fighters. The state funeral was the largest gathering of dignitaries in Britain as representatives from over 100 countries attended, including French President Charles de Gaulle, Canadian Prime Minister Lester Pearson, Prime Minister of Rhodesia Ian Smith, other heads of state and government, and members of royalty. It also saw the largest assemblage of statesmen in the world until the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005.
At Churchill's request, he was buried in the family plot at St Martin Church, Bladon, near Woodstock, not far from his birthplace at Blenheim.
Because the funeral took place on 30 January, people in the United States marked it by paying tribute to his friendship with Roosevelt because it was the anniversary of FDR's birth. The tributes were led byRoosevelt's children.
On 9 February 1965 Churchill's estate was probated at 304,044 pounds sterling (equivalent to about £3.8m in 2004).
One of four specially made sets of false teeth, designed to retain Churchill's distinctive style of speech, which Churchill wore throughout his life is now kept in the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons of England.
Honours
From 1941 to his death, he was the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, a ceremonial office. In 1941 Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King swore him into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. Although this allowed him to use the honorific title "The Honourable" and the post-nominal letters "P.C." both of these were trumped by his membership in the Imperial Privy Council which allowed him the use of The Right Honourable.
In 1953 he was awarded two major honours: he was invested as a Knight of the Garter (becoming Sir Winston Churchill, KG) and he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature "for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values".
A stroke in June of that year led to him being paralysed down his left side. He retired as Prime Minister on 5 April 1955 because of his health but retained his post as Chancellor of the University of Bristol, and remained a member of parliament until 1964. In 1959 he became Father of the House, the MP with the longest continuous service.
In 1955, after retiring as Prime Minister, Churchill was offered elevation to the peerage in the rank of duke. He considered the offer, and even chose the name "Duke of London". However, he then declined the title after being persuaded by his son Randolph not to accept it, since Randolph wished to pursue a political career in the House of Commons, which would be impossible if he inherited a peerage, since, at that time, there was no procedure for disclaiming a title. Since then, only British royals have been made dukes.
In 1956 Churchill received the Karlspreis (known in English as the Charlemagne Award), an award by the German city of Aachen to those who most contribute to the European idea and European peace.
In 1960, Churchill College, Cambridge was established as the national and Commonwealth memorial to Churchill.
In 1963, he became the first person to become an Honorary Citizen of the United States.
Churchill is the tenth most admired person in the 20th century, according to Gallup.
Eight schools in Canada are named in his honour, one each in Vancouver, Winnipeg, Hamilton, Kingston, St. Catharines, Lethbridge, Calgary, and Ottawa. Churchill Auditorium at the Technion is named after him.
Churchill as historian
Statue of Winston Churchill by Ivor Roberts-Jones in Parliament Square, opposite the Palace of Westminster, central London. Other casts of the same statue are found in Oslo, Norway, Canberra, Australia at the Australian National University, and similar statues in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Churchill was a prolific writer throughout his life and, during his periods out of office, attained recognition as a professional writer who was also a Member of Parliament. Despite his aristocratic birth, he inherited little money (his mother spent most of his inheritance) and always needed ready cash to maintain his lavish lifestyle and to compensate for a number of failed investments. Some of his historical works, such as A History of the English Speaking Peoples, were written primarily to raise money.
Churchill was an excellent writer who taught himself the skills of historiography. In his youth he was an avid reader of history but within a narrow range. The major influences on his historical thought, and his prose style, were Clarendon's history of the English Civil War, Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and Macaulay's History of England. He had little interest in social or economic history; he saw history as essentially political and military, driven by national character as expressed by great men rather than by economic forces or social change.
Churchill was convinced that the British people had a unique greatness and an imperial destiny, and that all British history should be seen as progress towards fulfilling that destiny. This belief inspired his political career as well as his historical writing. He never modified it or showed any interest in other schools of history. Although he employed professional historians as assistants, they had no influence over the content of his works.
Churchill's historical writings fall into three categories. The first is works of family history, the biographies of his father, Life of Lord Randolph Churchill (1906), and of his great ancestor, Marlborough: His Life and Times (four volumes, 1933–38). These are still regarded as fine biographies, but are marred by Churchill's desire to present his subjects in the best possible light. He made only limited use of the available source materials and, in the case of his father, suppressed some material from family archives that reflected badly on Lord Randolph. The Marlborough biography shows to the full Churchill's great talent for military history. Both books have been superseded by more scholarly works but are still highly readable.
The second category is Churchill's autobiographical works, including his early journalistic compilations The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898), The River War (1899), London to Ladysmith via Pretoria (1900) and Ian Hamilton's March (1900). These latter two were issued in a re-edited form as My Early Life (1930). All these books are colourful and entertaining, and contain some valuable information about Britain's imperial wars in India, Sudan and South Africa, but they are essentially exercises in self-promotion, since Churchill was already a Parliamentary candidate in 1900.
Churchill's reputation as a writer, however, rests on the third category, his three massive multi-volume works of narrative history. These are his histories of the First World War — The World Crisis (six volumes, 1923–31) — and of The Second World War (six volumes, 1948–53), and his History of the English-Speaking Peoples (four volumes, 1956–58, much of which had been written in the 1930s). These are among the longest works of history ever published (The Second World War runs to more than two million words), and earned him the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Churchill's histories of the two world wars are, of course, far from being conventional historical works, since the author was a central participant in both stories and took full advantage of that fact in writing his books. Both are in a sense, therefore, memoirs as well as histories, but Churchill was careful to broaden their scope to include events in which he played no part — the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, for example. Inevitably, however, Churchill placed Britain, and therefore himself, at the centre of his narrative. Arthur Balfour described The World Crisis as "Winston's brilliant autobiography, disguised as a history of the universe."
As a Cabinet minister for part of the First World War and as Prime Minister for nearly all of the Second, Churchill had unique access to official documents, military plans, official secrets and correspondence between world leaders. After the First War, when there were few rules governing these documents, Churchill simply took many of them with him when he left office and used them freely in his books — as did other wartime politicians such as David Lloyd George. As a result of this, strict rules were put in place preventing Cabinet ministers using official documents for writing history or memoirs once they left office.
The World Crisis was inspired by Lord Esher's attack on Churchill's reputation in his memoirs. It soon broadened out into a general multi-volume history. The volumes are a mix of military history, written with Churchill's usual narrative flair; diplomatic and political history, often written to left Churchill's own actions and policies during the war; portraits of other political and military figures, sometimes written to further political vendettas or settle debts (most notably with Lloyd George); and personal memoir, written in a colourful but highly selective manner. Today these books are not in favour as historical references. As with all Churchill's works, they have little to say about economic or social history, and are coloured by his political views — particularly in regard to the Russian Revolution. But they remain highly readable for their narrative skill and vivid portrayals of people and events.
When he resumed office in 1939, Churchill fully intended writing a history of the war then beginning. He said several times: "I will leave judgements on this matter to history — but I will be one of the historians." To circumvent the rules against the use of official documents, he took the precaution throughout the war of having a weekly summary of correspondence, minutes, memoranda and other documents printed in galleys and headed "Prime Minister's personal minutes". These were then stored at his home for future use. As well, Churchill wrote or dictated a number of letters and memorandums with the specific intention of placing his views on the record for later use as a historian.
This all became a source of great controversy when The Second World War began appearing in 1948. Churchill was not an academic historian, he was a politician, and was in fact Leader of the Opposition, still intending to return to office. By what right, it was asked, did he have access to Cabinet, military and diplomatic records which were denied to other historians?
What was unknown at the time was the fact that Churchill had done a deal with the Attlee Labour government which came to office in 1945. Recognising Churchill's enormous prestige, Attlee agreed to allow him (or rather his research assistants) free access to most documents, provided that (a) no official secrets were revealed, (b) the documents were not used for party political purposes, and (c) the typescript was vetted by the Cabinet Secretary, Sir Norman Brook. Brook took a close interest in the books and rewrote some sections himself to ensure that nothing was said which might harm British interests or embarrass the government. Churchill's history thus became a semi-official one.
Churchill's privileged access to documents and his unrivalled personal knowledge gave him an advantage over all other historians of the Second World War for many years. The books had enormous sales in both Britain and the United States and made Churchill a rich man for the first time. It was not until after his death and the opening of the archives that some of the deficiencies of his work became apparent.
Some of these were inherent in the unique position Churchill occupied as a historian, being both a former Prime Minister and a serving politician. He could not reveal military secrets, such as the work of the code-breakers at Bletchley Park (see Ultra) or the planning of the atomic bomb. He could not discuss wartime disputes with figures such as Dwight Eisenhower, Charles de Gaulle or Tito, since they were still world leaders at the time he was writing. He could not discuss Cabinet disputes with Labour leaders such as Attlee, whose goodwill the project depended on. He could not reflect on the deficiencies of generals such as Archibald Wavell or Claude Auchinleck for fear they might sue him (some, indeed, threatened to do so).
Other deficiencies were of Churchill's own making. Although he described the fighting on the Eastern Front, he had little real interest in it and no access to Soviet or German documents, so his account is a pastiche of secondary sources, largely written by his assistants. The same is true to some extent of the war in the Pacific except for episodes such as the fall of Singapore in which he was involved. His account of the U.S. naval war in the Pacific was so heavily based on other writers that he was accused of plagiarism.
The real focus of Churchill's work is always on the war in Western Europe, the Mediterranean and North Africa, but here his work is based heavily on his own documents, so it greatly exaggerates his own role. He had little access to American documents, and even those he did have, such as his letters from Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower, had to be used with caution for diplomatic reasons. Although he was, of course, a central figure in the war, he was not as central as his books suggest. Although he is usually fair, some personal vendettas are aired — against Stafford Cripps, for example.
The Second World War can still be read with great profit by students of the period, provided it is seen mainly as a memoir by a leading participant rather than as an authoritative history by a detached historian. The war, and particularly the period between 1940 and 1942 when Britain was fighting alone, was the climax of Churchill's career, and his personal account of the inside story of those days is unique and invaluable. But, since the archives have been opened, far more accurate and reliable histories have emerged.
Churchill's History of the English-Speaking Peoples was commissioned and largely written in the 1930s when Churchill badly needed money, but it was put aside when war broke out in 1939, being finally issued after he left office for the last time in 1955. While Churchill's enormous prestige ensured that the books were respectfully received and sold well, they are little read today.
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In which Italian region is the port and city of Genoa located ? | Genoa
in Europe
Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria. Located in the northwest of the country on the Ligurian Sea located in the former center of the Middle Ages, major republic of Genoa is now the administrative seat of the province. Genoa has 800,000 inhabitants in the agglomeration and 1.5 million in the metropolitan area. The boulevards Le Strade Nuove with the Renaissance – and Baroque buildings of the Palazzi dei Rolli in the center of the town were in 2006 by the UNESCO for World Heritage site declared.
genoa
In the Bay of Genoa rise the mountains of the Apennines at steeply inland, thereby determining the overall characteristics of the city. Genoa is almost exclusively due to its location facing the sea city. This becomes clear from, for example at a train ride from Milan appear suddenly after several minutes long, pitch-black tunnels, the Mediterranean and the city.
In Genoa, the separation between the colonized is extremely dense, often haphazardly built coastal strip and the village-like, affected by increasing emigration, poor hinterland structure that shapes all over Liguria, particularly clear. Today may be greater because of these contrasts the points of contact with the Genoese distant port cities throughout the Mediterranean as a geographical standpoint, only a few kilometers away, according to the tradition and mentality but worlds away Apennine mountain village.
genoa wallpaper
genoa landscape
genoa italy
Geographically, Genoa is exactly the center of the Italian region of Liguria. Which is about 35 km along the Mediterranean coast city rushing towards the southeast in the so-called. Riviera di Levante (to La Spezia), in a southwesterly direction in the so-called. Riviera di Ponente (up Ventimiglia) over. In Genoa, it is common regional location data with the main directions Levant (ie south-east of Genoa) and with Ponente indicate (to the west of Genoa). Genoa in the Italian language was often the addition superba la or la dominant.
genoa city
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Who won The X Factor 2013 ? | Genova, Liguria, Italy
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Genova (Genoa), Province of Genova, Liguria, Italy
The capital of its province and of the Liguria region, the city is an important seaport in northern Italy.
It is the first Italian commercial port, with also two passenger docks, Ponte dei Mille and Ponte Andrea Doria, and the second port in the Mediterranean after Marseille, France. Its name is probably Ligurian, meaning "knee", i.e. "angle", from its geographical position. Alternatively, the name has been claimed to derive from Latin Janua ("gate"), the two-headed god Janus.
Genoa was the birthplace of Christopher Columbus (although his birthplace is disputed between Italy and France), admiral Andrea Doria, violinist Niccolò Paganini and Italian patriot Giuseppe Mazzini.
Info
Area: 243 km² -- Altitude: 19 m a.s.l -- Population: ca. 600,000 inhabitants -- Density: 2.512 inhabitants per km² -- Zip/postal code: 16100 -- Phone Area Code: 010 -- Patron Saint: San Giovanni Battista celebrated on 24 June -- Frazioni & Località: -- Official website: Comune di Genova
Administrative Divisions
The metropolitan city of Genova is divided into nine "municipi".
Municipio I - Centro Est: Carignano, Castelletto, Lagaccio, Maddalena, Manin, Molo, Oregina, Prè, San Nicola, San Vincenzo
Municipio II - Centro Ovest: Angeli, Belvedere, Campasso, Sampierdarena, San Bartolomeo, San Gaetano, San Teodoro
Municipio III - Bassa Val Bisagno: Fereggiano, Forte Quezzi (Biscione), Marassi, Quezzi, San Fruttuoso, Sant'Agata
Municipio IV - Media Val Bisagno: Doria (Struppa), Molassana, Montesignano, Parenzo (Staglieno), Prato (Struppa), San Pantaleo (Staglieno), Sant'Eusebio
Municipio V - Valpolcevera: Begato, Bolzaneto, Borzoli Est, Certosa, Morego, Pontedecimo, Rivarolo, San Quirico, Teglia
Municipio VI - Medio Ponente: Borzoli Ovest, Calcinara, Campi, Cornigliano, San Giovanni Battista, Sestri
Municipio VII - Ponente: Ca' Nuova, Castelluccio, Crevari, Multedo, Palmaro, Pegli, Prà, Voltri
Municipio VIII - Medio Levante: Albaro, Brignole, Chiappeto, Foce, Lido, Puggia, San Giuliano, San Martino
Municipio IX - Levante: Apparizione, Bavari, Borgoratti, Castagna, Nervi, Quartara, Quarto, Quinto, San Desiderio, Sturla
History - Antiquity
"Genua" was a city of the ancient Ligurians, and its history goes back to ancient times. A city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably was in use much earlier. Destroyed by the Carthaginians in 209 BC, the town was rebuilt by the Romans, who used it as a base during their wars with Liguria. Under the Romans, the city enjoyed municipal rights and exported skins, wood, and honey. Faithful to Rome while other Ligurian and Celtic peoples of modern Northern Italy stood by Carthaginians in the Second Punic War, Genoa lost its importance as a Roman port city after the rise of Vada Sabatia, near Savona.
History - the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Genoa was an independent and powerful republic (one of the so-called Repubbliche Marinare, with Venice, Pisa, and Amalfi). Genoa was the most persistent rival of Venice, and like Venice its nominal republic was presided over by a doge (see Doges of Genoa). Genoa fought a series of wars with Venice starting in 1253, the last of which, the War of Chioggia (1378-81), Venice barely survived. The Siege of Chioggia marked the first strategic use of artillery in Italy, and perhaps, Europe.
Crusaders from Genoa brought home a green glass goblet long regarded in Genoa as the Holy Grail itself and thought to be emerald. The Republic of Genoa extended over modern Liguria and Piedmont. At various times Genoa had several colonies in the Mideast, in the Aegean and the Black Sea, whence the Black Death was imported into Europe from the Genoese trading post at Kaffa (Feodosiya) in the Crimea, in Sicily and Northern Africa. It also had for a time the island of Sardinia. and disputed Corsica with Corsicans and France until 1768. Famous Genoese families such as the Dorias had practically complete control of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
History - the Modern Age
The Republic became part of the French Empire until 1815, when the delegates at the Congress of Vienna sanctioned its incorporation into Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia). In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi set out from near Genoa (actually Quarto) with a thousand volunteers to unify Italy, which was at the time split in several kingdoms.
What to see
The Lanterna, the old lighthouse, is almost a symbol of Genoa, and is visible from everywhere in the city.
the Parco Urbano delle Mura, the green lung of the city, interspersed with ancient monuments, restoing areas, playgrounds and track and field paths.
The Churches:
The Cathedral of San Lorenzo, hosting the marvelous Museo del Tesoro di San Lorenzo, a rich collection of items from all ages and places.
San Matteo, built in 1125, with a very peculiar facade in black and white bands, with a byzanthine mosaic over the portal, hosts the tomb of admiral Andrea Doria.
SS. Annunziata, with a majestic neoclassical facade and precious baroque interior.
Santa Maria Assunta on the Carignano hill, with its typical twin belltowers, and huge greek-cross interior.
The Palaces:
Palazzo Doria, the ancient mansion of the rich Doria family, now the seat of the Province offices
Palazzo Ducale, the seat of the Doge at the time of the Mariner Republic
Palazzo Bianco, along Via Garibaldi one of most beautiful streets in Italy, hosting an important Art Gallery
Palazzo Rosso, always along the Via Garibaldi, richly decorated in frescoes and valuable items, the seat of a Gallery of art works belonging to the ancient Genoese families Brignole and Durazzo.
The Museums:
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In Greek mythology, which beautiful young man was granted eternal sleep in order to remain forever young ? | Dictionary of Greek & Roman Mythology
Dictionary of the Greeks and Romans Mythology
Abaris In Greek mythology Abaris was a priest to the god Apollo. Apollo gave him a golden arrow which rendered him invisible and also cured diseases and gave oracles. Abaris gave the arrow to Pythagoras.
Abas Abas was the son of Celeus and Metaneira. He mocked Demeter and was turned into a lizard. By some accounts he was the 12th king of Argolis who owned a magic shield.
Abdera Abdera was an ancient Greek city supposedly founded by Hercules in honour of his friend Abderus.
Abderus Abderus was a friend of Hercules. Hercules left him to look after the mare of Diomedes, which ate him.
Absyrtus Absyrtus (Apsyrtus) was a son of Aeetes, King of Colchis and brother of Medea. When Medea fled with Jason she took Absyrtus with her and when her father nearly overtook them she murdered Absyrtus and cut his body into pieces and threw it around the road so that her father would be delayed picking up the pieces of his son.
Acacetus Acacetus is a name sometimes given to Hermes because of his eloquence.
Acamas Acamas was a son of Theseus and Phaedra. He went to Troy with Diomedes to demand the return of Helen.
Acastus Acastus was a son of Pelias. He was one of the argonauts.
Acestes In Greek mythology, Acestes was a Sicilian bowman who in a trial of skill discharge an arrow with such force that it ignited.
Achaeus In Greek mythology, Achaeus was a son of Xuthus and Creusa. He returned to Thessaly and recovered the dominions of which his father had been deprived.
Achates In Greek mythology Achates was a companion of Aeneas in his wanderings subsequent to his flight from Troy. He typified a faithful friend and companion.
Achelous In Greek mythology, Achelous was a river god who changed into a snake and a bull while fighting Hercules, but was defeated when Hercules broke off one of his horns.
Achemon Achemon and his brother Basalas were two Cercopes who were for ever arguing. One day they insulted Hercules, who tied them by their feet to his club and marched off with them like a brace of hares.
Acheron Acheron was one of the rivers of Hades.
Acherusia In Greek mythology, Acherusia was a cave on the borders of Pontus which led to the infernal regions. It was through this cave that Hercules dragged Cerberus to earth.
Achilles In Greek mythology, Achilles was the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly, and of the sea nymph Thetis, who rendered him invulnerable, except for the heel by which she held him, by dipping him in the river Styx. Achilles killed Hector at the climax of the Iliad, and according to subsequent Greek legends was himself killed by Paris, who shot a poisoned arrow into Achilles' heel.
Acis In Greek mythology, Acis was a son of Faunus and a river nymph. He loved the sea-nymph Galatea and was killed by his jealous rival Polyphemus.
Acrisius In Greek mythology, Acrisius was a son of Abas and the twin brother of Proteus with whom he quarrelled even in the womb. He was the father of Danae. When Abas died, Acrisius expelled Proteus from his inheritance, but Proteus returned supported by Iobates and Acrisius was compelled to give him Tiryns while he kept Argos.
Actaeon In Greek mythology, Actaeon was a great hunter who was turned into a stag by Artemis for looking on her while she was bathing. He was subsequently torn to pieces by his own dogs.
Adaro In the mythology of the Solomon Islands, Adaro is a sea-spirit.
Addanc The addanc was a dwarf or marine monster which lived near lake llyon. He was killed in some accounts by Peredu who obtained a magic stone which made him invisible.
Adrastus Adrastus was the son of Talaus and the king of Argos. He attempted to restore Polynices to his throne at Thebes, he failed but led a second assault leading the Epigoni. He died of grief when he heard that his son had been killed in the Epigoni assault.
Aello Aello was one of the harpies.
Aeneas Aeneas was a Trojan hero. He was the son of Anchises and Aphrodite. He led the survivors of the Trojan war to Italy.
Aeolus Aeolus was the son of Hippotes. He lived on a rocky island where the winds were trapped in caves. He let the winds out as commanded by the gods.
Aesculapius Aesculapius was the son of Apollo and Coronis. His mother died at his birth, struck by an arrow of Artemis. His father saved him and took him to the physician Chiron who taught Aesculapius about healing, he was the Roman god of medicine, his worship introduced at Rome about 291 BC.
Agamemnon In Greek mythology, Agamemnon was a Greek hero of the Trojan wars, son of Atreus, king of Mycenae, and brother of Menelaus. He married Clytemnestra, and their children included Electra, Iphigenia, and Orestes. He sacrificed Iphigenia in order to secure favorable winds for the Greek expedition against Troy and after a ten years' siege sacked the city, receiving Priam's daughter Cassandra as a prize. On his return home, he and Cassandra were murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus. His children Orestes and Electra later killed the guilty couple.
Ajax In Greek mythology, Ajax was son of Telamon, king of Salamis, he was second only to Achilles among the Greek heroes in the Trojan War. According to subsequent Greek legends, Ajax went mad with jealousy when Agamemnon awarded the armor of the dead Achilles to Odysseus. He later committed suicide in shame.
Alcaeus Alcaeus was a son of Perseus and Andromeda.
Alcestis Alcestis was the wife of Admetus in Greek mythology. Her husband was ill, and according to an oracle would not recover unless someone vowed to die in his place. Alcestis made the vow and her husband recovered. After she died Hercules brought her back from the infernal regions.
Alcides Alcides is an alternative name for Hercules.
Alcmene In Greek mythology, Alcmene is the virgin goddess of midwinter, midwinter's moon, the new year, stateliness, beauty and wisdom.
Alcyone In Greek mythology, Alcyone is the goddess of the sea, the moon, calm and tranquility; She who brings life to death and death to life.
Alphito In Greek mythology, Alphito was a white goddess of barley flour, destiny and the moon. The hag of the mill and the lady of the nine heights.
Amaethon Amaethon was the celtic god of husbandry.
Amazon in Greek mythology, the Amazons were a group of female warriors living near the Black Sea, who cut off their right breasts to use the bow more easily. Their queen, Penthesilea, was killed by Achilles at the siege of Troy. The Amazons attacked Theseus and besieged him at Athens, but were defeated, and Theseus took the Amazon Hippolyta captive; she later gave birth to Hippolytus.
Ambrosia In Greek mythology, ambrosia was the food of the gods which was supposed to confer eternal life upon all who ate it.
Amor Amor was the Roman god of love.
Amphictyonis In Greek mythology, Amphictyonis was the goddess of wine and friendship between nations.
Amphion In Greek mythology, Amphion was a son of Zeus and Antiope. He was the husband of Niobe. Amphion had great skill in music which he was taught by Hermes. He helped build the walls of Thebes, the stones moving themselves into position at the sound of his lyre.
Amphitrite Amphitrite was the Greek goddess of the sea and wife of Poseidon.
Amphitryon In Greek mythology, Amphitryon was King of Thebes, son of Alcaeus and husband of Alcmena.
Amymone Amymone was a daughter of Danaus. She and her sisters were sent to search for water when Poseidon caused a drought in the district of Argos. Whilst searching she threw a spear at a dear, missed it and hit a satyr which pursued her. She called to Poseidon for help. He came, drove off the satyr and produced a perennial spring for her at Lerna, where he met her.
Anadyomene Anadyomene is a name of Aphrodite when she was represented as rising from the sea.
Androcles In Roman mythology, Androcles was a Roman slave who fled from a cruel master into the African desert, where he encountered a crippled lion and took a thorn from its paw. The lion later recognized the recaptured slave in the arena and spared his life. The emperor Tiberius was said to have freed them both.
Andromache In Greek mythology, Andromache was the wife of Hector.
Andromeda Andromeda was a daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopea. Perseus found her bound to a rock as a sacrifice to a sea monster. Perseus rescued her after killing the sea monster so that she might become his wife.
Annona In Roman mythology, Annona was the Goddess of the circling year and its harvest produce; Matron of commerce and the market place.
Antaeus Antaeus was the giant son of Poseidon and Ge. He was invincible so long as he remained in contact with the earth. Hercules killed him by picking him up so that his feet were off the ground and then stifling him.
Anteros In Greek mythology, Anteros was the god of mutual love. He was said to punish those who did not return the love of others.
Antheia In Crete, Antheia was the goddess of vegetation, lowlands, marshlands, gardens, blossoms, the budding earth and human love.
Anthesteria Anthesteria was a Greek festival held each year in honour of the gods, particularly Bacchus and to celebrate the beginning of spring.
Antigone In Greek mythology Antigone was the daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta. She was celebrated for her devotion to her father and her brother Polynices.
Antilochus In Greek mythology, Antilochus was a son of Nestor. He was a hero of the Trojan war and was renowned for his speed of foot. He was killed by Memnon.
Antiope In Greek mythology, Antiope was a daughter of Nycteus, King of Thebes. Zeus was attracted by her beauty and came to her in the guise of a Satyr. Antiope conceived twins by Zeus, and scared of her father's wrath fled to Sicyon where she married King Epopeus. Antiope was the goddess of the new moon, the gad-fly dance and fecundity; Mother of the morning and evening star.
Aphrodisia Aphrodisia was the festival in celebration of Aphrodite celebrated throughout Greece and Cyprus.
Aphrodite Aphrodite was the Greek goddess of love. The Romans called her Venus.
Apollo Apollo was the Roman name of the Greek god Phoebus.
Arachne In Greek mythology, Arachne was a Lydian woman who was so skillful a weaver that she challenged the goddess Athena to a contest. Athena tore Arachne's beautiful tapestries to pieces and Arachne hanged herself. She was transformed into a spider, and her weaving became a cobweb. She was therefore related to the textile industries. The matron of spinning, weaving and dyeing and the weaver of destiny.
Arcadia Arcadia was a green mountainous isolated region in the centre of Peloponnese inhabited by shepherds and peasants.
Ares Ares was the Greek god of storms and tempests. He was a son of Zeus and Hera. He became symbolic with storms and turmoil in human relationships and hence to being the god of war. The Romans called him Mars.
Arethusa In Greek mythology, Arethusa was a daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was a nympth changed by Artemis into a fountain to enable her to escape the pursuit of Alpheus.
Argonauts In Greek mythology the Argonauts were heroes who made a hazardous voyage to Colchis with Jason in the ship the Argo to get the golden fleece.
Argus In Greek mythology the Argus was a beast with a hundred eyes placed by Juno to guard Io.
Ariadne In Greek mythology Ariadne was the daughter of King Minos. She helped Theseus out of the labyrinth with a thread. She was abandoned by Theseus on the Isle of Naxos where she subsequently met and married Bacchus.
Arimaspians In Greek mythology the Arimaspians were a one-eyed people who conducted a perpetual war against the griffins in an attempt to steal the griffin's gold.
Aristaeus In Greek mythology Aristaeus was the son of Apollo and Cyrene. He introduced bee-keeping.
Artemis Artemis was a Greek goddess of the moon. The Great Virgin Goddess of fertility, vegetation, the wilderness, wild animal life and the chase.
Aruspices The Aruspices (Haruspices) were a class of priests in ancient Rome. Their job was to foretell the future from the entrails of sacrificial victims.
Ascanius Ascanius was a son of Aeneas and Creusa. He escaped from Troy with his father.
Asclepius Asclepius was a Greek god of healing. He was the son of Apollo and Coronis. He was taught the art of healing by Cheiron. Zeus killed him with a thunderbolt as a punishment for bringing a dead man back to life.
Astraea In Greek mythology Astraea was the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess of justice.
Atalanta In Greek mythology Atalanta was a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be married only to someone who could outrun her in a race, the consequence of failure being death.
Ate Ate was the goddess of infatuation, mischief and guilt. She would mislead men into actions which would be the ruin of them.
Athena Athena (Athene) was the Greek goddess of intellect. She was the daughter of Zeus and Metis.
Atlantides Atlantides was name given to the Pleiades who were fabled to be the seven daughters of Atlas.
Atlantis In Greek mythology, Atlantis was an island continent, said to have sunk following an earthquake. The Greek philosopher Plato created an imaginary early history for it and described it as a utopia.
Atlas Atlas was a giant who had to support the heavens upon his shoulders.
Atreus In Greek mythology Atreus was the son of Pelops and Hippodamia. He was King of Mycenae. To seek revenge on his brother Thyestes for seducing his wife, Atreus gave a banquet at which Thyestes dined on the flesh of his own sons.
Attis In classical mythology, Attis was a Phrygian god whose death and resurrection symbolized the end of winter and the arrival of spring. He was loved by the goddess Cybele, who drove him mad as a punishment for his infidelity, he castrated himself and bled to death.
Augean stables in Greek mythology, the Augean stables were the stables of Augeas, king of Elis in southern Greece. One of the labours of Hercules was to clean out the stables, which contained 3,000 cattle and had never been cleaned before. He was given only one day to do the task so he diverted the river Alpheus through their yard.
Aurora Aurora was goddess of the dawn. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Selene.
Autolycus In Greek mythology, Autolycus was an accomplished thief and trickster. He was a son of the god Hermes, who gave him the power of invisibility.
Bacchanalia Bacchanalia were feasts held in honour of Bacchus and characterized by licentiousness and revelry.
Bacchus Bacchus was another name for Dionysus.
Bateia In Greek mythology, Bateia was a daughter of Teucer. She was married to Dardanus by whom she had two sons, Ilus and Erichthonius.
Bellerophon In Greek mythology, Bellerophon was a victim of slander who was sent against the monstrous chimera, which he killed with the help of his winged horse Pegasus. After further trials, he ended his life as a beggar. His story was dramatized by Euripides.
Bellona Bellona was the Roman goddess of war.
Beltaine Beltaine is the name of the feast of the spring equinox.
Bia In Greek mythology, Bia was a son of Styx and the Titan Pallas. Bia was the personification of might and force.
Boan Boan was another name for Dana. In this version of events, Boan visited a sacred well which, to punish her for breaking the law, rose up and pursued her to the sea and thus became the river Boyne where lived the salmon of knowledge which fed on nuts dropped from the nine hazel trees at the water's edge.
Boreas Boreas was the north wind god. He was the son of Astraeus and Aurora.
Bucentaur The bucentaur was a mythical creature, half man and half ox
Cadmus Cadmus was the founder of the ancient city of Cadmeia and gave the Greeks an alphabet.
Caduceus Caduceus is the winged and serpent twisted staff or wand of Hermes.
Calliope Calliope was the muse of eloquence and heroic poems. She was the chief of the muses, and was said to have been the mother of Orpheus by Apollo.
Callisto Callisto was a daughter of Lycaon. She was one of Artemis' huntresses. She bore arcas to Zeus. To conceal their affair, Zeus turned her into a bear.
Calypso In Greek mythology, Calypso was a sea nymph who inhabited the island of Ogygia. She waylaid the homeward-bound Odysseus and promissed him immortality if he would marry her. After seven years she was ordered by the gods to let him depart.
Cassandra In Greek mythology, Cassandra was the daughter of Priam, King of Troy. Her prophecies were never believed, because she had rejected the love of the god Apollo. She was murdered with Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra, having been awarded as a prize to the Greek hero on his sacking of Troy.
Castor Castor was the twin brother of Polydeuces. He was a son of Zeus and Leda. He, like his brother was born from an egg after Zeus visited Leda disguised as a swan.
Celaeno Celaeno was one of the harpies.
Celeus In Greek mythology, Celeus was King of Eleusis and the husband of Metaneira.
Centaur A centaur was a beast half horse, and with the head, torso and arms of a man.
Cepheus Cepheus was the king of Aethiopia. He displeased Poseidon by having a beautiful daughter, Andromeda. Poseidon then sent floods and a sea monster to terrorise the area until cepheus gave his daughter as a sacrifice to the sea monster.
Cerberus Cerberus was a huge and savage dog with 3 heads which guarded the entrance to Hades. He was the offspring of Echidne and Typhon.
Cercyon Cercyon was a son of Hephaestus. He was king near Eleusis. He challenged all travellers and wrestled them to death until he challenged and was killed by Theseus.
Ceres Ceres was the Roman goddess of agriculture, equivalent to the Greek Demeter.
Cestus In Greek mythology, the cestus was a girdle worn by Aphrodite and which was endowered with the power of exciting love towards the wearer.
Chalybes The Chalybes were mythical inhabitants of north Asia Minor who invented iron working.
Chaos In Greek mythology, Chaos was the infinite space before Ge (the earth) was created.
Charites The Charites were the Greek goddesses of gracefulness and the charms of beauty.
Charon Charon was the ferryman who transported the dead across the river Styx to Hades.
Charybdis In Greek mythology, the charybdis was a whirlpool formed by a monster of the same name on one side of the narrow straits of Messina, Sicily, opposite the monster Scylla.
Cheiron Cheiron was a centaur. He was a son of Cronus and Philyra. He learnt hunting and medicine from Apollo and Artemis.
Chimaera The chimaera was a monster composed of the head of a lion, the body of a goat and a serpant for a tail. Bellerophon was sent to slay it.
Chryse In Greek mythology, Chryse was a warlike goddess of the metal gold, in its refinement and all that is regarded as having great value.
Circe In Greek mythology, Circe was an enchantress living on the island of Aeaea. In Homer's Odyssey, she turned the followers of Odysseus into pigs. Odysseus, bearing the herb moly provided by Hermes to protect him from the same fate, forced her to release his men.
Clio Clio was the muse of history.
Clytemnestra In Greek mythology, Clytemnestra was the wife of Agamemnon. With the help of her lover Aegisthus, she murdered her husband and his paramour Cassandra on his return from the Trojan War, and was in turn killed by her son Orestes.
Comus In later Greek mythology, Comus was a god of revelry, banquets and nocturnal entertainments. He was generally depicted as a drunken youth. The depiction by Milton of Comus as a son of Bacchus and Circe was an idea thought of by Milton, and not the Greeks or Romans.
Corbenic Corbenic was the castle in the Arthurian legend in which the Holy Grail was kept.
Cornucopia In Greek mythology, the cornucopia was one of the horns of the goat Amaltheia, which was caused by Zeus to refill itself indefinitely with food and drink.
Cratos Cratos was a son of Uranus and Gaea. He was very strong.
Creusa In Greek mythology, Creusa was the daughter of Erechtheus and wife of Xuthus. She was also loved by Apollo.
Cronus Cronus was the son of Uranus. He succeeded to the throne of the gods when Uranus was deposed. He married Rhea. He appears in Greek mythology.
Cupid Cupid was another name for Amor.
Curetes In Greek mythology the Curetes were attendants of Rhea. They were supposed to have saved the infant Zeus from his father Cronus and then to have become a sort of bodyguard of the god.
Cybele Cybele was the Great Mother Goddess of the Phrygians and later the Greeks and Romans.
Cyclops In Greek mythology, the Cyclops wereone of a race of Sicilian giants, who had one eye in the middle of the forehead and lived as shepherds. Odysseus blinded the Cyclops Polyphemus in Homer's Odyssey.
Daedalus In Greek mythology, Daedalus was an Athenian artisan supposed to have constructed for King Minos of Crete the labyrinth in which the Minotaur was imprisoned. When Minos became displeased with him, Daedalus fled from Crete with his son Icarus using wings made by them from feathers fastened with wax.
Daemons The daemons were an order of invisible beings. Zeus assigned one daemon to each man to attend, protect and guide him.
Danaans The Danaans were one of the 3 Nemedian families who survived the Fomorian victory. The brought the stone of destiny from Falias.
Danae In Greek mythology, Danae was daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. He shut her up in a bronze tower because of a prophecy that her son would kill his grandfather. Zeus became enamored of her and descended in a shower of gold; she gave birth to Perseus.
Daphne Daphne was a daughter of Peneus. She was pursued by Apollo and asked to be turned into a laurel tree to escape him, which she was.
Daphnis Daphnis was a son of Hermes and a nymph. He was raised by Sicillian shepherds when his mother abandoned him.
Dardanus In Greek mythology, Dardanus was a son of Zeus and Electra. He was originally a king in Arcadia, he migrated to Samothrace and from there to Asia where Teucer gave him the site of his town, Dardania. He married Bateia.
Deianeira Deianeira was the daughter of Oeonus and the wife of Hercules.
Deidamia Deidamia fell in love with Achilles and bore him Neoptolemus.
Demeter Demeter was a Greek goddess of the earth. She is also called Ceres. She was the nourishing mother, bringing forth fruits. She was a daughter of Cronus and Rhea.
Demigod A demigod was a Greek hero. They were men who posessed god-like strength and courage and who had performed great tasks in the past.
Deucalion In Greek mythology, Deucalion was the son of Prometheus. Warned by his father of a coming flood, Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha built an ark. After the waters had subsided, they were instructed by a god to throw stones over their shoulders which then became men and women.
Diana Diana was the Roman name for the Greek goddess Artemis.
Dike Dike was the attendant of justice to Nemesis.
Dionysus Dionysus was a Greek god of happiness. He was also called Bacchus and Iacchus.
Dis In Roman mythology, Dis was the god of the underworld, also known as Orcus.
Discordia Discordia was the Roman goddess of strife.
Dryades The dryades were nymphs of the woods and trees.
Echo Echo was a mountain nymph and a servant of Hecate.
Egeria In Roman mythology, Egeria was a goddess of healing springs, wisdom, human laws and death. She was the Oak-Queen and granter of easy deliveries.
Eirene Eirene was the goddess of peace.
Electra In Greek mythology, Electra was daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and sister of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her hatred of her mother for murdering her father and her desire for revenge, fulfilled by the return of her brother Orestes, made her the subject of tragedies by the Greek dramatists Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
Electryon Electryon was a son of Perseus and Andromeda.
Elementals The Elementals are creatures or spirits of the elements. They are the forces of nature.
Elysium In Greek mythology, Elysium was originally another name for the Islands of the Blessed, to which favored heroes were sent by the gods to enjoy a life after death. It was later a region in Hades.
Endymion In Greek mythology, Endymion was a beautiful young man loved by Selene, the Moon goddess. He was granted eternal sleep in order to remain forever young.
Enyo Enyo was the Greek goddess of war.
Eos Eos was the goddess of dawn. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Thia, and sister of Helios and Selene.
Epaphus In Greek mythology, Epaphus was a son of zeus and Io who was born on the River Nile. He became King of Egypt and married Memphis, or by some accounts Cassiopeia. he had a daughter, Libya, who gave her name to the African country of Libya.
Epigoni The Epigoni were the descendants of the seven against Thebes who attacked the city ten years after their fathers had done so. They were organised by Adrastus.
Epimetheus Epimetheus was the brother of Prometheus.
Erato Erato was the muse of love and marriage songs.
Erebus Erebus was the Greek god of darkness.
Erechtheus In Greek mythology, Erechtheus (Erichthonius) was an Attic hero, said to have been the son of Hephaestus and Atthis. He was brought up by Athena.
Eridanus Eridanus was a Greek river god known as the king of rivers. He was a son of Oceanus and Tethys.
Erigone In Greek mythology, Erigone was the goddess of death, trees and fertility and associated with wine and a pastoral economy.
Erinys Erinys was the attendant of vengeance to Nemesis.
Eris Eris was the Greek goddess of strife, deceit, discord and disputation. The provoker of rivalry, contention, murder and wars.
Eros Eros was the Greek god of love. He was the son of Aphropdite.
Eteocles In Greek mythology, Eteocles was a son of the incestuous union of Oedipus and Jocasta and brother of Polynices. He denied his brother a share in the kingship of Thebes, thus provoking the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, in which he and his brother died by each other's hands.
Europa Europa was the daughter of Agenor. She was carried off by Zeus who had transformed himself into a great white bull.
Eurus Eurus was the east wind god.
Euryale Euryale was one of the gorgons.
Eurydice In Greek mythology, Eurydice was the wife of Orpheus. She was a dryad, or forest nymph, and died from a snake bite. Orpheus attempted unsuccessfully to fetch her back from the realm of the dead.
Euterpe Euterpe was the muse of music.
Fama Fama was an alternative name for the Roman goddess Pheme. In this form she was the mighty goddess of the word of mouth and human gossip. She Who initiates and furthers communication.
Fate In Greek and Roman mythology, the Fates was goddesses who decreed what would happen to both men and gods.
Fauna In Roman mythology, Fauna was the mother goddess of earth, rural life, fields, cattle and wild creatures. She was a protectress of women.
Faunus Faunus was a Roman god similar to Pan.
Februata In Roman mythology, Februata was the oracular goddess of love's passion. She who calls forth animals from their winter hibernation.
Felicitas In Roman mythology, Felicitas was the goddess of joyous events, laughter, happiness and contentment. She who suckles the young.
Flora Flora was the Roman goddess of flowers, youth, and spring.
Fornax In Roman mythology, Fornax was the goddess of the mysteries of bread-baking and the embryo's development.
Fortuna Fortuna was the Roman goddess of luck.
Furiae The Furiae were attendants of Hades and Persephone.
Gaea Gaea was a Greek goddess of the earth.
Galatea In Greek mythology, Galatea was the daughter of Nereus and Doris. She rejected the advances of the Cyclops Polyphemus and instead gave herself to the Sicilian shepherd Acis. Polyphemus crushed Acis beneath a rock.
Ganymedes Ganymedes was a son of the Trojan king Tros. He was carried off by Zeus and became the cup-bearer of the gods.
Golden fleece The golden fleece was the fleece of the ram on which Phrixus had escaped and was given to aetes the king of colchis. It hung from an oak tree in the grove of Ares where a dragon guarded it.
Gordian Knot In Greek mythology, the Gordian Knot was tied by King Gordius, and could only br unravelled by a future conquerer of Asia. Alexander cut it with his sword in 334BC.
Gorgons The gorgons were three daughters of Phorcys and Ceto.
Graeae The Graeae were three daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. They had only one eye and one tooth between them which they shared. Perseus forced them to tell him where he could find Medusa by stealing their solitary eye and tooth.
Griffin The griffin was a mythical monster, the supposed guardian of hidden treasure, with the body, tail, and hind legs of a lion, and the head, forelegs, and wings of an eagle.
Guatrigakwitl In Wishok mythology, Guatrigakwitl is the creator who made all things.
Hades Hades was the Greek god of the underworld. He was a son of Cronus.
Haemus In Greek mythology, Haemus was a son of Boreas and Oreithyia. He married Rhodope and by her had a son, Hebrus. He and his wife presumed to assume the names of Zeus and Hera and were turned into mountains for their insolence.
Harmonia Harmonia was the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite. She married Cadmus. At the wedding she was given a necklace made by Hephaestus which confered irresistible beauty upon the wearer.
Harpies The harpies were employed by the gods to carryout the punishment of crime.
Hebe Hebe was the goddess of youth. She was the daughter of Zeus and Hera.
Hebrus In Greek mythology, Hebrus was a river god. He was the son of Haemus and Rhodope.
Hecate Hecate was a Greek goddess of the moon and spirits. Dogs were sacred to her.
Hector In Greek mythology, Hector was a Trojan prince, son of King Priam and husband of Andromache, who, in the siege of Troy, was the foremost warrior on the Trojan side until he was killed by Achilles.
Helen In Greek mythology, Helen was the daughter of Zeus and Leda, and the most beautiful of women. She married Menelaus, King of Sparta, but during his absence, was abducted by Paris, Prince of Troy. This precipitated the Trojan War. Afterwards she returned to Sparta with her husband.
Helicon Helicon was a mountain in central Greece, on which was situated a spring and a sanctuary sacred to the Muses.
Helios Helios was the Greek god of physical light.
Helle In Greek mythology, Helle was the daughter of Athamas, King of Thessaly, and sister of Phryxes. With her brother she ran away from Ino, their cruel stepmother, on a ram with a Golden Fleece. Helle fell into the sea and drowned, thus giving her name to the Hellespont.
Hemera Hemera was the Greek goddess of day. She was born from Erebus and Nyx. She emerged from Tartarus as Nyx left it and returned to it as she was emerging from it.
Hephaestus Hephaestus was the Greek god of volcanic fire. The Romans called him Vulcan. He was the son of Zeus and Hera.
Hera Hera was a Greek goddess. She was mother to Hephaestus.
Hercules In Greek and Roman mythology, Hercules (Heracles) was considered as the perfect athlete. He was given twelve labours. 1) Kill the Nemean lion. 2) Destroy the Lernean hydra. 3) Capture alive the Erymanthian boar. 4) Capture alive the Ceryneian stag. 5) Kill the Stymphalian birds. 6) Clean the Augean stables. 7) Bring alive into Peloponnesus the Cretan bull. 8) Obtain the horses of Diomedes. 9) Obtain the girdle of Hippolyte. 10) Kill the monster and cattle of Geryon. 11) Obtain the apples of Hesperides. 12) Bring from the infernal regions Cerbeus the three headed dog of Hades.
Hermaphroditus In Greek mythology, Hermaphroditus was the son of Hermes and Aphrodite. He was loved by a nymph who asked for eternal union with him. Her request was granted and they became one body with both male and female sex organs.
Hermes Hermes was the Greek god of oratory. He was a son of Zeus and Maia.
Hesperides The Hesperides were daughters of Atlas and Hesperis.
Hestia Hestia was a Greek goddess. She was a daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was goddess of the hearth. She was also called Vesta.
Hippocoon In Greek mythology, Hippocoon was a King of Sparta. He was the son of Oebalus and Gorgophone. He refused to purify Hercules after he murdered Iphitus and further offended Hercules by killing Oeonus.
Hippolytus In Greek mythology, Hippolytus was the son of Theseus. When he rejected the love of his stepmother, Phaedra, she falsely accused him of making advances to her and turned Theseus against him. Killed by Poseidon at Theseus' request, he was in some accounts of the legend restored to life when his innocence was proven.
Horae The horae were the Greek goddesses of the seasons. They were daughters of Zeus and Themis.
Hydra In Greek mythology, the Hydra was a huge monster with nine heads. If one were cut off, two would grow in its place. One of the 12 labours of Hercules was to kill it.
Hygea Hygea was the daughter of Aesculapius. She was the goddess of health.
Hymen Hymen was the Greek and Roman god of marriage.
Hypnos Hypnos was a son of night, and twin brother of Thanatos. He provided rest and relieved pain.
Iacchus Iacchus is an alternative name for Dionysus.
Icarus Icarus escaped from the Minos labyrinth by means of wings made by his father Daedalus. In escaping he flew too close to the sun, the wax holding the feathers to the wings melted and icarus fell into the sea and drowned.
Io In Greek mythology, Io was the daughter of Inachus. She was beloved of Zeus. Zeus changed her into a white heifer to protect her from the jealousy of Hera.
Iphigenia In Greek mythology, Iphigenia was a daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. She was sacrificed by her father at Aulis to secure favorable winds for the Greek fleet in the expedition against Troy, on instructions from the prophet Calchas. According to some accounts, she was saved by the goddess Artemis, and made her priestess.
Irene Irene was the Greek goddess of peace. She was sometimes regarded as one of the Horae, who presided over the seasons and the order of nature, and were the daughters of Zeus and Themis.
Iris Iris was the goddess of the rainbow. She was the daughter of Thaumas and Electra. She was a sister of the harpies. She was a messenger who conveyed divine commands from Zeus and Hera to mankind.
Ixion In Greek mythology, Ixion was King of the Lapithae in Thessaly who was punished for his wickedness by being tied to a perpetually revolving wheel of fire.
Janus Janus was a two faced Roman god of beginnings and ends.
Jason Jason was the rightful king of Iolcus. He was smuggled out of Iolcus by Cheiron. When Jason returned to claim his birthright, Pelias sent him to fetch the golden fleece from Colchis.
Jocasta Jocasta was the wife of Laius the king of Thebes. She unwittingly had incest with Oedipus, bringing a plague on Thebes. Her father sacrificed himself to rid Thebes of the plague. Jocasta hanged herself when she learnt the truth of her marriage to Oedipus.
Juno Juno was the Roman name for the Greek goddess Hera.
Jupiter Jupiter was the Roman name for the Greek god Zeus.
Juturna In Roman mythology, Juturna was a goddess of springs, rivers, aqueducts and fountains. The matron of architects and sculptors.
Juventas In Roman mythology, Juventas was a goddess of increase and blessings. She was representative of the eternal youth and solidarity of a species.
Kahit In Wintun mythology, Kahit is the wind god.
Khuno In Aymara mythology, Khuno is the god of snowstorms.
Lacedaemon In Greek mythology, Lacedaemon was a son of Zeus and Taygete. He married Sparte. He was King of Lacedaemon and named the capital city Sparta after his wife.
Laestrygones The Laestrygones were a race of giant cannibals. They were ruled by Lamus. At Telepylos Odysseus lost all but one of his ships to them.
Laius Laius was the king of Thebes and father of Oedipus.
Laocoon Laocoon was a Trojan prophet, son of Antenor and a priest of Apollo and Poseidon. He warned the Trojans against the Wooden Horse.
Laodice Laodice was a daughter of Priam and the wife of Helicaon. When Troy fell she was swallowed by the earth.
Lares The Lares were beings of the Roman religion protecting households and towns.
Larissa Larissa was a city in Thessaly where Achilles was reportedly born.
Leda Leda was a daughter of Thestius. She was the wife of Tyndareus. She was seduced by Zeus and gave birth to two eggs. From one hatched her daughter Helen and son Polydeuces, and from the other hatched Castor.
Lemnos Lemnos was a small island at the mouth of the Hellespont. Hephaestus landed on Lemnos when Zeus threw him out of heaven, and set up a forge on the island.
Lethe In Greek mythology, Lethe was a river of the underworld whose waters, when drunk, brought forgetfulness of the past.
Leto In Greek mythology Leto was the mother of Apollo.
Leuce Leuce was a nymph loved by Hades. He turned her into a white poplar tree.
Leucothea Leucothea was a friendly sea-goddess who assisted Odysseus in his dangerous voyage. She was the daughter of Cadmus and originally the wife of Athamas, in which capacity she bore the name of Ino. She had incurred the wrath of Hera because she had suckled the infant Bacchus, and was pursued by her raving husband and thrown into the sea where she was saved by a dolphin and subsequently took her place as a marine deity under the name of Leucothea.
Liber Pater Liber Pater was an ancient Italian god of the vine.
Libera Libera was the Roman name for the Greek goddess Persephone.
Litai Litai was the goddess of recompense.
Luna Luna was the Roman name of the Greek goddess Selene.
Lutinus Lutinus was the Roman name for the Greek god Priapus.
Maia In Greek mythology, Maia was the daughter of Atlas and the mother of Hermes.
Manes The manes were the souls of departed people in the Greek and Roman religions.
Mars Mars was the Roman name for the Greek god Ares.
Marsyas In Greek mythology, Marsyas was a satyr who took up the pipes thrown down by the goddess Athena and challenged the god Apollo to a musical contest. On losing, he was flayed alive.
Medea In Greek mythology, Medea was the sorceress daughter of the king of Colchis. When Jason reached Colchis, she fell in love with him, helped him acquire the Golden Fleece, and they fled together. When Jason later married Creusa, daughter of the king of Corinth, Medea killed his bride with the gift of a poisoned garment, and then killed her own two children by Jason.
Meditrina Meditrina was a Roman goddess of health. She was a sister of Hygea.
Medusa Medusa was the youngest and most beautiful of the gorgons. She loved Poseidon and desecrated the temple of Athene by meeting Poseidon there. For this she was punished by having her hair turned to snakes. The result was her appearance was so hideous to behold that it would turn the viewer to stone.
Megapenthes In Greek mythology, Megapenthes was a son of Proteus and King of Argos. He exchanged his dominion with that of Perseus and afterwards killed Perseus.
Melpomene Melpomene was the muse of tragedy.
Memnon Memnon was the son of Eos and Tithonus. He was the king of Ethiopia who helped the Trojans and killed many Greeks. He was killed by Achilles in single combat whilst Zeus weighed their fates in the balance.
Menelaus Menelaus was the husband of Helen of Troy.
Mercury Mercury was the Roman name for the Greek god Hermes.
Midas In Greek mythology, Midas was a king of Phrygia who was granted the gift of converting all he touched to gold. He soon regretted his gift, as his food and drink were also turned to gold. For preferring the music of Pan to that of Apollo, he was given ass's ears by the latter.
Minerva Minerva was the Roman name of the Greek goddess Athene.
Minos In Greek mythology, Minos was a king of Crete (son of Zeus and Europa), who demanded a yearly tribute of young men and girls from Athens for the Minotaur. After his death, he became a judge in Hades.
Minotaur In Greek mythology, the Minotaur was a monster, half man and half bull, offspring of Pasiphae, wife of King Minos of Crete, and a bull. It lived in the Labyrinth at Knossos, and its victims were seven girls and seven youths, sent in annual tribute by Athens, until Theseus killed it, with the aid of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos.
Mnemosyne Mnemosyne was the mother of the muses. She signified the memory of great events.
Moerae Moerae was the Greek goddess of right and reason.
Momus Momus was the ancient Greek god of jeering.
Morpheus Morpheus was an ancient Greek god of dreams
Muses The muses were nympths of the springs.
Myrtilus Myrtilus was the son of Hermes.
Na'iads In Greek mythology, the Na'iads were nymphs of fountains and brooks.
Narcissus In Greek mythology, Narcissus was a beautiful youth who rejected the love of the nymph Echo and was condemned to fall in love with his own reflection in a pool. He pined away and in the place where he died a flower sprang up that was named after him.
Nauplius Nauplius was the son of Amymone and Poseidon. He was the wrecker of Nauplia.
Nemesis Nemesis was the goddess of punishment.
Neptune Neptune was the Roman name for the Greek god Poseidon.
Nereid In Greek mythology, the Nereid were 50 sea goddesses, or nymphs, who sometimes mated with mortals. Their father was Nereus and their mother was Doris.
Nereus Nereus was a sea god. He was a son of Pontys and Gaea.
Nike Nike was the goddess of victory. She was the daughter of Pallas and Styx. She helped the gods in their battle against the titans and was rewarded by Zeus.
Niobe In Greek mythology, Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion, the king of Thebes. She was contemptuous of the goddess Leto for having produced only two children, Apollo and Artemis. She died of grief when her own 12 offspring were killed by them in revenge, and was changed to stone by Zeus.
Notus Notus was the south wind god.
Nymph A nymph was a higher being than a human, but not immortal like a god. They were respected in mythology.
Nyx Nyx was a goddess of night. She was a daughter of Chaos. She married Erebus.
Oceanides The oceanides were 40 sea nymphs of the ocean. They were the daughters of Oceanus.
Oceanus Oceanus was the son of Uranus and Gaea. He was the only Titan not to revolt against Uranus.
Ocypete Ocypete was one of the harpies.
Odysseus Odysseus was a Greek hero. He devised the strategy of the wooden horse used by the Greeks to conquer Troy.
Oedipus Oedipus was the son of Laius. The Delphic oracle foretold that Laius would be killed by his son, so Oedipus was abandoned on mount Cithaeron with a nail through his feet. However, he was found by a shepherd and raised by Polybus. Hearing that he would kill his father, Oedipus left Corinth and met Laius on his travel. He killed him in an argument not knowing who he was.
Oeonus In Greek mythology, Oeonus was a son of Licymnius. He was attacked by a dog belonging to the sons of Hippocoon, he threw a stone at the dog and in revenge the sons of Hippocoon killed him.
Oileus Oileus was one of the Argonauts, he was the father of Ajax.
Omphale Omphale was queen of Lydia. She bought Hercules as a slave who stayed with her for 3 years.
Oneiros Oneiros was the ancient Greek god of dreams.
Ops Ops was the Roman goddess of plenty and the personification of abundance.
Oreades The oreades were mountain nymphs.
Orestes Orestes was the son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. As a child he was smuggled out of Mycenae by his sister Electra when Clytemnestra and Aegisthus seized power. He later killed Clytemnestra with the help of Electra and Pylades and was punished by the Erinnyes.
Orion Orion was a giant and son of Poseidon. He was a hunter and very handsome. He was promised the hand of Merope whom he loved if he could ride Chios. He did but was not given Merope so he seduced her. Apollo caused his death at the hands of Artemis who put his image in the stars.
Orpheus Orpheus was a mythical Greek poet and musician. The son of Apollo and a muse (possibly Calliope), he married Eurydice, who died from the bite of a snake. Orpheus went down to Hades to bring her back and her return to life was granted on condition that he walk ahead of her without looking back. He did look back and Eurydice was irretrievably lost. In his grief, he offended the maenad women of Thrace, and was torn to pieces by them.
Ossipago In Roman mythology, Ossipago was a minor goddess of skeletal structures and the strengthener of fetal bones.
Ourania In Greek mythology Ourania was a mountain goddess of summer, especially mid-summer. The Queen of the winds and ruler of the night sky.
Pales Pales was a Roman god of cattle-rearing.
Pallas In Greek mythology Pallas was one of the Titans. He was a son of Crius and Eurybia and brother of Astraeus and Perses. He married Styx and fathered Zelus, Cratos, Bia and Nike.
Pan Pan was the Greek god who looked after shepherds and their flocks. His parentage is unsure. In some accounts he is the son of Zeus, in others the son of Hermes. His mother was a nymph.
Pandarus In Greek mythology, Pandarus was the leader of the forces of Zeleia in Lycia at the Trojan War. He was the second best Greek archer (next to Paris) and fought in the Trojan War as an archer.
Pandion In Greek mythology, Pandion was a son of Erichthonius, the King of Athens.
Pandora Pandora was a woman made by the gods. She was taken to Epimetheus by Hermes. He made her his wife, against his brother's advice. Pandora came with a sealed vase. Her husband was tempted and opened the vase from which came all the troubles, weariness and illnesses that mankind is now burderned with.
Paris In Greek mythology, Paris was a prince of Troy whose abduction of Helen, wife of King Menelaus of Sparta, caused the Trojan War. Helen was promised to him by the goddess Aphrodite as a bribe, in his judgment between her beauty and that of two other goddesses, Hera and Athena. Paris killed the Greek hero Achilles by shooting an arrow into his heel, but was himself killed by Philoctetes before the capture of Troy.
Pasiphae In Greek mythology, Pasiphae was the wife of King Minos of Crete and mother of Phaedra and of the Minotaur.
Patroclus Patroclus was a cousin and close friend of Achilles. He was killed by Hector in the Trojan wars.
Pegasus Pegasus was the winged horse offspring of Medusa and Poseidon.
Peirithous In Greek mythology, Peirithous was a King of the Lapiths and a son of Ixion and Dia. He waged war against the Centaurs and helped Theseus carry off the Amazon Antiope and later Helen. He tried to abduct Persephone, but was bound to a stone seat by her husband Hades and remained a prisoner in the underworld.
Pelias Pelias was king of Iolcus and half-brother of Jason.
Penelope In Greek mythology, Penelope was the wife of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca; their son was Telemachus. While Odysseus was absent at the siege of Troy she kept her many suitors at bay by asking them to wait until she had woven a shroud for her father-in-law, but unraveled her work each night. When Odysseus returned, after 20 years, he and Telemachus killed her suitors.
Peneus Peneus was a river god. He was a son of Oceanus and Tethys.
Persephone Persephone was a Greek goddess. She was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter. Hades obtained sanction from Zeus to carry her off by force and marry her.
Perseus Perseus found Medusa asleep and cut her head off which he presented to Athene. He married Andromeda.
Phaea In Greek mythology, Phaea was the Crommyonium Sow a wild pig said to have been the offspring of Echidna and Typhon. It ravaged the town of Crommyon on the Isthmus of Corinth until it was destroyed by Theseus.
Phaedra In Greek mythology, Phaedra was a daughter of Minos, King of Crete and Pasiphae. Her unrequited love for Hippolytus led to his death and her suicide. She became renowned as a minor goddess of the moon, barley, myrtle, rain-making and the death of kings. A siren-like Enchantress.*Pheme Pheme was the goddess of fame. She was a daughter of Gaea.
Philyra In Greek mythology, Philyra was the shape-shifting goddess of beauty, perfume, healing, writing and divination. She was the discoverer of paper.
Phoebe In Greek mythology, Phoebe was the goddess of waxing and waning cycles. Ruler of the sapphire-regioned moon and cloven-hoofed animals.
Phoebus Phoebus was the Greek god of enlightenment.
Phyllis In Greek mythology, Phyllis was a goddess of spring, trees, wisdom, women's secrets and the genetic knowledge contained in seeds.
Picus Picus was a Roman god. He was the son of Saturnus and father of Faunus. His wife was Canens. He was a prophet and god of the forest.
Pitho Pitho was the daughter of Aphrodite. She was the goddess of persuasion.
Pleiades The Pleiades were the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione. They were turned into doves by Zeus and and their image put into the stars to save them from the attentions of Orion.
Pleuron In Greek mythology, Pleuron was a son of Aetolus and Pronoe and brother to Calydon. He married Xanthippe by whom he fathered Agenor, Sterope, Stratonice and Laophonte. He is said to have founded the town of Pleuron in Aetolia.
Pluto Pluto was the Roman name for the Greek god Hades.
Poena Poena was the attendant of punishment to Nemesis.
Polites Polites was a son of Priam and Hecabe. He was killed before them by Neoptolemus.
Pollux Pollux was the Roman name for Polydeuces.
Polybus Polybus was king of Corinth. He raised Oedipus as his own son.
Polydeuces Polydeuces was twin brother of Castor. He was a son of Zeus and Leda. He was born from an egg after Zeus visited Leda disguised as a swan.
Polydorus In Greek mythology, Polydorus was a son of Cadmus and Harmonia. he was King of Thebes and husband of Nycteis by whom he fathered Labdacus.
Polymnia Polymnia was the muse of song and oratory.
Polynices In Greek mythology, Polynices was a son of Oedipus. He and his brother Eteocles were supposed to rule Thebes in alternate years, but Eteocles refused to relinquish the throne, and Polynices sought the help of Adrastus. Polynices and Eteocles killed each other in single combat.
Polyphemus In Greek mythology Polyphemus was the most famous of the Cyclops. He is described as a giant cannibal living alone in a cave on Mount Etna. Odysseus and his companions unwarily sheltered in his cave, and Polyphemus killed and ate four of them before Odysseus intoxicated him with wine and when he fell asleep poked his eye out with a blazing stake. Polyphemus was also the despised lover of Galatea.
Pomona Pomona was a Roman goddess of garden fruits.
Poseidon Poseidon was the Greek god of the sea. He was a son of Cronus.
Priam In Greek mythology, Priam was the son of Laomedon and Placia. He was originally called Podarces and was still a baby when his father promissed his sister Hesione to Heracles and then broke his word. Heracles sacked Troy and killed Laomedon and all his sons except Podarces whom he sold in the slave market. He was bought by Hesione and she changed his name to Priam.
Priapus Priapus was the Greek god of fertility in nature. He was a son of Dionysus and Aphrodite. He was blighted in the womb by Hera, and was born impotent, ugly and so foul natured that the gods refused to have him in Olympus and threw him down to earth where he was brought up by shepherds.
Procne In Greek mythology, Procne was a daughter of King Pandion and Zeuxippe. She married Tereus.
Procris In Greek mythology, Procris was a daughter of Erechtheus and wife of Cephalus. Artemis gave her the hound Laelaps which she gave to her husband.
Procrustes In ancient Greek legends, Procrustes was a robber. He robbed people whilst they slept. If his victim was too short for his bed he was stretched to death. If the victim was too long for his bed, his feet or legs were cut off. Theseus treated Procrustes in the same way.
Prometheus Prometheus was a Greek hero. He was a son of the Titan Japetus and the sea nymph Clymene. Prometheus obtained fire for mankind from Zeus.
Proteus In Greek mythology, Proteus was a son of Abas and the twin brother of Acrisius. In a dispute between the two brothers over the kingdom of Argos, Proteus was defeated and expelled. He fled to Iobates in Lycia and married his daughter Stheneboea. Iobates restored Proteus to his kingdom by force and Acrisius then agreed to share it, surrendering Tiryns to him. When Bellerophon came to Proteus to be purified for a murder, Sthenebeoa fell in love with him. Bellerophon refused her and she charged him with making improper proposals to her. Proteus then sent him to Iobates with a letter asking Iobates to murder Bellerophon.
Psyche In Roman mythology, Psyche was the personification of the passion of love. She was the youngest daughter of the king and queen of Sicily. She was the most beautiful person on the island and suitors flocked to ask for her hand. In the end she boasted that she was more beautiful than Venus herself, and Venus sent Cupid to transfix her with an arrow of desire and make her fall in love with the nearest person or thing available. But even Cupid fell in love with her and took her to a secret place and eventually married her and had her made a goddess by Jupiter.
Pygmalion In Greek mythology, Pygmalion was a king of Cyprus who made an image in ivory of a maiden. He fell in love with the image and asked Venus to endow it with life. She did, and Pygmalion married the maiden.
Pylades In Greek mythology, Pylades was son of Strophius and Anaxibia. He assisted Orestes in murdering Clytemnestra and eventually married his sister Electra.
Pyrrhus In Greek mythology, Pyrrhus was the birth name of Achilles' son who was renamed Neoptolemus when he went to Troy.
Rhadamanthus Rhadamanthus was a son of Zeus and Europa. He was famed for his wisdom and justice, and so after his death was made one of the judges of the underworld.
Rhamnusia Rhamnusia was an alternative name for Nemesis.
Rhea Rhea was the Greek goddess of the earth, mountains and forests.
Sarpedon Sarpedon was a son of Zeus and Europa. He went to Asia Minor and became the king of the Lycians after helping Cilix of Cilicia to defeat them. He helped Troy in the Trojan wars before being killed by Patroclus.
Saturnus Saturnus was the Roman god of learning and agriculture. He appeared to king Janus and gave lessons on agriculture to his subjects.
Satyr The satyrs were attendants to the god Dionysus.
Sceiron In Greek mythology, Sceiron (Sciron) was a robber who haunted the frontier between Attica and Megaris. He robbed travellers and kicked them into the sea where they were eaten by a tortoise that lived there. He was killed by Theseus.
Selene Selene was a Greek goddess of the moon.
Semele In Greek mythology, Semele was a daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. She was beloved by Zeus and bore him Dionysus.
Silenius Silenius was the oldest satyr.
Silvanus Silvanus was a Roman god of the forest.
Sirens The Sirens (Acheloides) were daughters of the river-god Achelous and a Muse. They had been nymphs and playmates of Persephone, and for not protecting her when she was carried off by Pluto, they were transformed into beings half-woman and half-bird by Demeter. Later they were transformed into half-woman and half-fish.
Sisyphus In Greek mythology, Sisyphus was an evil King of Corinth. After he died he was condemned in the underworld to roll a huge stone uphill, which always fell back before he could reach the top.
Sol Sol was the Roman name for the Greek god Helios.
Somnus Somnus was an alternative name for the Greek and Roman god Hypnos.
Stheino Stheino was one of the gorgons.
Strophius In Greek mythology, Strophius was King of Phocis.
Styx In Greek and Roman mythology, the Styx was the principal river in the underworld. Styx was the name of a nymph who was the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She dwelt at the entrance to Hades in a lofty grotto which was supported by silver columns. Styx took her children to help Zeus in the fight against the Titans.
Talaus In Greek mythology, Talaus was King of Argos. He was the son of Nias and Pero. Talaus sailed with the Argonauts.
Talos In Greek mythology, Talos was a bronze man given to Europa by Zeus to guard Crete. He would clutch people to his breast and jump into a fire so that they were burnt alive.
Tantalus In Greek mythology, Tantalus was a son of Zeus. He was king of Phrygia, Lydia. He was admitted to the table of the gods, but displeased them and was punished by being put in a lake such that he just couldn't reach the water with his lips, and being tempted by fruit above him which again was just out of reach.
Tartarus In Greek mythology, Tartarus was the part of Hades where the wicked were punished.
Telepylos Telepylos was the capital city of the Laestrygones.
Telesphorus Telesphorus was the god of that which sustains the convalescent. He is depicted with Aesculapius and Hygea.
Terminus Terminus was the Greek and Roman god of boundaries.
Terpsichore Terpsichore was the muse of dancing.
Tethys Tethys was a Titan woman.
Teucer There are two descriptions for Teucer, both refer to Greek mythology. The first is that Teucer was the first King of Troy. He was a son of the river god Scamander and Idaea. The second that Teucer was son of Telamon and Hesione and the best archer in the Greek army in the Trojan War. He would have shot Hector if Zeus had not broken his sbowstring.
Thalia Thalia was the muse of comedy and burlesque.
Thanatos Thanatos was the ancient Greek god of death and of pain.
Themis In Greek mythology, Themis was a daughter of Uranus and Gaea. She was the Greek goddess of human rights.
Theseus In Greek mythology, Theseus was a son of Aegeus and Aethra. He was king of Athens. Stories about him include his slaying of the Minotaur.
Thyrsus A thyrsus was a wand wreathed with ivy leaves, and topped with a pine-cone carried by the Ancient Greeks as a symbol of Bacchus.
Titan In Greek mythology, the Titans were the 12 sons of Ge and Uranus.
Titanomachia Titanomachia was the 10 year war waged in Thessaly by Zeus and the Olympian gods against Cronos and the Titans led by Atlas. The war deposed the Titans.
Tithonus In Greek mythology, Tithonus was a son or brother of Laomedon the king of Troy. He was made immortal by by Zeus at the request of Eos who loved him.
Triton Triton was a Herald of Neptune. In Greek mythology the Tritons were sea-gods with the upper half of a human and the lower part of the body that of a fish. They carried a trumpet which the blew to soothe the waves at the command of Poseidon.
Tros Tros was the grandson of Dardanus and the father of Ilus. He gave his name to the city of Troy.
Tyche Tyche was the Greek goddess of luck.
Tydeus Tydeus was the son of Oeonus and Calydon. After commiting a murder whilst a youth he fled to the court of Adrastus.
Tyndareus Tyndareus was the king of Sparta. He was deposed by his brother Hippocoon, and reinstated by Hercules.
Typhon In Greek mythology, Typhon was the father of destructive and fierce winds. He is dereived from the Egyptian Set or Seth.
Ulysses Ulysses was the Roman name for Odysseus.
Urania Urania was the muse of astronomy.
Uranus In Greek mythology, Uranus was a son of Gaea. He later married Gaea.
Venus Venus was the Roman name for the Greek goddess Aphrodite.
Vertumnus Vertumnus was a Roman god of garden fruits and seasons. He was the husband of Pomona.
Victoria Victoria is an alternative name for Nike.
Vortumna In Roman mythology, Vortumna was an oracular goddess of the year and destiny. The matron of gardeners and she who urges reproduction.
Vulcan Vulcan was the Roman name for the Greek god Hephaestus.
Xuthus In Greek mythology, Xuthus was a son of Helen by the nymph Orseis. He was King of Peloponnesus and the husband of Creusa. After the death of his father, Xuthus was expelled from Thessaly by his brothers and went to Athens, where he married the daughter of Erechtheus.
Zagreus Zagreus was a son of Zeus. He was torn apart and eaten by Titans apart from his heart which Athene saved. He is sometimes identified with Dionysus.
Zelus In Greek mythology, Zelus was son of the Titan Pallas and Styx. He was a constant companion of Zeus and personified zeal.
Zethus In Greek mythology, Zethus was a son of Zeus and Antiope and twin brother of Amphion.
Zeus Zeus was the third king of the Greek gods. He had his throne on mount Olympus. He was a son of Cronus.
Zeuxippe In Greek mythology, Zeuxippe was the daughter of Eridanus and the wife of Pandion.
| Endymion |
"Which British cyclist's last words during the 1967 Tour de France are said to have been "" Put me back on my bike "" ?" | SELENE - Greek Goddess of the Moon (Roman Luna)
Selene
Moon (selênê)
Selene goddess of the moon, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., Antikensammlung Berlin
SELENE was the Titan goddess of the moon. She was depicted as a woman riding sidesaddle on a horse or driving a chariot drawn by a pair of winged steeds. Her lunar sphere or crescent was either a crown set upon her head or the fold of a raised, shining cloak. She was sometimes said to drive a team of oxen and her lunar crescent was likened to a pair of bull's horns.
Selene's great love was the shepherd prince Endymion . The beautiful boy was granted eternal youth and immortality by Zeus and placed in a state of eternal slumber in a cave near the peak of Lydian Mount Latmos (Latmus). His heavenly bride consorted with him there in the night.
A number of other goddesses were also associated with the moon, however, only Selene was represented by the old Greek poets represented as the moon incarnate. Other Greek moon goddesses included Pasiphae , the Leukippides (Leucippes) , Eileithyia , Hekate (Hecate) , Artemis , Bendis , and Hera (who sometimes doubled for Selene in the Endymion myth).
FAMILY OF SELENE
[1.1] HYPERION & THEIA (Hesiod Theogony 371, Apollodorus 1.8, Hyginus Preface)
[1.2] HYPERION & EURYPHAESSA (Homeric Hymn 31 to Helios)
[2.1] PALLAS (Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes 100, Ovid Fasti 4.373)
[3.1] HELIOS (Euripides Phoenicians 175, Nonnus Dionysiaca 44.198)
OFFSPRING
[1.1] PANDEIA (by Zeus ) (Homeric Hymn 32 to Selene, Hyginus Preface)
[2.1] ERSA (by Zeus ) (Greek Lyric II Alcman Frag 57)
[3.1] NEMEA (by Zeus ) (Scholiast on Pindar's Nemean Ode)
[5.1] THE MENAI x50 (by Endymion ) (Pausanias 5.1.5)
[6.1] NEMEAN LION (Aelian On Animals 12.7, Hyginus Fabulae 30, Seneca Hercules Furens 83)
[7.1] MOUSAIOS (Ion of Chiod Frag 30a, Plato Republic 364d, Philodemus On Piety)
[8.1] NARKISSOS (by Endymion ) (Nonnus Dionysiaca 48.582)
ENCYCLOPEDIA
SELE′NE (Selênê), also called Mene, or Latin Luna, was the goddess of the moon, or the moon personified into a divine being. She is called a daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and accordingly a sister of Helios and Eos (Hes. Theog. 371, &c.; Apollod. i. 2. § 2; Schol. ad Pind. Isthm. v. 1, ad Apollon. Rhod. iv. 55); but others speak of her as a daughter of Hyperion by Euryphaessa (Hom. Hymn. 31. 5), or of Pallas (Hom. Hymn. in Merc. 99, &c.), or of Zeus and Latona (Schol. ad Eurip. Phoen. 175), or lastly of Helios (Eurip. l.c.; comp. Hygin. Praef. p. 10, ed. Muncker). She is also called Phoebe, as the sister of Phoebus, the god of the sun. By Endymion, whom she loved, and whom she sent to sleep in order to kiss him, she became the mother of fifty daughters (Apollod. i. 7. § 5; Cic. Tusc. i. 38; Catull. 66. 5; Paus. v. 1. § 2); by Zeus she became the mother of Pandeia, Ersa, and Nemea (Hom. Hymn. 32. 14 ; Plut. Sympos. iii. in fin.; Schol. ad Pind. Nem. Hypoth. p. 425, ed. Böckh). Pan also is said to have had connexion with her in the shape of a white ram (Virg. Georg. iii. 391). Selene is described as a very beautiful goddess, with long wings and a golden diadem (Hom. Hymn. 32. 1, 7), and Aeschylus (Sept. 390) calls her the eye of night. She rode, like her brother Helios, across the heavens in a chariot drawn by two white horses, cows, or mules (Ov. Fast. iv. 374, iii. 110, Rem. Am. 258 ; Auson. Ep. v. 3; Claudian, Rapt. Proserp. iii. 403; Nonn. Dionys. vii. 244). She was represented on the pedestal of the throne of Zeus at Olympia, riding on a horse or a mule (Paus. v. 11. § 3); and at Elis there was a statue of her with two horns (Paus. vi. 24. § 5). In later times Selene was identified with Artemis, and the worship of the two became amalgamated (Callim. Hymn. in Dian. 114, 141 ; Soph. Oed. Tyr. 207 ; Plut. Sympos. l.c.; Catull. 34. 16; Serv. ad Aen. iv. 511, vi. 118). In works of art, however, the two divinities are usually distinguished; the face of Selene being more full and round, her figure less tall, and always clothed in a long robe; her veil forms an arch above her head, and above it there is the crescent. At Rome Luna had a temple on the Aventine. (Liv. xl. 2; Ov. Fast. iii. 884.)
MENE (Mênê), a female divinity presiding over the months. (Hom. Hymn. xii. 1; Apollon. Rhod. iii. 533, iv. 55; August. De Civ. Dei, vii. 2.)
Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
ALTERNATE NAME SPELLINGS
Selene and sleeping Endymion, Greco-Roman mosaic, Bardo Museum
Hesiod, Theogony 371 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) :
"And Theia was subject in love to Hyperion and bare great Helios (Sun) and clear Selene (Moon) and Eos (Dawn) who shines upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven."
Homeric Hymn 31 to Helius (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) :
"For Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaessa, his own sister, who bare him lovely children, rosy-armed Eos (Dawn) and rich-tressed Selene (Moon) and tireless Helios (Sun)."
Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes 100 ff :
"Bright Selene, daughter of the lord Pallas, Megamedes' son."
Euripides, Phoenicians 175 ff (trans. Vellacott) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) :
"Selene, circle of gleaming gold, daughter of radiant-belted Helios (Sun)."
Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 8 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"The Titanes (Titans) had children . . . Hyperion and Theia had Eos, Helios, and Selene."
Pseudo-Hyginus, Preface (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"From Hyperion and Aethra [were born]: Sol [Helios], Luna [Selene], Aurora [Eos]."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44. 198 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"O daughter of Helios, Mene [Selene] of many turnings, nurse of all."
CHILDREN OF SELENE
Selene was the mother of the goddesses Pandia (All-Gifts), Ersa (Dew), the Menai (Menae, Months), and some say of the four Horai (Horae, Seasons). Her only mortal child was the poet Mousaios (Musaeus).
Homeric Hymn 32 to Selene (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) :
"Once Kronides (Cronides) [Zeus the Rain-God] was joined with her [Selene the Moon] in love; and she conceived an bare a daughter Pandeia (All Divine), exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods."
[N.B. Pandeia is probably the same as Ersa (All-Nourishing Dew), cf. Alcman below.]
Alcman, Fragment 57 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C7th B.C.) :
"Such things as are nurtured by Ersa (Dew), daughter of Zeus and Selene (Moon)."
Ion of Chios, Fragment 30A Elegies (from Philodemus, On Piety) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric IV) (C5th B.C.) :
"And Musaios (Musaeus) [the mythical singer] is said by Orpheus to have been her [Selene's] son, Ion calls him moon-fallen."
Plato, The Republic 364d (trans. Shorey) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) :
"The [mystic] books of Musaios (Musaeus) and Orpheus, the offspring of Selene (Moon) and of the Mousa (Muse), as they affirm."
Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 1. 4 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) :
"Selene, they say, fell in love with this Endymion and bore him fifty daughters [i.e. the Menai (Menae), fifty months of the four year Olympiad]."
Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 10. 334 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) :
"Seated at her [Hera's] side were handmaids four whom radiant-faced Selene bare to Helios (the Sun) to be unwearying ministers in Heaven, in form and office diverse each from each; for of these Horai (Horae, Seasons) one was summer's queen, and one of winter and his stormy star, of spring the third, of autumn-tide the fourth."
Pseudo-Hyginus, Preface (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"From Jove [Zeus] and Luna [Selene] [was born] : Pandia."
SELENE & THE NEMEAN LION
Aelian, On Animals 12. 7 (trans. Scholfield) (Greek natural history C2nd A.D.) :
"They say that the Lion of Nemea fell from the moon (selene). At any rate Epimenides [C6th B.C. poet] also has these words : ‘For I am sprung from fair-tressed Selene the Moon, who in a fearful shudder shook off the savage lion in Nemea, and brought him forth at the bidding of Queen Hera.’"
Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 30 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"The Nemean Lion, an invulnerable monster, which Luna [Selene] had nourished in a two-mouthed cave, he [Herakles] slew and took the pelt for defensive covering."
Seneca, Hercules Furens 83 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) :
"Let Luna (Moon) [Selene] in the sky produce still other monstrous creatures. But he [Herakles] has conquered such as these [i.e. the Nemeian lion, born of the moon]."
For MORE information on this animal see the NEMEIAN LION
LOVE OF SELENE & ENDYMION (AND PAN)
Selene and Endymion, Apulian red-figure volute krater C4th B.C., Dallas Museum of Art
Sappho, Fragment 199 (from Scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric IV) (Greek lyric C5th B.C.) :
"The story goes that Selene comes down to this cave [on Mount Latmos in Karia (Caria)] to meet Endymion. Sappho and Nikandros) (Nicander [poet C2nd B.C.] . . . tell the story of the love of Selene."
Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 56 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"[Endymion] a man of unrivalled beauty, he was loved by Selene. When he was given a wish of his choice by Zeus, he chose to remain immortal and unaging in eternal sleep."
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4. 55 ff (trans. Rieu) (Greek epic C3rd B.C.) :
"Rising from the distant east, the Lady Selene (Moon), Titanian goddess, saw the girl [Medea the witch] wandering distraught [for love of Jason], and in wicked glee said to herself : ‘So I am not the only one to go astray for love, I that burn for beautiful Endymion and seek him in the Latmian cave. How many times, when I was bent on love, have you disorbed me with your incantations, making the night moonless so that you might practise your beloved witchcraft undisturbed! And now you are as lovesick as myself. The little god of mischief has given you Iason (Jason), and many a heartache with him. Well, go your way; but clever as you are, steel yourself now to face a life of sighs and misery.’ So said Selene."
Strabo, Geography 14. 1. 8 (trans. Jones) (Greek geographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"This mountain [Mount Latmos (Latmus)] lies above Herakleia (Heraclea) [in Lydia], and at a high elevation. At a slight distance away from it, after one has crossed a little river near Latmos, there is to be seen the sepulchre of Endymion, in a cave."
Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 1. 4 - 5 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) :
"Selene, they say, fell in love with this Endymion and bore him fifty daughters . . . As to the death of Enydmion, the people of Herakleia (Heraclea) near Miletos (Miletus) do not agree with the Eleans; for while the Eleans who a tomb of Endymion, the folk of Herakleia say that he retired to Mount Latmos (Latmus) and give him honour, there being a shrine of Endymion on Latmos."
Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 10. 127 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) :
"That haunted cave [on Mount Latmos] of fair-haired Nymphai (Nymphs) where, as Endymion slept beside his kine, divine Selene watched him from on high, and slid from heaven to earth; for passionate love drew down the immortal stainless queen of night. And a memorial of her couch abides still 'neath the oaks; for mid the copses round was poured out milk of kine; and still do men marvelling behold its whiteness. Thou wouldst say far off that this was milk indeed, which is a well-spring of white water : if thou draw a little nigher, lo, the stream is fringed as though with ice, for white stone rims it round."
Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 10. 411 ff :
"White Selene (the Moon) . . . remembered her own love, princely Endymion."
Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 271 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"Youths who were most handsome. Adonis, son of Cinyras and Smyrna, whom Venus [Aphrodite] loved. Endymion, son of Aetolus, whom Luna [Selene] loved. Ganymede, son of Erichthonius, whom Jove [Zeus] loved. Hyacinthus, son of Oebalus, whom Apollo loved."
Ovid, Heroides 15. 87 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"[Sappho speaks of the beauty of Phaon :] Him should Phoebe [Selene the Moon] behold, who beholds all things, ‘twill be Phaon she bids continue in his sleep [i.e. as her lover in place of Endymion]."
Ovid, Heroides 18. 59 ff :
"[Leandros (Leander) swimming the Hellespont by night prays to the Moon :] The moon for the most shed me a tremulous light as I swam, like a duteous attendant watchful over my path. Lifting to her my eyes, ‘Be gracious to me, shining deity,’ I said, ‘and let the rocks of Latmos (Latmus) rise in thy mind! Endymion will not have thee austere of heart. Bend, O I pray, thy face to aid my secret loves. Thou, a goddess, didst glide from the skies and seek a mortal love; ah, may it be allowed me to say the truth!-- she I seek is a goddess too . . . As much as all the stars are less than thy bright fires when thy silvery gleam goes forth with pure rays, so much more fair is she than all the fair. If thou dost, doubt it, Cynthia, thy light is blind.’”
Virgil, Georgics 3. 390 ff (trans. Fairclough) (Roman bucolic C1st B.C.) :
"'Twas with gift of such snowy wool, if we may trust the tale, that Pan, Arcadia's god, charmed and beguiled you, O Luna (the Moon) [Selene], calling you to the depths of the woods; nor did you scorn his call."
[N.B. Virgil is probably alluding to the story of Selene's seduction by the shepherd Endymion. The name Pan is most likely used metaphorically, i.e. as the god of the flocks he was the source of the fine fleece which Endymion used to entice the goddess. A vase painting depicts Endymion waving such a fleece before the goddess' chariot. Alternatively, the story might be derived from a play on the Greek word, panselênê, i.e. "full moon," and/or be connected with the birth of Selene's daughter Pandeia.]
Propertius, Elegies 2. 15 (trans. Goold) (Roman elegy C1st B.C.) :
"It was naked that Endymion enraptured Phoebus's sister [Phoebe-Selene] and naked, they say, lay with the goddess."
Seneca, Phaedra 309 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) :
"The radiant goddess [Luna-Selene the Moon] of the darksome sky burned with love [for Endymion] and, forsaking the night, gave her gleaming chariot to her brother [Helios the Sun] to guide in fashion other than his own. He learned to drive the team of night and to wheel in narrower circuit, while the axle groaned beneath the car's heavier weight; nor did the nights keep their accustomed length, and with belated dawning came the day."
Seneca, Phaedra 422 ff :
"May no shepherd [i.e. Endymion] make boast o'er thee [Selene the Moon]."
Seneca, Phaedra 786 ff :
"Or else, looking down on thee from the starry heavens, the orb [Selene the Moon] that was born after the old Arcadians will lose control of her white-shining car [for love of a rustic, like Endymion]. And lately she blushed fiery red, though no staining cloud obscured her bright face; but we, anxious for our troubled goddess, thinking her harried by Thessalian charms [i.e. by witches], made loud jingling sounds: yet ‘twas thou hadst been her trouble, thou the cause of her delaying; while gazing on thee the goddess of the night checked her swift course."
Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8. 28 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"The Latmian hunter [Endymion], while his comrades are yet scattered in troops about the glens, rests in the summer shade, fit lover for a goddess, and soon Luna (the Moon) [Selene] comes with veiled horns."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 2. 325 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"Selene, Endymion's bed-fellow."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 4. 192 ff :
"[The goddess Harmonia laments her love for a mortal man :] ‘I will proclaim how Orion loved Erigeneia [Eos the Dawn], and I will recall the match of Kephalos (Cephalus); if I go to the misty sunset, my comfort is Selene herself who felt the same for Endymion upon Latmos (Latmus).’"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 4. 213 ff :
"When Mene [Selene the Moon] saw the girl [Harmonia, daughter of Aphrodite] following a stranger [Kadmos (Cadmus), her bridegroom] along the shore above the sea, and boiling under fiery constraint, she reproached Kypris (Cypris) [Aphrodite] in mocking words : ‘So you make war even upon your children, Kypris! Not even the fruit of your womb is spared by the goad of love! Don't you pity the girl you bore, hardheart? What other girl can you pity then, when you drag your own child into passion?--Then you must go wandering too, my darling. Say to your mother, Paphian's child, "Phaethon mocks you, and Selene puts me to shame." Harmonia, love-tormented exile, leave to Mene [Selene] her bridegroom Endymion, and care for your vagrant Kadmos (Cadmus). Be ready to endure as much trouble as I have, and when you are weary with lovebegetting anxiety, remember lovewounded Selene.’"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5. 516 ff :
"Shining Eos carried off Orion for a bridegroom, and Selene Endymion."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7. 222 ff :
"[A Naiad compares the fair Semele to Selene :] I spy a silverfooted maiden stretched under the streams of my river! I believe Selene bathes in the Aonian [Theban] waves on her way to Endymion's bed on Latmos (Latmus), the bed of a sleepless shepherd; but if she has prinked herself out for her sweet shepherd, what's the use of Asopos (Asopus) after the Okeanos (Oceanus) stream? And if she has a body white as the snows of heaven, what mark of the Moon has she? A team of mules unbridled and a mule-cart with silver wheels are there on the beach, but Selene knows not how to put mules to her yokestrap--she drives a team of bulls!"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 13. 553 ff :
"He [Kaunos (Caunus) of Karia (Caria)] composed that tricking lovesong . . . the song about the Latmian cowshed of the neversleeping herdsman, while he praised Endymion, the bride-groom of love-smitten Selene, as happy in love's care on a neighbouring rock [i.e. Mount Latmos in Karia]."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 41. 339 ff :
"Wise Endymion with changing bends of his fingers will calculate the three varying phases of Selene."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 42. 266 ff :
"Sing Selene madly in love with Endymion."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 582 ff :
"There were the clustering blooms which have the name Narkissos the fair youth, whom horned Selene's bridegroom Endymion begat on leafy Latmos (Latmus)."
For MORE information on this hero see ENDYMION
SELENE & THE GIANT TYPHOEUS
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1. 214 ff :
"[The monster Typhoeus laid siege to heaven, challenging the rule of Zeus :] Many a time he [Typhoeus] took a bull at rest from his rustic plowtree and shook him with a threatening hand, bellow as he would, then shot him against Selene the Moon like another moon, and stayed her course, then rushed hissing against the goddess, checking with the bridle her bulls' white yoke-straps, while he poured out the mortal whistle of a poison-spitting viper. But Titanis Mene [Selene] would not yield to the attack. Battling against the Gigante's (Giant's) heads, like horned to hers [i.e. Selene was crowned with horns with the disc between them forming the circle of the moon--with these she locked horns with one of Typhoeus' bull-heads], she carved many a scar on the shining orb of her bull's horn [i.e the smooth white surface of the moon was scarred by this battle]; and Selene's radiant cattle bellowed amazed at the gaping chasm of Typhaon's throat."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 2. 405 ff :
"Some shots [of rocks from the monster Typhoeus when he was battling Zeus] went past Selene's car, and scored through the invisible footprints of her moving bulls."
SELENE WRATH : AMPELOS
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 11. 185 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"[Ampelos, love of Dionysos, riding on the back of a wild bull :] He shouted boldly to the fullfaced Moon (Mene) [Selene]--‘Give me best, Selene, horned driver of cattle! Now I am both--I have horns and I ride a bull!’ So he called out boasting to the round Moon. Selene looked with a jealous eye through the air, to see how Ampleos rode on the murderous marauding bull. She sent him a cattlechasing gadfly; and the bull, pricked continually all over by the sharp sting, galloped away like a horse through pathless tracts . . . [it then threw him then gorged him to death]."
SELENE GODDESS OF THE MOON
Selene the moon, Athenian red-figure bell krater C5th B.C., Kunsthistorisches Museum
Homeric Hymn 32 to Selene (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) :
"Long-winged Mene [i.e. Selene as goddess of the month]. From her immortal head a radiance is shown from heaven and embraces earth; and great is the beauty that ariseth from her shining light. The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene (the Moon) having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Okeanos (Oceanus), and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, and drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month : then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men."
Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes 100 ff :
"Bright Selene (the Moon), daughter of the lord Pallas, Megamedes' son, had just climbed her watch-post."
Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes 140 ff :
"Selene's (the Moon's) soft light shone down."
Sappho, Fragment 34 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I) (C6th B.C.) :
"The Astera (Stars) hide away their shining form around lovely Selene (the Moon) when in all her fullnesss she shines over all the earth."
Sappho, Fragment 96 :
"Rosy-fingered Selene (the Moon) after sunset, surpasssing all the stars (astra), and her light spreads alike over the salt sea and the flowery fields; the dew is shed in beauty, and roses bloom and tender chervil and flowery melilot."
Corinna, Fragment 690 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C6th B.C.) :
"Aas (Eos the Dawn), leaving the waters of Okeanos (Oceanus), drew from the sky the Moon's (Selene's) holy light."
Greek Lyric V Anonymous, Fragments 937 (Inscription from the shrine of Asclepius at Epidaurus) (trans. Campbell) (Greek lyric B.C.) :
"High-skilled Asklepios (Asclepius); and summon [various gods including] . . . unwearied Helios (Sun) and Selene (Moon) at her full and all the signs with which heaven is crowned. Greetings, all you immortal gods everlasting and immortal goddesses!"
Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes 389 ff (trans. Weir Smyth) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) :
"He has this haughty symbol on his shield : a well-crafted sky, ablaze with stars, and the brightness of the full moon (panselene) shining in the center of the shield, the moon that is the most revered of the stars, the eye of night."
Euripides, Phoenicians 175 ff (trans. Vellacott) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) :
"Selene (the Moon), circle of gleaming gold, daughter of radiant-belted Helios (Sun)!"
Plato, Cratylus 400d & 408d (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) :
"[Plato constructs philosophical etymologies for the names of the gods :]
Sokrates (Socrates) : Let us inquire what thought men had in giving them [the gods] their names . . . The first men who gave names [to the gods] were no ordinary persons, but high thinkers and great talkers . . . But why should you not tell of another kind of gods, such as sun, moon, stars, earth, ether, air, fire, water, the seasons, and the year? . . .
Hermogenes : And what of the moon, Selene (the Moon)?
Sokrates : That name appears to put Anaxagoras in an uncomfortable position . . . Why, it seems to have anticipated by many years the recent doctrine of Anaxagoras, that the moon receives its light from the sun . . . Selas (gleam) and phôs (light) are the same thing . . . Now the light is always new and old about the moon, if the Anaxagoreans are right; for they say the sun, in its continuous course about the moon, always sheds new light upon it, and the light of the previous month persists . . . The moon is often called Selanaia . . . Because it has always a new and old gleam (sela neon te kai henon) the very most fitting name for it would be Selaenoneoaeia, which has been compressed into Selanaia."
Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 35 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"When Ge (Gaea, Earth) learned of this [that her Gigante-sons would be slain by the gods], she sought a drug that would prevent their destruction even by mortal hands. But Zeus barred the appearance of Eos (the Dawn), Selene (the Moon), and Helios (the Sun), and chopped up the drug himself before Ge could find it."
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1. 498 ff (trans. Rieu) (Greek epic C3rd B.C.) :
"He [Orpheus] sang of [the origin of the cosmos] . . . how the Astra (Stars), Selene (Moon), and travelling Helios (Sun) keep faithfully to their stations in the heavens."
Anonymous, Hero and Leander Fragment (trans. Page, Vol. Select Papyri III, No. 126) (Greek poetry C3rd to 1st B.C.) :
"`Stars (asteres), bow to my prayer, and become sightless; Moon (mênê) [Selene], suffer your light to sink swiftly and depart!' So she [Hero] spoke, for to see Laandros (Leander) was all her heart's desire."
Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 11. 8 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) :
"[Amongst the illustrations on the throne of Zeus at Olympia :] Selene (the Moon) is driving what I think is a horse. Some have said the that steed of the goddess is a mule and not a horse, and they tell a silly story about the mule."
Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 1. 147 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) :
"Swelled like young Mene's (the Moon's) [Selene's] arching chariot-rail when high o'er Okeanos' (Oceanus') fathomless-flowing stream she rises, with the space half filled with light betwixt her bowing horns."
Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 10. 411 ff :
"Fast she [Oinone (Oenone), the nymph wife of Paris] ran . . . down the long tracks flew Oinone's feet; seeking the awful pyre [of Paris], to leap thereon . . . White Selene (the Moon) from on high looked on her, and remembered her own love, princely Endymion, and she pitied her in that wild race, and, shining overhead in her full brightness, made the long tracks plain."
Anonymous (perhaps Pamprepius of Panopolis), Two Poems Fragments (trans. Page, Vol. Select Papyri III, No. 140) (Greek poetry C4th A.D.) :
"The dog-star [Seirios (Sirius)] is extinguished by the watery snowstorms. For even the stars go pale before their streams, no longer do we see the Moon (mênê) [Selene], the dark-eyed lady (potnia kyanôpis) that treads upon the heel of the sun, who is frozen among the clouds ((lacuna)) . . no longer did the redness of the dawn embrace the circle of the night . . . The glow of the ox-eyed moon (boôpis selênê)."
Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 118 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"When Titan [Helios the Sun] perceived Lucifer the Morning Star [Eosphoros] setting and saw the world in crimson sheen and the last lingering crescent of Luna the Moon [Selene] fade in the dawn [he rose into the sky]."
Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 208 ff :
"Luna (the Moon) [Selene] with wonder sees her brother's [Helios the Sun's] team running below her own [as Phaethon attempting to drive the chariot of the sun looses control of the horses]."
Ovid, Fasti 4. 373 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"When Pallantis [Eos the Dawn] next gleams in heaven and stars flee and Luna's (the Moon's) [Selene's] snow-white horses are unhitched."
Virgil, Georgics 1. 395 ff (trans. Fairclough) (Roman bucolic C1st B.C.) :
"Luna (the Moon) [Selene] rises under no debt to her brother's rays [i.e. her light is reflected from the sun]."
Virgil, Georgics 1. 426 ff :
"Soon as the moon [Luna-Selene] gathers her returning fires, if she encloses a dark mist within dim horns, a heavy rain is awaiting farmers and seamen. But if over her face she spreads a maiden blush, there will be wind; as wind rises, golden Phoebe [Luna-Selene] ever blushes. But if at her fourth rising--for that is our surest guide--she pass through the sky clear and with undimmed horns, then all that day, and the days born of it to the month's end, shall be free from rain and wind; and the sailors, safe in port."
Nyx, Hesperus and Selene, Athenian red-figure krater C4th B.C., State Hermitage Museum
Seneca, Hercules Furens 125 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) :
"Now stars shine few and faint in the sinking sky; vanquished night draws in her wandering fires as the new day is born, and Phosphorus brings up the rear of the shining host . . . Titan [Sol-Helios the Sun] peeps forth from Oeta's crest; now the rough brakes . . . touched by the dawn, flush red, and Phoebus' sister [Luna-Selene the Moon] flees away, to return again."
Seneca, Medea 95 ff :
"So does starlight splendour wane with the coming of the sun, and the huddled flock of the Pleiades vanish away when Phoebe [Selene the Moon], shining with borrowed light [i.e. from the sun], with encircling horns encloses her full-orbed disk."
Seneca, Oedipus 44 ff :
"[During a time of drought :] With paling light glides Phoebus' sister [Selene the Moon] athwart the sky, and the gloomy heavens are wan in the lowering day."
Seneca, Oedipus 250 ff :
"Thou [Helios the Sun], greatest glory of the unclouded sky . . . and thou, his sister, ever faring opposite to thy brother, Phoebe [Selene the Moon], night-wanderer."
Seneca, Oedipus 504 ff :
"While the bright stars of the ancient heavens shall run in their courses; while Oceanus shall encircle the imprisoned earth with its waters; while full Luna (the Moon) [Selene] gather again her lost radiance; while Lucifer [Eosphoros the Dawn-Starr] shall herald the dawn of the morning."
Seneca, Phaedra 417 ff :
"Mayst thou [Luna-Selene the Moon] wear a shining face and, the clouds all scattered, fare on with undimmed horns; when thou drivest thy car through the nightly skies."
Seneca, Phaedra 742 ff :
"As much fairer does thy beauty shine as gleams more brightly the full-orbed moon when with meeting horns she has joined her fires, when at the full with speeding chariot blushing Phoebe [Selene the Moon] shows her face and the lesser stars fade out of sight."
Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 5. 408 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"[Depicted on the doors of the palace of King Aeetes :] There iron Atlas stands in Oceanus, the wave swelling and breaking on his knees; but the god himself [Sol-Helios the Sun] on high hurries his shining steeds . . . behind with smaller wheel follows his sister [Luna-Selene the Moon] and the crowded Pleiades and the fires whose tresses are wet with dripping rain [the Hyades]."
Statius, Thebaid 1. 336 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"But now through the wide domains which Phoebus [Helios the Sun], his day's work ended, had left bare, rose the Titanian queen [Selene the Moon], borne upward through a silent world, and with her dewy chariot cooled and rarefied the air; now birds and beasts are hushed, and Somnus (Sleep) [Hypnos] steals o'er the greedy cares of men, and stoops and beckons from the sky, shrouding a toilsome life once more in sweet oblivion."
Statius, Thebaid 12. 1 ff :
"Not ye had the wakeful dawn put all the stars to flight from heaven, and Luna (the Moon) [Selene] was beholding the approach of day with fading horn."
Statius, Thebaid 12. 300 ff :
"[Juno-Hera] encountering the lunar team she faced them and spoke thus with calm accents : ‘Grant me a little boon, O Cynthia [Selene the Moon], if Juno [Hera] can command respect . . . now canst thou do me a service. Argia, daughter of Inachus, my favourite votary--seest thou in what a night she roams [in search of the unburied body of her husband Polyneikes (Polynices) on the battlefields of Thebes], nor with failing strength can find her spouse in the thick darkness? Thy beams too are faint with shrouding vapour; show forth thy horns, I pray thee, and let thy orbit approach the earth nearer than is thy wont. This Sopor [Hypnos, sleep], too, who leaning forward plies for thee thy humid chariot-reins, send him upon the Aonian watchmen.’
Scarce had she spoken, when the goddess cleft the clouds and displayed her mighty orb; the shadows started in terror, and the stars shorn of their radiance; scarce did Saturnia [Hera] herself endure the brightness."
Statius, Achilleid 1. 619 ff :
"Luna (the Moon) [Selene] in her rosy chariot was climbing to the height of mid-heaven, when drowsy Somnus (Sleep) [Hypnos] glided down with full sweep of his pinions to earth and gathered a silent world to his embrace."
Statius, Silvae 3. 3. 53 (trans. Mozley) (Roman poetry C1st A.D.) :
"But even deities have their laws : in thraldom the swift choir of the Astra (Stars), in thraldom is wandering Luna (the Moon) [Selene], not unbidden is the light whose path so oft returns [Sol-Helios the Sun]."
Musaeus, Hero & Leander 56 (Greek poetry C5th or 6th A.D.) :
"Flashing a lightning of lovely radiance from her face, even as Selene of the fair white cheeks, when she is rising."
Tryphiodorus, The Taking of Ilias 514 (trans. Mair) (Greek poetry C6th A.D.) :
"When Mene (the Moon) [Selene], full with grey fire, gilds with her face the gleaming heaven: not when, sharpening her pointed horns, she first shines, rising in the shadowless dusk of the month, but when, orbing the round radiance of her eye, she draws to herself the reflected rays of the sun."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1. 98 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"[A sailor sees Europa sailing across the sea on the back of a bull-shaped Zeus :] Surely Selene (Moon) has gotten an unruly bull [she was sometimes said to ride on the back of a bull through the heavens], and leaves the sky to traipse over the high seas."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1. 454 ff :
"Near the dewy turning-point [the spring equinox] where Selene's (the Moon) cattle send out a windy moo from their life-warming throats."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 4. 279 ff :
"The changing circuits of Selene (the Moon) as she comes back and back again--how she changes her returning shape in three circles, new-shining, half-moon, and gleaming with full face; how her splendour now touching, now shrinking back, at the male furnace of father Helios is brought to birth without a mother, as she filches the father's selfbegotten fire ever lighted again."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5. 67 ff :
"He [Kadmos (Cadmus) founder of Thebes] dedicated the seven gates [of the new-founded city] to the seven planets. First towards the western clime he allotted the Onkaian (Oncaean) Gate to Mene (the Moon) [Selene] brighteyes, taking the name from the honk of cattle, because Selene herself, bullshaped, horned, driver of cattle, being triform is Tritonis Athene."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 12. 4 ff :
"Selene (the Moon) herself darted out newrisen, showing her light as she drove her cattle."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 17. 234 ff :
"Orontes [an Indian chief] proud of his armament struck Bakkhos (Bacchus) [Dionysos] on the top of his head, but wounded him not; he grazed the sharp horn of Bromios all for nothing. For Lord Dionysos wore on that invulnerable head . . . the shape of the bullfaced Selene the Moon . . . Lyaios (Lyaeus) wore the heavenly image of the cow's eye Selene, a growth of divine horns which cannot be broken, which enemies cannot shake."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 23. 280 ff :
"[Okeanos (Oceanus) threatens to divert his streams through heaven :] ‘Selene (the Moon) herself, bullshaped and horned driver of cattle, may be angry to see my horned bullshaped form.’"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 36. 119 ff :
"Let not Zeus be angry again . . . and pour down showers of rain through the air to flood the circuit of the eternal universe. I hope I may not behold the sea in the sky and Selene's car soaking."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38. 135 ff :
"The light that shone on that bridal bed [of Helios the Sun and Klymene (Clymene)] come from the starry train; and the star of Kypris (Cypris) [Aphrodite], Eosphoros [the Dawn-Star], herald of the union wove a bridal song. Instead of the wedding torch, Selene (the Moon) sent her beams to attend the wedding."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 41. 82 ff :
"[The city of] Beroe alone grew up [at the beginning of time], older than Phaethon [Helios the Sun], from whom Selene (the Moon) got her light, even before all Khthon (Chthon, the Earth), milling out from Helios the shine of his newmade brightness upon her all-mothering breast and the later perfected light of unresting Selene."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 320 ff :
"Selene (the Moon) in her heavenly chariot sends forth the flame of her everwakeful fires in a shower of cloudless beams, and rises in full refulgence among the firefed stars, obscuring the whole heavenly host with her countenance."
Suidas s.v. Aigle (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek lexicon C10th A.D.) :
"Aigle (Aegle, Radiance) : Selene the moon is also so called, and Asklepios (Asclepius)."
See also the following sections:
Hecate-Artemis-Selene Triad Triad (three lunar goddesses)
SELENE THE MOON DRAWN DOWN BY WITCHES
Luna-Selene as Monday, Greco-Roman mosaic from Orbe C3rd A.D., Roman villa of Orbe-Boscéaz
Lunar eclipses and the phenomena of the "red moon" were believed to be caused by the evil magics of Thessalian witches, who drew the goddess down from the sky in order to extract her blood. It was customary for villagers to beat cymbals at these times, to negate the witches' power and restore the goddess to the sky.
Plato, Gorgias 513a (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) :
"Sokrates (Socrates) : May that we not suffer, my distinguished friend, the fate that they say befalls the creatures who would draw down the Moon (selênê)--the Thettalides (women of Thessaly)."
[N.B. Sokrates alludes to the popular theory that the practice of witchcraft is a serious danger to the practicioner.]
Ovid, Metamorphoses 7. 207 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"[Medea the witch cries out to the sky gods :] ‘Thee too, bright Luna (the Moon) [Selene], I banish, though thy throes the clanging bronze assuage; under my spells even my grandsire's [Helios the Sun's] chariot grows pale and Aurora (the Dawn) [Eos] pales before my poison's power.’"
Ovid, Metamorphoses 7. 179 ff :
"Three nights remained before Luna's (the Moon's) [Selene's] bright horns would meet and form her orb; then when she shone in fullest radiance and with form complete gazed down upon the sleeping lands below, [the witch] Medea, barefoot, her long robe unfastened, her hair upon her shoulders falling loose, went forth alone upon her roaming way, in the deep stillness of the midnight hour [to make her magics]."
Ovid, Metamorphoses 14. 365 ff :
"Circe turned to prayers and incantations, and unknown chants to worship unknown gods, chants which she used to eclipse Luna's (the Moon's) [Selene's] pale face and veil her father's [Helios the Sun's] orb in thirsty clouds."
Ovid, Heroides 6. 85 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"She [the witch Medea] is one to strive to draw down from its course the unwilling moon (luna), and to hide in darkness the horses of the sun (sol)."
Seneca, Medea 672 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) :
"Often have I seen her [the witch Medea] in frenzy and assailing the gods [Sol-Helios and Luna-Selene, the sun and moon], drawing down the sky."
Seneca, Phaedra 420 ff :
"When thou [Luna-Selene the Moon] drivest thy car through the nightly skies, may no witcheries of Thessaly prevail to drag thee down."
Seneca, Phaedra 786 ff :
"Anxious for our troubled goddess [Luna-Selene the Moon], thinking her harried by Thessalian charms [i.e. by witches], made loud jingling sounds [i.e. a charm to bring back the moon from the lunar eclipse]."
Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 6. 148 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"Mightiest among them in Stygian arts Coastes [the magician] comes [to war] . . . glad is . . . Latonia [Luna-Selene the Moon] that she can ride in a safe heaven [since Coastes has gone to war Selene the Moon is not continually being drawn down from the sky by his magic]."
Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 6. 442 ff :
"Medea . . . than whom is none more potent at the nightly altars [casting magic spells]; for responsive to her cry and to the juices she scatters in desolate places the Stars are halted trembling and Solis (the Sun) [Helios] her grandsire is aghast as he runs his course . . . the Atracian poisons made Luna (the Moon) [Selene] to foam and that spells of Haemonia were rousing up the ghosts."
Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 7. 327 ff :
"From afar the chambers breathing magic spells burst open and the grim doors flew wide, and she [Medea] gazed at all that she had torn from the ocean-bed or from the Shades below, or drawn down from the blood-red visage of Luna (the Moon) [Selene]."
Statius, Thebaid 1. 105 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"When Atracian [Thessalian witches'] spells make travailing Phoebe [Luna-Selene the Moon] redden through the clouds; suffused with venom, her skin distends and swells with corruption; a fiery vapour issues from her evil mouth, brining upon mankind thirst unquenchable and sickness and famine and universal death."
Statius, Thebaid 6. 684 ff :
"So falls, whenever she is torn from the astonished stars, the darkened sister of the Sun [Luna-Selene the Moon]; afar the peoples beat the bronze for succour, and indulge their fruitless fears, but the Thessalian hag triumphant laughs at the panting steeds [of Selene] who obey her spell."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 36. 345 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"Their [the Brahmans of India] inspired incantations have often enchanted Selene (the Moon) as she passes through the air like an untamed bull, and brought her down from heaven, and often stayed the course of Phaethon [Helios the Sun] swiftly driving his hurrying car."
SELENE GODDESS OF THE LUNAR MONTH
The Greek months began with the new moon and were divided into three ten day periods. The first ten days were presided over by the waxing moon, the next ten the near full and full moon, and the last ten by the waning moon. Festivals and the lucky and unlucky days of the month were consequently measured in the cycles of the moon.
Homeric Hymn 32 to Selene (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) :
"Long-winged Mene [i.e. Selene as goddess of the month] . . . at eventime in the mid-month : then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men."
Sappho, Fragment 154 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I) (C6th B.C.) :
"Selene (the Moon) was coming in to view in her fullness, and when the women took their position round the altar [i.e. she marked the time in the month for a festival]."
Aratus, Phaenomena 734 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek astronomical poem C3rd B.C.) :
"Whenever Mene (Moon) [Selene] with slender horns shines forth in the West, she tells of a new month beginning: when first her rays are shed abroad just enough to cast a shadow, she is going to the fourth day : with orb half complete she proclaims eight days : with full face the mid-day of the month; and ever with varying phase she tells the date of the dawn that comes around."
Ovid, Metamorphoses 7. 179 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"Three nights remained before Luna's (the Moon's) [Selene's] bright horns would meet and form her orb; then she shone in fullest radiance and with form complete gazed down upon the sleeping lands below."
Ovid, Fasti 3. 883 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"Luna (the Moon) [Selene] rules the months."
Virgil, Georgics 1. 276 ff (trans. Fairclough) (Roman bucolic C1st B.C.) :
"Luna (the Moon) [Selene] herself has ordained various days in various grades as lucky for work. Shun the fifth; then pale Orcus [Horkos (Horcus), Oath] and the Eumenides [Erinyes, Vengeances] were born . . . The seventeenth is lucky for planting the vine, for yoking and breaking in oxen, and for adding the leashes to the warp. The ninth is a friend to the runaway, a foe to the thief." [N.B. Virgil derives these days from Hesiod's Works and Days.]
Virgil, Georgics 1. 351 ff :
"Father [Zeus] himself decreed what warning the monthly moon should give, what should signal the fall of the wind, and what sight, oft seen, should prompt the farmer to keep his cattle nearer to their stalls."
Virgil, Georgics 1. 426 ff :
"Soon as the moon [Luna-Selene] gathers her returning fires, if she encloses a dark mist within dim horns, a heavy rain is awaiting farmers and seamen. But if over her face she spreads a maiden blush, there will be wind; as wind rises, golden Phoebe [Luna-Selene] ever blushes. But if at her fourth rising--for that is our surest guide--she pass through the sky clear and with undimmed horns, then all that day, and the days born of it to the month's end, shall be free from rain and wind; and the sailors, safe in port."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38. 244 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"One of these Planetoi (Planets) [the wandering stars] is horned Selene (the Moon) whitening the sky; when she has completed all her circuit, she brings forth with her wise fire the month, being at first half seen, then curved, then full moon with her whole face. Against Mene the moon I [Helios the Sun] move my rolling ball, the sparkling nourisher of sheaf-producing growth, and pass on my endless circuit about the turning-point of the Zodiakos (Zodiac), creating the measures of time."
SELENE THE MOON GODDESS OF CHILDBIRTH
Pregnancies were measured in lunar months, so the moon-goddess had a natural association with childbirth.
Timotheus, Frag 803 (from Plutarch, Table-Talk) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric V) (C5th B.C.) :
"Through the blue-black vault of the stars and of Selana (Selene the Moon) who gives swift childbirth."
Chrysippus, Old Physics Fragment (from Scholiast on Iliad) (trans. Campbell Greek Lyric I, Frag 390) (Greek scientific C3rd B.C.) :
"Chrysippus [Greek C3rd B.C.] in his Old Physics, where he shows that Artemis is Selene (the Moon) and credits it with an influence on childbirth, says that at the full moon not only do women have the easiest labour but all animals have an easy birth."
Ovid, Heroides 11. 45 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"And now for the ninth time had Phoebus' fairest sister [Luna-Selene] risen, and for the tenth time Luna (the Moon) [Selene] was driving on her light-bearing steeds. I knew not what caused the sudden pangs in me; to travail I was unused."
Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2. 27 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician C1st B.C.) :
"She [Luna-Diana, Selene-Artemis] is invoked to assist at the birth of children, because the period of gestation is either occasionally seven, or more usually nine, lunar revolutions, and these are called menses (months), because they cover measured (mensa) spaces."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38. 149 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"As he [Phaethon son of Helios and Klymene] sprang from the childbed, the daughters of Okeanos (Oceanus) cleansed him, Klymene's (Clymene's) son, in his grandsire's waters, and wrapt him in swaddlings. The Stars (Asteres) in shining movement leapt into the stream of Okeanos which they knew so well, and surrounded the boy, with Selene Eileithyia (our Lady of Labour), sending forth her sparkling gleams."
SELENE THE MOON GODDESS OF DEW
Selene-Luna the moon, Greco-Roman marble statue, Pio-Clementino Museum, Vatican Museums
The moon was believed to nourish the plants and animals with her dew. As the nourishing goddess she was associated with Ariadne, wife of Dionysos (Dionysus), who was originally a moon-goddess.
Homeric Hymn 32 to Selene (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) :
"Once Kronides (Cronides) [Zeus the Rain-God] was joined with her [Selene the Moon] in love; and she conceived an bare a daughter Pandeia (All Divine), exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods."
[N.B. Pandeia is probably the same as Ersa (All-Nourishing Dew), cf. Alcman below.]
Sappho, Fragment 96 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I) (C6th B.C.) :
"Rosy-fingered Selene (the Moon) after sunset, surpasssing all the stars (astra), and her light spreads alike over the salt sea and the flowery fields; the dew is shed in beauty, and roses bloom and tender chervil and flowery melilot."
Alcman, Fragment 57 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C7th B.C.) :
"Such things as are nurtured by Ersa (Dew), daughter of Zeus and Selene (Moon)."
Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2. 14 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician C1st B.C.) :
"Luna the Moon's [Selene's] course also has a sort of winter and summer solstice; and she emits many streams of influence, which supply animal creatures with nourishment and stimulate their growth and which cause plants to flourish and attain maturity."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1. 454 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"Near the dewy turning-point [the spring equinox] where Selene's (the Moon) cattle send out a windy moo from their life-warming throats."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7. 280 ff :
"[Zeus] resolved to mount Semele's nightly couch, and turned his eye to the west, to see when sweet Hesperos (the Evening-Star_ would come . . . ‘Yoke your own car, I pray, bright Selene (Moon), send forth your rays which make the trees and plants to grow, because this marriage foretells the birth of plant-cherishing Dionysos; rise over the lovely roof of Semele, give light to my desire with the star of the Kyprian (Cyprian) [Hesperos], make long the sweet darkness for the wooing of Zeus.’"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38. 244 ff :
"Against Mene the moon I [Helios the Sun] move my rolling ball, the sparkling nourisher of sheaf-producing growth, and pass on my endless circuit about the turning-point of the Zodiakos (Zodiac), creating the measures of time."
SELENE THE MOON GODDESS OF LUNACY
A late classical development of her character, made Selene the goddess of lunacy.
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44. 198 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"Dionysos (Dionysus) waited for darksome night, and appealed in these words to circle Mene (Moon) [Selene] in heaven : ‘O daughter of Helios (the Sun), Mene of many turnings, nurse of all! O Selene, driver of the silver car! If thou art Hekate (Hecate) of many names, if in the night thou doest shake thy mystic torch in brandcarrying hand, come nightwanderer . . . If thou art staghunter Artemis, if on the hills thou dost eagerly hunt with fawnkilling Dionysos, be thy brother's helper now! . . . I am being chased out of Thebes [by Pentheus] . . . a mortal man, a creature quickly perishing, an enemy of god, persecutes me. As a being of night, help Dionysos of the night, when they pursue me! If thou art Persephoneia, whipperin of the dead, and yours are the ghosts which are subservient to the throne of Tartaros, let me see Pentheus a dead man, and let Hermes thy musterer of ghosts lull to sleep the tears of Dionysos in his grief. With Tartarean whip of thy Tisiphone, or furious Megaira (Megaera), stop the foolish threats of Pentheus . . .’
To this appeal Mene [Selene] answered on high : ‘Night-illuminating Dionysos, friend of plants, comrade of Mene, look to your grapes; my concern is the mystic rites of Bakkhos (Bacchus), for the earth ripens the offspring of your plants when it receives the dewy sparkles of unresting Selene. Then do you, dancing Bakkhos, stretch out your thyrsos and look to your offspring; and you need not fear a race of puny men, whose mind is light, whose threats the whips of the Eumenides [Erinyes] repress perforce. With you I will attack your enemies. Equally with Bakkhos I rule distracted madness. I am the Bakkhic Mene, not alone because in heaven I turn the months, but because I command madness and excite lunacy. I will not leave unpunished earthly violence against you . . .’
Such was the answer of the goldenrein deity to Bromios. But while Bakkhos yet conversed with circling Mene, even then Persephone was arming her Erinyes."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 46. 97 ff :
"Mene (the Moon) [Selene] helped Bromios [Dionysos], attacking Pentheus with her divine scourge; the frenzied reckless fury of distracting Selene joining in displayed many a phantom shape to maddened Pentheus [who became lunatic or moon-struck], and made the dread son of Ekhion (Echion) forget his earlier intent, while she deafened his confused ears with the bray of her divine avenging trumpet, and she terrified the man."
SELENE & THE MOONSTONE
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5. 88 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"The allwhite stone of Selene [the moonstone], which fades as the horned goddess wanes, and waxes when Mene (the Moon) [Selene] newkindled distils her horn's liquid light and milks out the self-gotten fire of Father Helios (the Sun)."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 32. 22 ff :
"She wore also that stone [the moonstone] which draws man to desire, which has the bright name of desire-struck Selene (the Moon)."
ARTEMIS IDENTIFIED WITH SELENE
Artemis was sometimes identified with Selene the Moon, especially by Roman poets such as Ovid, Virgil and Statius. The connection is more popular today than it was in classical times. See also The Selene-Artemis-Hekate triad section which follows.
Aeschylus, Fragment 87 Xantriae (from Galen, Commentary on Hippocrates' Epidemics) (trans. Weir Smyth) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) :
"[Women] upon whom looketh neither the sun's flashing ray nor the starry eye of Leto's child."
[N.B. Leto's child is Artemis, here identified with the moon-goddess Selene.]
Chrysippus, Old Physics Fragment (from Scholiast on Iliad) (trans. Campbell Greek Lyric I, Frag 390) (Greek scientific C3rd B.C.) :
"Chrysippus [Greek C3rd B.C.] in his Old Physics, where he shows that Artemis is Selene (the Moon) and credits it with an influence on childbirth, says that at the full moon not only do women have the easiest labour but all animals have an easy birth."
Strabo, Geography 14. 1. 6 (trans. Jones) (Greek geographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"Both Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon) are closely associated with these [Apollon and Artemis], since they are the causes of the temperature of the air. And both pestilential diseases and sudden deaths are imputed to these gods [i.e. Apollon and Artemis]."
Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2. 27 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician C1st B.C.) :
"The name Apollo is Greek; they say that he is the Sun, and Diana [Artemis] they identify with the Moon . . . the name Luna is derived from lucere 'to shine'; for it is the same word as Lucina [Eileithyia], and therefore in our country Juno Lucina is invoked in childbirth, as is Diana in her manifestation as Lucifera (the Light-Bringer) among the Greeks. She is also called Diana Omnivaga (wide-wandering), not from her hunting, but because she is counted as one of the seven planets or ‘wanderers’ (vagary). She was called Diana because she made a sort of Day (Dia) in the night-time. She is invoked to assist at the birth of children, because the period of gestation is either occasionally seven, or more usually nine, lunar revolutions, and these are called menses (months), because they cover measured (mensa) spaces."
Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3. 19 :
"You say that Sol the Sun [Helios] and Luna the Moon [Selene] are deities, and the Greeks identify the former with Apollo and the latter with Diana [Artemis]."
HECATE-ARTEMIS-SELENE TRIAD
The Hekate-Artemis-Selene triad occurs in Roman-era poetry.
Seneca, Phaedra 406 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) :
"[Phaedra prays to Diana-Hecate-Luna, Artemis-Hekate-Selene :] ‘O [Diana-Artemis] queen of the groves (regina nemorum), thou who in solitude lovest thy mountain-haunts, and who upon the solitary mountains art alone held holy, change for the better these dark, ill-omened threats. O great goddess of the woods and groves, bright orb of heaven [Luna-Selene], glory of the night, by whose changing beams the universe shines clear, O three-formed Hecate, lo, thou art at hand, favouring our undertaking. Conquer the unbending soul of stern Hippolytus; may he, compliant, give ear unto our prayer. Soften his fierce heart; may he learn to love, may he feel answering flames. Ensnare his mind; grim, hostile, fierce, may he turn him back unto the fealty of love. To this end direct thy powers; so mayst thou wear a shining face [Selene the moon] and, the clouds all scattered, fare on with undimmed horns; so, when thou drivest thy car through the nightly skies, may no witcheries of Thessaly prevail to drag thee down and may no shepherd [i.e. Endymion] make boast o'er thee. Be near, goddess, in answer to our call; hear now our prayers.’"
Seneca, Troades 386 ff :
"With such whirlwind speed as the twelve signs fly along, with such swift course as the lord [Sol-Helios the Sun] of stars hurries on the centuries, and in such wise as Hecate [Luna-Selene the Moon] hastens along her slanting ways, so do we all seek fate."
Statius, Thebaid 10. 365 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"[Statius, in the passage that follows describes Diana-Artemis as a triple goddess incorporating: aspects of Diana-Luna-Hecate (Artemis-Selene-Hekate) :] Cynthia, queen of the mysteries of the night, if as they say thou dost vary in threefold wise the aspect of thy godhead, and in different shape comest down into the woodland . . . The goddess stooped her horns and made bright her kindly star, and illumined the battle-field with near-approaching chariot."
Statius, Thebaid 4. 410 ff :
"[The seer Teiresias (Tiresias) performs the rites of necromancy in the grove of Diana-Hecate (Artemis-Hekate) :] There stands a wood, enduring of time, and strong and erect in age, with foliage aye unshorn nor pierced by any suns . . . Beneath is sheltered quiet, and a vague shuddering awe guards the silence, and the phantom of the banished light gleams pale and ominous. Nor do the shadows lack a divine power: Latonia's [Artemis-Hekate's] haunting presence is added to the grove; her effigies wrought in pine or cedar and wood or very tree are hidden in the hallowed gloom of the forest. Her arrows whistle unseen through the wood, her hounds bay nightly [as Hekate], when she flies from her uncle's [Haides] threshold and resumes afresh Diana's kindlier shape. Or when she is weary from her ranging on the hills, and the sun high in heaven invites sweet slumber, here doth she rest with head flung back carelessly on her quiver, while all her spears stand fixed in the earth around . . . [Teiresias cries out summoning the ghosts forth :] ‘Haste ye all together, nor let there be fore the Shades but one fashion of return to the light; do thou, daughter of Perses [Artemis-Hekate], and the cloud-wrapt Arcadian [Hermes] with rod of power lead in separate throng the pious denizens of Elysium.’"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44. 198 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"[Nonnus describes Artemis-Hekate-Selene as a triple goddess :] O daughter of Helios (Sun), Mene (Moon) of many turnings, nurse of all! O Selene (Moon), driver of the silver car! If thou art Hekate (Hecate) of many names, if in the night thou doest shake thy mystic torch in brandcarrying hand, come nightwanderer . . . If thou art staghunter Artemis, if on the hills thou dost eagerly hunt with fawnkilling Dionysos, be thy brother's helper now!"
For MORE information on these goddesses see ARTEMIS and HEKATE
HYMNS TO SELENE
Homeric Hymn 32 to Selene (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) :
"And next, sweet voiced Mousai (Muses), daughters of Zeus, well skilled in song, tell of the long-winged Mene (Moon) [Selene]. From her immortal head a radiance is shown from heaven and embraces earth; and great is the beauty that ariseth from her shining light. The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Okeanos (Oceanus), and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, and drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month: then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men.
Once Kronides (Cronides) [Zeus] was joined with her in love; and she conceived an bare a daughter Pandeia, exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods. Hail, white-armed goddess, bright Selene, mild, bright-tressed queen! And now I will leave you and sing the glorious of men half-divine, whose deeds minstrels, the servants of the Mousai, celebrate with lovely lips."
Orphic Hymn 9 to Selene (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) :
"To Selene (Moon), Fumigation from Aromatics. Hear, goddess queen (thea basileia), diffusing silver light, bull-horned, and wandering through the gloom of night. With stars surrounded, and with circuit wide night's torch extending, through the heavens you ride: female and male, with silvery rays you shine, and now full-orbed, now tending to decline. Mother of ages, fruit-producing Mene (Moon), whose amber orb makes night's reflected noon: lover of horses, splendid queen of night, all-seeing power, bedecked with starry light, lover of vigilance, the foe of strife, in peace rejoicing, and a prudent life: fair lamp of night, its ornament and friend, who givest to nature's works their destined end. Queen of the stars, all-wise Goddess, hail! Decked with a graceful robe and amble veil. Come, blessed Goddess, prudent, starry, bright, come, moony-lamp, with chaste and splendid light, shine on these sacred rites with prosperous rays, and pleased accept thy suppliants' mystic praise."
CULT OF SELENE
I. THALAMAE (THALAMAI) Town in Lacedaemonia (Lakedaimonia) (Southern Greece)
Pausanias, Description of Greece 3. 26. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) :
"From Oitylos (Oetylus) to Thalamai (Thalamae) [in Lakedaimonia] the road is about eighty stades long. On it is a sanctuary of Ino and an oracle. They consult the oracle in sleep, and the goddess reveals whatever they wish to learn, in dreams. Bronze statues of Pasiphae and of Helios (the Sun) stand in the unroofed part of the sanctuary. It was not possible to see the one within the temple clearly, owing to the garlands, but they say this too is of bronze. Water, sweet to drink, flows from a sacred spring. Pasiphae is a title of Selene (the Moon), and is not a local goddess of the people of Thalamai."
II. ELIS Main Town of Elis (Southern Greece)
Pausanias, Description of Greece 6. 24. 6 :
"In another part [of the market-place of Elis] are the stone images of Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon); from the head of Selene project horns, from the head of Helios, his rays."
III. ROME Imperial Capital (Central Italy)
Ovid, Fasti 3. 883 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"March 31 Comitialis. Luna (the Moon) [Selene] rules the months. Luna closes this month's time with her worship on the Aventine Hill."
TITLES & EPITHETS OF SELENE
Selene had a number of titles and epithets.
Greek Name
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In what decade were windscreen - displayed tax discs introduced ? | The first car tax discs
The first car tax discs in the UK
Austin 10
Image courtesy of Jon Bennett on Flickr CC-BY
Taxing the British car drivers.
Until October 2014, vehicles used on the public road in the UK were required by law to display a small paper printed disc showing that they have paid car tax for the vehicle. It had to be renewed every 6 or 12 months.
The car tax disc was enacted by the Roads Act and Finance Act of 1920. The disc showed that the 'Licence For A Mechanically Propelled Vehicle' had been paid.
The 1920 Acts reformed the confusing situation created by the previous acts relating to taxing mechanically propelled vehicles and transferred the taxing responsibilities from HM Customs and Excise to County Councils. Fuel tax was removed, but taxing by the horse power of the vehicle remained. The law required that the vehicle should have a holder into which the licence could be slotted and then prominently displayed.
The wording of the statute caused confusion to many drivers. This is the first paragraph of three which set out the positioning of the licence. The next two were even more confusing:
"The licence is to be carried in a conspicuous position on the nearside of the vehicle facing towards the nearside of the road, and not less than 2ft 6ins., no more than 6ft 6in., from the ground level between two parallel lines, the first drawn vertically through the rearmost part of the driving seat or cab..., and the second drawn vertically 6 inches in front of the base of the front glass wind screen where fitted; or where no such windscreen is fitted, through a point 4ft forward of the first line."
The laws were due to be implemented on 1 January 1921, but such was demand for the new licences that a 2 month period of grace was given to allow motorists to obtain the new licences. In the first two months 200,000 cars alone generated £2.810,000 in revenue.
The licence disc for the first year was of a plain background and set out details of the expiry date (twice), car registration number, the type of vehicle, and a stamp of the issuing council or post office.
Within a year it became necessary to introduce a background with 'road fund licence' repeated in small letters. One criminal court case in early 1922 showed that a criminal had drawn his own licence using pen and ink which could pass inspection at night-time.
More complex designs, other security backgrounds and colours followed. The perforation which appears all the way around the disc to make it easy for removal from the printed sheet was introduced in 1938.
At first the licence could be purchased for annual or quarterly periods, but only for that current year. It was later changed to twelve or six-monthly. Complaints about long queues in post offices and county council offices later result in changes to continuous months.
Other changes for motorists during the 1920s and 30s is revealed in a look at the first driving tests
| 1920s |
Which Australian marsupial has 3 species, the Common, the Southern Hairy-nosed, and the Northern-Hairy nosed ? | The first car tax discs
The first car tax discs in the UK
Austin 10
Image courtesy of Jon Bennett on Flickr CC-BY
Taxing the British car drivers.
Until October 2014, vehicles used on the public road in the UK were required by law to display a small paper printed disc showing that they have paid car tax for the vehicle. It had to be renewed every 6 or 12 months.
The car tax disc was enacted by the Roads Act and Finance Act of 1920. The disc showed that the 'Licence For A Mechanically Propelled Vehicle' had been paid.
The 1920 Acts reformed the confusing situation created by the previous acts relating to taxing mechanically propelled vehicles and transferred the taxing responsibilities from HM Customs and Excise to County Councils. Fuel tax was removed, but taxing by the horse power of the vehicle remained. The law required that the vehicle should have a holder into which the licence could be slotted and then prominently displayed.
The wording of the statute caused confusion to many drivers. This is the first paragraph of three which set out the positioning of the licence. The next two were even more confusing:
"The licence is to be carried in a conspicuous position on the nearside of the vehicle facing towards the nearside of the road, and not less than 2ft 6ins., no more than 6ft 6in., from the ground level between two parallel lines, the first drawn vertically through the rearmost part of the driving seat or cab..., and the second drawn vertically 6 inches in front of the base of the front glass wind screen where fitted; or where no such windscreen is fitted, through a point 4ft forward of the first line."
The laws were due to be implemented on 1 January 1921, but such was demand for the new licences that a 2 month period of grace was given to allow motorists to obtain the new licences. In the first two months 200,000 cars alone generated £2.810,000 in revenue.
The licence disc for the first year was of a plain background and set out details of the expiry date (twice), car registration number, the type of vehicle, and a stamp of the issuing council or post office.
Within a year it became necessary to introduce a background with 'road fund licence' repeated in small letters. One criminal court case in early 1922 showed that a criminal had drawn his own licence using pen and ink which could pass inspection at night-time.
More complex designs, other security backgrounds and colours followed. The perforation which appears all the way around the disc to make it easy for removal from the printed sheet was introduced in 1938.
At first the licence could be purchased for annual or quarterly periods, but only for that current year. It was later changed to twelve or six-monthly. Complaints about long queues in post offices and county council offices later result in changes to continuous months.
Other changes for motorists during the 1920s and 30s is revealed in a look at the first driving tests
| i don't know |
Who won Dancing On Ice 2013 ? | Dancing On Ice 2013: Beth Tweddle wins | Daily Mail Online
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Beth Tweddle and her partner Daniel Whiston are the winners of this year's Dancing On Ice.
The Olympic gymnast was crowned queen of the ice after beating EastEnders actor Matt Lapinskas and his partner Brianne Delcourt in a tightly contested live final.
After learning of her triumph, the 27-year-old bronze medalist said: 'I'm speechless. It's amazing. All credit goes to Matt. He's done amazing skates tonight.'
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Triumphant: Olympic gymnast Beth Tweddle and her partner Daniel Whiston have won this year's Dancing On Ice
Speechless: Beth and Dan celebrate after finding out they have won
Gracious runner-up: Matt Lapinskas and his partner Brianne Delcourt talk to co-host Christine Bleakley after losing to Beth
Victorious: Beth Tweddle and Daniel Whiston hug as they are crowned winners
The winner was decided by public votes after they performed their version of the Bolero - which Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean famously won gold for at the 1984 Winter Olympics.
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Although he had spent hours rehearsing it, Luke's elimination from the final meant his Bolero would never be seen.
After ending up in third place, he said: 'Its been a fantastic experience. I've learned a new skill for life.
'I've met Jenna, she's lovely.'
Two hours earlier, the three celebrity contestants kicked off the finale with their showcases, backed by a troupe of professional skaters.
Third place: Luke and Jenna with their bouquets after receiving the least amount of public votes of the final three
Beth and Dan started the show with a routine to Seventies classic Carwash, ending up with a high score of 36.5.
Robin told her: 'That was incredibly entertaining. It was relaxing just watching you having a great time. This is your best performance. Delightful fun entertaining skate.'
Jason, who had been harsh on Beth in previous weeks, was turned: 'Thank you. That is what exactly what I want. It was strong, vibrant... You were giving me attitude and sass.'
Sexy! Beth and Ben started the show with a showcase routine to Seventies classic Carwash, ending up with a high score of 36.5
Relaxed: Beth looked like she was having fun as she was swung between Dan and Sylvain Longchambon
For Luke and Jenna's showcase, they brought a western theme to their showcase to Queen's Crazy Little Thing Called Love, receiving a score of 34.5.
Head judge Robin said: 'That was technically terrific. You kept up with the professional boys. You were keeping up with them.'
Something for the ladies: French skater Sylvain soaped himself down during Beth's showdance to the delight of his female fans
Holding court: Co-hosts Christine and Philip talk to judges (L-R) Robin Cousins, Karen Barber, Ashley Roberts and Jason Gardiner
Jason enthused: 'What really threw me was the country and western gay bar scene at the beginning. This was the best musicality that you have displayed.
'I thought you did very well with keeping up with everyone else. Not a bad opening mate.'
Wild wild west: Luke and Jenna's performed a western showcase to Queen's Crazy Little Thing Called Love, receiving a score of 34.5
Keeping up with the professionals: Luke pulls along three female pros
However, it was Matt's showcase that blew the others out of the water, receiving a top score of 40 for his group performance to Mr Pinstripe Suit.
Karen told him: 'It's so exciting to sit here and watch. That showcase showcased all your strengths and it was fantastic.'
Jason was full of praise: 'You are why I love the final of Dancing On Ice. We've got somebody who got the entire package. Brings it on the final and smashes it some more.
Colourful: Matt and Brianne's showcase to Mr Pinstripe Suit wowed the crowd
Top of the leaderboard: Although Matt had received the top scores from the judges, he didn't win enough votes
Top score: Matt ended up with four 10.0s from the judging panel for both his showcase and favourite routine
Tender: Beth opted for her Week 5 performance to Emeli Sande's Clown as her favourite skate from the series
'I could not differentiate between you and the pros.'
When it came to choosing her favourite routine from the series, Beth opted for her Week 5 performance to Emeli Sande's Clown.
She ended up with a total score of 37.5 - an improvement from her original Week 5 score of 30.5.
They're winners! Beth and Daniel celebrate after their triumphant victory
Popular: Although Beth was not top scorer she proved popular with the public
What a ten weeks! Beth and Daniel look jubilant as they take home their trophy
Tulips for a winner! Beth has impressed over the ten weeks with her daring routines
Ashley said: 'I'm just so proud of you. Your stronger suit wasn't performing and you came out here and performed. You were in partnership with the music. It was beautiful.'
Luke also opted for his Week 5 performance - to One Direction's Little Things.
The boxer and his partner Jenna ended up with a score of 32.5 after making a small stumble during the routine.
Karen said: 'A tiny slip. You've come such a long way. For a boxer to come out and show he's gentle and performing such a charming routine is impressive.'
Just peachy: Luke also opted to repeat his Week 5 performance - to One Direction's Little Things
However, Jason thought it was lacking: 'It's one of your better routines. All the little things was what was so touching first time round. A little bit of that was missing tonight. It is the truth! In comparison to the other two contestants, it wasn't on par.'
Surprisingly, Matt went back to Week 1 to chose his favourite routine, a high-energy set to Chris Brown's Turn Up The Music.
He ended up receiving another top score of 40 to his delight.
Jason enthused: 'I obviously I love you. 10, 10 across the board. Brianne is one of our best professionals - you match her in intensity. You make this partnership work together. The two of you are a strong partnership all the way to the end.'
Another 40: Matt and Brianne performed to Chris Brown's Turn Up The Music - their routine from Week 1
'You match her in intensity': Matt was praised for matching professional skater Brianne
While the votes were being counted to find out who was in the final two, the evicted celebrities returned to the ice to skate again.
The Class of 2013 included Pamela Anderson and Matt Evers; Baroness Oona King and Mark Hanretty; Anthea Turner and Andy Buchanan; Shayne Ward and Maria Fillipov; Joe Pasquale and Vicky Ogden; Keith Chegwin and Olga Sharutenko; Samia Ghadie and Sylvain Longchambon; and Gareth Thomas and Robin Johnstone.
Despite being voted out in Week 1, Baywatch star Pamela put on an impressive skating sequence, ending in the splits.
Golden girl: Christine Bleakley looked stunning in a gold Suzanne Neville dress as she joined her dapper co-star Philip Schofield on stage
Remember me? Pamela Anderson and her partner Matt Evers performed a short sequence
We're an item and we don't care who knows it: Samia Ghadie and Sylvain Longchambon are now open about their romance
Rugby ace Gareth, who was ruled out of the semi-final last week after suffering from motion sickness, said he was feeling much better.
However, Lauren Goodger was the only one who didn't perform, despite being spotted sitting in the audience during the live show.
She later explained on her Twitter that she had been ruled out by the show's physios.
Reunion: The class of 2013 reunited to skate one last time with their partners
On the mend: Gareth Thomas was feeling better after being ruled out of the competition last week for sickness
Missing out: Lauren Goodger, who was voted out in Week 2, was resigned to the audience with partner Michael Zenezini
Legends: The finale kicked off with an amazing performance by ice mentors Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean
Dancing On Ice 2013 Finale Leaderboard
Matt Lapinskas and Brianne Delcourt
Showcase: 40.0
| Beth Tweddle |
In which region of Italy is the city of Turin ? | Ray Quinn's triumphant Dancing on Ice win in finale | Daily Mail Online
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Actor and musician Ray Quinn has been crowned the ultimate winner of ITV's prime-time talent show Dancing On Ice.
The 25 year-old Liverpudlian marched to victory over rivals Beth Tweddle and Hayley Tamaddon after a stunning rendition of the Bolero and two other complex dances.
The star performed three dynamic renditions and achieved a hat-trick of perfect scores as a result.
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Ray Quinn and Maria Fillipov are crowned as champions, accompanied by Phillip Schofield and Christine Bleakley, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean
Winner: Ray gave a truly impressive - and entertaining - performance on the ITV show
Shocked: Ray Quinn doesn't quite believe he won the shiw
Seriously... he just can't believe it: Ray and Maria are applauded by Hayley and Dan who finished as runners-up
The TV star, who originally won the series in 2009, was crowned the overall winner by Olympic medalists Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean.
Virtually speechless by the win, the father-of-one simply declared: 'I'm buzzing'.
Cheered by the crowds, Ray's wife and mother could both be seen getting emotional in the audience - especially when he donated the trophy to his partner, Maria Filippov.
Run the world (Ray): The TV star proved that he could go one better than his rivals' girl power
Effort: after weeks of training, the former X Factor star is overwhelmed by the win
The ultimate champion: Ray poses with his accolade after impressing both viewers and judges
Ray's win proved that the bookmakers were correct in making him the odds-on favourite to succeed.
Earlier in the week Paddy Power priced him at 1/4 to take the final trophy. At the time a spokesperson said: 'The writing has been on the wall for the Ray Quinn win since the very beginning and the punters are set for a large pay-out on Sunday evening.'
But the show was also a hit for other reasons, too.
Introduction: The presenters took the ice for their own mini-performance which opened the finale
Dance-off: Ashley Roberts, Robin Cousins, Karen Barber and Jason Gardiner bust some moves
Revisiting a classic: Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean dancing the Bolero
Olympic medalists: Jane and Christopher opened the show for the Dancing on Ice final at Elstree Studios, Hertfordshire
Emotional: Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean share an emotional moment as they revisit their classic dance from 1984
Opening the special-edition episode, presenters Phillip Schofield and Christine Bleakley skated onto set in a mini-performance which saw them team-up with Matt Evers and Alexandra Schauman.
The dance marked the pair's skating debut on live television.
Immediately after, the show's four judges - Robin, Karen, Ashley and Jason - then performed their own routine, which deftly set the tone for the contestants.
United pair: Beth Tweddle and Lukasz Rozycki got off to an impressive start for the ITV show
Hayley Tamaddon and Dan Whiston take to the stage once again - but fail to get the perfect 40, with 39.5 instead
Hayley Tamaddon and Dan Whiston finish as runners-up and are consoled by Christine Bleakley, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean
Then, delighting skating fans, Torville and Dean performed the classic Bolero dance - which famously won them their gold Olympic medal in 1984.
Speaking of his role on the ITV show, Dean said: 'In 1984 after the Olympics we didn't have a plan - but thirty years on and we're still here. It's a celebration but will have a tinge of sadness to it as well.'
The three finalists then took to the stage for their own performances.
Hayley applauds: Ray Quinn and Maria Fillipov are voted through, Beth Tweddle and Lukasz Rozycki finish third
Tears: Ray and Maria get emotional as they collect their award from Phillip Schofield, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean
Over: This was the final series of Dancing On Ice on ITV
Wearing a short blue skirt with an orange vest top, Beth was first flanked by her Tweddle Tigers - an American Football troupe, complete with cheerleaders. Dancing to Beyonce's Run The World (Girls), the Olympic star was even joined by a tiger mascot and earned a perfect score of 40 from all four judges.
Jason particularly praised her, saying: 'You had it all. I couldn't tell you apart from the pros. The best thing about going first is that you don't suffer comparison, but they [the other contestants] will have to be compared to you.'
Not to be out-done, Hayley Tamaddon and her dance partner Dan also scored themselves a perfect ten from each judge.
Comical end: Comedian Joe Pasquale and Robin Johnstone performed in black biker outfits
Trust: David Seaman whips around his partner, both on ice and real life, Frankie Poultney
They've got cheer: Gareth Gates and Brianne Delcourt bring spirit to the ice
But, despite trying, neither girls could trump the stellar efforts of Ray.
While opening the night in pair of swimming trunks, he delivered the most impressive dance of the first segment - earning his fifth perfect score of the series.
He went on to score two more on Sunday night.
Athlete Beth became the first celebrity to be voted off the grand final. As soon as the announcement was made Philip Schofield allowed time for her to regain her composure with a screening of her greatest moments.
Feeling blue: Zaraah Abrahams and Andy Buchanan have that showbiz smile down during their performance
Club Tropicana: Todd Carty and Alexandra Schauman bring some tropical flare to the ice
'I've loved every single minute,' she said alongside dance partner Lukasz Rozycki. 'There are so many people who have helped me get there that I don't even know what to say.'
Shortly after, Hayley Tamadden came second, adding that she had felt honoured to be part of the season with her beloved dance partner.
But Judge Jason Gardener perhaps summed up Ray's success by simply saying: 'Some people are talented, other people are stars. Ray, you're a star.'
Sweetie pies: Jorgie Porter and Sylvain Longchambon looked sherbet like for their routine
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Where, in the strip cartoon, is the home village of Rupert Bear ? | Rupert Bear by Mary Tourtel
Like you've never seen before - he's a lot of fun.
Children everywhere grow to love him more and more
He's their number one!
There's a million stories to be told
of the things that he's done
And he's gonna share them all with you so come along ...
Rupert, Rupert the Bear - everyone sing his name ...
Rupert, Rupert the Bear, everyone come and join ...
in all of his games!
Mary Tourtel
In 1920, the English newspaper Daily Express, decided they needed a comic strip for their own, to rival other national newspapers. They asked Mary Tourtel, who was the wife of one of the editors of the Daily Express. She created Rupert Bear, who lives in an idyllic town called Nutwood. She made the stories and the drawings herself. The first Rupert cartoon appeared on November 8th, 1920 in the newspaper. Daily there were two drawing with a short story underneath.
Mary Tourtel probably never dreamed that Rupert would become so popular. She continued to draw Rupert Bear till 1935, when her eyesight began to fail. Alfred Bestall took over from her. He drew Rupert for thirty years before he stopped. From 1965 to 1978, Freddie Chaplin wrote the stories and the cartoon animator Alex Cubie illustrated Rupert's adventures. Today Rupert is illustrated by John Harrold and written by Ian Robinson
Christmas 1936, the first Rupert Annual was published. It contained a collection of all the Rupert stories that appeared in the newspaper the last twelve months. From that year on, around August or September a new Rupert Annual is published.
Rupert Bear himself still lives on, and as always, undaunted.
Rupert Bear
| Nutwood |
David Mitchell is married to which TV quiz presenter and journalist ? | Rupert TV Show: News, Videos, Full Episodes and More | TVGuide.com
Rupert 1991 | TV Show Watchlist
An animated version of the classic British comic strip about a proper young bear who lives with his parents in the village of Nutwood and who's been wearing his trademark plaid trousers and scarf since 1920. With the help of a professor, Rupert transports
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An animated version of the classic British comic strip about a proper young bear who lives with his parents in the village of Nutwood and who's been wearing his trademark plaid trousers and scarf since 1920. With the help of a professor, Rupert transports himself---and young viewers---through time and space to many wonderful lands.
Premiered: September 1, 1991
| i don't know |
On 60's TV who had the nickname 'The Galloping Gourmet'? | The Galloping Gourmet (TV Series 1968– ) - IMDb
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One of the first classic cooking shows, "The Galloping Gourmet" featured charismatic, ribald cook Graham Kerr doing obscenely rich and decadent recipes. The series was a smash hit in Canada... See full summary »
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Title: The Galloping Gourmet (1968– )
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Nominated for 2 Primetime Emmys. See more awards »
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One of the first classic cooking shows, "The Galloping Gourmet" featured charismatic, ribald cook Graham Kerr doing obscenely rich and decadent recipes. The series was a smash hit in Canada and was later syndicated in the U.S. Written by Anonymous
Le gourmet farfelu See more »
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A continuation of a series first produced for Australian television. Injuries sustained in a 1971 auto accident forced Kerr to end the series at the height of its popularity. See more »
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The Galloping Gourmet ... what a hoot!
29 September 2010 | by GrandGayleAnn
(United States) – See all my reviews
A friend just called and said that they are re-running Graham Kerr's show on Food Netword. I am definitely going to check it out. I loved his humor. The first time I watched his show, I wasn't certain if he was a comedian or a chef. I later accepted that he was a master of both crafts. I am an old woman now, but I learned something from Graham Kerr that has served well for many years. After one of his infamous disasters at the stove, he glanced at the audience and said, "I meant to do that." I am a seamstress and have borrowed that phrase many times. Like him, I have celebrated the beauty of the finished product and laughed at the convoluted process that got me there. A toast to the fab Graham Kerr.
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| Graham Kerr |
Meles meles is the scientific name of which mammal ? | 1969, Graham Kerr Cookbook by The Galloping Gourmet from faywrayantiques on Ruby Lane
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Graham Kerr Cookbook by The Galloping Gourmet, Published by Doubleday & Co, Garden City, New York, 1969 Second Printing. Hardcover. Illustrated with Black and White Photos. Condition is Very Good no marks looks like it has never been used, 284 pages. Dust jacket has wear on edges see photos.
Graham Kerr (born January 22, 1934 in London) is a cooking personality who is best known for his television cooking show The Galloping Gourmet. Kerr was born in London, and his parents were established hoteliers. As a result, much of his childhood was spent among some of the most outstanding chefs of Europe. Educated at the independent school Brighton College, he became trainee manager at the Roebuck Hotel in East Sussex, England, when he was just fifteen years old. After five years in the British Army as catering adviser, Graham became General Manager of England's Royal Ascot Hotel.
Kerr moved to New Zealand in 1958, becoming chief chef catering adviser for the Royal New Zealand Air Force. It was there that his media career began in the early 1960s: his recipes were delivered on radio and in magazines, and a related book, Entertaining with Kerr, sold out its first edition in eight days. He moved into television with the emergence of the new medium in New Zealand, after being recruited by NZBC producer Shirley Maddock.
Later The Galloping Gourmet (1969-71), a show named for Kerr's onscreen persona, was taped in Ottawa at CJOH-TV and produced by his wife Treena Kerr. The origin of his 'Galloping Gourmet' persona stemmed from a 1967 book he co-authored with wine expert Len Evans, The Galloping Gourmets. The nickname was the result of a 35-day worldwide trek to the finest restaurants around the globe. The title was echoed in the opening of each episode of his original North American series, filmed in front of a live audience, where Kerr entered the stage area by running in and leaping over a chair in the dining room set.
The series was known for its lighthearted humour, tomfoolery and the copious use of clarified butter, cream and fat. Indeed, Kerr's most famous line on the show might have been his response to someone's criticism of his cooking: "Madame, you could go outside and get run over by a bus and just think what you would have missed!" He also liberally featured wine, serving it with most meals, drinking it while cooking, using it in his dishes, and waxing poetic about its virtues. In an ongoing feature of the show, Kerr would make his way into the audience as the closing credits began and select an audience member (usually female) whom he would invite onstage with him to enjoy whatever dish he had just prepared. During The Galloping Gourmet's successful run, he became a worldwide sensation, wrote an abundance of cookbooks, and earned two Emmy Award nominations.
Item ID:002233
| i don't know |
Who preceded Phil Collins as lead singer with Genesis ? | Genesis | New Music And Songs |
Genesis
About Genesis
Genesis started life as a progressive rock band, in the manner of Yes and King Crimson, before a series of membership changes brought about a transformation in their sound, into one of the most successful pop/rock bands of the 1980s and 1990s. In addition, the group has provided a launching pad for the superstardom of members Peter Gabriel and Phil Collins, and star solo careers for members Tony Banks, Michael Rutherford, and Steve Hackett. Their roots go back to 1965 and a pair of rival groups, the Garden Wall and the Anon, formed by students at the Charterhouse School in Godalming, Surrey. They merged, with the result that 15-year-olds Peter Gabriel, Tony Banks, and Michael Rutherford joined with 14-year-old Anthony Phillips, calling themselves the New Anon and recording a six-song demo featuring songs primarily written by Rutherford and Phillips.
Charterhouse alumnus, recording artist, and producer Jonathan King heard the tape and arranged for the group to continue working in the studio, and it was also King who renamed the band Genesis. In December of 1967 they cut their debut single, "The Silent Sun," a very deliberate Bee Gees-style pastiche -- it was released in February of 1968 without attracting much notice from the public, and a second single, "A Winter's Tale," followed with similar neglect. They also ran through a couple of drummers during this period, Chris Stewart and John Silver. At this time, the group's music was a form of lyrical folk-based progressive pop, built on lush melodies primarily carried on acoustic guitar and piano, with lyrics that tended toward the florid and trippy -- psychedelia was in vogue, and Genesis showed an exceptional facility with poetic content as well as gorgeous melodies. Their debut album, From Genesis to Revelation -- which the group has all but disowned in the decades since -- was released in March of 1969, and passed without too much notice from the music press or the public. The members began thinking about getting on with their lives outside of music, and especially attending college. But they felt strongly enough about their work to try making it as a professional band. The re-formed in 1969 and got their first paying gig in September of that year, and spent the next several months working out new material, with new drummer John Mayhew aboard.
Genesis soon became one of the first groups signed to the fledgling Charisma label, founded by Tony Stratton-Smith, and they recorded their second album, Trespass. That record, released in October of 1970, showed the first signs of the band that Genesis would become. The music was still folk-based, some of the songs couldn't quite carry their length, and they had some way to go in terms of vocal and instrumental finesse, but it had reach if not grasp -- most of the album was comprised of extended pieces, sung with dramatic intensity, and with complex parts for all of the instruments.
Genesis then lost two members. Mayhew left over the unhappiness with aspects of his playing, and was replaced by Phil Collins, a former child actor turned drummer who had previously played with Flaming Youth -- he also added an occasional additional lead vocal to their sound. Much more unsettling was the departure of guitarist Anthony Phillips, who had developed crippling stage fright. For some time afterward, Genesis worked as a four-piece with the guitar parts covered by Banks' keyboards. Finally, just prior to Genesis beginning work on their next album, their lineup was completed with the addition of guitarist Steve Hackett, a former member of Quiet World. The band's next album, Nursery Cryme, was recorded so close to his arrival that Hackett played on it, but some of the guitar parts were written and played by Michael Rutherford, while the centerpiece of the new album, "The Musical Box," used material that Phillips had composed.
There was hardly a weak moment on the record, and the music was far more exciting -- and witty -- than most of the progressive rock of the period. The heart of the record was "The Musical Box," a song telling a Victorian-era story of children, murder, and ghostly apparitions that was worthy of the classic horror film Dead of Night. And while it might not have become a pop culture phenomenon, the album and the song did find an audience among collegiate listeners. The theatrical attributes of Gabriel's singing fit in well with the group's live performances during this period as he began to make ever more extensive use of masks, makeup, and props in concert, telling the framing stories in order to set up their increasingly complicated songs. Part of the reason for the stories was practical -- it gave the others, especially Hackett, a chance to retune their instruments. When presented amid the group's very strong playing, this aspect of Gabriel's work turned Genesis' performances into multimedia events. And word soon began to spread about Genesis being an act that was worth hearing and, even more so, worth seeing in concert.
Foxtrot, issued in the fall of 1972, was the flash point in Genesis' history. The writing, especially on "Supper's Ready" -- a conceptual piece taking up an entire side of the LP -- was as sophisticated as anything in progressive rock, and the lyrics were complex and clever, but the record was never boring, or even less than bracing. It became their first to chart in England, reaching number 12. Genesis' live performances by now were practically legend. Rock music had always contained a theatrical element, which had reached new levels in the late '60s. But Peter Gabriel, with his growing array of costume changes and acting out of roles, far transcended anything seen on a rock stage -- it was true rock theater, and an intense listening experience.
In early 1973, the band allowed a group of performances to be taped for American radio, and with a live tape on hand and a gap to fill between studio albums, Stratton-Smith convinced the band to let him issue that same performance, in edited form, as the group's first concert album. Genesis Live featured songs from across three of their albums, including "The Knife," "The Musical Box," and "Watcher of the Skies," presented in their most recent and dramatic incarnations. The group's next release, Selling England by the Pound (1973), was also their biggest seller to date, reaching number three in England and number 70 in America. They were still a cult band in the United States, but thanks to a lot more FM radio play, their music was getting heard beyond the ranks of the cultists, and finding new listeners by the thousands, especially on college campuses.
The release in late 1974 of The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway also marked the culmination of the group's early history. A concept album with a very involved story and a large cast of characters, its composition had been difficult, involving a story outlined and written (along with most of the lyrics) exclusively by Gabriel. A creative split developed between him and the others, however, and the division grew worse during the tour that followed. In May of 1975, Gabriel announced that he was leaving Genesis, at what seemed the very moment of their commercial breakthrough. The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway had been a breakthrough as well, played heavily on progressive FM stations and selling in far greater numbers than anyone expected of a double LP by this group -- it just missed the Top 40 in the United States, while in England it got to number ten.
The group tried auditioning potential replacements, but it became clear that the remaining members all preferred that Phil Collins -- who had provided some vocals on the group's three prior albums -- take over as lead singer. Genesis returned to the studio as a quartet in October of 1975 to work on their new album, and the resulting Trick of the Tail was not a huge departure from their earlier work -- there were still musically challenging progressive songs on the album. The latter were reined in a bit, however, and there was some effort to make the album and the music as accessible as possible. And it worked, the album reaching number three in England and number 31 in America, their best chart showing up to that time.
Their 1977 album Wind & Wuthering contained a genuinely appealing pop song, "Your Own Special Way," which helped to loft it to number three in the U.K. and number 26 in the United States. Soon after, Hackett announced that he, too, was leaving -- he was replaced on subsequent concert tours by Daryl Stuermer, but there was no permanent replacement in the studio; instead, Rutherford played all of the guitar parts on their subsequent recordings. In 1978, Genesis released the appropriately titled And Then There Were Three -- with sales driven by the hit single "Follow You, Follow Me," the album got the group its first gold record award. By this time, the group had become a pure pop outfit, and its subsequent albums Duke (1980) and Abacab (1981) both topped the charts in England while brushing near or reaching the Top Ten in America.
In 1983, the band regrouped for the self-titled Genesis, which furthered the group's record of British chart-toppers and American Top Ten hits, becoming their second million-selling U.S. album. Two years later, the group outdid itself with the release of its most commercially successful album to date, Invisible Touch, which -- driven by a quintet of Top Ten U.S. singles, including a number one chart placement for the title song -- went platinum several times over in America.
It was seven years before the band released its next album, We Can't Dance, which debuted at number one in England and got to number four in America. During that time off, each of the members had done extensive solo work, and Collins had already become a superstar in his own right. We Can't Dance was Collins' last album with the group, and with him they also lost Chester Thompson and Daryl Stuermer from the touring band. Calling All Stations (1997), featuring new vocalist Ray Wilson, seemed to please neither critics nor fans, and Wilson left the group at the conclusion of the accompanying tour. The group was on hiatus for most of the next decade, which saw the release of a pair of box sets, Genesis Archives, Vol. 1 and Genesis Archives, Vol. 2, covering the Gabriel and Collins eras, respectively. Banks, Rutherford, Hackett, Collins, and Gabriel regrouped for a one-off re-recording of "The Carpet Crawlers" for inclusion on the compilation Turn It on Again: The Hits.
Genesis were hardly heard from except in an archival capacity for most of the first decade of the 21st century. A 2007 reunion tour featuring Collins, Banks, and Rutherford got decidedly mixed critical reviews, and yielded a lackluster live CD/DVD set. But it coincided with a wave of upgraded, double-disc reissues of most of Genesis' catalog and a quartet of box sets covering their history from Trespass forward -- including a complete issue of a legendary 1973 Rainbow Theatre performance -- which have rendered them among the most thoroughly documented groups of their generation. Rumors of a full-fledged reunion continued to circulate but only archival releases materialized, including the triple disc R-Kive which combined Genesis staples with solo cuts from the band's original lineup. ~ Bruce Eder, Rovi
| Peter Gabriel |
Where in Mississippi was Elvis Presley born ? | Genesis News Com [it]: Phil Collins - biography
Genesis News Com [it]
A timeline of the most important musical and private events
(without any claim to completeness)
1951: June Collins, manager of a wine store, and Greville Collins, clerk to an insurance company, living in Hounslow, have their third child Philip David Charles Collins on January 30, 1951, at five minutes past midnight.
1952: The Collins family moves to Sheen.
1954: The Collins family moves back to Hounslow.
1956: Li�l Phil, aged 5, is presented with his first mini drum kit.
1957: Grown-sumwhat Phil plays Humpty Dumpty in the Christmas play Cinderella. The Collins family (with Phil) often performs at the Richmond Yachting Club. Phil also drums as the rhythm group to an organ player.
1958: Grown-summat-more Phil wins first place at a talent show at a holiday camp.
1961: Phil�s mother begins to organize performances and hirings for the Barbara Speake Stage School as a booking agent. Phil is booked as a pullover model for fashion or knitting-pattern magazines.
1962: Mistakenly believing it to be his own, Phil swaps his brother Clive�s model train set for the drum kit of another boy in the neighbourhood. That same year he passes the exams for secondary education and is accepted at Chiswick County Grammar School.
1963: Phil is given a new drum kit as a birthday present. An aunt of his dad�s teaches him some basic terms of playing the piano and to read music. On August 08, 1963, a gang headed by Ronald �Buster� Edwards pulls off the legendary train robbery, an event which was to gain special significance for Phil in 1988. Phil also buys his first rock records: The Beatles� Please Please Me and the first Rolling Stones record.
1964: On March 31, he is one of 350 extras in the Beatles film A Hard Day�s Night. He earns 15 pounds a week for playing the Artful Dodger in the Musical Oliver. He will play this role for seven months at the New Theatre in Martin�s Lane until his voice breaks (the role includes the song You�ve Got To Pick A Pocket Or Two). He then enrols at the Barbara Speake Stage School, becoming an exemplary student there � and meeting Andrea Bertorelli and Lavinia Lang who between them will keep his heart occupied for many years to come. In these years he uses his image as the ideal date, and switches dating them singly or simultaneously�
1965: Phil enjoys big band music by Eric Delaney and Ray McVay. He takes up drumming tuition. The BBC employs him as an off-speaker for the Junior Points Of View programme. Phil briefly returns to Oliver playing the role of Noah Claypole. Somewhere around 1965 a band called The Real Thing is founded. Phil drums while Andrea and Lavinia provide backing vocals. Set lists include Tamla Motown songs and soul classics.
1966: Phil appears on British TV in Stubby Kaye�s Silver Star Show. He also becomes a regular, helper and club member in Soho�s legendary Marquee Club at 90 Wardour Street. At Ronnie Scott�s club, he witnesses an impressive concert by drummer Buddy Rich. He also worships The Who�s Keith Moon, Yes with Bill Bruford and Jon Anderson, a band called The Action � and does not care much about school anymore. Phil meets Ronnie Caryl who plays with The Real Thing for one song at one gig.
1967: Phil and Ronnie are both extras for the musical Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. They skip school and becomes really good friends.
1968: Ronnie moves in at Phil�s. They play music and records on end. Phil plays a major role in the children t.v. production Calamity The Cow, most of which will be cut out. Right before the final exams at acting school he throws it all away for the music. He has a number of unsuccessful band auditions before he is accepted at the Cliff Charles Blues Band for a while. After that, it�s bands like The Charge, The Freehold, Zox, The Radar Boys and a job for one John Walker. Phil and Ronnie play in the backing band of the soulful Gladiators. It is called The Hickory and will become the basis for Flaming Youth after they split up.
1969: Phil occasionally drums and sing with a band called Flaming Youth. With members Phil Collins, Ronnie Caryl, Brian Chatton and Gordon Smith, they record an album called Ark 2 featuring music by Ken Howard and Alan Blaikley. When it is released in autumn 1969, the Melody Maker crowns it �pop album of the month�. Despite this praise and an ambitious premi�re with an orchestra at London�s Lyceum success does not turn up. Flaming Youth split up soon after. Lavinia Lang splits up with Phil who turns all his attention to Andrea Bertorelli.
1970: An ad is placed in the Melody Maker: �Wanted: Drummer sensitive to acoustic music.� It is Genesis who placed the ad and invite Phil to audition at the home of Gabriel�s parents in Chobham, Surrey. Phil gets the job and joins Genesis in August 1970. His first gig with the band is on August 30, 1970, at the Marquee Club. His colleagues soon think highly of him as of a musician with a feeling for the overall sound. Looking back, though, Peter Gabriel also stated: �I had the feeling that Genesis was not his natural way of musical expression. [�] He helped us to loosen up.�
1971: Genesis release their first album with Phil, Nursery Cryme . Phil sings Hackett�s composition For Absent Friends. People hardly notice because Phil�s voice is surprisingly similar to Peter Gabriel�s.
1972: Foxtrot is released in October. Phil�s ex-girlfriend Andrea has a relationship with a Canadian in her hometown of Vancouver. On August 08, 1972, she gives birth to Joely. In the meantime Phil is not too happy with Peter Gabriel�s costume theatrics at Genesis gigs: �I always found it frustrating that people weren�t listening to the music, but watching it.� Phil�s dad dies on December 24, 1972.
1973: Genesis Live and Selling England By The Pound are released in August and October, respectively. Phil sings More Fool Me, a song he has written with Mike Rutherford.
1974: In January 1974 Phil meets his old love Andrea again at a Canadian gig of Genesis North American tour. Old love becomes new love. After the spring tour Andrea, Phil and little Joely move to Epsom, Surrey. Former Genesis guitarist Anthony Phillips records his Silver Song and Only Your Love with Phil and Mike Rutherford. The songs are to be released as a Collins solo single, but the project is shelved. In November, the lamb lies down on Broadway ...
1975: Peter Gabriel announces that he leaves Genesis in May. Phil sings a terrific Star Of Sirius on Steve Hackett�s solo album Voyage Of The Acolyte . Phil and Andrea get married on September 25, 1975, at St Joseph�s church in Epsom Surrey. Ronnie Caryl is Phil�s best man. Brand X play their first gig with Phil as a drummer at the London School Of Economics in December.
Phil�s then wife Andrea had this to say about Phil�s restless musical energy which he spent on Genesis, Brand X, countless guest appearances and (later) producer�s jobs: �Something was driving Phil on and on. Even when we met at acting school when he was 13, he was totally focused on his goal. And he wanted to achieve them no matter what.�
1976: After a long unsuccessful search for a successor for Gabriel, Phil takes up vocal duties with Genesis. The album A Trick Of The Tail is released in February 1976. It convinces all the critics. The record features the sophisticated Robbery, Assault And Battery, written by Tony Banks and Phil. Phil and his pregnant wife Andrea move to Ealing in spring. London, Ontario, plays host to Genesis� first show with Phil Collins as a singer on March 31, 1976. At the drums there is Bill Bruford of Yes, King Crimson and Brand X. In July 1976 the first Brand X album Unorthodox Behaviour comes out. Simon Collins is born on September 14, 1976, at Queen Charlotte�s Hospital, Hammersmith. Late in December the second Genesis album of the year is released. Wind & Wuthering contains a Collins/Hackett song, Blood On The Rooftops and a Banks/Collins instrumental called Wot Gorilla?. Phil and Andrea have a huge argument on New Year�s Eve. It is the beginning of a bitter ending ...
1977: Chester Thompson plays the drums with Genesis for the first time at a live gig at the Rainbow, London, on January 01, 1977. Brand X release the studio album Moroccan Roll in April. For the first time, there is a piece with vocals, Sun In The Night, and a number written by Collins, Why Should I Lend You Mine� . The instrumental live LP Livestock follows in November. Phil Collins also sings two songs on Anthony Phillips� The Geese And The Ghost . One of them is the delicious Which Way The Wind Blows. Guitarist Steve Hackett leaves Genesis in autumn, in the middle of mixing the live classic album Seconds Out. It is released in October.
1978: In April, Genesis release And Then There Were Three on which the Banks/Collins number Scenes From A Night�s Dream can be found. Early in summer, Phil and Andrea move into the newly-bought �Old Croft� in Shalford, Surrey, in an attempt to save their marriage. While Phil goes on tour with Genesis, lonely Andrea has an affair ...
1979: Andrea flees to her mother�s place in Vancouver with Joely (who had long before been adopted by Phil) and Simon. The final split takes place in April 1979. Phil is busy recording for Steve Bishop�s album Red Cab To Manhattan (Eric Clapton is also involved). He also plays a couple of gigs with Peter Gabriel and John Martyn. In September, Brand X release Product with the Collins piece �And So To F� Genesis meet at Phil�s home in the country to work on the next album. There is room enough for all...
1980: Phil�s marriage is a thing of the past. In March, Genesis release Duke (which includes Collins� Please Don�t Ask and Misunderstanding) and go on tour. At a concert in Los Angeles on May 27, 1980, Phil meets his later wife Jill Tavelman at the Rainbow Bar And Grill. Brand X are slowly reaching the end of their string with Do They Hurt? in April. Former Genesis buddy Peter Gabriel hires Phil for his third solo album which marks the experimental birth of the drum sound that is to become Phil�s trademark in the next years. John Martyn has Phil drum on his album Grace And Anger.
1981: February witnesses one if not the most important milestone in Phil�s musical career. He comes to (musical) terms with the pain of his marriage breaking apart in his first solo album Face Value . The record writes music history, particularly in the brute drum break of In The Air Tonight. Divorce, however, cannot be averted�
Phil�s second collaboration with John Martyn does not only have Phil on the drum stool but also very audibly in the producer�s chair. The result is called Glorious Fool. Further important events of the year are Phil�s first solo appearance at the Secret Policeman�s Other Ball at the Drury Lane Theatre, London, on September 11, 1981, where he is accompanied by Daryl Stuermer (guitar, banjo) for In The Air Tonight and The Roof Is Leaking. The year also marks a change of direction in the music of Genesis. With Abacab , which was recorded completely at their brand new Surrey studio The Farm, messieurs Banks, Collins and Rutherford tread new waves that fans of long standing have trouble following. Phil contributes Man On The Corner. Then there is a minute reunion when Phil drums on the album Playing For Time of his former Flaming Youth buddy Brian Chatton.
1982: Brand X close a chapter in their history in September. Without meeting again, they release a kind of doggy-bag sampler called Is There Anything About?. The more important thing for Phil may well be his productive work with ex-ABBA singer Frida. Her solo LP Something�s Going On sounds like a Collins album with a different vocalist.
In June, Genesis release Three Sides Live , while Phil�s second solo album Hello I Must Be Going comes out in November. It takes his title from a Charlotte Chandler biography about Jill�s godfather (!) Groucho Marx of the Marx Brothers. The Supremes classic You Can�t Hurry Love becomes a huge hit (and a favourite video) in Phil�s version. Mention must also be made of the one-off Genesis reunion concert at Milton Keynes on October 02, 1982 to help Peter Gabriel solve the financial problems resulting from his engagement for WOMAD.
1983: Phil and Jill are engaged. He drums on Robert Plant�s The Principle Of Moments, sends shiver up and down listeners� spines in October with his vocals for Mama, the opening song on Genesis� eponymous album. Phil also reworks the Face Value relic How Can You Sit There into the title song of the movie Against All Odds and starts working for the British welfare organization Prince�s Trust.
1984: Against All Odds climbs to the number one position in the U.S. charts. Philip Bailey of Earth, Wind & Fire decides to have Phil produce his album Chinese Wall. It contains the hit Easy Lover that was written jointly by Bailey, Collins and bass guitarist Nathan East. Phil also produces Adam Ant�s LP Strip. The Guildford Town Hall and the church in Shalford witness the beginning of Phil�s second marriage on August 04, 1984. The year ends with Phil drumming on the Band Aid question Do They Know It�s Christmas?
1985: Though he is not wearing anything formal, Phil releases his third solo album in April. No Jacket Required lands him a string of hits: Sussudio, One More Night, Take Me Home and Don�t Lose My Number climb high in the charts. Less successful is his collaboration with Eric Clapton, whose album Behind The Sun contains many overlooked gems. A young lady by the name of Marylin Martin sings the Stephen Bishop ballad Separate Lives with Phil. The song is used for the movie White Nights. On July 13, 1985, the Live Aid concert, organized by Bob Geldof, takes place in London and Philadelphia. Phil performs solo and with Sting and Branford Marsalis in England, boards the Concorde and also performs in the States with Eric Clapton and Led Zeppelin. In between Phil obviously finds enough time to act the role of Phil Mayhew (!) in the Miami Vice episode Phil The Shill which is first broadcast in the U.S. on December 13, 1985.
1986: � is a Genesis year, marked by the sensational success of their album Invisible Touch (June 1986). Phil also produces Howard Jones� No One Is To Blame and Eric Clapton�s August.
1987: � is another Genesis year filled with an extensive Invisible Touch Tour
1988: Atlantic Records celebrate their 40th anniversary in the Madison Square Guarden. Phil performs solo, with Genesis and with the Blues Brother�s Band. The first full-scale feature film starring Phil Collins in the leading role premi�res on September 15, 1988: Buster is a film for which Phil writes a considerable amount of music. The German version opens on November 03, 1988, but loses much of the film�s charme through the dubbing.
1989: Little Lily Collins and a fourth solo album �But Seriously make their entrance into this world on March 18, 1989 and in November, respectively. The song Another Day In Paradise marks the beginning of Phil�s work for the National Coalition For The Homeless. Phil also appears on Stephen Bishop�s album Bowling In Paris and on stage as the Uncle Sam for performances of The Who�s rock opera Tommy in London and Los Angeles.
1990: The live CD Serious Hits� Live! comes out on November 05, 1990. Fans yearn for a recording of a complete live concert; their thirst is quenched somewhat by a live video of the complete gig in Berlin.
1991: For the last time, Phil returns to the studio with Genesis. They record We Can�t Dance which is released on November 11. Phil produces the song The Quiet�s Too Loud for Lamont Dozier�s album Inside Seduction; it is a joint work. He has a cameo appearance as Police Inspector Good in Steven Spielberg�s Peter Pan story, Hook, starring Robin Williams. Filming of the movie Frauds begins.
1992: Phil�s marriage to Jill is in trouble. At a Genesis concert in Los Angeles on June 18, 1992, Phil meets his former girlfriend Lavinia Lang again after twenty years. It is the beginning of a three month affair. In the end, Lavinia returns to her husband. Jill and Phil try to make up � in vain. On November 16, 1992, Genesis release the live CD The Way We Walk vol.1: The Shorts .
1993: Phil works hard at his career as an actor. He plays a small role as a homosexual sauna manager in And The Band Played On. He also plays the Jackson Dover, an author of crime novels, in the bizarre short film Calliope. He finally has a leading role in the above-mentioned Frauds. This Australian film receives less attention from the audience than Buster. It turns into a flop, which does not, however, say anything about its quality. After a benefit concert as The Ruins Band with Genesis and sundry rock stars from Pink Floyd to Eric Clapton on September 18, 1993 at Cowdray Ruins in southern England Phil has the feeling that it is time to quite Genesis. At that point, he is in the middle of recordings for his intimate solo album Both Sides . Genesis release The Way We Walk vol.2: The Longs on January 18, while Both Sides comes out as Phil�s fifth studio album on November 08, 1993. He recorded it all alone, which is the trademark and occasional weakness of the effort.
Phil produces David Crosby�s album Thousand Roads, which features the Collins/Crosby duet Hero.
1994: Phil and Jill separate. On April 24, 1994, Phil meets Orianne Cevey. She has joined the Both Sides entourage as a translator. During his Both Sides Tour, which started April 1, Phil plays an Unplugged concert for MTV on August 30, 1994. It is not broadcast until much later and, unfortunately, much of it was cut out.
1995: Phil takes the Both Sides Tour to South America, Asia, South Africa and Australia, now entitled Far Sides Tour. Phil has a speaking role in the cartoon film Balto. He moves to Switzerland with Orianne.
1996: Phil plays a benefit concert for cancer research in Geneva on January 27. On March 28, 1996, Phil leaves Genesis � without a grudge, without much fuss and in all friendship. In July, first concerts of Phil Collins� Big Band take place with musicians of the WDR [a state-wide public TV station in Germany; translator�s note]. They also performs music by Genesis and Phil himself. Phil�s new state of life shines through in his sixth solo album Dance Into The Light .
1997: Phil begins work on the soundtrack for Disney�s Tarzan, drums a third time for John Martyn and participates together with Paul McCartney, Sting, Mark Knopfler and many others in the Music For Montserrat benefit.
1998: On June 22, Genesis delight their fans with the long-awaited 4CD box Archive . It contains (partially overdubbed) live, studio and demo recordings from 1967 to 1975. The whole gang had met once more (including Collins� predecessor�s predecessor John Silver) for a �press conference reunion� on May 11. Phil Collins� sampler �Hits comes out in October. Despite a cover of True Colours it is less impressive.
1999: Tarzan premi�res in Las Vegas on March 11, though it hits cinemas in the U.S. only on July 18. Two new Collins CDs are released simultaneously in May. One is the Phil Collins Big Band album A Hot Night In Paris, which, as Serious Hits� Live! provides only parts of the whole set � fans who had hoped for Wot Gorilla?, The West Side or Hand In Hand were frustrated. The other one is Phil�s ambitious Tarzan soundtrack. German , Spanish, Italian and French (!) versions are released in 1999 and 2000. You�ll Be In My Heart turns out to be another smash-hit. On July 24, Phil weds Orianne in Lausanne; celebrations include a Genesis reunion with �live Mechanic� Jamie Moses playing the guitar. The Genesis sampler Turn It On Again � The Hits is released on October 25. It features a new recording of the Lamb classic The Carpet Crawlers which was made while the first archive box was being prepared. Another premi�re takes the shape of Simon Collins� first CD All Of Who You Are (released on September 20). Phil �Pops� Collins supports his son singing backing vocals on Pride.
2000: Phil takes some time off for acting. When The Pipers Play, a film about the development of the bagpipe, premi�res on February 02. In autumn there is a �little reunion� at an event to honour Tony Smith. Genesis, consisting of Phil, Tony Banks, Mike Rutherford and Daryl Stuermer, play a brief set. Peter Gabriel is in the audience. He joins them on stage for a photo shooting afterwards. The second Genesis Archive box set is released in 2000. Reunion rumours appear and fade away.
2001: During the recordings for his new album Phil suffers an aural attack. On one ear, he does not regain his hearing completely. Phil announces that he will perform only sporadically. On April 21 Phil�s wife gives birth to another son, Nicholas.
2002: In summer, Phil drums for almost all musical guests (amongst them: Annie Lennox, Ozzy Osbourne and Queen) at the Queen Jubilee concert in the garden of Buckingham Palace. In autumn, he releases his new album Testify . Its quality and sales figures are not up to previous releases. Phil plays only two shows in London and Hamburg to promote the album.
2003: Phil�s second Disney soundtrack Brother Bear is released in a number of languages, even in Japanese. Phil also wrote the background music for the film. The BBC documentary A Life Less Ordinary is released on DVD. Critics and fans are enthusiastic. In autumn, Phil announces that he is going to tour one final time..
2004: The year is filled with his First Final Farewell Tour. Phil repeatedly confirms that this will be his last tour. It does not end with tours in Europe and the United States. A tour DVD called Finally� The First Farewell Tour appears, as does another �best of� compilation called Love Songs . In summer, Phil does his first interview with the German Genesis Fanclub it. His son Mathew Thomas is born on December 01.
2005: Phil is working on the musical version of Walt Disney�s Tarzan. In the meantime, a second Tarzan film has come out. It features two new Collins songs, but no new soundtrack. Phil joins the cover band The Musical Box in Geneva for one of the encore songs, The Musical Box. In autumn, Phil returns to Germany for two more concerts . The third leg of his Farewell Tour takes him to Eastern Europe, the Near East and some places in Germany and the UK. The farewell continues...
2006: Phil announces that he and his third wife Orianne have separated. The formal divorce will be completed in August 2008. Disney's Tarzan musical premieres at the Richard Rodgers Theater on Broadway. A cast album is released on which Phil Collins sings Everything That I Am. Though he has also written the other songs they are performed by the musical cast. Phil appears on US TV and at an award ceremony in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, to promote the Tarzan musical. After secret rehearsals in New York and an increasing amount of rumours Genesis announce at a press conference in London in November that the band are going to play the Turn It On Again tour in 2007 with Phil as the singer. There are no new songs, though.
2007: The second Tarzan musical after the Broadway version begins its run in Scheveningen, The Netherlands. Due to lack of success is it dropped from Broadway after slightly more than a year. Phil plays lots of European stadiums with Genesis and plays no less than nine gigs in Germany. The tour starts in Helsinki, Finland. The second show in D�sseldorf, Germany, is broadcast live to British cinemas. The climax of the tour is the final show of the European leg when Genesis play before an audience of an estimated 500,000 people in Circo Massimo in Rome, Italy. The show is recorded for Italian TV and also filmed for the tour DVD. The reunion tour continues in autumn when Genesis play shows in Canada and the United States, and ends at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles in October. At the merchandising stands fans can also buy a DVD called The Long Goodnight , a documentary about the 2005 First Final Farewell tour. 2007 also sees the releases of the first two Genesis boxsets with 5.1 remixes of all studio albums on SACD-hybrid / DVD double disc sets. The first box to appear covers the era from 1976-1982 , and the second box for 1983-1998 comes out in autumn.
2008: The last Genesis studio album boxset comes out covering their releases from 1970-1975 . Disney's Tarzan musical opens at Kristianstad, Sweden. German TV station Sat.1 runs a casting show called "Ich Tarzan, du Jane" ["Me Tarzan, you Jane"] to cast the principal actors for the German musical version. Highlight is Phil Collins' appearance at the finale; he does not sing, though, but sits in the jury. The Odeon cinema in London-Kensington premieres the Genesis tour documentary Come Rain Or Shine in May; the event is broadcast simultaneously into other European cinemas. Phil Collins, Tony Banks and Mike Rutherford are present in Kensington and answer fans' questions after the show. The tour DVD When In Rome 2007 with the Circo Massimo gig comes out soon after. The German version of the Tarzan musical premieres in Neue Flora , Hamburg, in late October. Phil Collins plays his first solo concert since 2005, though it is a private show for the parents of the pupils and students of Geneva International School Phil's son Nicholas attends.
2009: Phil Collins closes his official website. Daryl Stuermer mentions in an interview that Phil is working on an album of cover songs. A boxset with 5.1 mixes of the Genesis live albums will be released in autumn, and a DVD box with all the concert films will come out after that. Another news left Collins' fans shocked: He is no longer able to play drums properly. Nevertheless, fans also learned that Collins began work on an album of Motown coverversions.
2010: Phil continues his work on the new Motown album. This includes members of the legendary Funk Brothers. Phil records 30 songs with them and in the summer, the promotion campaign for Going Back is launched. A video promotes his comeback with the line "I haven't finished yet". Phil announces several Motown showcases prior to the album's release. Nevertheless, he had no plans to go on tour again. During the shows, Phil did not play drums. In March, together with Mike Rutherford, Tony Banks and Steve Hackett, Phil is inducted to the Hall of Fame. Towards the end of the year, Phil joined some rock veterans for the Prince's Trust gala in London's Royal Albert Hall. It was the first time he performed as a drummer on stage since his injury.
2011: Phil turns 60 and we did write a special birthday ode . His health did not improve and Phil decided to call it a day in several interviews. Nevertheless, he did a performance in December for his Little Dreams Foundation.
2012: Phil is still in his "I have retired" mode. In March, a Blu-ray and DVD with his Montreux performances 1996 and 2004 is released ( Live At Montreux ). In July, his book The Alamo and Beyond: A Collector's Journey was released.
2013: The year remains quiet until Tarzan is premiered in Stuttgart, Germany. Collins reveals he wants to make music again and also hints that a possible tour is not out of question.
2014: In January, Phil Collins says he's working with Adele , but later that year, Collins confirms nothing has happend. During spring, Collins comes together with his Genesis bandmates for interview sessions for the new documentary Sum Of The Parts . In late August band rehearsals take place in Miami with his solo band (with Jason Bonham on drums instead of Chester). Collins wants to check his ability to perform again. Later, he confirmed he will not go on tour any time soon. Three of his solo songs appear on the Genesis compilation R-Kive , released in the autumn of 2014. In December, Collins cancels his appearance at a Little Dreams Foundtation show due to health problems.
by Bernd Vormwald (until 2000)
updated by Christian Gerhardts and Ulrich Klemt (from 2000 onwards)
translated by Martin Klinkhardt
| i don't know |
'The Worm that Turned', where women ruled the world, was a serial from which TV sketch show ? | The Two Ronnies - The Worm That Turned (1 of 8) - YouTube
The Two Ronnies - The Worm That Turned (1 of 8)
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Uploaded on Sep 11, 2011
The Date line is 2012, England is in the grip of a new regime of Terror. Traditionally a land of brave heros and great statesmen. Britan now laboured under the yoke of a power guarenteed to strike fear into the hearts of all men... The country is being run by women...
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This little mini series was part of Series 8 of The Two Ronnies which was aired on the BBC in 1980. Also featured in this mini series is Diana Dors.
No copyright infringment is intended by the uploading of this.
Video is © BBC.
| The Two Ronnies |
Which city is called Baile Atha Cliath in its native language ? | Two Ronnies, The
Two Ronnies, The
1 9 6 9 - 1 9 8 7 (UK)
72 x 45 minute episodes
20 x 50 minute episodes
2 x 60 minute episodes
1 x 30 minute special
1 x 55 minute special
The Two Ronnies firmly placed Ronnie Corbett and Ronnie Barker on the same level of popularity as that other great 70’s duo Morecambe and Wise .
Barker and Corbett had appeared together in The Frost Report and, although each was to have a successful career on his own - Corbett did cabaret work and later starred in sitcom Sorry! , Barker was the shining star of Porridge and Open All Hours , two of the BBC very best comedies - their partnership in this joke-and-sketch show was a television triumph until Barker's retirement in 1988.
The opening of the show had the pair sat at a news desk in fluorescent jackets (the sort golfers might wear) and one would announce; "In a packed programme tonight..." followed by some of the 150 or more joke news items the writers had submitted every week, delivered very fast. The number was whittled down to a final eighteen, often only minutes before the start of the show.
Over the years the format of the shows changed little; there were always sketches involving dressing up as women (though Ronnie B hated drag - he said it made his wife Joy sick to watch him) and there was always a grand musical number near the close.
The duo usually appeared as old codgers somewhere in the show and as rock singers or punks, looking particularly gruesome.
The centrepieces were sometimes brilliant adventure serials such as The Phantom Raspberry Blower Of Old London Town (with Charley Farley & Piggy Malone) and The Worm That Turned, a funny futuristic mini-drama about a world where women had taken over the world Gestapo-style.
It was a fairytale world where men were made to wear dresses, whilst the women walked around in leather shorts, thigh length boots and peaked caps and did the dominatrix thing. The serial featured Diana Dors as a woman Prime Minister (pictured at left) - a concept we found laughable at the time . . .
Other favourite segments included; The cocktail party sketches, The Village Idiots/ Country Bumpkins, The two blokes in the pub (one of whom would try to finish the sentences of the other), and Ronnie Corbett's waffling monologues - usually one (rather poor) joke spun out to 5 minutes by endless repetitious references to the producer drinking too much, the BBC canteen and Corbett's own slight stature.
All of the Rons' humour was very British in style and very gentle. They didn’t go out of their way to offend, preferring seaside-postcard rudeness which made the show irresistible to children.
But adults loved the cleverness of much of the writing, often the work of Ronnie B whose pen name for many years was Gerald Wiley.
Ronnie Barker died of heart failure at the Katherine House hospice in Adderbury, Oxfordshire, on 3 October 2005, aged 76
Ronnie Corbett passed away on 31 March 2016, aged 85.
And it's good night from him . . .
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For which healing process does the body produce the soluble protein fibrin ? | Enzymes For Fibrin Control
Enzymes For Fibrin Control
Tao Newsletter
What is Fibrin?
Fibrin is an insoluble protein involved in blood clotting. It is deposited around the wound in the form of a mesh, when an injury occurs. It becomes dry and hard which leads to stop bleeding.
Fibrin is developed in the blood from a soluble protein, fibrinogen. The conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin is the final stage in blood clotting. Platelets, a type of cell found in blood, release the enzyme thrombin when they come into contact with damaged tissue, and the formation of fibrin then occurs. Fibrin is essential for wound healing, as it lays down the framework for the new tissue to grow.
Despite the fact that fibrin is useful for the body system, excess fibrin has been found to be responsible for scar tissue, thrombus formation and inflammation with its associated pain. Our body system can not handle excessive fibrin.
Scientific studies have shown that excess fibrin weakens the body structure by not leaving enough space for epithelial tissue to grow through the fibrin matrix, restricting the range of joint and muscle motion and reducing the internal organs size and function over time. According to the researchers at the University of California, School of Medicine, tissue damage due to Multiple Sclerosis is reduced and lifespan lengthened in mouse models of the disease when a naturally occurring fibrous protein, fibrin is depleted from the body.
What is Enzyme?
Enzymes are energized protein molecules found in all living cells which catalyze and regulate all biochemical reactions that occur within the human body. They break down proteins, fats, carbohydrates and fiber making it possible to benefit from the nutrients found in those foods while removing the toxins.
Enzymes turn the food we eat into energy and unlock this energy for use in the body. They digest foods, transport nutrients, carry away toxic wastes, purify the blood, deliver hormones, balance cholesterol and triglycerides, nourish the brain, build protein into muscle, feed and fortify the endocrine system and on a larger scale slow the aging process and support wellness and homeostasis. Their presence and strength can be determined by improved blood and immune system functions. Our body’s first line of defense system depends on enzymes.
What is the difference between digestive enzymes and systemic enzymes?
Enzymes are mainly categorized as Digestive Enzymes and Systemic Enzymes.
Digestive enzymes work inside the digestive tract to break down the foods sufficiently to be absorbed. Amylase, Pepsin, and Lactase are the most common digestive enzymes, which break down starches, proteins and fats respectively.
Similarly, Systemic enzymes, also called metabolic enzymes works inside the blood, tissues, and cell of the body system. Some of the important Systemic enzymes include Fibrinolytic enzymes, Proteases, and Catalases. Among them, Serrapeptase and Nattokinase are the essential Fibrinolytic enzymes, which act to break down excess fibrin in the body. These enzymes fight inflammation, fibrosis (scar tissues), and viruses; modulate the immune system; and cleanse the blood.
Why are Fibrinolytic Enzymes so important?
Fibrinolytic enzymes are systemic enzymes that eat away the excess fibrin that forms scar tissue, adhesions, and growths.
As we get older, these enzymes decrease and wounds leave bigger scars. The conditions like uterine fibroids, fibrocystic breasts, and the hardening, shrinking, and decreased function of aging organs are a result of an accumulation of fibrin in the body due to a depletion of fibrinolytic enzymes.
Excess fibrin is responsible for the spider web of scar tissue across the inside of blood vessels that forms the matrix upon which arterial plaque is laid down and can also form in the kidneys contributing to high blood pressure, and in the brain causing poor brain function and senility. Similarly, the pain and suffering associated with fibromyalgia is caused by an overgrowth of fibrin in the muscles, commonly known as fibrosis.
Fibrinolytic enzymes dissolve the excess fibrin in the muscles providing increased flexibility and blessed relief of pain.
How does Serrapeptase works?
Serrapeptase is known as the strongest fibrinolytic enzyme. Our body system produces certain chemicals called prostaglandins in response to injury. A certain type of prostaglandin causes inflammation, leading to redness, swelling, constriction of blood vessels and decreased tissue permeability.
Anti-inflammatory & Proteolytic enzymes like Serrapeptase help by breaking down these proteins in the injured tissue thereby facilitating the rapid removal of cell debris. It works synergistically with the natural repair mechanism of our body. Similarly the blood vessels would become clogged, leading to the development of heart conditions, without enzymes like Serrapeptase.
Our fibrin-containing connective tissue, that which forms our ligaments, joints and muscles, would build up excess fibrin and debris, causing inflammation, pain and arthritic symptoms. Serrapeptase blocks the release of pain-causing molecules released from inflamed tissues and helps keep arthritic symptoms in check.
How does Nattokinase works?
Nattokinase, another potent fibrinolytic enzyme has been discovered and shows great potential in providing support for hypercoagulative states and in supporting the activation of many of the bodies 3,000 endogenous enzymes.
It is derived from fermented soy and the bacteria Bacillus natto. Nattokinase may prove to be a defibrinogenating enzyme that drastically decreases blood viscosity. Decreasing blood viscosity strikes at the root of arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis as well as hypertension, peripheral vascular disease and congestive heart failure. The fibrinolytic activity of Nattokinase resolves the active process of atherosclerosis and lyses thrombi.
Neprinol - The best combination of Systemic Enzymes
Neprinol® is a perfect chioce for you if you have excess fibrin related issue . It conatins a blend of Systemic Enzymes, has been effective and an advanced for fibrin defense. The active ingredients present in Neprinol®, Serrapeptase and Nattokinase, are found to be responsible for controlling fibrin levels in the body system. They are proteolytic or protein digesting enzymes. Serrapeptase breaks down fibrin within the body and helps promote a healthy immune system. Nattokinase may promote additional cardio-vascular health by releasing fibrin and digesting cellular debris.
Neprinol® can be one of the most effective and super products for the fibrin control in the body system.
Where can you get Neprinol?
Tao Of Herbs carries Neprinol from Arthur Andrew Medical. You can order here .
References:
Search Result on Neprinol. Retrieved on July 18, 2007 from http://arthurandrew.com/neprinol
Search Result on Fibrin. Retrieved on July 18, 2007 from http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/medicine_health/report-28229.html
Search Result on Neprinol Enzyme. Retrieved on July 18, 2007 from http://neprinolenzyme.com/
Terri L.Saunders (2007). Healing and Rejuvenation with Enzyme Therapy. Retrieved on July 19, 2007 from http://www.sunherb.com/healing_and_rejuvenation.htm
N.Calvino, Dr. (2007). Nattokinase: The Enzyme of Enzymes. Retrieved on July 19, 2007 from http://www.willner.com/article.aspx?artid=88
R. Holsworth (2005). Nattokinase, Enzyme Treatment for Chronic Inflammation, Hypercoagulability, and Crosslinked Fibrin. Retrieved on July 18, 2007 from http://smartlifeforum.org/2005/08/newsletter.html
Enzymedica (2007). Ezymes: The Energy of Life. Retrieved on July 25, 2007 from http://www.enzymedica.com/what_are_enzymes.php
Search Result on Systemic Enzymes. Retrieved on July 25 from http://www.staytuned.ws/systemic_enzymes.html
| Coagulation |
What part of a crustacean or turtle is the carapace ? | How To Find Private Health Insurance
Treatment for Hemophilia
What is Coagulation? How does our blood clot?
Coagulation is a complex process by which the blood forms clots to block and then heal a lesion/wound/cut and stop the bleeding. It is a crucial part of hemostasis - stopping blood loss from damaged blood vessels. In hemostasis a damaged blood vessel wall is plugged by a platelet and a fibrin-containing clot to stop the bleeding, so that the damage can be repaired.
Coagulation involves a cellular (platelet) and protein (coagulation factor) component.
When the lining of a blood vessel (endothelium) is damaged, platelets immediately form a plug at the site of the injury, while at the same time proteins in the blood plasma respond in a complex chemical reaction, rather like a waterfall, to form fibrin strands which reinforce the platelet plug.
Primary hemostasis - when the platelets gather at the site of an injury to plug (block) it.
Secondary hemostasis - proteins (coagulation factors) act in a series of chemical reactions to strengthen the plug and allow healing to begin.
What is a platelet?
A platelet is a disc-shaped element in the blood that is involved in blood clotting. They aggregate (clump together) during normal blood clotting. They are classed as blood cells, but are in fact fragments of large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes.
What is fibrin?
Fibrin is an insoluble protein involved in blood clotting. Fibrin is deposited around the wound in a form of mesh to strengthen the platelet plug. The whole thing dries and hardens (coagulates) so that the bleeding stops and the wound then heals. Fibrin is developed in the blood from a soluble protein, fibrinogen.
When platelets come into contact with damaged tissue thrombin is formed as a result of a series of chemical processes (coagulation cascade) that culminate in the formation of fibrin from fibrinogen.
Coagulation factors (clotting factors)
Coagulation factors are proteins, mostly manufactured by the liver. They were originally numbered in the order of their discovery, traditionally using Roman numerals from I-XIII. Some of the numbers such as III and VI are not used any more and in recent years, many proteins that affect blood clotting have been discovered but have been given a name rather than a number. When a blood vessel wall is damaged, or any kind of wound occurs, a complex set of chemical reactions involving these coagulation factors (and acting rather like a waterfall) takes place.
The final step of the cascade of chemical reactions is to convert fibrinogen - Factor I - into fibrin, forming a mesh which clumps platelets and blood cells into a solid clot, plugging the hole and stopping the bleeding. Patients with Hemophilia A have deficient levels of Factor VIII, while patients with Hemophilia B have deficient levels of Factor IX.
This Hemophilia information section was written by Christian Nordqvist for Medical News Today, and may not be re-produced in any way without the permission of Medical News Today.
Additional materials provided by Wyeth.
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Grossglockner is the highest mountain in which country ? | Grossglockner – Austria’s highest mountain
Road closed for winter until beginning May 2017
His majesty, the Grossglockner
Austria’s highest mountain and centrepiece of the High Tauern National Park
You can approach the Grossglockner in many different ways: it is the highest mountain of the Alpine Republic, one of the most striking elevations in the Eastern Alps and the summit of passion for many a mountaineer. The mountain is also home to people, numerous animals and rare plants. The Glockner is cloaked in secrecy, is the stuff of legend and has great attractive power. It is an obstacle on the path from north to south, yet a place where it has been overcome through the millennia. Join us and get to know his majesty, the Grossglockner, in his numerous aspects!
The Grossglockner – Austria’s landmark
The “black mountain” rises 3,798 m above a sea of three hundred 3,000 m peaks surrounding it. The view from its summit falls on the high alpine scenery all around, which was shaped millions of years ago by elemental forces and hasn’t stopped since. Legend has it that a pitch-black crystal that concentrates the mountain’s energy – alluring, awe-inspiring and therapeutic at the same time – is hidden inside the Glockner. The greenstone core is surrounded by a mantle of schistous rock that gives the Glockner its black colour. The Grossglockner is upstream to the south of the main chain of the Alps located in the heart of Europe. Moreover, it is the centre of Austria’s largest national park and bears the weight of 180 km² of glacial ice on its shoulders.
The Grossglockner glacier – allegedly perpetual ice
The Grossglockner towers above the 9 km Pasterze, the longest glacier in the Eastern Alps with an area of 18.5 km² measuring 275 m at its thickest point. While the Pasterze saw its widest recorded spread in 1850, the glacier retreats every year nowadays. Since 2014, the glacial lobe has melted by 2.5 km. Perpetual ice isn’t rigid or steady. Long-term recordings show the flow of the ice that’s pushing across the bedrock with tremendous weight and pressure. Many European landscapes were formed by glaciers during the Ice Age. Coming face-to-face with the Pasterze, you get an idea of the mighty powers that came and still come into effect.
The Grossglockner habitat – home to humans and animals
The forests, slopes, meadows and rocky regions of the Grossglockner offer a unique habitat for a plurality of animals and plants in various climes. Ibexes, chamois and marmots can be seen in great numbers. Vultures and golden eagles circle high above the summits and dips. If you look closer, you might discover the rare Mountain Apollo, whose caterpillars exclusively feed on yellow mountain saxifrage near watercourse. Farming the steep hills is a special challenges for humans. The mountain hay, which contains countless precious herbs, is troublesomely transported into the valley. The young cattle enjoys 19 weeks of easy living on the lush mountain pastures in summer.
Grossglockner and the Pasterze
Glockner mountain water – waterfalls and gentle watercourse
The water, which is bound high up the mountain in the ice, emerges on the hills in lower areas in the form of imposing waterfalls. Unbelievable masses of water plunge into the valley, particularly when the snow melts in spring, supplying lakes and rivers. The pure drinking water is of the highest quality, but it also fulfils other purposes. It propels water mills by rapidly flowing streams and the hefty turbines of hydropower stations. By the way, staying near a waterfall is very healthy as the great number of negative air ions stimulate the immune system and have an alleviating and healing effect on asthmatic ailments. Glockner water is therefore an elixir in many different ways!
The Grossglockner – home of the High Tauern National Park
With an area of 1,800 km², Austria’s largest national park stretches across the provinces of Salzburg, Carinthia and Tyrol. It stretches for more than 100 km from east to west and over 40 km from north to south. The unspoiled scenery with valleys shaped by glaciers, alpine and high alpine areas, and ample larch, spruce and stone pine forests are dominated by the Grossglockner watching over its realm like a mighty giant. The High Tauern National Park, a habitat for rare animals and plants and a recreational and economic space for humans, was founded in 1981. Nature in its core zone is left to its own devices. The park is home to more than three hundred 3,000 metre peaks, 342 glaciers with a total area of 130 km², and has 551 mountain lakes!
Discover the mythical mountain and the unique landscape around the Grossglockner: walk to the foot of the almighty alpine summit on the Grossglockner High Alpine Road. Check out the opening hours and road charges now!
| Austria |
Who was appointed Governor of the Bahamas in 1940 ? | Großglockner Hochalpenstraße : Panorama Road Großglockner
Großglockner Hochalpenstraße:
Austria′s highest Road in the Alps
Großglockner Hochalpenstraße is the road leading to the highest mountain of Austria , Mount Großglockner. It is among the most popular tourist destinations of the country and attracts ten thousands of visitors every year. Only Schloss Schönbrunn , the Imperial summer palace in Vienna is more popular measured by the amount of visitors it attracts. The Großglockner Hochalpenstraße Road is the highest road of Austria and runs through one of Austria′s most scenic Alpine landscapes. The name-giving peak is 3798 metres high and comes with an attached glacier called "Pasterze".
Impressions from the Großglockner Hochalpenstraße
To make things even better, the Großglockner is not only the highest mountain of Austria, but probably also the easiest to access - at least of those mountains that are higher than 3000 metres ("Dreitausender"). The Hochalpenstraße Road (meaning "high Alpine road") takes thousands of busses, cars and motorbikes up to alpine terrain - in altitudes that have to be attacked with excessive hiking activities elsewhere.
The scenery of the road and its surroundings is sheer beauty: here you will find the stereotypical images of dramatic mountain ranges, cows and glaciers reaching out towards the valley. No wonder that this classic road is considered to be a legendary route for all sorts of vehicle-aficionados, particularly bikers.
The Großglockner Hochalpenstraße Road was constructed between 1930 and 1935. The main ideas were to fight the unemployment that was a very serious problem in the years of the depression, and to boost tourism. This was particularly important for the region: Skiing tourism wasn′t the well-developed industry that it is today and the entire region of Southern Salzburg had sparse grounds to offer to agriculture and an underdeveloped infrastructure for the few towns and villages. It was mostly due to the Landeshauptmann (governor) Franz Rehrl and some other mad visionaries that the project was started. Rehrl is still seen as a father of the province type of figure by many conservatives not only in Salzburg.
Alps: Among the Best Things to See in Austria
The Großglockner Hochalpenstraße runs in within the Nationalpark Hohe Tauern , and you could be lucky enough to observe a herd of ibex, chamois or more likely marmots at the Franz-Josefs-Höhe. There are plenty of signposts and little museums that are included in the road toll. Here you can learn more about the endeavours of the construction, the history and folk culture of the region and the sensitive ecosystem of the Alps with its characteristic flora and fauna .
These exhibition elements make the ride over the Großglockner Hochalpenstraße Road an experience that rivals theme parks without distracting from the scenery, the main attraction. A major museum and visitor centre is at a large platform overlooking the Pasterze Glacier. The Pasterze is the longest glacier of Austria. From here you can either go to the Salzburg side of the mountain or into the opposite direction towards Heiligenblut in Carinthia .
"High"-lights of the Hochalpenstraße
The highest point that you can access by car is by the Edelweißspitze at 2,362 metres (Edelweiß is an Alpine flower, featuring in " The Sound of Music " as the main theme of a tacky song); from its peak, one can see up to 37 mountains higher than 3.000 metres alongside a staggering 19 glaciers. The road is generally open from May to November, depending on the snow situation. The best time of the year to ride it is during the summer.
Keep in mind that you enter high alpine terrain: even if you go in August, leaving the valleys of Salzburg or Carinthia at a boiling 30 degrees Celsius or more, snowfall in the higher altitudes of the Hochalpenstraße is not too unlikely. As always in high altitudes in the Alps, bring a warm jacket and proper, solid shoes. Be careful with the sun, light has a very high UV content in the Alps and sun blockers might be necessary. The road toll office in the valley will inform you about any possible obstacles, so there is no real safety issue involved.
| i don't know |
Which building in Moscow started life as an insurance office and later became the headquarters of the KGB ? | The KGB’s Old Headquarters Lives On | The American Spectator
The KGB’s Old Headquarters Lives On
December 11, 2014, 9:00 am
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Moscow
Red Square is one of the world’s most iconic locales. Dominated by the Kremlin, St. Basil’s Cathedral, and GUM Department Store, the space looks little different from Soviet times. While Lenin’s mausoleum remains, any hint of menace is gone. Indeed, even during the worst of the USSR the square was more symbolic than threatening. For the most part no one went to the Kremlin to die.
Very different, however, is Lubyanka, just a short walk up Teatralny Proezd past the Bentley and Maserati dealerships.
In the late nineteenth century 15 insurance companies congregated on Great Lubyanka Street, prospering as the great czarist despotism entered the industrial age. The Rossia agency, one of Russia’s largest, completed an office building in 1900. Excess space was turned into apartments and leased out to retailers selling everything from books to beds.
The building was profitable, but 14 years later in his worst single decision the foolish czar led his country into the abyss of World War I. In 1917 he was ousted by a moderate revolution, which in turn was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin. They nationalized insurance companies along with much of the rest of the economy, and switched Russia’s capital from Petrograd to Moscow. As a result, the Rossia building at No. 2 Great Lubyanka Street became the new regime’s property. And the new secret police, known as the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage, or Cheka, evicted the rest of the tenants and settled in.
The building was renovated and merged with a new structure behind the original one. The most important “improvements” were made inside, however, such as increasing prison space. With further reconstruction and expansion the building took its present form. The KGB added two more buildings over the years. After all, the secret police had much to do: a dictatorship’s work is never done.
The first Cheka head was Felix Dzerzhinsky, a Russian Pole born in 1877. He conducted the infamous “Red Terror,” what he called a “fight to the finish” against the Bolsheviks’ political opponents. As part of that campaign he personally approved the torture and murder of thousands. He wrote: “Kill without investigation, so that they will be afraid.” And the agency did so. Of course, not every prisoner was murdered, so the first concentration camps were established in 1918. In a testament to Dzerzhinsky’s effectiveness, the Nazis modeled their repressive security apparatus, most notably the Gestapo, after the Cheka.
After his death in 1926 Dzerzhinsky was buried between the Kremlin and Lenin’s mausoleum. Grand Lubyanka Street was renamed Dzerzhinsky Street. Observed J. Michael Waller: “So total was the KGB’s devotion to Dzerzhinsky that his iconography proliferated in the form of official sculptures, anniversaries, quotations, and poetry—even the annual celebration of the Cheka chief’s birthday, September 11.” A grand statue of Dzerzhinsky, weighing 15 tons, was erected in a circle in front of the Cheka headquarters. After all, the party owed its rule to repression, exemplified by the secret police. Even as other buildings were constructed to handle the burgeoning repression the director, including such brutal notables as Lavrenty Beria under Joseph Stalin and Yuri Andropov under Leonid Brezhnev, stayed in Lubyanka, occupying an office on the third floor overlooking the square and later Dzerzhinsky’s statue.
The agency’s name changed over the years. The Cheka became the GPU, OGPU, NKVD and later the KGB. After the latter was dissolved the building went to the Border Guard Service, later absorbed by the Federal Security Service (FSB), responsible for foreign intelligence. Today Lubyanka looks non-threatening, a yellowish color and architectural style less severe than the harshly grandiose Stalinist architecture seen throughout the city.
The KGB faced its greatest challenge in the Gorbachev era. Contra common expectations, the security services did not oppose reform—of a particular sort. Explained one-time deputy KGB head Filipp Bobkov, “Gorbachev’s policy met with understanding and support.” Glasnost and perestroika, officials hoped, would strengthen the USSR. Security personnel tended to be among Russia’s most knowledgeable people, worldly and practical. As such, they understood that the Soviet Union was well behind the West and only radical action could save the Soviet state. That, not creating a liberal society, was their objective.
The KGB understood that it had an image problem and began a PR campaign presenting the agency as a patriotic organization dedicated to serving the Soviet people. The secret police created a museum celebrating their efforts and offering guided tours of Lubyanka. The KGB even reached out to foreign reporters and established a Center of Public Relations. After being feted at Lubyanka, Jeff Trimble of U.S. News & World Report wrote of “an impression jarringly at odds with the building’s usual image as a warren of torture cells and basement killing chambers.”
However, even the most charming briefers and articulate press releases—as well as the (I am not making this up) crowning of a Miss KGB in 1990—could not hide the agency’s ugly history. As new media sources were created in the USSR demands for reform raced beyond Gorbachev’s and the KGB’s control. Even some former KGB officers detailed killings and other abusive practices. Noted Trimble: “Media reports detailed KGB abuse of psychiatry and the penal system, its brutal violations of religious and other human rights, and of course Stalin’s crimes, including mass killings by the NKVD. These attacks went far beyond the tame criticisms that had appeared in 1986 and 1987 under Gorbachev’s lap dog version of glasnost.” In 1990 the Solovetsky Stone, brought from the Solovetsky Islands, the site of the first camp for political prisoners, was dedicated near Lubyanka to commemorate victims of the camps. (A second stone monument was erected in St. Petersburg in 2002.)
The KGB’s patience finally gave out as the Soviet Union faced dissolution rather than revival. In August 1991, KGB head Vladimir Kryuchkov helped plan the coup against Gorbachev. By past standards his side, which contained representatives of the party, army, and secret police, should have won. But the public, led by Boris Yeltsin, former Politburo member and elected president of the Russian republic, defeated the plotters. After the coup’s collapse a crowd gathered in front of Lubyanka. Demonstrators painted a swastika on the commemorative Andropov plaque on the building and attempted to pull down the Dzerzhinsky monument. City officials brought in a crane to finish the job. The statue now rests in Moscow’s Fallen Monument Park, a graveyard for big Communist tchotchke.
Kryuchkov and several other KGB officials were imprisoned for their role in the coup. Many top officials were fired and Gorbachev appointed a reformer to run the agency. Like the Soviet Union , the agency was essentially friendless, leaderless, and defenseless. Journalist Yevgenia Albats wrote: “If either Gorbachev or Yeltsin had been bold enough to dismantle the KGB during the autumn of 1991, he would have met little resistance.”
However, these two reformers—most importantly Yeltsin, who effectively took over when the Soviet Union’s dissolution left Gorbachev without a job—botched their opportunity when they attempted to fix rather than eliminate the agency. Only the Fifth Chief Directorate, the political police, was abolished, and many of its employees were reassigned to investigate tax evaders. The first post-coup chairman, Vadim Bakatin, later acknowledged that his attempt to reorient career “Chekists” away from their philosophy and work was naïve. Investigative journalist and lawmaker Yuri Shchekochikhin reported that “the skeleton of the old secret services has remained inviolable.” Even Yeltsin acknowledged that reorganization attempts had been “superficial and cosmetic.”
Still, diehard communists did not take the KGB’s cosmetic demise well. Alexei Kondaurov, one of the KGB’s most senior officials left inside Lubyanka after the failure of the coup, watched the attack on Dzerzhinsky’s statue and, he related later, felt betrayed, thinking: “I will prove to you that your victory will be short-lived.” Among the half million KGB operatives who likely felt the same way was Vladimir Putin, who had resigned only the day before.
In 2000 Nikolai Kharitonov, a Communist-aligned member of the Duma, complained that without the statute “Lubyanka Square is defenseless and the agents of the KGB and FSB are defenseless.” Multiple proposals to replace the statue were rebuffed by Moscow’s Monument Art Commission lest doing so create “unnecessary tension.” But five years later, without fanfare, a bronze bust of Dzerzhinsky was returned to the courtyard of the Moscow police headquarters. An officer was quoted as being surprised, but “as you know, the decisions of the bosses are not discussed.” A plaster statue of Dzerzhinsky was erected in front of Lubyanka earlier this year as part of the commemoration of the 137th anniversary of his birth.
These were mere symbols, however. Kondaurov more practical hopes also were soon vindicated. The KGB effectively ended up taking over Russia. In contrast to countries such as Poland and Czechoslovakia, which barred from office the most culpable communists, the new Russia welcomed them. Wrote Waller, “the government of Boris Yeltsin preserved Chekist structures and co-opted them, relying on them instead of a political party as a core component of Yeltsin’s personal political machine, an anchor for the new oligarchy of rulers.” He named Chekists, or members of the “siloviki” (or power agents), to important government positions, most importantly Vladimir Putin, who headed the FSB and then became prime minister—and Yeltsin’s successor as president when the latter resigned.
In 1999 Vladimir Putin became prime minister under President Boris Yeltsin. The former then visited Lubyanka, on December 20, the anniversary of the founding of the Cheka. He unveiled a plaque for Yuri Andropov, KGB head from 1967 to 1982, under whom Putin served. As president Putin later had a plaque added to the apartment building where Andropov had lived in Moscow and a statue erected in St. Petersburg. Putin has hinted that Dzerzhinsky’s big statue might stage a comeback, though so far nothing more has happened. Communist Party Duma member Vladimir Rodin argued: “Today, when war is at the borders of our state, it is not a bad thing to remember [Dzerzhinsky].”
But statues matter far less than philosophies. In December 1999 then-Prime Minister Putin said: “Bodies of state security have always defended the national interests of Russia. They must not be separated from the state and turned into some kind of monster.” Yeltsin—perhaps under the influence at the time—declared “we nearly overdid it when we exposed the crimes committed by the security services, for there were not only dark periods, but also glorious episodes in their history, of which one may really be proud.”
Anne Applebaum, Washington Post columnist, argued that “Putin—and, more importantly, most of the people around him—is deeply steeped in the culture of Andropov’s KGB.” In her view they are modernizers but authoritarians, who “believe that the rulers of the state must exert careful control over the life of the nation.” Putin has said that “There is no such thing as a former Chekist.”
Shortly before becoming president Putin—perhaps joking, perhaps not—told his former agency colleagues: “A group of FSB operatives, dispatched under cover to work in the government of the Russian Federation, is successfully fulfilling its task.” After taking over Putin turned to his KGB network to run both the government and the economy. Chekists made up nearly half of his initial senior appointments; one of Putin’s closest allies, Viktor Cherkessov, had served in the Fifth Chief Directorate hunting down political dissidents. Today one-fourth of senior bureaucrats are members of the security forces; three-fourths of senior bureaucrats have some affiliation with the latter. The result, wrote UCLA’s Daniel Treisman, is a “silovarchy” in which “silovarchs” replaced the economic oligarchs who had emerged during the flawed transition from communism to capitalism under Boris Yeltsin.
Of course, Putin is not the first politician to concentrate power, rig elections, manage politics, suppress dissent, and intimidate opponents. Nor to turn to the security and military services to run the economy. Treisman argued that similar systems developed in South Korea, Indonesia, and Nigeria when ruled by generals. The result typically was a different sort of corruption and statism. Writing of the Chekists after the Soviet collapse, Waller explained: “The unchecked apparatus and the economic openings of the late 1980s and 1990s only increased the possibilities of the security organs serving as agents of corruption and organized crime.” In practice, Putin and his system are not just defending kleptocracy; they have merged with kleptocracy. Overall, explained the Economist: “Men from the FSB and its sister organizations control the Kremlin, the government, the media and large parts of the economy—as well as the military and security forces.”
Although the economic consequences of this system vary, the political impact uniformly is bad, reinforcing the worst temptations of power. Explained Treisman: “the temptation to use secret service tools and techniques predisposes such regimes toward authoritarian politics.” That certainly describes Putin today. Nevertheless, he retains the appearance of democratic politics and capitalist economics to improve his regime’s image.
This system offers a tragic detour for people who desperately need liberty. But despite the frenzied push in Washington for economic sanctions and military threats, the success of Putinism is well beyond America’s control. Even Applebaum admitted that there isn’t much outsiders can do to influence events within Russia. Washington should avoid pursuing policies that might offer emotional satisfaction but would provoke an even harsher nationalist response. Moreover, the U.S. should not promote military confrontation with nuclear-armed Moscow over an issue of much greater importance to Europe.
In fact, Putinism may face its strongest challenge on the economic front from declining energy prices, Western sanctions, and domestic distortions. The silovarchy still will work to enrich itself, but will not have sufficient resources to aid the broader Russian population that constitutes Putin’s political base. Prior to his seizure of Crimea Putin suffered through a popularity decline and sizable protests against his reelection. His poll ratings have since risen, but as the nationalistic fervor surrounding Crimea fades, the Russian people’s desire for prosperity may overcome the desire for order.
Finally, the system faces a natural limit: The siloviki will naturally die off. Noted Applebaum, “Sooner or later, the generation trained in the mindset of Andropov’s KGB will retire.” It’s hard to predict what will follow, but a new direction is likely. Putin has been able to manage the news, but not deny his citizens all access to information. The younger generation is more likely to demand a changing of the political guard, emphasize economic opportunity, and look to the West. That would benefit the Russian people and the rest of us.
When change comes, it will be critical for Russia’s new leaders to eliminate the Chekist mindset. In contrast, Lubyanka should be preserved, perhaps as museum about tyranny. We all know George Santayana’s famous saying that those who forget history are doomed to repeat it. No one should want to repeat the KGB experience.
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In Greek mythology, Stheno and Euryale were the immortal sisters of whom ? | RUSSIAN THREAT PERCEPTIONS AND PLANS FOR SABOTAGE AGAINST THE UNITED STATES
RUSSIAN THREAT PERCEPTIONS AND PLANS FOR SABOTAGE AGAINST THE UNITED STATES
HEARING
MILITARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SUBCOMMITTEE
OF THE
MILITARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SUBCOMMITTEE
CURT WELDON, Pennsylvania, Chairman
JOHN M. McHUGH, New York
HOWARD ''BUCK'' McKEON, California
WALTER B. JONES, Jr., North Carolina
BOB RILEY, Alabama
PATRICK J. KENNEDY, Rhode Island
SILVESTRE REYES, Texas
ROBERT E. ANDREWS, New Jersey
BARON P. HILL, Indiana
Stephen Ansley, Professional Staff Member
Robert Lautrup, Professional Staff Member
Jean Reed, Professional Staff Member
Peter Pry, Professional Staff Member
William Natter, Professional Staff Member
Erica Striebel, Staff Assistant
C O N T E N T S
HEARING:
RUSSIAN THREAT PERCEPTIONS AND PLANS FOR SABOTAGE AGAINST THE UNITED STATES
STATEMENTS PRESENTED BY MEMBERS OF CONGRESS
Pickett, Hon. Owen, a Representative from Virginia, Ranking Member, Military Research and Development Subcommittee
Weldon, Hon. Curt, a Representative from Pennsylvania, Chairman, Military Research and Development Subcommittee
WITNESSES
Andrew, Professor Christopher M., Cambridge University
Gordievsky, Col. Oleg, Former KGB London Chief of Station
APPENDIX
DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED FOR THE RECORD:
[The Documents submitted can be viewed in the hard copy.]
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS SUBMITTED FOR THE RECORD:
[There were no Questions and Answers for the Record.]
(iii)
RUSSIAN THREAT PERCEPTIONS AND PLANS FOR SABOTAGE AGAINST THE UNITED STATES
House of Representatives,
Military Research and Development Subcommittee,
Washington, DC, Tuesday, October 26, 1999.
The subcommittee met, pursuant to call, at 2:00 p.m. in room 2118, Rayburn House Office Building, Hon. Curt Weldon (chairman of the subcommittee) presiding.
OPENING STATEMENT OF HON. CURT WELDON, A REPRESENTATIVE FROM PENNSYLVANIA, CHAIRMAN, MILITARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SUBCOMMITTEE
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Mr. WELDON. The subcommittee will come to order. Before we begin the proceedings today I want to welcome not only our witnesses and the Members that are here but a group of students who have traveled from Pennsylvania from Rider University who are taking a class in international security issues. Dr. Martin Goldstein is with them. And I have the pleasure of teaching them once a week. So welcome, students. We are pleased to have you with us. The Military Research and Development Subcommittee meets in open session to receive testimony on KGB operations and on Soviet air and contemporary Russian threat perceptions.
What we are about to hear today will prove, I expect, to be some of the most startling testimony ever to be received by the United States Congress. Their testimony is not just about history, but I believe has profound implications for understanding contemporary Russia and for understanding the real magnitude of the threats we may face from that part of the world.
We are honored to have with us today professor Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky. Professor Andrew together with KGB defective Vasili Mitrokhin has written an important book, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. For decades, Vasili Mitrokhin labored in the archives of the KGB secretly taking notes on KGB operations.
When he defected to the West, Mitrokhin had several trunks full of material cribbed from the KGB archives. It is the largest haul of classified KGB records ever obtained by the west. The Mitrokhin archives document Moscow's tendency to see the world in the darkest, most pessimistic terms, to suspect everyone and everything and to assume that global nuclear war was not merely a remote theoretical possibility but a clear, present, and immediate danger.
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The Sword and the Shield also documents Moscow's tendency to pursue extremely aggressive and often bizarre intelligence operations to gain the upper hand in what was perceived as an impending global conflict. Andrew and Mitrokhin reveal particularly dramatic evidence of Moscow's alarmist attitudes and behavior in the KGB's prepositioning on North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) territory and possibly United States territory, caches of high explosives and arms intended for sabotage operations in the event of war.
After the Cold War, Russian political and military leaders never disclosed the existence of these caches to the West. Andrew and Mitrokhin's information has led to the discovery of arms and explosives hidden in Switzerland and Belgium so far. The FBI is conducting an ongoing investigation for KGB arms caches in the U.S., and I will have comments on the meeting I had with the FBI, just last week on this issue during the hearing.
Unfortunately, Vasili Mitrokhin could not appear before us today because of serious illness in his family. However, we are fortunate to have with us Oleg Gordievsky who served as the KGB's chief of station in London during the 1980's. Gordievsky also collaborated with Christopher Andrew in the book, KGB: The Inside Story, which describes how Soviet political military leaders became convinced that nuclear war was imminent.
The protracted war scare in Moscow made East-West relations potentially far more explosive than was appreciated in Washington at the time. In fact, our Professional Staff Member here at this hearing, Peter Pry, during his capacity as a CIA agent compiled extensive documentation, just recently published the book called War Scare, where he goes into great detail about five incidents that almost caused war between the U.S. and the former Soviet Union.
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For example, unknown to the West the NATO theater nuclear exercise Able Archer conducted in November, 1983, was misconstrued by the Soviets as possible preparations for a surprise nuclear attack and nearly triggered a Soviet preemptive nuclear strike.
How is all of this relevant today? Well, for one thing, the discovery of Russian explosives and arms caches on NATO territory appears to confirm or make more credible the claims of Stanislav Lunev, a former colonel in Russian military intelligence, who testified before this committee on August 4, 1998 and who published the book Through the Eyes of the Enemy. You remember we had Lunev testify behind a barrier and undercover during that hearing. Lunev defected to the United States in 1992 after working for more than a decade in the U.S. as a GRU operative. Lunev participated in a GRU program collecting information on the President and senior U.S. political and military leaders so they could be targeted for assassination in the event of war.
According to Lunev, small man-portable nuclear weapons that could be disguised to look like a suitcase would be employed in a decapitating Russian attack against U.S. leaders and key communications and military facilities. Colonel Lunev claimed that the Russian military and intelligence services still regard the United States as the enemy and consider war with the U.S. as inevitable. Colonel Lunev stated that man-portable nuclear weapons may already be located in the United States.
Lunev's claim is based on his understanding of GRU doctrine for employing these weapons or call for prepositioning nuclear weapons in the United States during peace time before crisis or war makes penetration of the U.S. more difficult.
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Lunev testified that he actively supported the GRU program to preposition man-portable nuclear weapons in the United States by identifying in the U.S. potential hiding places where such weapons could be stored and concealed until needed. Lunev was specially trained to disguise and camouflage such weapons.
Another reason Lunev suspected small atomic weapons might already be prepositioned in the United States was because Aleksandr Lebed, former secretary of the Russian Security Council, told a U.S. Congressional delegation including several members of this committee in May, 1997 that dozens of such weapons were unaccounted for. Lebed told the U.S. delegation, and later testified before this committee on October 1st, 1997, that the missing nuclear devices were the perfect terrorist weapon as the small A bombs were made to look like suitcases and could be detonated by one person with less than 30 minutes' preparation.
In a hearing before this committee on October 2nd, 1997, Dr. Alexei Yablokov, a former member of the Russian Security Council and respected scientist, supported Lebed's claim that Russia had in fact manufactured suitcase nuclear weapons. Although the Russian Government initially denied the existence of these weapons, Moscow eventually acknowledged that such weapons had been produced.
Colonel Lunev suggested that the nuclear suitcases unaccounted for by General Lebed's audit of the Russian nuclear stock pile may in fact be prepositioned in NATO countries and the United States. Now we know from the Mitrokhin archive that Russia did in fact preposition conventional weapons and explosives. Are nuclear suitcases also somewhere out there? No one in the west knows what a Russian nuclear suitcase bomb actually looks like. However, we have with us today a notional model of what such a device might look like. The model is inert with no chemical or nuclear explosives or working parts that could cause an explosion. Nor does the model have wires to satisfy the bomb squad's legitimate security concerns, so that the model may be brought into congressional spaces.
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The model is based on unclassified data on the components in an atomic artillery shell to see if such a system could be reassembled in a suitcase. Indeed, as it turns out, the physics package, the neutron generators, the batteries, the arming mechanism and other essentials of the small atomic weapon can fit just barely in an attache case. The result is a plutonium-fueled gun-type atomic weapon having a yield of one to ten kilotons, the same yield range attributed by General Lebed to the Russian nuclear suitcase weapon.
Would you show it to the other Members down here, Peter.
But my remarks have perhaps dwelled excessively on nuclear suitcases. For the implications of what Christopher Andrew, Oleg Gordievsky, and the Mitrokin archives have to tell us is more important. The implications go to deeper, more profound issues about Russia's over all world view that may explain much in contemporary Russian behavior that we find at once frightening and puzzling.
Is it possible that Moscow's alarmist threat perceptions in the recent Cold War continue today in the Russian military and intelligence services? Do Russian military and intelligence elites still harbor war scare attitudes fueled by Moscow's fear of the growing disparity between East and West and military, economic and political power? Does this explain why Russia continues building nuclear bunkers such as the vast underground shelter at Yamantau Mountain when they cannot even provide housing for officers and ordinary people? Does this explain why Russia is invested so heavily in new generations of strategic nuclear missiles, spent scarce resources on nuclear war games that send bombers flying toward Alaska and Europe and has put such effort in developing a new nuclear war fighting doctrine. Is Russian nuclear sabre rattling over NATO expansion and U.S.-led military operations in the Balkans and the Middle East more than merely propaganda or perhaps real warnings that should be taken more seriously?
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The testimony received today may help illuminate these questions. Professor Andrew and Mr. Gordievsky, we welcome you and we thank you for being here. However, before I turn the floor over to you, I want to call upon Mr. Owen Pickett, the ranking democrat, for any comments he might want to make.
[The prepared statement of Mr. Weldon can be found in the Appendix.]
STATEMENT OF HON. OWEN PICKETT, A REPRESENTATIVE FROM VIRGINIA, RANKING MEMBER, MILITARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SUBCOMMITTEE
Mr. PICKETT. Thank you, Mr. Chairman. Let me also join in welcoming our witnesses as we begin what I am sure will prove to be a very interesting hearing here today. Colonel Gordievsky, Dr. Andrews, please know that this subcommittee is united in its interest to learn as much as possible about potential threats to security from anywhere in the world as it attempts to conduct its designated oversight responsibilities.
This interest also includes an exploration of past threats as is perhaps the case today, for it presents the opportunity to examine political motivations and mindsets of possible adversaries which are important for any future planning. I look forward to hearing your testimony today and extend a warm welcome to both of you. Thank you.
Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
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Mr. WELDON. Thank you, Mr. Picket. Unless there are objections, any other Member that has a written statement I will put in the record, if that is agreeable to everyone on the committee. We will try to allow you as much time as we can for questions.
So with that I would like to turn over to our witnesses. Any formal statement you have will be put in the record. We welcome you. We thank you for traveling from Great Britain. We appreciate your leadership. I have had the pleasure of spending an evening with Dr. Andrew and have read through the book and am impressed with the work.
Colonel Gordievsky, your reputation in this country is very well known and documented. We appreciate the heroic actions you have taken, and we thank you for also traveling to be with us today. We will first turn to Dr. Andrew for whatever statement you would like to make, then we will go to Colonel Gordievsky, then we will open to the floor for questions.
STATEMENT OF DR. CHRISTOPHER ANDREW, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
Dr. ANDREW. Mr. Chairman and Members of the committee, first of all I do want to express my sincere appreciation to you all for the opportunity to testify today on an issue which is in my judgment of great importance to both our countries.
To begin with what is already known. It has been known for some time that during the Cold War the KGB and the GRU made detailed preparations for sabotage operations in the United States and other Western states which were to be implemented not merely in time of war, but in certain ill-defined crises short of war. For that we have the evidence of, amongst others, Oleg Kalugin, now a resident in the United States, who 30 years ago was head of political intelligence in the KGB residency in Washington.
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Largely because of the success of his operations in the United States, in 1974 Mr. Kalugin was promoted to become the youngest general in KGB foreign intelligence. And he has since described how during his time in Washington a sabotage expert in the KGB residency, and I quote his words, ''did everything from plotting ways to poison the Capital's water system to drawing up assassination plans for U.S. leaders,'' end of quotation.
Dramatic new evidence of the KGB's Cold War plans for sabotage operations in the United States and other western countries has recently become available. That evidence has, as I shall argue, disturbing current implications for it reveals, as the chairman has noted, the existence of a series of secret KGB arms and radio caches in the West, some of them, perhaps many of them, booby-trapped or in a dangerous condition.
That new evidence comes from KGB files, all of them still highly classified by the current Russian foreign intelligence service, the SVR, which were noted or transcribed by a dissident KGB archivist, Vasili Mitrokhin, who defected to Britain seven years ago. The contents of those files are discussed at length in the book by Mr. Mitrokhin and myself, The Sword and Shield, of which Members of the committee have copies.
Briefly, Mr. Mitrokhin assembled most of his extraordinary archive while overseeing the move of the KGB's foreign intelligence archive from its cramped offices in the Lubyanka in central Moscow to its new headquarters in Yasenevo, just beyond the Moscow Ring Road. During that move, which took a complete decade from 1972 to 1982, Mr. Mitrokhin took daily notes and transcripts from the KGB's most secret intelligence files; and he was able to smuggle those files out of Yasenevo and to conceal them in containers buried beneath his dacha.
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He continued to do so after the move was complete during the two years that preceded his retirement in 1984. In 1992 the British secret intelligence service, which had succeeded in exfiltrating Oleg Gordievsky in 1985, succeeded in exfiltrating Mr. Mitrokhin, his family, and his entire archive to Britain. And as the chairman has mentioned, I have spent much of the last 3-1/2 years working on that archive in collaboration with Mr. Mitrokhin.
There is no doubt about the total authenticity of that archive. I would be happy to answer questions on that afterwards. Though there is no time during my testimony to address that issue in detail, I will be giving some examples in my testimony of how those portions of the archive that deal with the arms of radio caches have already been authenticated. The FBI has described the archive as a whole, and I quote, ''as the most complete and extensive intelligence ever received from any source.''.
The west, I believe, frequently forgets how much it owes to those secret dissidents in the KGB who risked their lives to give us a sometimes crucial insight into the real nature of Soviet policy. And it is a privilege to be testifying today at the same hearing as one of the most courageous of the secret dissidents, Oleg Gordievsky. He who in the early 1980's revealed the paranoid belief of the KGB and Soviet leadership that the first Reagan administration was planning a nuclear first strike against them.
Recent researchand it is worth rendering that at the time this intelligence so wholly correct was so surprising that there was some intelligence analysts in the West and perhaps even in this country who were skeptical of itbut recent perception has underlined both the complete reliability and the crucial importance of Mr. Gordievsky's intelligence of which we will hear more later.
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I want now to review very briefly the new evidence on KGB preparations for sabotage operations in the West. First they commonly included the concealment of arms and radio caches in the region of all the main targets. The standard KGB target file, whose format is given in appendix 1 of my written testimony, contains one section, number 4, on the location and the contents of the arms cache which is associated with that target, and another section, number 5 in appendix 1, which gives the code words to be transmitted by the center, KGB headquarters, authorizing the saboteurs to go ahead with operations against their targets.
Now, the reason for the establishment of these caches is not hard to find. In time of war or serious international crisis, it would necessarily be very difficult suddenly to transport the arms and radio equipment required for the KGB's many sabotage operations to the United States and to other target Western countries. For the operations to be practicable, in other words, much of the equipment had to be in place for when it was needed.
Appendix 2 of my written testimony gives details of the contents of a standard KGB arms cache in the middle years of the Cold War, though there are, of course, many variations. One method, perhaps the main method of bringing arms and radio equipment into Western cultures was via Soviet diplomatic bags. In the case of the United States, however, there are indications in KGB files that some of the equipment was smuggled across the Mexican and Canadian borders.
The earliest reference in Mitrokhin's material to KGB arms caches in the West dates from 1955. Caches continued, however, to be put in place at least until the late 1970's. Many of their locations were inspected about once a decade to check for signs of disturbance. As early as the mid-1960's, some of the caches were discovered to be unsafe or no longer discoverable as a result of the redevelopment of the surrounding area and had, therefore, to be written off.
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By the late 1960's, if not earlier, some, perhaps many, of the radio and arms caches were booby-trapped with so-called Molniya, a lightening device. The secret KGB destructions forinstructions for diffusing the device when the caches were emptied are reproduced as appendix 3 of my written testimony. These instructions clearly acknowledge the possibility that deterioration of the booby-trap, the Molniya device, may result in the caches becoming too dangerous to use. Instruction number 6 forbids removal of the cache if at a certain stage in the process no click is emitted by the explosive device. A franker instruction for number 6 might have been if there is no click at this point simply run like hell. But that wasn't normal KGB jargon.
A word about the way that Mr. Mitrokhin noted these files. His normal practice when noting a dossier from KGB archives was to record the file summary which was always conveniently on the front of the file, then to very frequently to add further details from inside the usually bulky file. Only infrequently for reasons of time did he transcribe the entire file. And of course taking photocopies would have been much too dangerous an undertaking.
Usually when noting files on KGB plans for sabotage in the West, Mr. Mitrokhin only thus gives a general indication of the location of the caches. But on a dozen occasions he transcribes the whole of the detailed finding aids to individual caches by way of example. Now all those caches are in Europe. But Mr. Mitrokhin's notes on them are nonetheless highly relevant to the American situation because they provide indisputable proof of the reality of caches.
Now there have so far been attempts in at least three European countries to uncover some of the caches whose precise location is recorded in the Mitrokhin material. In 1997, the Austrian authorities attempted to excavate an arms cache located concealed near Salzburg, but they failed to find it. Their failure was unsurprising. Road construction since the cache was buried had completely changed the local terrain and had destroyed the markers showing its location.
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The KGB file on it records a Vienna residency had also failed to locate the cache after redevelopment of the area. But the second attempt to locate a cache succeeded because there had been no redevelopment of the surrounding area. In December of last year the Swiss authorities succeeded in secretly uncovering a booby-trap radio cache whose location was precisely described in one of the finding aids transcribed by Mr. Mitrokhin.
The Sword and the Shield contains a complete transcript of the finding aid together with photographs of the contents of the cache in the various stages of its discovery. The finding aid told the Swiss authorities which road to take, where to turn off the road onto a forest track, where to find the chapel, which was the first marker, then to move 55 paces exactly to the left of the chapel. There you see a little forest marker marked FC. When you see FC, you turn a sharp right; you take 36 steps, then you see two trees, and midway between them you start digging. That is where they started digging and that is where they found the booby-trapped cache.
After excavation, the Molniya device was discovered to be in dangerously unstable condition. When fired on by a water cannon, it exploded. A spokesman for the Swiss Federal prosecutors office has issued an official warning that if further caches are to be discovered, they should not be touched. According to the official Federal prosecutor, and I quote, ''Anyone who tried to move the KGB container uncovered in December of 1998 would have been killed.''.
Now this cache was code named Cache Number 3. In other words, there are two other caches which have not been discovered somewhere in Switzerland and which are also in all probability booby-trapped.
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Mr. Mitrokhin also transcribed the finding aids to three radio caches in Belgium. I won't go through the details. That is described in my written evidence. In the Austrian, Swiss, and Belgian examples, the fact that the authorities had learned the location of the caches from the Mitrokhin archive had not been revealed until the publication last month of our book, The Sword and the Shield. There is no doubt that similar caches exist in the United States.
The United States, ''the main adversary,'' to quote KGB jargon, was, of course, an enormously more important target for KGB sabotage operations than Austria, Switzerland, or Belgium. Though Mr. Mitrokhin didn't transcribe the detailed finding aids to any of the KGB arms caches in the United States, his notes make clear that these caches were an integral part of sabotage operations against U.S. targets. KGB files revealed, for example, that in 1966, KGB sabotage and intelligence groups, DRG's, to quote their acronym, largely composed of Sandinista guerrillas, were established on the Mexican-U.S. border with support bases in the area of Ciudad Juarez, Tijuana, and Ensenada. The Sandinista leader, Carlos Fonseca Amador, code named Hydrologist, his KGB code name, was a trusted KGB agent. His file was noted by Mitrokhin.
Among the chief sabotage targets across the U.S.-Mexican border were military bases, missile sites, radar installations, and the oil pipeline code named START, which ran from El Paso in Texas to Costa Mesa in California. Three sites on the California coast were selected for DRG landings, together with large capacity caches in which to support mines, explosives, detonators, other sabotage material. A support group code named Saturn was tasked with using the movements of migrant workers to conceal the transfer of agents and the munitions across the borders. And further details of that are given in my written testimony.
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Canada in the north, like Mexico in the south, was intended as a base for cross-border operations by DRGs against the main adversary. In 1967 a number of frontier crossings were reconnoitered, among them areas near the Lake of the Woods and the International Falls in Minnesota and in the regions of the Glacier National Park in Montana.
According to a KGB file, and it may well be right, one of its targets in Montana, the Flathead Dam, I quote, ''generated the largest power supply system in the world,'' end quotes, which is why it was a major KGB target. It identified a point, code named Doris, on the South Fork River about three kilometers below the dam where a DRG could bring down a series of pylons on a steep mountain slope that would take a lengthy period to repair.
The KGB also planned a probably simultaneous operation in which DRG commandos would descend on the Hungry Horse Dam at night, take control of it for a few hours, sabotage its sluices. Two large caches, code named Park and Kemi, were sighted in northwestern Montana, almost certainly for use by the saboteurs.
Other arms caches in the northern United States include two in Minnesota code named Aquarium 1 and Aquarium 2. I want to emphasize in our book Vasili Mitrokhin and I did not seek to sensationalize these caches. On the contrary, we avoided giving even the approximate locations of any of them for reasons of public safety. Any or all of them may now be in dangerous condition. But on the basis of inside information apparently from somebody in the United States with access to Mitrokhin's material, ''Nightline'' has correctly identified the location of one of them as Minnesota sites, as in the Brainerd region.
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The total number of caches concealed by the KGB in the United States was, almost certainly, substantially larger than those specifically referred to in Mr. Mitrokhin's notes. To take only one example, the elaborate schemes devised by the KGB to sabotage the power supply to the entire state of New York on which Mr. Mitrokhin noted the file summary must surely have involved the use of explosives concealed in caches. The Mitrokhin archive includes highly classified material on KGB operations in almost every country in the world and covers the entire period from the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution to the eve of the Gorbachev era.
Important though they are, Mr. Mitrokhin's notes contain no more than a sample of the contents of KGB files on plans for operations in the United States. He simply did not have time to note more. Nor did Mr. Mitrokhin have access to GRU sabotage files. So in other words there is still much more to be discovered.
On present evidence, it is impossible to estimate the total number of KGB arms and radio caches in the United States. It is possible that some of the caches selected near U.S. targets may never have been filled. Others may have been emptied. As in Europe, however, some must surely remain. It is now up to the SVR, the Russian foreign intelligence service, to reveal where they are, which of them are booby-trapped, and which others may now be in a dangerous condition.
Thus far, the SVR has been evasive in responding to the revelations of the Mitrokhin archive. In a statement on September 20th after the publication of The Sword and the Shield, Boris Lavrov, head of the SVR press service, cast doubt on whether Vasili Mitrokhin ever worked in the KGB archives despite the fact that a number of former KGB officers, among them Oleg Gordievsky, who is here today, have confirmed that he did.
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Mr. Lavrov ignored the fact that we have published both Mr. Mitrokhin's KGB pension certificate and an official KGB testimonial thanking him for his services in the archives signed by the head of the foreign intelligence, who by the way at that time was General Kryuchkov, later the leader of the 1991 abortive coup. Those are reproduced in our book. While not commenting in detail on the sabotage schemes revealed by the Mitrokhin archive, Mr. Lavrov also ridiculed the idea that the KGB ever had any plans to disrupt the U.S. power supply.
Mr. Lavrov's response is part of a broader SVR strategy of concealing inconvenient leftovers from KGB Cold War operations. In the summer of this year, for example, President Yeltsin handed over to President Clinton a previously secret Russian dossier on the assassination of John F. Kennedy and Lee Harvey Oswald. A comparison with the material with the Mitrokhin archive reveals that the SVR had withheld from the dossier given to President Clinton the most interesting and important items, also the most embarrassing items. Among them evidence that the KGB forged items of Oswald's correspondence and that it sponsored through one of its agents in New York the publication of the first book on the JFK assassination and it has done the same thing with its operations in Britain, that is to say, concealed the most interesting, the most embarrassing part.
The SVR may well argue that raising the subject of KGB caches in the West is an attempt to revive the Cold War. That is not my intention. In my judgment, revealing the truth about past KGB preparations for sabotage operations in the United States and identifying the caches which now remain on American soil would be the most effective possible way for the SVR to demonstrate the sincerity of its proclaimed commitment to a new era in East-West relations. If they were U.S. arms caches or U.S. booby-traps on Russian soil, the Russian Government would of course demand to know their location. And it would be right to do so.
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Once again, and in conclusion, I wish to thank the committee for giving me this opportunity to present testimony on KGB operations against the United States.
I believe that Representative Curt Weldon is doing a public service by bringing these matters to the attention of Congress and to the attention of the American people. His action in doing so in no way conflicts with his commendable initiatives, which I applaud, to bring closer bilateral relationships between the Russian Duma and the American Congress. I would be pleased to try to answer any questions that the committee may have. Thank you.
Mr. WELDON. Thank you Dr. Andrew for that very provocative and very thorough testimony. We look forward to being able to question you.
[The prepared statement of Dr. Andrew can be found in the Appendix.]
Mr. WELDON. With that, we will turn to Colonel Gordievsky and again we are very honored to have you in our presence. You may take such time as you like to give us your statement. Please pull the microphone close to you so we can get your entire statement.
STATEMENT OF COL. OLEG GORDIEVSKY, FORMER KGB LONDON CHIEF OF STATION
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Mr. Chairman, Members of the committee, a few weeks before mybefore I was arrested with the KGB, I was kept under house arrest for some time. It was in the mid-80's, after which I escaped to the West, spirited out through the help of the British, at one of the last sessions in the building of the KGB at a meeting chaired by the deputy head of the first press chief directorate, General Kryuchkov, who later in 1991 actually was number two man in the KGB and was after he brought the coup of 1991, he was jailed for a couple of years. Now they all are free.
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And at that time in the mid-1980's he said, comrades, I received very commendable information about the fact that many KGB officers stationed in Washington have now acquired quite a lot of good useful helpful contacts among the assistants of the U.S. Congress of the House of Representatives and the Senate. But it is not good enough comrades, he said, it is not good enough. Because we need to recruit those Members of the Senate. We need to recruit as agents, as informants, Members of the House of Representatives. It is very important from many, many other countries, from Europe and America, particularly from America. Yes, assistants can provide quite a lot of good information but where the agents who are Members in the legislature in the United States.
That little point, that little remark reflects the fact that the Soviet espionage against the United States has been on a large scale for a very long time, all the time since the 1940's. By the way, with the help we have now from Professor Andrewand I read in the book by Professor Andrew through the helpmay be the help of the Mitrokhin archive, it all rings very true. All my experience and career in the KGB for 22 years confirms entirely what has been said here. If I didn't know exactly what I found in the book, I have a feeling that it was going this way, that it was developing that way.
For example, speaking about those caches, I personally participated in digging, digging the ground in one of those countries and putting those radio equipment into the ground. And another case, I was digging out a piece of radio equipment because it was regarded as obsolete, and the new pieces of radio equipment was sent by the KGB from Moscow to Copenhagen to the diplomatic couriers. And I remember that at the railway station, the porter said, kicking with the feet against the piece of equipment saying, ''What is it, what is it?'' And the Russian diplomatic courier said, ''the diplomatic pouch of course.'' ''Really,'' he said. ''I think it must be a piano.''
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So they were sending huge pieces of equipment which was radio stations, weapon caches, and radio interceptor equipment to the United States, to Canada, to the three KGB stations in the United States, to all capitals and in some other cities around Western Europe where they installed them. For example, signal intercept stations, in London alone they had four intercept stations, two owned and run by the KGB and two others run by the GRU.
In New York and Washington you can just see, look at the rest of the Russian embassy and the Russian officers in those important cities and you will see exactly how much, how many efforts it put into the intercept of the communications. And, indeed, they in the past they were able to read 60, 70 countries of the world, the communications, the secret radio traffic between the embassies in Moscow and the embassies in North America, Latin America, Western Europe, and so on. Western countries, NATO countries, members of NATO, the KGB was able to intercept and to read just everything.
There is a number of theas it was said in the previous statement, the United States was regarded as a main adversary by the KGB. There was a number of the officers posted in my time, which is the 1980's, and then I am watching the redevelopment into the 1990's and quite many things now in Russia are quite transparent so I can have a very educated opinion, view or assessment of the efforts of the activities of the SVR, which it now is called, former KGB.
They used to have about 100 officers in Washington, about 100 in New York, at a small station in San Francisco. By the way, all the time this department was speakingor most of the time was speaking of the KGB, meanwhile since the 1980's the Russian intelligence services in Soviet Union, Russia, one is the KGB and the other is the GRU. And the GRU is in size about 70 percent of the KGB. But everything which belongs to the area of sabotage, caches, radio communication, weapons, explosives and so on, it is mainly a domain of the GRU. So now speaking today on the basis of the Mitrokhin book, it is a small part because we still don't know the most important thing what is actually happening in the military side.
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In the early 1970's, an officer major of the KGB or captain, I can't remember, defected from the KGB station in London to the British security service. He belonged to the secret sabotage department of the KGB. After thatand of course it is very well described in the bookthe sabotage aspect of the KGB were slowly reduced and reduced, eventually most of the factions of the sabotage were passed on to the GRU.
So if you speak about the last 20, 25 years of development, speaking about the subjects which I discussed today, it is mostly you should look for the GRU. And wait for some Mitrokhin, somebody from the GRU rather than the KGB would defect and bring a lot of material from Moscow. So we will know about that aspect as well.
Now, my testimony, my story is not about the caches. It is about the KGB paranoia and the Soviet paranoia about the nuclear war and the United States in the 1980's, in the difficult, but important, period of the Cold War. As a British secret agent, British agent inside the KGB, I arrived in London in the summer 1982. Meanwhile, if you remember what was happening in 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984 it was very dangerous period where the Soviet Union and the United States came close to a nuclear confrontation.
But the people in the West, particularly not in the United States, they didn't realize how close we were to a nuclear confrontation because since the year 1980, 1979, 1980, 1981, there wasn't strong nuclear war hysteria developed in the Soviet Union. Breshnev, Andropov, important people from the Politburo, government newspapers, Pravda, Izvestia published editorials, speeches were made by Kryuchkov, head of thepress chief director, by Mr. Andropov, not least by head of the KGB, member of the Politburo about the fact that the Russia, the Soviet Union, the United States was about to launchto unleash a nuclear war against the Soviet Union.
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Now, the people in the United States I understand didn't take it seriously. They believed it typical Soviet Communist propaganda, nuclear war, nuclear war, in order to diminish the number of American nuclear presence in western Europe and so on in order to win strategic superiority for the Soviet Union.
Meanwhile, what happened in the 1970s, the Soviet Union developed and started installing the medium-range missiles, SS20. Altogether in the 1970s and late in the 1980s, the Soviet Union installed on its territory, maybe in some East European sectors as well, 650 very modern, with 1,000-mile range, medium-range missiles, with three warheads each. Half of them, about 300, maybe 350, were targeting Western European targets, which meant that the number of targets in Western Europe was more than a thousand.
If it came to a nuclear war and the Soviet Union had launched those medium-range missiles, nothing would have been left of Britain, France, Germany, anything at all in Western Europe.
Meanwhile, in front of that important pressure, a kind of expansion and nuclear threat by the Soviet Union, Western leaders Schmidt and Thatcher and then Carter and later Reagan, they took the important decision to install medium-range missiles in Europe as well, American missiles, in order to counterbalance the Soviet threat; and so those Pershings were installed. When the Pershings were installed, the first Pershings were installed in November, 1983, but the fact was that the Soviet Union was expecting that way soon in the first years of the 1980s, they wereWashington put in, dangerous from the Soviet point of view, the Pershing II missiles .
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The propaganda of the Soviet Union was saying that those missiles allegedly can reach Moscow and other important centers in the Soviet Union in six to eight minutes. They are extremely strong, forceful, and they can actually reach very deep, destroying those strategic nuclear bunkers which had been built in the Soviet Union all the time in the 1970s until the 1980s.
For example, when I was put under house arrest in 1985, I was sent to a KGB hotel 60 miles away from Moscow. There was a battalion of construction troops building something. And then speaking to some KGB retired engineer, he said it is a nuclear shelter of the first category; it is 100 yards deep. It can resist any nuclear attack, even a direct hit.
So what the KGB, under the Soviet Government was doing, they were building nuclear shelters in case of a nuclear war. Which they took seriously.
Eventually, under the impression of a number of factors, the Soviet leadership, which was Andropov, the head of the KGB, it was the minister of defense, and it was probably Brezhnev and Chernenko, two main leaders of the Communist Party, they were persuaded that the United States was preparing to launch a sudden nuclear attack on the Soviet Union outside the context of a conflict, which of course was total nonsense. It was not the case at all.
Simply the whole strategic and political thinking, the mentality of the United Statesand the mentality of Britain was not excludedruled out such a possibility altogether, but the Soviet leadership many years self-isolated, self-indoctrinated; and it was under the influence of their own propaganda. They actually came to that conclusion, which was entirely unbelievable from the Western point of view.
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Apart from the Pershings, which they really were afraid of because they believedthey were saying, Our SS20s, they threaten only Western European targets; they can't reach the United States. The United States can be reached only by ballistic missiles which can fly over the Atlantic and so on. And here there was kind of a balance between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Pershings installedquite a few, not many of them, not as many as the SS20sbut they made the difference from the Soviet point of view because, with targeting Moscowand in Moscow they believed if the war started just in Europe, the Soviet Union is destroyedthe capitol, the important launching sites of the international missiles, all of the strategic targets of the Soviet Union would be destroyed in the first minutes of the war. It was how they imagined the war. But there were a number of other factors.
One factor was, when President Reagan came to power, and President Reagan and his Secretary of State Shultz started making important speeches, which were regarded by the Soviet Union as ideological speeches, speaking about the moral, political and social superiority of the Western system over the Soviet and tyrannical system and so on, the Soviet Unionthe Soviet leaders started to feel that now there is an administration in Washington which was ideologically motivatednot pragmatic like ultraconservative Nixon and Kissinger, entirely pragmatic.
Now it was ideologically motivated, and it was an attack on the Soviet Union. And since the Soviet Union started recently practically two invasions as a result of ideological considerationsinvasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and the invasion of Afghanistan in 1979they felt that actually this administration was one who will get rid of the Soviet Union for good. And now they startedstarted with a philosophical and propaganda preparation for it.
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The short reason was that in 19811982 the Soviet leadership, through the KGB sources, through the open sources, through the GAU sources, started to receive information about the Star Wars, Strategic Defense Initiative, about the ideas of the American capital in the United States, about the creation of strategic defense in space.
And the Soviet leadership, which was kind of a mirror image, they believed if they gave all of the missiles, strategic nuclear weapons, as we can get them, we can destroy them with bare hands. If they don't have the proper defense, of course we will do it.
Now, the United States, having built the strategic defense, they realized thatthe Soviet Union realized that their strategic defense, their missile nuclear forces are obsolete, so the United States will come to the help of the rest of the NATO and take them with their bare hands. It was a nightmare of the Soviet leadership.
So the people in the medium levels of the Soviet department, people like me and the medium-ranking officers of the KGBand I don't know about the GRU, the military intelligence; they are very paranoid, but the party analysts, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs analysts, normal-thinking people who knew Europe and the United States well enough, they understood that this was nonsense that the United States was preparing in 198119821983 to start a nuclear war against the Soviet Union.
Meanwhile, the Minister of Defense and the KGB, Andropov, they worked together and they told their officers to work out a concept of watching for the science of the preparation by the rest of thefor a sudden nuclear attack on the Soviet Union; and that program, the concept which was worked out in 19811982. In 1983 it was completed entirely, and they started watching for signs of the preparation.
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Each station of the KGB had to report each second week about the signs from all countries of the world, particularly Western countries or pro-Western countries, countries which were sympathetic to the United States. So those stations, KGB and the GRU, in each capital, two independently working intelligence stations which were reporting each second week about the signs of the preparation for a sudden nuclear attack by the United States.
Meanwhile, in the Soviet system it was impossible to report signs. No, we don't see any signs. You have got to report something, to send a telegram, a cable to Moscow to the headquarters of the KGB, without substance, without saying anything; it was just impossible. It was not how the KGB and the whole Soviet system didn't work. It was never possible to say, no, we don't know, or we haven't found, or we haven't discovered anything. It was just always the telegram had to be on one page at least of some substance which meant that in each cityin New York, in Washington, in San Francisco, in London, in Copenhagen, in Bonn, in Berlin, in Munich and Paris and Romestations were every second week sending cables.
Meanwhile, in the headquarters of the KGB and the GRU, and they hadthe two services don't cooperate a lot, but on this subject, they were told to be in touch, to consult each other, and to help each other working out the concepts and the accumulation of signs of the sudden nuclear attack.
So there was a big square, big field, kind of a big piece of paper with squares on it, and the squares were supposed to be filled with information of the more and more signs of the preparation to sudden nuclear attack, and when it was three-quarters roughly, because they had their own ideas how many squares should be filled with information, when three-quarters of the field are covered with the signs, that the Soviet Union should do something.
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But what the Soviet Unionnobody spelled it out. But it was absolutely clear that we won't start a sudden nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had to strike first, preventing the American's sudden nuclear attack.
The military scientists came to the conclusion that if all of the signs, all of the knowledge and feeling, assurance that indeed the United States, Washington, is preparing for a sudden nuclear attack, there still would be six to eight days left before that attack itself; and it was very important to identify those remaining six to eight days, the last six days before the Armageddon. And in those six days, Moscow would first strike.
So in that self-feeding exercise, the KGB and the GRU lived in 1982, in 1983, until the beginning of 1984maybe even longer.
Meanwhile, when I arrived as a British agent after a couple of years of break in my contact with the British, I arrived as a senior officer in the KGB station in London, and immediately I told the British about this most important current operation. The British officers nearly fell from their chairs. I don't believe it. It can't be true. I said it is true. It's true.
Meanwhile, eight months prior to my posting, I was actually seconded to the staff, joint staff of the KGB and the GRU, to work out the concept, so I knew about it in detail. They could not believe it. So in order to make them believe, and I was telling the British from the start, please tell the Americans, the Americans are the main enginethey are the engine of the train; they are in the fronttell them immediately about this because this can be dangerous. They said, all right, we will, we will.
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Meanwhile, risking my security, my life, in the next about eight months I was able to spirit out of the KGB station in London in August 1982 and beginning of 1983 real documents, KGB instructions, in detail explaining everything about what they were planning and demanding from the stations. And plus I was able to provide what the station was answering and how the station responded to the requirement of the center.
Also, I knew who was the main officer, for example, of the KGB in the Washington station, who was the main organizer watching for signs. And apparently, at least what the British officer told me, they sent somebody reporting to the National Security Council in Washington. And they told me, I don't know what was the truth really, but they told me in 19831984, but particularly in the second half of 1983, the knowledge, the appreciation of the Soviet paranoia and Soviet misunderstanding, it has how penetrated the American mind; and they started to make changes and bring in more transparency in their military exercises to speak more to the Russians.
Meanwhile, Brezhnev died, Andropov died, Chernenko died. All of the three leaders, which were very, very old-fashioned and easily influenced by people who did believe in the Communist dogmas, to my great surprise. So they all died and Gorbachev came to power. Gorbachev at least in the beginning was a very loyal Communist, but he wanted to reform. He realized that the Soviet Union was not able to carryit was suicidal to carry all of the expenses and to compete with the United States, creating a strategic defense in space was absolutely disastrous; so he started to recount a new political thinking, which was a new concept of the Soviet foreign policy, so it became easier.
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But the last straw was, of course, the Able Archer exercise in the beginning of November of 1983, because it was more or less a normal military exercise, but the Soviet Union already wary at that time, very, very nervous and very, very tense and extremely shaky after the KLM incident, when they shot down the peaceful Korean airliner, which is also part of the paranoia and the hysteria about the nuclear war. They shot down a peaceful airliner with nearly 300 passengers aboard the plane.
They saw the reaction on Able Archer was nervous and close to overreaction. So it was a moment when the Soviet Union could have started some real responses, and they realized that the people in the West and the United States and other major countries, they realized that something was not right in the Soviet leadership. And the people who had access to my secret reporting, because they protected me as a source very well, the British, and yet the information needed to be put to the political and military leadership of the United States. After the Able Archer exercise, things started to look better.
Meanwhile, the whole nuclear story turned out to be a disaster for me personally, just to finish my story. The effect was, after 1983, in 1984, the National Security Council was telling the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Who is the source? Who is the British source? Who is telling all of the stories about the Ryan operation, about them watching and recording and monitoring and the signs of the preparation for a sudden nuclear attack? Who is the man? They were saying, we don't knowthey were not telling themfind out.
As the CIA started to work out who was the source, and they did; the CIA at the end of 1984, beginning of 1985, learned or somehow deduced that Mr. Oleg Gordievsky, counsel of the embassy and colonel of the KGB, was actually a British agent.
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A member of the CIA, medium-ranking officer Aldrich Ames was also one who had access to that information. He, speaking about the espionage, just to finish up this note, the espionage can be serious business and you should take it seriously. He went to the Soviet Embassy, and during the first three meetings in April, May and June 1985, he passed on to the KGB the information about the sourcesBritish sources and American sources in the KGB, in the GRU, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and some other departments. And practicallyapart from a few who happened to be KGB double-agents, they all died. They all were shot. They nearly all died because of helping the West.
So we should remain vigilant, and whatever changes are made to the better, there are still many threats in this world for the United States.
Thank you.
Mr. WELDON. Thank you very much, Colonel Gordievsky, for that statement. Again, words cannot convey our thanks to you for the work that you have done on behalf of stability in the world and for the unbelievable chances that you took as a KGB leader and the work that you have done since you have come over to the West, and your cooperation with Dr. Andrew as well, on two previous publicationsor actually three previous publications.
For the record, I want to let my colleagues know that I met with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) last week for about an hour, and I talked to Louis Freeh directly and asked him to tell me whether or not the U.S. was aware of the information in the Mitrokhin files and Dr. Andrew's book. The FBI Russian desk told me in my office that they were aware of the book, had access to Mitrokhin and, working with British intelligence, had gone through the data.
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I asked them specifically as to whether we have specific sites in the U.S. that we could identify, as the Swiss and the Belgians did, and they said that there were no specific sites listed. They confirmed the same information that Dr. Andrew stated, which is the possibility of sites in Brainerd, Minnesota; Texas pipeline; New York and California harbors, and other sites in Montana and other border areas.
I then asked a question, whether or not our government had officially requested of the Russian Government the details of the sites in the U.S., because obviously if those details were on sites in Europe, the KGB would have had to document very similar site locations in the U.S.
And the answer from the FBI was, we haven't asked the question yet. To me, that is very troubling, and it is very disturbing. And that was also confirmed in a press conference that was held with the Pentagon briefing staff after Dr. Andrew's book was coming out a little over a month ago. And a response by a military officer from our government was, to his knowledge, we had not asked the question of the Russians about the location of these sites.
I happen to think that this is unacceptable. On October 22, Jim Oberstar and I wrote a letter, which I will make available on the record, to Madeleine Albright. And basically the summation of that two-page letter is, if you asked the question, what was the response; and if you haven't asked the question, why not, about these sites in America, so we can deal with them for the security of the American people?
[The information referred to can be found in the Appendix.]
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The reason I went to Jim Oberstar, Jim Oberstar represents Brainerd, Minnesota. He has a very sincere personal interest in this issue. It has been reported in the press in Brainerd, Minnesota, and there has been no information forthcoming, so Jim wrote this letter with me.
And I would just urge my colleagues to use our influence to impress upon this administration the fact that we owe it to the American people to find out the status of these sites, the caches. American people could be subject to possible harm if they are booby-trapped, and our government has a responsibility to at least ask the question of the Russians about where these specific sites are.
Dr. Andrew, do you have any doubt that somebody within the KGB knows exactly where the sites are, that there are other records in Moscow that you did not see, that Mitrokhin did not copy, that would give the exact locations of, if not all of, some of these sites?
Dr. ANDREW. Mr. Chairman, I have absolutely no doubt. As I explained, all that Mr. Mitrokhin had time to do, because he was given a certain amount of time each day to note the entire archives of the KGB, the foreign intelligence archives of the KGB.
Now, what I think he did sensibly was, at the level of detail, was simply to note examples; and it happened that the examples that he noted were European rather than United States examples. But I have not the slightest doubt, and neither does he, that the kind of examples which I have quoted for European countries also exist for the United States.
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Mr. WELDON. Colonel Gordievsky, do you share that sentiment that has been expressed by Dr. Andrew?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Yes, absolutely. The archives of the KGB is very well organized. There is a lot of mess and disorder in Russia, but the archives of the KGB was perfect temperature, perfect lighting, perfect system of storing, all of the files, a card index which gives clue where to look and so on. All of the information is there in the files, and the files are kept there; and I am sure that they would not destroy files with specific information about something which is kept in the ground on Western European or North American countries.
Mr. WELDON. Dr. Andrew, how long has American intelligence and the FBI had access to the Mitrokhin files?
Dr. ANDREW. I don't know. All Mr. Mitrokhin did was get out the files from the KGB. He failed to get any out from the FBI and the CIA. But under the normal liaison arrangements which exist between the British and American intelligence communities, to my profound belief, to the mutual advantage of each, the sharing of information would have been very quick.
I have to say, because the archives was so huge, simply processing it would have taken a number of years. And my assumption has beenand it is no more than an assumptionthat by the time that I began work on it early in 1996, everything that related to the United States had already been shared with the FBI and the CIA.
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Mr. WELDON. Now, that is approximately three years ago. Is it also safe to assumeis that about the time when the Swiss and the Belgians uncovered the caches to show that there was hard evidence to reinforce the Mitrokhin files?
Dr. ANDREW. No. The period that it wasthe first attempt that was recordedI only know the attempts that the European governments have admitted, that they looked for KGB arms and radio caches. As I said in my evidence, it wasn't until our book was published that the source which had led them to these excavations became clear. But actually the first European excavation of which I know is actually the Austrian one in 1997, followed by the Swiss and the Belgian ones in the winter of 1998 and 1999.
Mr. WELDON. So for at least two years we knew that another country had found credible evidence that what was in the Mitrokhin files was true, even though we had probably known this information for perhaps as long as three years?
Dr. ANDREW. Since December, 1998. The Austrian attempt was unsuccessful. The Swiss and Belgian attempts in December 1998 were successful; and yes, that must have been known.
Mr. WELDON. Colonel Gordievsky, given the paranoia among the Soviet leadership that you describe, do you think that it was possible or plausiblein your professional opinion, do you think it was possible, as a GRU defector, what Lunev said when he testified here, that they may have prepositioned nuclear suitcases in the territory of the U.S.?
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Do you think that has any degree of possibility at all?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Mr. Chairman, it is a difficult question. The KGB and the GRU what they would have planned to do was quite a lot. They planned to use poisons and biological weapons. They planned to use biological, very fine substances to kill people without leaving traces or making it deniable. So they got numerous plans.
For example, I am under sentence of death, theoretical speaking.
Mr. WELDON. Now?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. For 14 years. They could have killed me because of a sentence of death expressed by the military tribunal of the Soviet Union in 1985. It is still valid, but they are not killing me, I am still alive. What they have planned, what they have in their files is one thing; what they have practically, it is not the same.
For example, I can tell you the first time that I produced the plan of work of the KGB station in London and it was copied and passed on to the British security service, when they read it they said our hair went up in terror, what the KGB was planning to do in London. Meanwhile, the specific action was much more modest. Still damaging, of course, still unnecessary and so on, but much less than what they planned.
So I don't doubt that there must have been plans about nuclear small devices to put around in Washington and New York and so on. But whether they haveit has come to bringing any here is a big, big step. And to even transport them through the countries on the planes, hidden in diplomatic bags, it is extremely complicated.
Mr. WELDON. I appreciate that.
Dr. Andrew.
Dr. ANDREW. Mr. Chairman, if I might make one further comment. As Oleg Gordievsky said, all we have seen is the Mitrokhin archive. What we now need to see is a Mitrokhin for the GRU.
My assessment, which is only an approximate assessment, is that I find it entirely credible that the GRU, indeed the Soviet high command, would have drawn up plans to position nuclear weapons on the soil of the United States. I find it entirely credible that Mr. Lunev would have been asked to reconnoiter likely sites.
I think it very improbable that any actually exist on the soil of the United States, but I would add this rider. Every single one of us in this room, Mr. Chairman, insures our house against risks of say 100,000 to 1, the risk of the house being burnt down.
What we have an absolute right to know, surely, is that anyone who even considered doing these monstrous thingseven if the chance that they succeeded in doing so is extremely remote, they have an absolute duty to tell us what it is they planned and how far they got in the process of implementing it.
Mr. WELDON. I agree with you totally, and I am really outraged that the administration would not have asked the question of the Russianswhich, as I said, has been confirmed by both the FBI and the briefing that took place at the Pentagonhave not asked the Russians the question about where these specific sites are in the U.S., so we can deal with them for the safety of our people.
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Last week, before us we had Ken Alibek who for a number of years was in charge of the Soviet biological weapons program, and he testified on his own personal involvement in the biological program of Russia, and he laid the foundation that much of this program may well still be intact.
Colonel Gordievsky, if I heard you correctly, what you said was there is even the possibility that there could have been other types of weapons, perhaps chemical or biological material which could have been prepositioned at a site.
You don't have any evidence of that, but you are saying that could be a possibility; is that correct?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Yes. I would have imagined it would have been much easier for the Soviet authorities and the Russian authorities to think about biological and chemical substances, to bring them and to keep them available for further development. For example, they had been playing with the idea over a preconflict situation; and the whole idea of sabotage, which isdescribed in the book very well, in the days before the proper conflict, a number of sabotage groups and the people who are KGB or GRU, they start some sabotage actions in order to undermine the morale and the infrastructure of the countries like the United States or Western Europe. So the biological and chemical weapons are easier than the nuclear to operate with.
Mr. WELDON. Colonel Gordievsky, Ken Alibek also stated last week in the hearing that he was personally aware of assassinations that occurred in Russia where they used chemical and biological agents on people and leaders. Are you aware of any situations like that?
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Colonel GORDIEVSKY. I don't have factual material to support it.
Mr. WELDON. I want to give ample time for my colleagues. I will come back at a second round.
Mr. Pickett.
Mr. PICKETT. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
I am sorry to say I have not had an opportunity to read the book, so I am not certain that I can ask any specifics about the contents, but could you maybe give a little more information on the Mitrokhin data?
As I understand it, it covers a period of some 30 years. Could you give us just a rough idea of the volume, how this was condensed, how it was presented? Did it exclude specific areas of activity in the Soviet Union with particular reference to their own nuclear plans and how they planned to deal with the nuclear capability in the United States?
Dr. ANDREW. Well, I will try to make my answer brief because, Congressman, it has taken me over three years to read all of the material and to write up the material which concerns simply EuropeEast, Westand the United States. I will do my best to be brief.
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During the ten years that it took the KGB to move its foreign intelligence archive from the old headquarters to the new headquarters foreign intelligence, which by the way is still the current headquarters of the SVR. It was a very careful move. Therefore, all batches of files had to be signed out at one place and they had to be signed in at another place, and Vasili Mitrokhin was the man who had to sign them out from the old headquarters, Lubyanka, and sign them in at the new headquarters, which is where Oleg Gordievsky used to work.
During that process, he had the chance to note everything that passed through his hand. If there was a bias in what he noticed, it was that he tended to note the most secret files more than the least secret files because the more secret the file was, the closer the attention that he had to pay to it.
Now, I think there were certain kinds of files that he paid more attention to than the others, and those, I think, had to do with the dissidents. He was himself a secret dissident, and so it was natural that he should pay attention to the fate of the dissidents.
If there is one lesson that I have gained from these archives, it is that attempting to understand what the priorities of the KGB were from our understanding of the priorities of Western intelligence services really does not work. One of their greatest priorities was to ensure that every dissidentit doesn't matter whether he was a great cellist like Rostropovich, or whether he was a great ballet dancer, like Nureyev, whether he was a dissident writer like Solzhenitsyn, who had managed to come to the United States; there was no great priority in ensuring that these people failed.
A pretty good test, I think, of the priority of any intelligence of any political system is whether it passes the precedent test. From the moment that one asks that question about the intelligence that came to the KGB, one sees that their priorities are so different, that attempting to understand what they were doing in terms of our understanding of what we were doing really doesn't make sense.
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Just one example: In November, 1978 the great Russian dissident, Yuri Olov, one of the heroes of our time who is now a citizen of the United States, the great KGB operation of that part of 1978, was to ensure that he didn't receive the Nobel Peace Prize. November 1978, the KGB residency in Oslo, Norway, rings up the member of the Politburo who is responsible for ideological purity. He calls at 3:00 in the morning to tell him that Yuri Olov has not been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and instead of complaining about being woken up, he congratulates the residency. So there are two distortions in the archives, not just in terms of what is noted, but in terms of how much is noted.
One is the distortion which, of course, comes from the fact that all of us pay more attention to the information that interests us than information that does not; but second, a distortion which is structured in the system ensuring that Nureyev, that Solzhenitsyn, that Rostropovich failed. Even though it may seem unpleasant, but trivial to us, it was extremely important for them.
Otherwise, he noted that material that came into his hands over the whole period from 1918the KGB was not founded until the 20th of December, 1917right up to the eve of the Gorbachev era. Not every country in the world is there. There is no reference, for example, so far as Europe is concerned to Andorra and to Liechtenstein, but every other country is mentioned. There are some very interesting files for San Marina.
So this is material which is astonishingly comprehensive in its geographical and chronological scope. I would be happy to go into some of the ways in which the material has been corroborated.
Mr. PICKETT. I want to give the other Members a chance. I think you have answered the basic part of my question.
Mr. Chairman, I yield back the balance of my time.
Mr. WELDON. Thank you.
Mr. Bartlett.
Mr. BARTLETT. Colonel Gordievsky, in your testimony you mentioned that the Soviet Union was very paranoid, that some of what we would consider very irrational behavior stemmed from that paranoia. I would like to ask both you and Dr. Andrew, now, how Russia is perceiving the expansion of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) right up to their borders? Could this induce paranoia in them? And if that is so, what would be the types of irrational behavior that you might now expect if they perceived the expansion of NATO as being threatening to them and acted in a paranoid fashion?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Yes. The current leaders of Russia are former Soviet officials. There is no Vaclav Havel in Russia, former dissident/playwright in the Czech Republic. There is no Brazauskas, who is a musicologist and president and now headchairman of the parliament of Lithuania.
In Russia all people in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, KGB, particularly in the military, they are all former Soviet officials who are very, very Soviet indoctrinated in the Soviet way. For years and years, all the time, since 1949, they spoke about aggressive imperialists, hostile Western imperialism. When it became worse than the Goebbels propagandaafter all, even Goebbels for a few years was able to put in the minds of many Germans some ideas. But in those 45 years, people became through and through indoctrinated.
Even Mr. Gorbachev, who was a bright reformist and so on, I saw him on British television the other day when he said, don't you realize how you let mehow you treat us? He said, ''how you treat us.''.
''what do you mean? What do you mean?'' the British chap said.
''if we were still the big Soviet Union, would you have extended the limits, the borders of the NATO coming so close to our border? You would never have done such a thing, but now you do. You treat us with contempt.''.
It is the attitude of these former Soviet officials, includingGorbachev is like this, ''You treat us with contempt, you ignore us'' and so on.
What you saw, aggressive anti-Western, quite aggressive, unpleasant, bitter anti-Western reaction and propaganda. One of the Soviet officialsnobody took it seriously. So much passion, unfortunately, in Russian politicians. It is now political correctness to be anti-American in terms of NATO. It is political correctness of the day in Moscow, in Russia. It is very sad.
So it is allI am somehow on the negative side from the Western point of view, and then the behavior of the Russian leaders on Yugoslavia, it was a result of the strange way how they see the world.
On the positive side, we should not be too frightened by it because, after all, they are becoming flexible and pragmatic. They need to work and earn money and build up and restore their foreign policy, and eventually after all of the difficulties with the Chinese embassy and with all of the claims and counterclaims and problems with the United Nations Security Council, now the relations are coming back to normal. Despite the few statements by Yeltsin or whoever, the relations are not so bad.
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They want to be among the eight most important developed countries, not to be the seventh, but the eighth, although economically Russia is much poorer. They want to be the representative of NATO. They return their representative to NATO headquarters back, whom they recalled; they restore their cooperation with NATO. But some difficulties will be there, for example, particularly if, say, the Ukraine will start cooperating more with NATO or there are now signs of Georgia coming closer and closer to the United States. They are irritated about it, but they will have to put up with it because it is just life.
Dr. ANDREW. Congressman, I will try to give a brief answer to what is a very long questiona very large question, rather.
The paranoid strain is, I think, an important element in Russian policy both in its Soviet and post-Soviet phases. We should not assume that it has remained at the same level. I would distinguish three phases. There was the Stalinist period when paranoia reached, by our standards, unimaginable levels.
There was the post-Stalinist era in which the paranoid strain of Soviet foreign policy never reached the Stalinist levels, but nonetheless, on at least two occasions, the early 1960s and the early 1980s, the Soviet leadership was convinced that the United States was preparing for a nuclear strike against it.
Then third, there is the post Soviet period which represents a further ratcheting down of the process.
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So it still exists, but we should seek to form some kind of balance. That is to say that it is there, but not as bad as it was.
My second point is this, I have never really understood this: The West continues to be surprised by the influence of intelligence chiefs on President Yeltsin. They should not be because, after all, I cannot think of any other country in the world in the early 1970s where the foreign minister and the head of the foreign intelligence service, that is to say Andre Kozyrev, were engaged in sometimes public dispute with publicly criticizing the positions of the SVR.
Over the last year, again, it has been extraordinary. I mean, Western commentators and Western Kremlinologists have been completely surprised three times in a row, and yet it has been the same surprise.
They were surprised in September last year when Yevgeny Primakov became prime minister. Well, he had to be got rid of earlier this year because he looked too much like somebody who might take over from Yeltsin, which he might still.
Who was he succeeded by? He was succeeded by a former head of the FSB, the successor to the internal directorates of the KGB, the man who got Yeltsin into the dreadful Chechen imbroglio. That again took Western commentators by surprise. Then a few months ago we were taken by surprise yet again when the current head of the FSB, the then-head of the FSB became prime minister.
So there seems to be something in the Western psyche which finds it very difficult to understand the political power of intelligence chiefs, first, in the old Soviet Union and then in the Russian Federation.
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We rarely see in British newspapers, for example, the name Trubnikov, who is the current head of the SVR and yet last year he sat in on the negotiations between Yeltsin and Milosevic in Moscow, of Kosovo, when the last attempt was made in March of this year to try to arrive at some agreement which would stop NATO's attacking. Trubnikov was part of the delegation that went to Belgrade. A couple of months ago he was part of the summit meeting in which China and the Russian Federation discovered they had a good deal in common against NATO.
So finding a balanced judgment is always difficult, but at the moment some of the elements of the balance don't seem to appear in the media very much. One of those elements is the recognition of the influence that intelligence chiefs have on Yeltsin. There is this difference between the President's daily brief which reaches President Clinton every morning and the equivalent of the President's daily brief which reaches Boris Yeltsin every morning. The President's daily brief which reaches President Clinton does not contain policy recommendations. The President's daily brief which reaches President Yeltsin at about the same time contains policy recommendations.
Mr. BARTLETT. May I ask you, in your judgment, what faction in Russia is responsible for continuing what we consider irrational behavior like continuing to pour large amounts of very scarce resources into projects like Yamantau Mountain?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. I agree with Dr. Andrew that it is the so-called power ministers, the minister of defense, the armed forces, very powerful, very important in the key positions and very well supported by the intelligence services, particularly the SVR led by Mr. Trubnikov. The fact is that Mr. Primakov, who was appointed head of the foreign intelligence service in the autumn of 1991 after the coup, had the purpose to save the intelligence service, part of the KGB, from destruction by the reformed democratic demands, and at that time the democratic forces were inprevailing, at least the people felt that they were prevailing in the autumn of 1991, beginning of 1992.
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So Primakov, as a former academic, he was very much against Mr. Kozyrev, who was a progressive foreign minister. In order to limit his influence in Russia, he started to work out what became a concept of the Russian foreign intelligence service. Meanwhile, what the foreign intelligence service and Mr. Primakov had in mind was to create a new Soviet Union, a post-Communist but similar to the Soviet concept of the Russian foreign policy, and they attacked Mr. Kozyrev until they got rid of him and he was sacked. Theythey harassed him.
There was the statement that there was no concept of the Russian foreign policy, but they, Mr. Primakov as a very clever and quite a large one, much bigger in staff than the minister of foreign affairs in Moscow, the foreign intelligence service, they had the concept of foreign intelligencemeanwhile, relatively soon, later, Mr. Primakov was appointed foreign minister. He brought his concept of foreign intelligence service and created on the basis of it a new concept of the Russian foreign policy; and that concept is very much like the old Soviet policy, only they are not so powerful and not so strong to carry it out.
After all, it was a big state of 300 million, now Russia is 145 million people. So they have very big pretensions and very big demands and great interests, but they are very limited in their resources. But the old-fashioned people, minister of foreign affairs, general staff, armed forces, and the political parties, all of the former Soviet officials dominate. So eventually all factions are about with the same platform.
Mr. WELDON. If the gentleman would yield, Mr. Bartlett wanted to know if you have any specific information: Yamantau Mountain in the Urals, which is known by other names, which is the site of a huge underground complex the size of the Washington Beltway, which has been worked on for 20 years under the Ural Mountains, are you familiar with that project at all?
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Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Yes. In my time when I was in the KGB in the 1970s, I realized that a new directorate of the KGB was established which was Directorate number 15, a hugevery resourceful and rich with a huge budgetdirectorate of the KGB which was responsible for building and maintaining a huge underground shelter which was built for the Soviet leadership in case of a nuclear war.
The secrecy surrounding the 15th Directorate was huge. You were not able to learn anything specific about the 15th Directorate. All you knew was that somewhere in Moscow there was a place which was the main entrance to the shelter. We knew there were big lifts from the Central Committee building, from nearby the KGB and other important departments that would go in case of a nuclear war. In case of a nuclear war, they would go to the underground station and board a train and the train would take them to that main facility aboutaccording to the rumors in the KGB, 25 miles away, 2530 miles away from Moscow.
So if Moscow had been hit directly during a nuclear war, the underground railway and that facility underground which had an autonomous ability to remain without going to the surface for several months is still there.
What is interesting, Yeltsin when he came to power, his so-called democratic regime, they are using those facilities, and the same service is still there running the same facility like it was 10, 15 years ago.
Mr. WELDON. I thank my colleague. We are going to come back for a second round.
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I will now go to Mr. Reyes.
Mr. REYES. Thank you, Mr. Chairman. And I haven't had a chance to read the whole book, but I was just reading a portion of it on page 475. It references the President of France, Mitterrand briefing President Reagan on an intercept. Apparently the KGB had bugged the teleprinters of the French embassy in Moscow, and this led eventually to the expulsion of 47 Soviet intelligence officers out of France. And I am trying to understand the issue of paranoia and the Soviet Union under a system or a society that is so closed off and so easily controlled, every aspect of it so easily controlled. And why they wouldwhy the KGB, or whoever, would be paranoid about a first strike by the U.S. I don't understandI guess I don't understand that kind of mentality. Can you comment on that, Dr. Andrew.
Dr. ANDREW. Yes. We wouldn't be living in a free society if we understood that kind of mentality. Because it is a mentality that is produced by societies entirely different from our own. I would like to comment on the two points that you made. One, about what they were learning from the French and then second the mentality. But I think that all one-party states are subject, all authoritarian regimes are subject to some degree of paranoia. And the reason for it is this: in democratic societies, even though we may not like the opinions of those who disagree with us, even though we may not like the opinions of those who belong to different parties, we recognize the legitimacy of those opinions.
In one-party states all opposing positions are illegitimate. They are all subversive. In other words, there is no such thing as legitimate opposition. If you do not believe in the legitimacy of opposition, it follows that you must believe in the illegitimacy of all opposition. And that kind of mindset produces a degree of paranoia which is directly proportional to, first of all, two variables: one, the degree of the authoritarianism of the regime; and, second, the degree of threat perception.
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And at moments when one-party states and other authoritarian regimes feel particularly under threat, as they did in the early 1960's, as they did in the early 1980's, then that paranoia, which is truly amazingbut it is, in other words, a structural problem which is associated with all one-party states. I don't know of a single historical example of a one-party state, a really authoritarian regime, which was immune to some degree of paranoia.
Let me turn to the particular example that you mentioned, which is partly related to that but which relates to other issues. We are going to have to rewritehistorians are going to have to rewrite the history of Soviet relations with France. Why? We have had to rewrite since the mid-1970's to some extent the history of the Second World War because now we know that the United States and Britain were able to break the codes of the Germans and the Japanese to an extent which shortened the Second World War.
Well, after the Second World War because there was communist participation in French coalition governments until 1947, there were unparalleled possibilities for the penetration of Soviet agents into the French government. And one of those agents was a cipher clerk in the Quai d'Orsay, the French Foreign Ministry, whose code name was JOUR, day; and he remained active until the early 1980's. He continued to recruit other cipher clerks.
There were major periods during the Cold War we now know when France was conducting open diplomacy so far as the United States was concerned with JOUR and the cipher clerks which he recruited for the Soviet Union. This is the example that you mentioned, but it is only a number of examples from the Cold War. Every single message, 99 percent, so far as we know 100 percent, of messages exchanged between the French foreign ministry and the Quai d'Orsay and the French embassy in Moscow are intercepted and decrypted by the KGB.
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Mr. REYES. And just onecan I follow upone other point here that even with this knowledge apparently the Soviet ambassador came forward to protest, I guess, not admitting that they had gotten caught until he was shown the copy of the number of intercepts and presumably doesn't follow up on it, but presumably then he folded up his briefcase and said okay you got us.
Dr. ANDREW. That is right. The Soviet Union was unaware of how much had been discovered about what they were up to. What they were unaware of is that in the scientific and technological directorate of the KGB, there was an agent whose real name was Vetrov and who, as code named FAREWELL by the Frenchthe reason they code named him FAREWELL was in the hope that if he was discovered to have been an agent since he had an Anglophone name, he was supposed to be a British or American agent rather than French agent. It was, by the way, Oleg Gordievsky who first brought out that story, one of many extraordinary contributions which Oleg Gordievsky has made to Western security.
But as you have said, when the Soviet ambassador came in 1983 to protest to the Quai d'Orsay against the fact that KGB and GRU officers were being, under diplomatic cover, expelled from France, he was silenced by the production of that document.
Mr. REYES. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
Mr. WELDON. Thank you, Mr. Reyes. Mr. Saxton.
Mr. SAXTON. Thank you, Dr. Andrew and Colonel Gordievsky. You have brought out a very interesting point. As you know, Chairman Weldon has one of a group of friends here that he teaches in college and I will bet they were taken aback as I was to hear you sayand I don't dispute it for a minutethat the psyche in the Soviet Union during the period of time that we are discussing was that all things had to be done to get ready for the attack that the American people through their leaders were planning on the Soviet Union. Because it is pretty obvious to me that that was not our intent.
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And perhaps you can help meI recently read this bookthis happens to be Chairman Weldon's copy, but this is a book by Ken Alibek, formerly Ken Alibekov, I believe, who defected to this country in 1991 or 1992. This book is about the development of biological weapons in the Soviet Union. Where the Soviets apparently had something in the neighborhood of 60 to 70,000 people working in an offensive capacity developing biological weapons to be used against this country. And the KGB apparently convinced that group of 70,000 people and the government officials in the Soviet Union that we had this huge biological offensive program in this country.
Now, these seem to be parallel tracks to me, the KGB carrying out what you have so aptly described on the nuclear front, if you will, and Alibek describing the same thing that happened with regard to biological weapons. We had no biological weapons program in this country by the way, folks. Zero. Can you comment relative to that? Am I right in drawing those conclusions?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Yes. There is a similarity. But not quite. The fact was that since 1972 there were no biological weapons in Britain or the United States. Meanwhile in the Soviet Union there was a huge program of production of biological andproduction of biological and chemical weapons and development and new types of development. Remember the most incredible frightening types of ebola and Marburg diseases that were developed deliberately in order to create this powder full of bugs and to put it into the intercontinental missiles even, Alibek writes about them, the intercontinental missiles, several warheads which could be sent to the United States. It was a terrible program.
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But what is important to remember, how developed was the paranoia, self-paranoia and self-propaganda in the Soviet Union that both the KGB and the GRU, particularly the GRU, was despite the fact that there was a biological program in the United States and Britain. They were still, if not reporting directly, that yeah, they do have; but they were implying in their reports either theyand it is difficult actually for me to tell exactly what they meant, were they convinced or it were they just doing it in order to run favors for the industry. They were reporting from Britain and through the United States that, indeed, we can't confirm them having the biological and chemical weapons programs, but we have strong suspicions that they have secret departments and secret facilities where they do it. And so one day we will find out and report to you.
Mr. SAXTON. Do you believe that the development of the offensive biological program and the propensity to carry forward on such a massive scale was due in part to the paranoia and in part to the fact that a bureaucracy tends to take on a life of its own and perpetuate itself, both things, or was one or the other dominant?
Dr. ANDREW. I think both of those are true. It is very difficult to weight them. But it is important to remember that you know there was no symmetry during the Cold War. There are things that are call bureaucracies in the East; there are things called bureaucracies in the west, just as there are things that are called economists in the east and economists in the West. In other words, the laws of bureaucracy in the east are not the same as the laws of the bureaucracy in the West. It may sometimes be difficult in the west for a subordinate to challenge the generally held view of his or her superiors. But it is actually impossible in the East.
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What Oleg Gordievsky was saying earlier on, there were plenty of people in the KGB residencies in Washington and London and elsewhereand of course in London part of it was Oleg Gordievsky, who knew that rearm was nonsense. Of course North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the first Reagan administration was not planning a nuclear first strike against Soviet Union. But so far as we know, there wasn't a single KGB report from any residency in the West which even thought of saying, no, this is nonsense; it is not happening.
And I think something similar applies to challenging the view at the center of biological/chemical warfare in the west. There must have been. Many or at least a significant number of KGB officers in Western residencies, Washington, London, and elsewhere didn't believe it. But they were no more likely to take on the political orthodoxy of the center on that subject than they were of any other.
Now, I believe it is the case, Mr. Chairman, that this committee has heard evidence from Vladimir Pasechnik, one of the former leaders of a so-called biotech company which was in fact a front for biological and chemical warfare in the United States and someone to whom I spoke years ago. But initially the intelligence that came in, my understanding is, from the Soviet Union about the scale of the preparations for biological chemical warfare in the mid-1980's met the same degree of skepticism in some quarters as some of Oleg Gordievsky's intelligence did about the paranoia of the Breshnev and the Andropov regime so far as the United States is concerned.
Societies in which high-level paranoia is not endemic, thank God, do not understand tremendously well those regimes in which paranoia is actually a structural part of the system. So one of the problems during the 1980's was that just as it was difficult, nobody disbelieves it now, hardly anybody disbelieves it now, just as it was difficult then to believe the extent of Soviet paranoia about NATO's nuclear plans for nonexistent nuclear first strike against the Soviet Union.
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So it was pretty difficult during the 1980's to actually credit the intelligence that was being received about the level of Soviet preparations for biological and chemical warfare.
Mr. SAXTON. Colonel Gordievsky, let me ask one other question. With regard to the biological weapons program, do you generally agree, generally agree with Ken Alibekov in his description of what happened during those 40 or so years that the program was developing?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Yes. I agree with everything he is saying in his book. I would like to tell you that for me the subject was not entirely new. Because when I was working in London, those three important last years of my career, I was asked by the British officers what did I know about the biological and chemical weapons development and production back in the Soviet Union. And you know that in the Soviet departments like in any country, but particularly totalitarian country, you got right to know. If I didn't have right to know, I was not supposed to know. But people did talk.
So I knew very well that indeed there was a chemical weapon production which was against international conventions. I knew for sure that there was biologicalchemical production in the Soviet Union. And not least, not least because the telegrams, the cables asking, coming to the station which were not supposed to tell anything about such secret things, but we were asking about what is going on in Northern Ireland in the laboratories, British laboratories. What do you do about biological and chemical weapons production in Iraq? Do the British people, British officials or British secret services, do they know anything about those weapons? And what exactly is in the Middle East and Israel and so on.
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So indirectly I was able to feel that, indeed, there was illegal against international conventions of production of chemicals. It was huge. I knew it would be huge because everything on the intelligence and the military side, everything in the Soviet Union was huge. And indeed when I met already after my escape with Margaret Thatcher, the Prime Minister, I realize that she at an early stage, as early as 1986, 1985, 1986, she had known quite a lot about illicit production of those weapons in the Soviet Union. She was very interested to end it and eventually they agreed to end it. But according to this book and other rumors, they are still up to it.
Mr. SAXTON. Thank you very much. I would just like to say thank you for being with us here today. It is certainly very enlightening, even though it doesn't make us feel very comfortable. Thank you.
Mr. BARTLETT. [presiding] Thank you very much. Mr. Rodriguez.
Mr. RODRIGUEZ. Colonel, let me first of all ask youI want to see if I had heard correctlydid you indicate that you were directly involved in digging up and/or placing of some of those cases? Did I hear that wrong?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Because the point I made that the material, the information, here rings true for me because in the KGBin 20 years of the KGB I heard rumors about such things. Meanwhile I personally participated in digging in Scandinavia, digging into the ground radio equipment, not explosives, not weapons, but radio equipment for the people to call illegals, which means KGB officers using foreign identity not Soviet identity.
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Mr. RODRIGUEZ. Was that just in Scandinavia?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. It was German, Swiss, British, American identity who would come days prior to the beginning conflict between East and West, dig out the secret equipment and start using it, sending reports to Moscow. Because the KGB station and the GRU station in the capital would be either destroyed as a result of the nuclear war or deported, arrest or sent back to Moscow and so on because the war is there. So there is no so-called legal stations, legal residences, only the illegals are left. The illegals, it is another chapter because the United States has madethere are Russian illegals even now those people who are using foreign identity.
Mr. RODRIGUEZ. What you were directly involved in was radio equipment, not anything else in terms ofokay. I want to get that clear.
Second, I just I know there is a lot of discussion in terms of feelings of paranoia and that kind of thing. And the Congressman talked a little bit about sometimes, for example, from our own perspective you know we have passed the Cold War yet we still expendthis year's budget is 260-something billionwell, 280-something billion in our military expenses in this country. How is that perceived or even the fact that we chose not to ratify the ban treaty, missile ban treaty, how is that perceived back home? And I am wondering how that, you knowalso I would ask you if you have any idea about their budget in terms of the KGB and how that reflects despite the fact that we also have, you know.
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Well, it is not my real role to comment on the American budget, the American expenses. But as to the KGB, I can speak about it because I know something. The old KGB, which was the secret police, huge service including border guard troops and signal intelligence and the radio telegraphists and technicians and engineers and so on, it had more than several hundred thousand officers working for it. But now the KGB is split in five different agencies. But the agency you speak about, and the book is about, it is the former first chief directorate of the KGB, foreign intelligence service, the first chief directorate was actually the smallest because it was an elite force after all working using foreign languages, operating abroad, knowing quite a lot about the United States and Western Europe and so on. That as it turned out the size of the agency was 14,000; 14; 15,000. The budget, alleged budget, not known exactly but it is a large budget, quite a large budget. Meanwhile after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia remained at half the size as to the resources, maybe a bit more than half, but as to the population exactly half of the former Soviet Union.
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Meanwhile, they preserved the Russian foreign intelligence service, and the GRU, the GRU entirely in the same shape, the same organization, the same name, the same secrecy, the same no links to the public and so on. On the KGB side the Russian foreign intelligence service a bit more open, speaking, having public relations department and so on. But the size is practically the same. And the size of the stations and New York and Washington is the same. In some countries even bigger. For example in Germany because in Germany there was the East German service Stasi helping them. Now there were two, Germany and Brussels, the NATO headquarters themselves to increase their presence in the Benelux countries and in Germany.
So in Russia when they ask why do they have such a service do they need it or not, the public interest to the question is now very low, different from what it was in 1991, 1992, because with the crime, with corruption, laundering money, huge billions of dollars coming and disappearing again somewhere abroad, they now know that the budgets of those new Russians, the money lost or taken abroad, that budget or that money is much, much bigger than the budget that was the Russian intelligence service. Compared to those losses, for them the Russian, the KGB is peanuts. And they now don't speak about their budget at all.
Meanwhile, the new theory is now developed in Russia just as well we have the intelligence service. We lost our empire. We lost four Soviet republics; we lost Eastern European countries, but at least we kept our intelligence service which is adding a little bit to our weight, to our knowledge. For a little money, we get a lot of useful knowledge which is a kind of a weapon in now foreign affairs. This is why the Russian spy can sleep well, peacefully, because nobody will disturb their life internally.
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Mr. RODRIGUEZ. But you also made some indication that some of them were also in leadership positions, and is that correct?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. The point I was making that the so-called power ministries, which is ministry of defense, ministry of the interior, ministry of the Russian foreign intelligence service, and the FSB, which is the nucleus of the former KGB, they remain influential. And their thinking and what they work out the theory and future politics and so on, their concepts and so on, they prevail and they are very much influenced by the old Soviet thinking. That is why the Russia of today, how I see it, it is not like the Czech Republic, Estonia or Slovenia becoming very Westernized and very friendly. It's a traumatized post-totalitarian transitional society which is very, verycan be dangerous if you.
Mr. RODRIGUEZ. Can we presuppose that they have some kind of say-so and some kind of influence in terms of future leadership?
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Who? The intelligence services, the power ministries?
Mr. RODRIGUEZ. Yes.
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. Absolutely. Because look for example Mr. Putin, former member of the first chief directorate of the KGB, of the foreign intelligence service, having served in Germany. He is now prime minister. And not only he is prime minister, he is a successful prime minister. He is prime minister whose popularity is growing. And when Yeltsin said he was his candidate to become next president, everybody laughed. But that was two months ago. Nobody laughs today because they now take it seriously. Mr. Putin is the main candidate on the political scene of Russia to become realistically the next president. So it will be history.
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Mr. RODRIGUEZ. How much of that information is known by the Russian people?
Dr. ANDREW. The Russian people know perfectly well what the background of Vladimir Putin is, just as they know what the background of Yevgeni Primakov is. But there is this extraordinary fact that amongst the peoplea lot may change over the next few months, but at the present time just about the two favorites to succeed Boris Yeltsin, first of all Vladimir Putin, although if things go even worse in Chechnya than they are at the present time that his chances may plummet. But a few months ago the favorite was Yevgeni Primakov, code named MAKSIM, a man who made his operation reputation by operations in the United States for the KGB.
Mr. RODRIGUEZ. Thank you.
Mr. WELDON. I have on the list in order of coming in, let's see, next, Mr. Kuykendall, Mr. Pitts, Mr. Bateman and Mr. Hill. So we will turn now to Mr. Kuykendall.
Mr. KUYKENDALL. This is all extremely intriguing, and it is fascinating for me now. I agree with your assessment that we will rewrite the history of books for the last two or three decades, for sure, the relationship we have had with Russia, or the former Soviet Union, at that time. And of all the comments that we have talked about so far this morning, or this afternoon, the one that has been the most troubling is this concept that we do have and probably do have caches of weapons and/or communications equipment located within the continental United States.
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And we are not aware of where they are or how to get them or how to get them disarmed or removed. That I view as an immediate threat against this country. And it is a threat whether or not the former Soviet Union or their subsidiary countries now would or surviving entities afterwards would choose to use them or whether someone who knew of their existence decides to use them in a terrorist fashion.
To me that is an immediate threat with need to deal with. I would like you to comment, one, on that. Do you think or do you have any specific guidance to give us on how to go about getting those locations and getting cooperation with the current Russian Government and intelligence service and getting them located and neutralizing their damage to the country?
The second one is more a question of looking forward. You have a great historical perspective on what the government of the Soviet Union was like before it broke up. And it has been, I guess in the case of Colonel Gordievsky, about 14 years since you were there under probably not as great of conditions as you would have liked at that time, what do you perceiveand this is where I am going to ask you just to do some blue sky based on your background that I don't have, and your knowledge, what do you perceive is the threat in the future?
There was extreme paranoia described in a couple of different time periods that could have led us to a nuclear attack which, thank God, did not happen. Do you see a continuation of that kind of mental preparation as a nation or is there another type of threat?
I know militarily right now in a conventional sense we do not view the Soviet or the Russian army right now as strong a threat as it was a few years back. Just like ours has gotten smaller, theirs has gotten smaller and other activities as well. So one question about ideas you may have how to deal with these caches based on your backgrounds. The second, if could you give some kind of blue-sky kind of approach. If you each of you could comment on that. What kind of threats should we be expecting. In your case you are looking at history, so I am trying to interpret that to say what kind of threat do I have to worry about next year. And you probably have three or four minutes to look at it.
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Mr. WELDON. We are okay. That means we have 15 minutes so we can go until we have about five minutes left because we are fast runners. So you got about ten minutes before we have to run over to vote.
Dr. ANDREW. Well, first of all so far as the caches are concerned, I don't know how to get the answers, but I know whose got the answers. The people who have got the answers are the SVR. There is not much prospect of getting the answers from the SVR until they are at least asked. I think they should be asked. If they say we don't know, they can be asked well, what about Switzerland? What about Belgium? What about a number of other places. So step one it seems to me if you are seeking the answer to a question is to ask the person who knows the answer. If they refuse to give it, then one has to move on to something else.
So far as looking forward is concerned, we need, I think, to be aware of what Russia has suffered over the last ten years. This is something which I think makes some sense to a citizen of the United Kingdom. It was a great American who said of Britain as we were losing our empire, Britain has lost an empire and not yet found a role.
The Russian empire, the Soviet Union as it used to be called, lost almost overnight half of its territory. Now it did so, unlike Britain, not at a period of political stability, not at a period of economic recovery, but at a period of political disintegration and economic disintegration.
We were plainly in error, less than ten years ago, the beginning of this decade in assuming that the transition to multi-party democracy and a functioning market economy could be easy or successful. What I failed to grasp, as so many of us did, was those things which we took for granted in the West, were not present in the Soviet Union. And we should have understood the preconditions better than we did.
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We take the rule of law for granted in the West. Without being too senescent and too platitudeness, this is an extraordinary blessing which has taken centuries of democrat development to produce. But how one produces a functioning multi-party democracy, how one produces a functioning market economy without the rule of law is a question I can't answer. I am inclined to think that what is really missing in Russia at the present time are the preconditions of both. And until the preconditions are established, I can't quite see how they are going to get there.
Mr. KUYKENDALL. Then it sounds like you would view future threats going forward almost more economic in nature than military in nature based upon the fact we have a dysfunctional economy and operating system.
Dr. ANDREW. I would say this, that even leaving aside the nature of the system, disintegrating empires with high levels of threat perception are capable of doing pretty appalling things. Now, fortunately, when Britain was as crazy as to invade Suez with France, in 1956, I think the last occasion on which a British foreign secretary put on a false mustache and went to France to sign a treaty to collude with Israel in the invasion of Suez, a treaty which to his dying day he denied that he had ever signed, fortunately we had friends to get us out of the hole. That is to say we had the United States, which pulled the plug on a British military adventure.
Unfortunately, the Russian Federation does not have a friend to pull the plug on what is going on in Chechnya. So there are two problems, two sets of problems: one, those that relate to the hideous regime that used to rule in the Russian Federation; and then, second, those sets of problems which relate to the disintegration of an empire. And putting those two together has given the Russian Federation a tremendously hard ride.
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Colonel GORDIEVSKY. A few words. As to the caches, security of the United States, here, I agree with Mr. Andrew that you need to get in touch with the SVR and FSB. They are very eager to establish good relations with the CIA, FBI, and other law enforcement agencies of the United States and other Western countries. So if they want those good relations, just reveal those elementary things. Because after all it is the legacy of the Cold War, and nobody needs those caches and those weapons and whatever which are hidden somewhere in Western Europe and the United States. But before they agree to do it, you render all possible support to the FBI and to other agencies in inviting expertise in from the friendly countries like Germany, Britain, Scandinavia, Poland, maybe, Baltic republics who can consult and help you look for those things.
As to the future security how to organize now that Russia goes along a democratic path, it is very difficult and it is very long story. I can't speak about it now. But let's speak about the threats to the United States and the Western world. The threats will come obviously from the remaining nuclear warheads and they are all together maybe 30,000, 30,000. Quite many. As many of them are in the intercontinental ballistic missiles. And those can be launched by mistake. The NATO and the Warsaw Pact survived 40 years without a single mistake launch of a nuclear missile against each other. And when they wanted to use them in Cuba and during the Korean War in, say, 1950, 1951, it was never used becausebut now, you need something to do in order to have American fingers somewhere there, that the Russians would besome of the Russians will react with indignation of course if you will demand it. But I think sooner or later American people, American officers should be present and each intercontinental missile controlling they are not targeted against the West, Western Europe or the United States.
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Mr. KUYKENDALL. Thank you.
Mr. WELDON. We have to ask a question here. We have a series of votes here. Dr. Andrew and Colonel Gordievsky, would you be willing to stick around while we go over and vote? Is that okay with you? I know you have a radio interview at six. We will have you out before then. We have five votes in a row. The first one is just about five minutes left, then we will have five minutes votes each. So we should be back by quarter of five.
What Members plan to come back? Joe, do you plan to come back?
Mr. PITTS. I don't know if I can make it back or not.
Mr. WELDON. I will be back. Mr. Bartlett. I will try to round up some other Members. And meanwhile I would ask staff to get you some refreshments or something. And we appreciate you being here, and we will return as soon as this series of votes. So we will temporarily adjourn the hearing.
[Recess.]
Mr. WELDON. The subcommittee will reconvene. We apologize to our witnesses for having delayed. As you can see, we have been joined by some additional Members. I want to particularly point out the chairman of our full committee who has now joined us, Chairman Floyd Spence from South Carolina, who is the full committee chairman.
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Did you have any comments you would like to make, Mr. Chairman.
Mr. SPENCE. No, except I appreciate you having this hearing and I have heard good things about it, and I appreciate our witnesses being here and their contribution too. Thank you.
Mr. WELDON. Thank you, Mr. Chairman. With that, we will turn to Mr. Bateman.
Mr. BATEMAN. Thank you, Mr. Chairman. And I, too, would like to add my thanks to Colonel Gordievsky and to Dr. Andrews. I found your testimony fascinating, and in many respects alarming, but it doesn't detract from its being very meaningful and significant.
One of the things that I think we who share some responsibility for policy-making in this country have to face is how we deal with Russia and/or other countries in the context of arms control agreements which we sign, and which we abide by and the other parties do not.
Does any of the material which you have access to suggest that there is almost a studied policy of violating or evasion or avoidance of arms control agreements and counter-proliferation agreements?
Dr. ANDREW. Well, two brief replies to a very important and also very complex question.
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The KGB material does not deal with the degree to which you can and can't evade arms control agreements. Otherwise, I think we are just stuck with a two-track policy. As so often in this world, it seems not either. In other words, do we engage in confidence-building measures or do you insist on hard answers to hard questions? I see no contradiction between the two.
I see no reason why, for example, there cannot be Russian interns in Congress, as there are, and American interns in the Duma, as there are, and simultaneously ask reasonable, but hard, questions, and ask for reasonable, but hard, answers. And spinning out a general policy like that in practice is very difficult, but I am an absolutely convinced supporter of a two-track policy.
Colonel GORDIEVSKY. You speak about the Russians who deceive the Americans and deceive other nations of the Western world and how much they abide by the arms control agreements. Obviously in the past they didn't.
We discussed today how much they violated the chemical weapons convention and biological and so on, and probably cheat about in other areas. Even Mr. Gorbachev who is so popular in the West, he even boasted to Margaret Thatcher and other Western leaders about the situation there.
Another point, apart from them having the culture of lying to the people whom they regard as foreigners, there is now another situation that many local commanders, local military leaders and local politicians don't tell the truth to Moscow, to the central authorities, and conceal the truth from their own political leadership.
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What advice to give here, I don't know, because the truthfulness which prevails to the Western world, in Western Europe and North America, it is based on the rule of law and democracy and openness of society. And they don't have the rule of law. They don't havethey don't take the law seriously.
Many Russians, even important politicians, if you speak to them, they will reveal to you that they don't believe that there is a rule of law in Britain or the United States. They don't think that it is achievable. So there is a very long way. I don't know how. The more democracy, the more openness and the more respect you have for law in Russia, the easier it will be to make them stick to the rules.
Another thing, my advice is, don't hesitate to speak. The Americans and the British have the culture of being very, very courteous, and often when you see violations of the international agreements, often Britain and the United States remain silent because they don't want to be rude. Meanwhile, it is entirely misunderstood on the Russian side. In the KGB, it is misunderstood because it is regarded as either signs of weakness by the West or a sign that we have deceived them, it is all right. We go on doing it.
Just speak up and don't hesitate. If they produce, still, biological weapons, which they are not supposed to, just say so. And demand answers from the visiting politicians whenever you meet them again and again and again.
Mr. BATEMAN. Is there an anomaly somewhere that the Russians bothered to ask or to advise us that they were not going to comply with the Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty, by reasons of overriding national security interest, but they would apparently find totally unacceptable if we were to say to them with respect to the Antiballistic Missile Treaty that we are not going to comply with it as written, and even if it were in effect, because of our overriding superior national security interest?
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Colonel GORDIEVSKY. So there you are. It is a very strange position. They can dictate what you are supposed to do and not supposed to do, and also they demand more money from the financial organizations, basically American money, and they ask for food help as well. No dignity and pride is left there.
I am Russian myself, but I feel humiliated how some of their politicians behave towards the West.
Mr. WELDON. Thank you, Mr. Bateman.
I don't want to take too much more of your time because you both have been very gracious with your time, especially as we have had to break, and you have given us some very startling testimony today, which is already resonating on the floor of the House. Members were talking about it during the votes.
I do want to ask Mr. Bartlett if he has any additional questions that he would like to ask.
Mr. BARTLETT. No.
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Mr. WELDON. Just in closing, we deeply appreciate the good work that you have done.
Again, for the public record, the book is entitled ''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archives'' by Christopher Andrew. We appreciate your traveling all of the way over, Dr. Andrew, from Britain; and the same with you, Colonel Gordievsky. And I would just note again for the record that they have collaborated on three other books, Inside the KGB and two other editions, and we appreciate the fine work that you have done. You have been a tremendous help to us.
We will continue to pursue this issue. I have read the letter that we have already sent to Secretary Albright. We will continue to pursue it.
In closing, I again want to thank you and I want to thank the American Foreign Policy Council who assisted the committee in providing transportation and costs associated with bringing you both here.
Dr. Andrews, I want to thank your publicist for their cooperation as well. You have done a great service for freedom-loving people around the world.
The hearing is now adjourned.
[Whereupon, at 5:20 p.m., the subcommittee was adjourned.]
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German-Americans during World War I
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German-Americans during World War I
World War I had a devastating effect on German-Americans and their cultural heritage. Up until that point, German-Americans, as a group, had been spared much of the discrimination, abuse, rejection, and collective mistrust experienced by so many different racial and ethnic groups in the history of the United States. Indeed, over the years, they had been viewed as a well-integrated and esteemed part of American society. All of this changed with the outbreak of war.
Author » Katja Wüstenbecker , University of Jena Published: September 19, 2014 Updated: September 25, 2014
Notes
World War I had a devastating effect on German-Americans and their cultural heritage. Up until that point, German-Americans, as a group, had been spared much of the discrimination, abuse, rejection, and collective mistrust experienced by so many different racial and ethnic groups in the history of the United States. Indeed, over the years, they had been viewed as a well-integrated and esteemed part of American society. All of this changed with the outbreak of war. At once, German ancestry became a liability. As a result, German-Americans attempted to shed the vestiges of their heritage and become fully “American.” Among other outcomes, this process hastened their assimilation into American society and put an end to many German-language and cultural institutions in the United States.
Although German immigrants had begun settling in America during the colonial period, the vast majority of them (more than five million) arrived in the nineteenth century. In fact, as late as 1910 , about nine percent of the American population had been born in Germany or was of German parentage – the highest percentage of any ethnic group. [1] Moreover, as most German-Americans lived on the East Coast or in the Midwest, there were numerous regions in which they made up as much as 35 percent of the populace. Most of the earlier German immigrants had been farmers or craftsmen and had usually settled near fellow countrymen in towns or on the countryside; most of those who arrived in the 1880s and thereafter moved to the ever growing cities in search of work. Soon enough there was hardly any large U.S. city without an ethnic German neighborhood. German-Americans wielded strong economic and cultural influence in cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, with the latter three forming the so-called German triangle.
German immigrants were generally considered to be hard-working, thrifty, and charitable – a successfully integrated group that still clung to its cultural heritage by maintaining German-language schools, newspapers, and various social clubs. No other immigrant group founded so many different societies: there were specific occupational groups, shooting clubs, singing groups, literary associations, and gymnastic clubs, as well as societies for Germans from particular regions, to name just a few. Craftsmen founded mutual benefit societies to provide assistance in the event of invalidity or to support the widows and orphans of members. Members not only attended weekly meetings, but also participated in weekend activities and charitable events. They helped newcomers, cared for the elderly, and supported each other in times of personal or professional need. By 1915, there were thousands of these societies all over the country, with more than two hundred in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Milwaukee, respectively. [2] But not all German immigrants joined these clubs. Some engaged in political work, or joined labor unions or business organizations; others preferred their churches and the social networks that sprang up around them. This was especially true in rural areas, where churches were the center of cultural and communal life. Despite their differences, most Germans had one thing in common – a love for and an ongoing commitment to the German language. German-Americans may have come from different parts of Germany, but most of them felt united by a common conception of cultural “Germanness.” In summary, one could argue that before 1914, the vast majority German-Americans had a nostalgic love for their ethnic heritage, yet no sense of political loyalty toward Imperial Germany.
American Reactions to the Outbreak of War in Europe
When news of the war reached the United States in August 1914, immigrants from all over Europe reacted with sympathy and concern for the citizens of their home countries. Among those immigrants were thousands of German reservists who rushed to German consulates in the U.S. in an effort to return home and join the fight. German-Americans also held patriotic meetings in cities such as New York and Chicago and collected for war relief funds. Such enthusiastic “war fever” was prevalent among all immigrant groups, but since people of German origin made up a high percentage of the American population, they came under heightened public scrutiny.
The reaction of German-Americans to the war varied, however. That was to be expected, given their regional, political, and religious diversity. German immigrants did not form a homogenous group. German-Americans included “Germans” who had emigrated from various German-speaking territories prior to their official political unification in the German Empire of 1871, Reichsdeutsche immigrants, ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe, as well as members of religious groups with distinct identities, such as Mennonites. By 1914, the vast majority of German-Americans were American-born descendants of such earlier immigrants. Although many of them strongly sympathized with their relatives in the old “Fatherland,” they identified firstly as Americans and thus wanted to stay out of the war. Most of their fellow Americans shared this attitude, along with President Woodrow Wilson, who immediately declared the country's neutrality.
Before long, however, the news from Europe began to divide the country. Reports that German soldiers had committed atrocities against Belgian civilians circulated widely and gave rise to anti-German sentiment in the United States. Most German-Americans viewed these stories as fabrications, the work of British propaganda. In response, the German Foreign Office decided to launch a counter-propaganda campaign in the United States. Its agents submitted their own accounts to German-language newspapers and sponsored the founding of the journal “The Fatherland,” which became the mouthpiece of the German government.
Still, it was not enough to combat an anti-German sentiment that had been growing in the U.S. for two decades. Under Kaiser (or Emperor) Wilhelm II, Germany had developed a militaristic reputation , and, to make matters worse, the United States and Germany had already been embroiled in a confrontation over the Philippines in 1898. Furthermore, at the time, Germany and the United States were involved in growing economic competition not only in North America and Europe, but also in Latin America, which only heightened the tensions between the two nations. [3] By the turn of the century, Wilhelm II knew that anti-German sentiment was on the rise in the U.S., and in 1902 he tried to improve Germany’s image among Americans by sending his brother Heinrich on a “goodwill tour” of the United States. Unfortunately, Wilhelm and Heinrich’s efforts were to no avail. Not long after the outbreak of World War I, Americans started to view the conflict as a war of ideology: the Allies were portrayed as defending “civilization,” the Axis Powers were seen as asserting their “cultural superiority.” This fateful equation of German culture with military might soon proved disastrous for German-Americans. [4]
In May 1915, the Lusitania, a British passenger steamer, was torpedoed by a German submarine off the Irish coast, resulting in the loss of nearly 1,200 lives, including 124 Americans. The situation for German-Americans worsened immediately. In their defense, German officials maintained that the crew had been warned not to sail into a war zone, and they accused the ship of carrying war contraband for the British (which was indeed true). [5] Still, most Americans viewed the sinking of the Lusitania as an unscrupulous German attack on civilians , indeed as an act of cold-blooded murder. Thereafter, many – if not most – Americans identified German Kultur with destruction and barbarism, and they regarded Germans as “uncivilized brutes” and “Huns,” a term used by the Kaiser himself in a 1900 speech in which he instructed departing German troops to be as menacing and ruthless as “Huns.”
In 1915-16, several groups (among them German-Americans, but also pacifists and socialists) tried to keep the United States out of the war by demanding an embargo on munitions shipments to all belligerents. The Wilson administration, however, argued that wartime contracts with participating nations were still within the scope of American neutrality. At the same time, many influential Americans, including banker J.P. Morgan, came out in open support of the Allies. In fact, Morgan soon became the leading financier of the war effort by providing Britain, France, and Russia with loans and by convincing other bankers to do the same. Opponents of the war and the Wilson administration alike claimed that Morgan was trying to draw the United States into the war in order to rescue his loans. A loss on the part of the Allies would have indeed devastated the American economy and financial sector. American manufactured arms and munitions were delivered mainly to the Allied powers on account of their control of the sea. German agents, therefore, tried to cut off these supply lines by committing acts of sabotage in the United States. They blew up munitions shipments, docks (the best-known example is the explosion on Black Tom Island in New York's harbor in July 1916), and possibly several munitions plants. Some of these attacks were planned, financed, and carried out by officials from the German Foreign Office, while others resulted from private initiatives. The latter included Eric Muenter's plot to blow up the U.S. Senate and his July 1915 attempt to assassinate Morgan, whom he viewed as a war profiteer. Berlin and Vienna also called on emigrant workers from Germany and Austria-Hungary to stop producing goods for the Allies. In the end, these efforts went nowhere. What they did do, however, was expand the scope of anti-German sentiment to encompass not only German nationals, but also German-Americans, who were now viewed as potential spies and saboteurs . [6]
The year 1916 saw the growth of the preparedness campaign. “Patriotic” societies, as they called themselves, such as the National Security League and the American Defense Society, now stressed the importance of preparing the country for self-defense and eventual war. They demanded compulsory military training at schools, the end of foreign-language instruction, and “100 percent Americanism”: a slogan that was shorthand for patriotism, loyalty, and unwavering support for the government. [7] The question of German-American loyalty also became an issue during the 1916 presidential election campaign, when candidates Woodrow Wilson and Charles Evans Hughes both declared hyphenated Americans to be potentially disloyal. Another prominent person who spoke out against Americans with purported divided loyalties was former President Theodore Roosevelt, whose verbal attacks were often published in the nation's newspapers. Americans of German descent now found themselves under a constant burden of proof regarding their attitude toward the war in Europe. Even though they were being attacked for alleged disloyalty from both Democrats and Republicans, German-Americans voted as they always had – not as an ethnic bloc, as some politicians had hoped, but in accordance with their previous political allegiances, just like the rest of the country. Unwilling to fight in Europe, American voters narrowly reelected President Wilson, who had campaigned under the slogan “he kept us out of war.”
Against the backdrop of German sabotage, preparedness campaigns, and America’s financial entanglements with the Allies, two events in February 1917 finally triggered the decision to go to war: the first was the German government's announcement that it planned to resume submarine warfare; the second was the so-called Zimmermann Telegram, which had been sent to Mexico by Arthur Zimmermann, the German Foreign Secretary. The telegram had been intercepted by the British and handed over to the Wilson administration. In the telegram, Zimmermann, writing on behalf of Germany, offered the Mexican government their lost territories in the American southwest in return for an alliance in the event of an American declaration of war. Unsurprisingly, the American public reacted with indignation and outrage, and on April 6, 1917, after another sinking of an American merchant ship and the loss of more American lives from German submarines, the United States government declared war on Germany.
America's Mobilization for War
After war was declared, President Wilson immediately proclaimed all German citizens “alien enemies.” They were barred from living near military facilities or airports, in all port towns and in the nation's capital. They had to disclose their bank accounts and any other property to an Alien Property Custodian appointed by the attorney general. Furthermore, in 1918, Germans had to fill out registration affidavits and be fingerprinted. German citizens in America who failed to comply with these rules or who were considered potentially dangerous were placed in internment camps for the duration of the war. The camp at Hot Springs in North Carolina accommodated most of the 2,300 employees of German passenger and merchant ships; about 1,300 German Navy personnel were kept at Fort McPherson in Georgia. All other suspects (academics, journalists, business people, artists etc.) were brought to Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia – about 1,400 for the duration of the war. Fort Douglas in Utah was used for approximately 500 prisoners of war, but soon also included more than 800 “alien enemies” and about 200 American conscientious objectors. [8]
The instant mobilization of the country became a matter of priority for the Wilson administration. The economy had to switch to products necessary for the war; soldiers had to be recruited, trained, equipped, and transported to Europe along with munitions, arms, and tanks; the production of food had to be stepped up in order to supply not only the American population but Allied citizens as well; decisions had to be made about whether to rely on a volunteer army or to introduce compulsory military training; and the American people had to be prepared to make personal and financial sacrifices. Every U.S. state was to establish a Council of Defense for the purpose of helping the government cope with these challenges. [9]
In order to mobilize Americans behind the war effort, so-called patriotic organizations and the federal government alike employed anti-German propaganda. President Wilson appointed journalist George Creel to head the newly created Committee on Public Information (CPI), which was tasked with strengthening the war effort by rallying the public behind the government through speeches, posters, films, and door-to-door campaigns. The CPI also worked closely with immigrant organizations to get the government's message into every household. [10] The fear of spies grew when Americans were warned to be watchful of their neighbors of German descent and to report any suspicious person to the authorities. It was rumored that spies were poisoning food, and that German-Americans were secretly hording arms. The situation was only made worse by newspapers and government officials, both of which fed the public’s paranoia. Nearly nine million potential German-American spies were a frightening thought to most citizens. Many Americans started to look twice at their colleagues and neighbors. Patriotism and loyalty could only be proven by subscribing to liberty loans , donating to the Red Cross, participating in parades, and joining the armed forces. Any form of dissent was henceforth considered pro-German and thus unpatriotic.
New laws restricting the rights of speech, publication, and trade were passed shortly after America’s entry into the war. These included the Espionage Act and the Trading with the Enemy Act, both passed in 1917, and the Sedition Act of 1918. From that point on, any criticism of the government, the draft, or any aspect of the war could be punished by a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisonment for up to twenty years. This, of course, represented a severe break with established democratic traditions in the United States. Still, only a few congressmen supported Senator William Borah (R-Idaho) when he spoke out against these measures, arguing: “It is not necessary to Prussianize ourselves in order to destroy Prussianism in Europe.” [11] In fact, the laws on the punishment of verbal criticism were even stricter than those in autocratic countries such as Russia, and they contravened all civil rights guaranteed in the constitution in an unprecedented way. [12] The laws were passed in part to stem individual acts of vigilantism, which in the past had led to lynchings, beatings, and the tarring and featherings of war opponents. Nevertheless, mob actions escalated in April 1918 in the wake of Germany’s Ludendorff Offensive, which caused the first significant American casualties. In accordance with the popular slogan “If you can't fight over there, fight over here,” members of patriotic societies made certain that everybody in their neighborhood contributed to the war effort. They also harassed anyone who opposed the war, especially those of German stock, but also socialists, pacifists, and conscientious objectors. German-language services in churches were disrupted and German-language newspapers were shut down; churches housing German congregations were painted yellow; schoolchildren were forced to sign pledges in which they promised not to use any foreign language whatsoever; citizens of German descent were dragged out of their homes at night and forced to kiss the flag or sing the national anthem. The most notorious case of mob action was the lynching of Robert Prager in Illinois in April 1918. Prager, a German native who had applied for American citizenship, was known to harbor socialist ideas and was suspected by his neighbors of stealing dynamite. Although this could not be proven, he was dragged out of town, stripped, and hanged. This lynching caused outrage among many prominent Americans; nevertheless, court proceedings found the members of the mob not guilty. [13]
Once the United States entered the war, German-Americans found themselves in a “no win” situation: if they told anyone that they opposed the war, they could face trial; if they avoided the topic altogether, they were considered “lukewarm” patriots. Even those who fully embraced patriotic activities were often suspected of being hypocrites who were hiding their “true” feelings. In July 1917, an American officer summarized this sentiment when he declared: “the truly dangerous German-Americans, the ones we have to watch and exterminate are the German-Americans who wear American flags on their coats but harbor ultimate loyalty to the Kaiser.” [14] The exclusive right to define who was a real American was claimed by the members of so-called patriotic societies: “One hundred percent” Americans did not use any language other than English, did not read foreign-language newspapers or attend foreign-language church services, were not members of any clubs adhering to German customs (French and British clubs became particularly fashionable during the war, however), and did not criticize the government. Many Americans charged German-Americans with divided loyalties or insufficient patriotism unless they proved their “innocence” by contributing generously to patriotic causes. The vast majority of German-Americans, however, were loyal to their (adopted) country and did not understand why they – more than anyone else – had to prove something that was a matter of fact to them. Their situation was attributable to several factors, some of which were beyond their control: first, their sympathy for relatives back in the old country was turned against them once the United States entered the war; second, in the early years of the European war several prominent German-Americans had voiced their opinion that German culture was superior to American, and this cultural chauvinism was later held against the whole ethnic group; and third, the large number of Americans of German descent was seen as a cause for concern, especially after German Foreign Undersecretary Arthur Zimmermann suggested in 1914 that Germany could use this “fifth column” against the U.S. any time it chose. [15] Of course, Zimmermann’s statement was delusional and completely unfounded: German-Americans were much too heterogeneous to be united, and as Americans, they were interested in preserving their cultural rather than their political heritage.
The Effect of Anti-German Sentiment on German-American Cultural Identity
In the fall of 1917, the fight against Germans in Europe was extended to their Kultur in the United States. This battle against all things German included a ban on the use of the German language in schools, universities, libraries, and religious services. Additionally, German societies, musical organizations, and theaters were shuttered and the German-language press in America was forced to shut down. Patriotic organizations claimed that the preservation of the German language would hinder German-Americans’ assimilation into American life and, even worse, brutalize young people: “Any language which produces a people of ruthless conquestadors [sic] such as now exist in Germany, is not a fit language to teach clean and pure American boys and girls.” [16] In most public schools, teachers were forced to sign loyalty pledges, and many pupils no longer dared to enroll in German-language courses. By March 1918, thirty-eight out of forty-eight states had restricted or ended German-language instruction in schools. Ohio, Iowa, and Nebraska passed the strictest language laws in the country; since their laws also prohibited the use of any foreign language in public places or on the telephone, the U.S. Supreme Court declared them to be unconstitutional in 1923 and 1925, respectively. [17] Public and university libraries ended their subscriptions to German-language newspapers, books written in German and even English books that dealt with Germany and Austria-Hungary (such as history books or tourist guides) were stowed in basements for the duration of the war. However, some libraries went so far as to destroy them or to sell them as wastepaper; several of these books were actually publicly burned along with German-language newspapers during local patriotic celebrations.
Most German-American congregations suffered from the language ban, and many of them eventually switched to English for their religious services. Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterites were among the groups that were most heavily exposed to hostility, because their members were not only of German descent but also generally opposed to military participation. (Ironically, they had once left Europe to evade military service and find religious tolerance.) During wartime, however, their pacifist creed was taken as proof of their pro-German sympathies; the fact that most of them kept apart from their American neighbors made them even more suspect. In general, they chose not to comment on the public discourse; they continued to operate their own schools, cherished their old customs, spoke their German dialects, and resisted Americanization. None of them felt any loyalty toward Germany; they just wanted to be left alone to practice their faith and live according to their religious beliefs. Many so-called patriotic organizations were irritated by this behavior, and they renewed their efforts to force those groups to contribute to the war effort. Several members of these religious groups were beaten, churches were destroyed, their cattle was sold in order to buy liberty bonds in their names, and American flags were hoisted on their schools. These religious communities were left with two options: either to suffer this treatment or emigrate. The more liberal congregations chose the first option and worked out a compromise with the Wilson government in which they allowed their young men to participate in the civil service. Still, some Mennonites were drafted into the armed forces, and several of them were jailed as conscientious objectors. More than 1,500 Mennonites and Hutterites finally migrated to Canada during the war in order to escape further harassment and prosecution. [18] In times of frantic mobilization, when the German language was as much an enemy as Imperial Germany itself and when war opponents were seen as traitors, there was no room for tolerance for ethnic peculiarities and pacifist ideals.
These self-proclaimed patriotic organizations also started campaigns to Americanize the United States nominally. Hundreds of German names for towns, streets, parks, and public buildings were changed. Extremely recognizable German names such as “Berlin” or “Hamburg” became “Pershing” or “Belgium.” Many German-Americans sought to avoid further harassment by changing their family names, often shortening them or translating them into English. The same was true for most cultural societies. Actual legislation or local pressure led to changes in club names, the halting of publications (or at least a switch to English), an end to meetings for the duration of the war or even the outright termination of clubs. Several German theaters that were dependent on the language skills of their patrons had to give up performing in the years to come. Even music fell victim to patriotic scrutiny. Most well-known orchestras had conductors and musicians who were either German or German-American, such as Frederick Stock of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Ernst Kunwald of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, or Karl Muck, the conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra (who ended up in Fort Oglethorpe), to name only the most prominent. Many orchestras and opera houses stopped playing works by German and Austrian composers such as Beethoven or Mozart to avoid being labeled disloyal. For some patriotic societies, German music was particularly perilous since it stirred the emotions of listeners; for others, it was a perfect tool for German propaganda: “German music, as a whole, is dangerous, in that it preaches the same philosophy, or rather sophistry, as most of the German literature. It is the music of conquest, the music of the storm, of disorder, and devastation.” [19]
German-language newspapers also came under intense pressure from these so-called patriotic organizations. Many readers cancelled their subscriptions, companies stopped advertising in them, no one wanted to deliver them anymore, and vendors stopped selling them. Many of them switched to English, some merged with former competitors, others ceased operations for the duration of the war. Many ethnic societies and German-language papers failed to survive the war; still, not all of them were destroyed. Though strongly diminished, several continued into the decades after the war.
On the whole, the treatment of German-Americans during the war varied from region to region and depended on their numbers and on the behavior of local politicians and attorney generals. There was less harassment in places where there were few citizens of German descent, since they were not perceived as a real threat. Likewise, there were fewer arrests of German-Americans and less scrutiny in places where local politicians and lawyers resolved not to enforce laws to the fullest. However, when politicians and officials decided to use the situation to advance their careers, they were often able to incite a community to hatred against anyone who appeared to dissent – just as Joseph McCarthy did thirty years later. As a result of the war, many German-Americans preferred to conceal their ethnic background, as could be seen in the first postwar census, when about 900,000 German-born Americans seemingly vanished, only to reappear under the categories of American-born or other ethnicity. [20] Insofar as they held onto their German language, culture, and traditions at all, many German-Americans did so in private or turned it into folklore.
German-American Entrepreneurs during the War
As soon as the United States declared war on Germany, President Wilson proclaimed all German citizens “alien enemies.” As mentioned above, that meant that they were no longer allowed to live or work near military facilities or airports, in ports or in the nation's capital. This caused serious problems, because most cities included several exclusion zones. Many people who were professionally dependent on mobility, such as service technicians or carters, were no longer allowed to move around freely. Although employers could apply for permits that government officials issued when a worker was declared loyal, thousands of “alien enemies” lost their jobs. Soon, officials at the Department of Justice acknowledged this as a problem: “. . . it became apparent that an immediate exclusion of all German alien enemies from the prohibited areas . . . would result in unnecessary and serious hardship upon the alien enemies, and would undoubtedly precipitate a serious labor problem.” [21] In New York, some German-Americans tried to ease the hardship by establishing the Agricultural and Industrial Relief Bureau, a private initiative that placed unemployed persons in open positions. In Chicago, the situation grew even worse on May 1, 1918, when the city council withdrew trade licenses from all non-naturalized persons of any nationality, leaving more than 6,000 craftsmen, shopkeepers, pub owners and other businesspeople (and their workers) unemployed. [22]
The private fortunes of “alien enemies” also came under scrutiny. Even before the passage of the Trading with the Enemy Act in October 1917, Charles Warren, the deputy attorney general, appointed a special assistant for New York who was responsible for disclosing the bank accounts of “alien enemies.” Other attorney generals followed suit in other states. For the duration of the war, “alien enemies” needed a permit to withdraw or transfer money from their accounts. Additionally, after the passage of the act, all German citizens had to disclose any other property to Alien Property Custodian A. Mitchell Palmer . Business owners had to hand over their books and customer lists for inspection. If Palmer decided that these business relations were a threat to the United States, he was authorized to sequestrate the company's capital for the duration of the war. Up until the end of the war, Palmer held about 32,000 assets in a trust worth approximately $800 million (approximately $10.4 billion in 2011 dollars). [23]
Anyone who had business relations with Germany was also affected by the passage of the Trading with the Enemy Act, which restricted trade with countries hostile to the United States. Even though maritime warfare around the British Isles and the blockade of Germany had already curtailed most oversea trading options, numerous financial ties persisted – the result of a growing globalized economy. Many American companies had sold their shares in German businesses once war between the two countries had been declared. Mitchell Palmer, however, was more concerned about possible German shares in U.S. companies. He feared that Germany could use its influence over those companies to hinder the American war effort or, at least, use the profits for its own war economy. On March 28, 1918, an amendment to the Trading with the Enemy Act was passed. The amendment legalized the confiscation of German capital investments in the U.S and made it possible for the government to put them up for auction. Palmer thereupon divided “alien enemy” property into two groups: the first group included the property of people he regarded as “friendly” to the United States. Their investments and possessions were preserved unharmed until the end of the war. The second group included large-scale German corporate investments in important American industries such as textiles, machinery, and especially chemistry. Those investments were put up for sale. [24] Another amendment was passed on November 4, 1918, a week before the Armistice. It legalized the confiscation and sale of thousands of patents that German scientists and companies had taken out, both in Germany and the United States. German companies were world leaders in the development and production of dyestuffs and medicinals, and now American companies were able to use their competitors' techniques and knowledge without having to compensate them. Palmer immediately sold about 4,500 patents to the Chemical Foundation, an organization of the American chemical industry, which then licensed those patents and brands under the foundation's name. [25]
As mentioned previously, after the outbreak of war, German-American shopkeepers and businessmen were quickly targeted by self-proclaimed patriotic organizations. They were told to stop advertising in allegedly disloyal newspapers, to hoist the American flag on their buildings, and to make sure that their employees contributed to liberty loan campaigns – even if that meant threatening them with unemployment. Bigger companies were often asked to make office space available so that members of patriotic organizations could work directly on their premises and keep an eye on employees. Many employers received anonymous telephone calls asking whether they still employed German-American “spies” (i.e. German-American workers); other employers no longer promoted anyone with a German name. [26]
Numerous German-American entrepreneurs felt compelled to change the names of their companies to prove their loyalty. In doing so, they were often responding to ultimatums such as this: “Our love for America should not tolerate anything which is German ahead of anything which is American and we will not tolerate it. The German-American bank [in Milwaukee] should be forced to discontinue business until its company chooses a name which is thoroughly American, purely Democratic, and PATRIOTIC.” [27] For many German-American businessmen, renaming their companies was the only way to stop customers from boycotting their products, especially since their competitors often embraced slander in order to gain an advantage.
The aversion to German names was not limited to persons and companies, however. In April 1918, a delegation of greengrocers asked the Federal Food Board to rename “sauerkraut,” since sales of pickled cabbage had dropped 75 percent since the beginning of the war. They suggested “liberty cabbage” or “pickled vegetable” as more suitable names. The Food Board concurred and the product was henceforth sold as “liberty cabbage.” This led to an immediate rise in sales, since consumers no longer felt that it was unpatriotic to buy it. [28] Other so-called German products were renamed as well – for example, “hamburgers” were now called “liberty sandwiches,” and the “Bismarck pastry” was renamed “American beauty.” When it became clear that the aversion to all things German even encompassed German shepherds and dachshunds, breeders renamed them “Alsatian shepherds” and “liberty pups,” respectively. Even the “German measles” needed a more patriotic name, and the malady was thus renamed “liberty measles.” [29]
Most German-American entrepreneurs overcame wartime difficulties by changing their companies’ names (and often their family names as well), by advertising in patriotic newspapers, by proving their loyalty through generous contributions to liberty loan campaigns, and by joining patriotic organizations to leave no doubt of their patriotism. Many local German-American businessmen were fortunate to have loyal customers who continued buying their products throughout the war. Others were not so lucky. The war years, for example, were particularly difficult for German-American brewers and pub owners, who, on top of anti-German sentiment, had to contend with the beginnings of Prohibition as well.
Notes
[1] U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 194.
[2] Kathleen Neils Conzen, “Germans,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom et al. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 405-25, here: 417.
[3] By 1913, America’s share of international trade had reached 11 percent, putting the country in third place behind Great Britain (15%) and Germany (13%). David Kennedy, Over Here. The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 298.
[4] Clara Eve Schieber, The Transformation of American Sentiment toward Germany, 1870-1914 (Boston and New York: Cornhill, 1923), 241-44.
[5] Thomas A. Bailey, “The Sinking of the Lusitania,” American Historical Review 41.1 (1935): 54-73.
[6] Katja Wüstenbecker, Deutsch-Amerikaner im Ersten Weltkrieg: US-Politik und nationale Identitäten im Mittleren Westen (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007), 81-83, 92-95.
[7] John Carver Edwards, Patriots in Pinstripe: Men of the National Security League (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1982).
[8] Jörg Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten im Krieg: “Feindliche Ausländer” und die amerikanische Heimatfront während des Ersten Weltkriegs (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2000), 536-649.
[9] William J. Breen, Uncle Sam at Home: Civilian Mobilization, Wartime Federation, and the Council of National Defense, 1917-1919 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984).
[10] Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).
[11] Cited in Edward Robb Ellis, Echoes of Distant Thunder. Life in the United States, 1914-1918 (New York: Kodansha International, 1996), 436.
[12] Robert Justin Goldstein, Political Repression in Modern America. From 1870 to the Present (Cambridge, MA, and New York: Schenkman Publishing Co. and Two Continents Publishing Group, 1978), 73-75, 101-04.
[13] Donald Hickey, “The Prager Affair: A Study in Wartime Hysteria,” Journal of the Illinois Historical Society 62 (1969): 117-34.
[14] Arthur Guy Empey in McClure's (July 1917): 21.
[15] At the end of 1914, Zimmermann told U.S. Ambassador James Gerard that there were approximately 500,000 German reservists in the United States who could easily be called upon to fight. James W. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1917), 237.
[16] Wallace H. Moore, The Conflict Concerning the German Language and German Propaganda in the Public Secondary Schools of the United States. Ph.D diss. (Stanford University, 1937), 33-34.
[17] I.N. Edwards, “The Legal Status of Foreign Languages in the Schools,” in Elementary School Journal 24 (December 6, 1923): 270-78; Cora Lee Nollendorfs, “Deutschunterricht in Amerika im Schatten des Ersten Weltkrieges: Öffentlich-offizielle Verfahrensweisen und gesellschaftliches Gebaren,” in Zeitschrift für Kulturaustausch 35.2 (1985): 190-99.
[18] Gerlof D. Homan, “Mennonites and Military Justice in World War I,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 66.3 (1992): 365-75.
[19] The Nation, no. 107 (July 6, 1918): 3. See also J.E. Vacha, “When Wagner was Verboten: The Campaign against German Music in World War I,” New York History 64 (1983): 171-88.
[20] Wüstenbecker, Deutsch-Amerikaner im Ersten Weltkrieg, 323-27.
[21] Annual Report of the Attorney General, here: the report for 1918 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1916-22): 32.
[22] See The New York Times, March 23, 1918, 6.
[23] Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten, 455-60. All current values (in 2011 USD) are based on Samuel H. Williamson, “Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to present,” MeasuringWorth, using the Consumer Price Index.
[24] Thomas R. Kabisch, Deutsches Kapital in den USA. Von der Reichsgründung bis zur Sequestrierung (Stuttgart: In Kommission bei Klett-Cotta, 1982), 293-94.
[25] Kennedy, Over Here, 312-13.
[26] Gerd Korman, Industrialization, Immigrants, and Americanizers: The View from Milwaukee, 1866-1921 (Madison, WI: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1967), 174-75.
[27] Wisconsin State Journal (January 12, 1918). The bank changed its name to the American Exchange Bank.
[28] “Sauerkraut Disguised So Patriotic Folks Can Eat It,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, April 7, 1918.
[29] Wüstenbecker,Deutsch-Amerikaner im Ersten Weltkrieg, 286-89.
Cite this Entry
APA Style
"German-Americans during World War I." (2016) In Immigrant Entrepreneurship, Retrieved December 18, 2016, from Immigrant Entrepreneurship: http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=214
Chicago Style
Wüstenbecker, Katja. "German-Americans during World War I." In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol. 3, edited by Giles R. Hoyt. German Historical Institute. Last modified September 25, 2014. http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=214
MLA Style
"German-Americans during World War I," Immigrant Entrepreneurship, 2016, Immigrant Entrepreneurship. 18 Dec 2016 <http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=214>
Crown Prince Heinrich and U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in New York, February 25, 1902
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What's the famous tourist attraction to be found at a castle founded by Cormac McCarthy in County Cork ? | The Untold History of the United States
Chapter 1
WORLD WAR I:
Wilson vs. Lenin
The election of 1912 found Woodrow Wilson, a former president of Princeton University and governor of New Jersey, in a hard-fought four-party race against two former presidents—Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft—and Socialist Eugene Debs. Though Wilson won the electoral college vote handily, the popular vote was closer: he received 42 percent to 27 percent for Roosevelt, the Progressive Party candidate, and 23 percent for Taft. Debs, running for a fourth time, tallied 6 percent of the vote.
Wilson would put his personal stamp on the office and the country to a much greater extent than his immediate predecessor or his successors. Descended from Presbyterian ministers on both sides of the family, Wilson could be strongly moralistic and infuriatingly and self-righteously inflexible. His rigidity was often fueled by the dangerous belief that he was carrying out God’s plan. He shared his predecessors’ sense of the United States’ global mission. In 1907, the Princeton president declared, “The doors of the nations which are closed must be battered down. . . . Concessions obtained by financiers must be safeguarded by ministers of state, even if the sovereignty of unwilling nations be outraged in the process.” 1 In keeping with that sentiment, he would repeatedly transgress against the sovereignty of unwilling nations. And he shared his southern forebears’ sense of white racial superiority, taking steps to resegregate the federal government during his tenure in office. Wilson even screened D. W. Griffith’s pioneering though notoriously racist film Birth of a Nation at the White House in 1915 for cabinet members and their families. In the film, a heroic Ku Klux Klan gallops in just in time to save white southerners, especially helpless women, from the clutches of brutish, lascivious freedmen and their corrupt white allies—a perverse view of history that was then being promulgated in less extreme terms by William Dunning and his students at Columbia University. Upon viewing the film, Wilson commented, “It is like writing history with Lightning and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true.” 2
As Richard Hofstadter noted over seventy years ago, Wilson’s “political roots were Southern, his intellectual traditions were English.” Among the English thinkers, he was most taken with the conservative views of Walter Bagehot. Bagehot’s influence was apparent in Wilson’s 1889 study The State, in which Wilson wrote, “In politics nothing radically novel may safely be attempted. No result of value can ever be reached . . . except through slow and gradual development, the careful adaptations and nice modifications of growth.” What he liked about the American Revolution was that, in his view, it wasn’t revolutionary at all. The French Revolution, on the other hand, was an abomination. He deplored Thomas Jefferson’s embrace of revolution in general and the French Revolution in particular. He disapproved of labor and agrarian radicalism and expressed greater sympathy for business than for labor. Overall, Wilson had a deep abhorrence of radical change in any form. 3
Wilson’s hatred of revolution and staunch defense of U.S. trade and investment would color his presidency and influence his policies both at home and abroad. “There is nothing in which I am more interested than the fullest development of the trade of this country and its righteous conquest of foreign markets,” he told the Foreign Trade Convention in 1914. 4
Together these views shaped Wilson’s policy toward Mexico, where American bankers and businessmen, particularly oilmen, had a major stake in the outcome of the revolution. Between 1900 and 1910, U.S. investments in Mexico doubled to nearly $2 billion, giving Americans ownership of approximately 43 percent of Mexican property values, 10 percent more than Mexicans themselves owned. 5 William Randolph Hearst alone held over 17 million acres.
U.S. and British corporations had thrived under Porfirio Díaz’s three-decade dictatorship, laying siege to almost all of Mexico’s minerals, railroads, and oil. 6 They had reason for concern when Francisco Madero’s revolutionary forces overthrew Díaz in 1911. Many U.S. businessmen quickly soured on the new regime and applauded when Victoriano Huerta, with the support of U.S. Ambassador to Mexico Henry Lane Wilson, ousted Madero in the waning days of the Taft administration. 7 But Woodrow Wilson, upon coming to power, not only refused to recognize the new government, whose legitimacy he questioned, he sent tens of thousands of troops to the Mexican border and warships to the oil fields near Tampico and the port of Vera Cruz.
Wilson, who had once voiced a desire to teach Latin Americans “to elect good men,” 8 itched for an excuse to intervene directly, overthrow Huerta, and tutor the backward Mexicans in good government. He got what he wanted on April 14, 1914, when U.S. sailors who rowed to Tampico were arrested for being in a war zone without a permit. When the Mexican commanding officer released them a couple hours later, he apologized both to them and to their U.S. commanding officer, Admiral Henry Mayo, who refused to accept the apology in the face of such an insult. Mayo demanded that the Mexican forces give a twenty-one-gun salute to the American flag. Instead, General Huerta added his apology and promised to punish the responsible Mexican officer. Over the objections of Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan and Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, Wilson backed Mayo. He rejected Huerta’s offer of a reciprocal salute by the two sides and asked Congress to authorize the U.S. military to exact “the fullest recognition of the rights and dignity of the United States.” 9 Congress eagerly complied. Wilson sent a force of seven battleships, four fully manned marine troop transports, and numerous destroyers to Mexico. When Mexicans at Vera Cruz resisted U.S. seizure of a customhouse, over 150 were killed. Six thousand marines occupied Vera Cruz for seven months.
In August 1914, U.S.-backed Venustiano Carranza replaced Huerta. But Carranza, a staunch nationalist, refused to bargain with Wilson, who then threw his support behind Pancho Villa, beginning a bungled series of political and military interventions into the Mexican Revolution.
While the United States was busy policing its neighbors to the south, far more ominous developments were occurring in Europe. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian fanatic on June 28, 1914, triggered a chain of events that, in August, plunged the world into the most brutal orgy of bloodshed and destruction humanity had yet seen. That predominantly European bloodletting—the Great War, World War I—would be only the start of a century of unending warfare and horrific violence, human and technological barbarism on an unimaginable scale, that would later come to be known as the American Century.
The twentieth century dawned with a rush of optimism. War seemed a distant relic of a cruel and primitive past. Many people shared the optimistic belief propounded by Norman Angell in his 1910 book The Great Illusion that civilization had advanced beyond the point where war was possible. Such optimism proved illusory indeed.
Europe was awash in imperial rivalries. Great Britain, with its powerful navy, had reigned supreme in the nineteenth century. But its economic model of cannibalizing the economies of increasing parts of the globe and not investing in its own homegrown manufacturing was failing. Reflecting Great Britain’s ossified social order and lack of investment at home was the fact that, in 1914, only 1 percent of young Brits graduated from high schools compared with 9 percent of their U.S. counterparts. 10 As a result, Great Britain was being eclipsed by the United States in terms of industrial production, and, more ominously, its continental rival Germany was competing in the production of steel, electrical power, chemical energy, agriculture, iron, coal, and textiles. Germany’s banks and railroads were growing, and in the battle for oil, the newest strategic fuel that was necessary to power modern navies, Germany’s merchant fleet was rapidly gaining on Great Britain’s. Great Britain was now 65 percent dependent on U.S. oil and 20 percent on Russian and was coveting potential new reserves of the Middle East, which were part of the tottering Ottoman Empire.
A latecomer to the imperial land grab, Germany felt cheated of its due. It intended to right that wrong. Its economic and political penetration of the Ottoman Empire worried Great Britain. It set its sights on Africa. It wanted more.
Other troubling signs appeared. A European arms race was occurring on land and, especially, at sea, where Great Britain and Germany battled for naval dominance. Great Britain’s big-gun dreadnought class of battleships gave it the upper hand—for now. And European nations conscripted young men into vast standing armies.
Entangling alliances threatened to turn local conflicts into global conflagrations. And in August 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war against Serbia, what looked like a third Balkan war quickly spiraled out of control. The Central Powers—Germany, Turkey, and Austria-Hungary—lined up against the Triple Entente—France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia. Others would soon join. The battlefields would run red with blood.
Only Europe’s large socialist and labor parties and trade unions could prevent the slaughter. Many belonged to the socialist Second International. They knew that the most important conflict was between capital and labor, not German workers and their British counterparts. They pledged that if the capitalists went to war, the workers would refuse to follow. Why, they asked, should workers die to enrich their exploiters? Many supported a general strike. The more radical, like Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, vowed, if war started, to overthrow the capitalist regimes. Hopes of stopping the madness rested with Germany, where the Social Democrats were the largest party in parliament, and with France.
But those hopes were crushed when German socialists, claiming they had to defend the country against the Russian hordes, voted for war credits and the French, vowing to defend against the autocratic Germans, did the same. Only in Russia and Serbia did the socialists stand true. In country after country, nationalism trumped internationalism, loyalty to nation outweighed loyalty to class. Europe’s naive young men marched off to die for God, glory, greed, and defense of the fatherland. Humanity was dealt a blow from which it has never fully recovered.
The slaughter was on as civilization plunged into what Henry James described as “this abyss of blood and darkness.” 11 American social reformer Reverend John Haynes Holmes expressed the crushing impact it had on reformers everywhere: “suddenly, in the wink of an eye, three hundred years of progress is tossed into the melting-pot. Civilization is all gone, and barbarism come.” 12
Most Americans sympathized with the Allies against the Central Powers, but few clamored to join the fight. Americans of all political persuasions feared getting dragged into Europe’s bloodletting. Eugene Debs urged workers to oppose the war, wisely observing “Let the capitalists do their own fighting and furnish their own corpses and there will never be another war on the face of the earth.” 13 As reports of the fighting filtered in, antiwar sentiment held strong. The most popular song of 1915 was “I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier.”
Despite overwhelming sympathy for the Allies, the United States declared neutrality in the war. But many Americans, particularly those of German, Irish, and Italian heritage, sided with the Central Powers. “We have to be neutral,” Wilson explained, “since otherwise our mixed populations would wage war on each other.” 14 It was, however, a neutrality in principle more than in practice. Economic interests clearly placed the United States in the Allied camp. Between 1914, when the war began, and 1917, when the United States entered, U.S. banks loaned $2.5 billion to the Allies but only $27 million to the Central Powers. The House of Morgan was especially involved, serving as the British government’s sole purchasing agent between 1915 and 1917. Eighty-four percent of Allied munitions bought in the United States during those years passed through Morgan hands. 15 Overall, the $3 billion the United States was selling to Great Britain and France by 1916 dwarfed the miniscule $1 million it sold to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Although deep-seated resentments toward Great Britain, stemming from the Revolutionary period and the War of 1812, had not completely abated, most Americans identified the Allied nations as democracies and Germany as a repressive autocracy. Czarist Russia’s involvement on the Allied side made it difficult to draw such clear lines. And both sides regularly violated the United States’ neutral rights. Great Britain, relying on its superior naval power, launched a blockade of northern European ports. Germany retaliated with a U-boat (the German word for “submarine” was Unterseeboot) campaign that threatened neutral shipping. Wilson accepted the Allied blockade but protested vigorously against Germany’s actions. Bryan foresaw clearly that Wilson’s tilt toward the Allies would drag the United States into the war and tried to maintain a more evenhanded approach. He had opposed allowing loans to the combatants, warning Wilson, “Money is the worst of all contrabands because it commands everything else.” 16 Though intent on remaining neutral so that he could help mediate an end to the war, Wilson rejected Bryan’s effort to bar U.S. citizens from traveling on belligerents’ ships.
In May 1915, Germany sank the British liner Lusitania, leaving 1,200 dead, including 128 Americans. Roosevelt called for war. Despite initial disclaimers, the ship was in fact carrying a large cargo of arms to Great Britain. Bryan demanded that Wilson condemn the British blockade of Germany as well as the German attack, seeing both as infringements of neutral rights. When Wilson refused, Bryan resigned in protest. Though Wilson had won reelection in 1916 on the slogan “He kept us out of war,” he was increasingly coming to believe that if the United States didn’t join the war, it would be denied a role in shaping the postwar world. 17
On January 22, 1917, Wilson dramatically delivered the first formal presidential address to the Senate since the days of George Washington. He laid bare his soaring vision for peace and the future. He called for “peace without victory” based on core American principles: self-determination, freedom of the seas, and an open world with no entangling alliances. The centerpiece of such a world would be a league of nations that could enforce the peace, a demand initially advanced by groups within America’s peace movement such as the Woman’s Peace Party.
When he concluded, the Senate erupted in applause. Senator John Shafroth of Colorado called it “the greatest message of a century.” 18 The Atlanta Constitution wrote, “ ‘Startling,’ ‘staggering,’ ‘astounding,’ ‘the noblest utterance that has fallen from human lips since the Declaration of Independence,’ were among the expressions of senators. The president himself after his address said: ‘I have said what everybody has been longing for, but has thought impossible. Now it appears to be possible.’ ” 19 Despite the Republicans’ carping, Wilson’s peace message struck the right chord with most Americans. But the Europeans, having shed rivers of blood in two and a half years of fighting, were not feeling so magnanimous. French writer Anatole France observed that “peace without victory” was like “bread without yeast,” “a camel without humps,” or “a town without brothel . . . an insipid thing” that would be “fetid, ignominious, obscene, fistulous, hemorrhoidal.” 20
Germany’s resumption of submarine warfare on January 31, 1917, after a hiatus of almost a year, and its clumsy appeal to Mexico for a wartime military alliance that would facilitate a Mexican reconquest of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, intensified anti-German sentiment and heightened the pressure on Wilson to intervene. But Wilson’s real motive was his belief that only by entering the war could he be guaranteed a voice in negotiations. 21 When Jane Addams and other leaders of the Emergency Peace Federation visited Wilson at the White House on February 28, the president explained that “as head of a nation participating in the war, the President of the United States would have a seat at the Peace Table, but that if he remained the representative of a neutral country he could at best only ‘call through a crack in the door.’ The appeal he made was, in substance, that the foreign policies which we so extravagantly admired could have a chance if he were there to push and to defend them, but not otherwise.” 22
On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war, saying, “the world must be made safe for democracy.” Six opposed it in the Senate, including Robert La Follette of Wisconsin, and fifty voted against it in the House, including Jeannette Rankin of Montana, the first woman elected to Congress. Opponents attacked Wilson as a tool of Wall Street. “We are about to put the dollar sign on the American flag,” charged Senator George Norris of Nebraska. 23 La Follette exaggerated when claiming that the American people would vote against the war by more than a ten-to-one margin, but opposition did run deep. Despite government appeals for a million volunteers, reports of the horrors of trench warfare and poison gas dampened enthusiasm. Only 73,000 signed up in the first six weeks, forcing Congress to institute a draft. Among those who did volunteer was future historian William Langer, who later remembered “the eagerness of the men to get to France and above all to reach the front. One would think,” he reasoned,
that, after almost four years of war, after the most detailed and realistic accounts of murderous fighting on the Somme and around Verdun, to say nothing of the day-to-day agony of trench warfare, it would have been all but impossible to get anyone to serve without duress. But it was not so. We and many thousands of others volunteered. . . . I can hardly remember a single instance of serious discussion of American policy or of larger war issues. We men, most of us young, were simply fascinated by the prospect of adventure and heroism. Most of us, I think, had the feeling that life, if we survived, would run in the familiar, routine channel. Here was our one great chance for excitement and risk. We could not afford to pass it up. 24
Among those offering to serve was fifty-eight-year-old Teddy Roosevelt, who visited Wilson on April 10 and requested permission to lead a division of volunteers into battle. Roosevelt was so eager to go to the front that he even promised to cease his attacks on Wilson. Wilson denied his request. Roosevelt accused him of basing his decision on political calculations. Among those who criticized Wilson’s decision was soon-to-be French prime minister Georges Clemenceau, who thought Roosevelt’s presence would be inspirational.
Imbued with the martial spirit and patriotism of their father, all four of Roosevelt’s sons did enlist and see combat. Ted, Jr., and Archie were wounded in action. Ted was also gassed at Cantigny. Twenty-year old Quentin, the youngest of the children, was killed when his plane was shot down in July 1918, a blow from which his father would never recover. Theodore Roosevelt’s health declined rapidly and he died within six months at age sixty, having been able to witness, from a safe distance, the horrors of modern warfare.
Unfortunately for Wilson, not all Americans were as gung ho as the Roosevelts. Because antiwar sentiment had run so deep in much of the country, the Wilson administration felt compelled to take extraordinary measures to convince the skeptical public of the righteousness of the cause. For that purpose, the government established an official propaganda agency—the Committee on Public Information (CPI)—headed by Denver newspaperman George Creel. The committee recruited 75,000 volunteers, known as “four-minute men,” who delivered short patriotic speeches in public venues across the country, including shopping districts, streetcars, movie theaters, and churches. It flooded the nation with propaganda touting the war as a noble crusade for democracy and encouraged newspapers to print stories highlighting German atrocities. It also asked Americans to inform on fellow citizens who criticized the war effort. CPI advertisements urged magazine readers to report to the Justice Department “the man who spreads pessimistic stories . . . cries for peace, or belittles our efforts to win the war.” 25
Underlying Wilson’s wartime declarations and the CPI’s emphasis on promoting “democracy” was the realization that for many Americans democracy had become a kind of “secular religion” that could exist only within a capitalist system. Many also associated it with “Americanism.” It meant more than a set of identifiable institutions. As Creel said on one occasion, it is a “theory of spiritual progress.” On another occasion, he explained, “Democracy is a religion with me, and throughout my whole adult life I have preached America as the hope of the world.” 26
Newspapers voluntarily fell in line behind the propaganda effort as they had in 1898 and would in all future U.S. wars. Victor Clark’s study of the wartime press for the National Board for Historical Service (NBHS) remarkably but revealingly concluded that the “voluntary cooperation of the newspaper publishers of America resulted in a more effective standardization of the information and arguments presented to the American people, than existed under the nominally strict military control exercised in Germany.” 27
Historians also rallied to the cause. Creel established the CPI’s Division of Civic and Educational Cooperation under the leadership of University of Minnesota historian Guy Stanton Ford. Several of the nation’s leading historians, including Charles Beard, Carl Becker, John R. Commons, J. Franklin Jameson, and Andrew McLaughlin, assisted Ford in simultaneously promoting U.S. aims and demonizing the enemy. Ford’s introduction to one CPI pamphlet decries the “Pied Pipers of Prussianism,” declaring, “Before them is the war god, to whom they have offered up their reason and their humanity; behind them the misshapen image they have made of the German people, leering with bloodstained visage over the ruins of civilization.” 28
The Committee on Public Information, the government’s official wartime propaganda agency, recruited 75,000 volunteers, known as “four-minute men,” to deliver short patriotic speeches across the country. They flooded the nation with pro-war propaganda and urged Americans to inform on “the man who spreads pessimistic stories . . . cries for peace, or belittles our efforts to win the war.”
The CPI’s penultimate pamphlet, “The German-Bolshevik Conspiracy,” proved to be its most controversial. Based on documents obtained by the head of the CPI’s foreign section and former Associate Chairman Edgar Sisson, the pamphlet alleged that Lenin and Trotsky and their associates were paid German agents who were betraying the Russian people on behalf of the imperial German government. The documents, for which Sisson paid lavishly, were widely known to be forgeries in Europe and were similarly suspected by the State Department. Wilson’s chief foreign policy advisor, Colonel Edward House, wrote in his diary that he told the president that their publication signified “a virtual declaration of war upon the Bolshevik Government” and Wilson said he understood. Publication was withheld for four months. Wilson and the CPI ignored all warnings and released them to the press in seven installments beginning on September 15, 1918. 29 Most U.S. newspapers dutifully reported the story uncritically and unquestioningly. The New York Times, for example, ran a story under the headline “Documents Prove Lenine and Trotzky [sic] Hired by Germans.” 30 But controversy quickly erupted as the New York Evening Post challenged their authenticity, noting that “the most important charges in the documents brought forward by Mr. Sisson were published in Paris months ago, and have, on the whole, been discredited.” 31 Within a week, the Times and the Washington Post were both reporting charges by S. Nuorteva, the head of the Finnish Information Bureau, that the documents were widely known to be “brazen forgeries.” 32 Sisson and Creel defended their authenticity. Creel responded angrily to Nuorteva’s allegations: “That is a lie! The government of the United States put out these documents and their authenticity is backed by the government. This is bolshevik propaganda and when an unsupported bolsheviki attacks them it is hardly worth bothering about.” 33 He flailed wildly in a threatening letter to the editor of the Evening Post:
I say to you flatly that the New York Evening Post cannot escape the charge of having given aid and comfort to the enemies of the United States in an hour of national crisis. These documents were published with the full authority of the Government behind them. They were not given out until there was every conviction that they were absolutely genuine. . . . I do not make the charge that the New York Evening Post is German or that it has taken German money, but I do say that the service it has rendered to the enemies of the United States would have been purchased gladly by those enemies, and in terms of unrest and industrial stability this supposedly American paper has struck a blow at America more powerful [than] could possibly have been dealt by German hands. 34
Acceding to Creel’s request, the NBHS set up a committee, comprised of Jameson, the head of the Department of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution, and Samuel Harper, a professor of Russian language at the University of Chicago, to review the documents. They confirmed the authenticity of most of the fraudulent documents. The Nation charged that the documents and NBHS report spoiled “the good name of the Government and the integrity of American historical scholarship.” 35 In 1956, George Kennan proved once and for all what most suspected: the documents were indeed forgeries. 36
Historians’ and other academics’ complicity in selling wartime propaganda brought well-deserved opprobrium down on their heads during the interwar period. In 1927, H. L. Mencken’s American Mercury deplored the knee-jerk patriotic conformity that sullied all the country’s top colleges and universities. Charles Angoff wrote, “Bacteriologists, physicists and chemists vied with philosophers, philologians and botanists in shouting maledictions upon the Hun, and thousands took to snooping upon their brethren as entertained the least doubt about the sanctity of the war. . . . Such guilt against American idealism was sufficient cause, in the eyes of all patriotic university presidents and boards of trustees, for the immediate dismissal of the traitors.” 37
Despite the well-deserved criticism, controlling public opinion became a central element in all future war planning. Harold Lasswell identified its importance in his 1927 book Propaganda Technique in the World War. Lasswell wrote:
During the war period it came to be recognized that the mobilization of men and means was not sufficient; there must be a mobilization of opinion. Power over opinion, as over life and property, passed into official hands, because the danger from license was greater than the danger of abuse. Indeed, there is no question but that government management of opinion is the unescapable corollary of large-scale modern war. The only question is the degree to which the government should try to conduct its propaganda secretly, and the degree to which it should conduct it openly. 38
Campuses became hotbeds of intolerance. University professors who spoke against the war were fired. Others were cowed into silence. As Columbia University President Nicholas Murray Butler exclaimed in announcing the end of academic freedom on campus:
What had been tolerated before became intolerable now. What had been wrongheadedness was now sedition. What had been folly was now treason . . . there is and will be no place in Columbia University, either on the rolls of its Faculties or on the rolls of its students, for any person who opposes or counsels opposition to the effective enforcement of the laws of the United States, or who acts, speaks, or writes treason. The separation of any such person from Columbia University will be as speedy as the discovery of his offense. 39
This was no idle threat. The following October, Columbia announced the firing of two prominent faculty members for their outspoken opposition to the war. Professors James McKeen Cattell, one of the nation’s leading psychologists, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Dana of the Department of English and Comparative Literature, a grandson of the poet, were condemned by the faculty and trustees as well as by Butler. The official university statement charged that they “had done grave injury to the university by their public agitation against the conduct of the war.” The New York Times commented, “Since the declaration of war against Germany Professor Cattell has been especially obnoxious to the Columbia Faculty because of his unhesitating denunciation of a war policy by our Government.” Dana was ousted because of his active role in the antiwar People’s Council. 40 Applauding Columbia’s action, the Times editorialized, “The fantasies of ‘academic freedom’ . . . cannot protect a professor who counsels resistance to the law and speaks, writes, disseminates treason. That a teacher of youth should teach sedition and treason, that he should infect, or seek to infect, youthful minds with ideas fatal to their duty to the country, is intolerable.” 41
The following week, Professor Charles Beard, arguably the nation’s leading historian in the first half of the twentieth century, resigned in protest. Although an early and fervent supporter of the war and a harsh critic of German imperialism, he condemned the control of the university by a “small and active group of trustees who have no standing in the world of education, who are reactionary and visionless in politics, narrow and mediaeval in religion.” Beard explained that, despite his own enthusiastic support for the war, “thousands of my countrymen do not share this view. Their opinions cannot be changed by curses or bludgeons. Arguments addressed to their reason and understandings are the best hope.” 42 Beard had already incurred the ire of several trustees the previous spring when he declared at a conference, “If we have to suppress everything we don’t like to hear, this country is on a pretty wobbly basis. This country was founded on disrespect and the denial of authority, and it is no time to stop free discussion.” At least two other faculty members also resigned in solidarity, and historian James H. Robinson and philosopher John Dewey condemned the firings and expressed regret at Beard’s resignation. 43 In December, Beard charged that reactionary trustees saw the war as an opportunity “to drive out or humiliate or terrorize every man who held progressive, liberal, unconventional views on political matters in no way connected with the war.” Similar purges of left-wing professors, as well as the application of “very strong” pressure on grammar and high school teachers, occurred throughout the country. 44
The War Department went one step further, turning the docile campuses into military training grounds. On October 1, 1918, 140,000 students on more than five hundred campuses across the country were simultaneously inducted into the army as part of the Student Army Training Corps (SATC). Given the rank of private, they were thereafter educated, housed, clothed, equipped, and fed at government expense. 45 They also received privates’ pay. The Chicago Tribune reported, “Rah-rah days are over for American college boys. . . . College hereafter is to mean business—largely intensive preparation for the business of war.” 46 Eleven hours per week were slated for military drills, on top of forty-two hours of courses on largely military-oriented “essential” and “allied” subjects. As part of this training, students at participating institutions were required to take a propaganda-laden “War Issues Course.” 47
Having drawn blood in his personal campaign to make the universities “safe for democracy,” Butler set his sights higher, calling for the ouster of Robert La Follette from the U.S. Senate for his treasonous opposition to the war. Butler told three thousand wildly cheering delegates to the annual convention of the American Bankers Association in Atlantic City that they “might just as well put poison into the food of every boy” who went to war “as to permit this man to make war upon the nation in the halls of congress.” 48 La Follette was also targeted by members of the University of Wisconsin faculty, over 90 percent of whom signed a petition condemning his antiwar position and several of whom began a drive to “put La Follette and all his supporters out of business,” according to one of the campaign’s leaders. 49
Wisconsin’s Robert “Fighting Bob” La Follette was one of six senators who voted against U.S. entry into World War I.
La Follette survived the national campaign to force his ouster, but the Bill of Rights didn’t fare as well. Congress passed some of the most repressive legislation in the country’s history. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 curbed speech and created a climate of intolerance toward dissent. Under the Espionage Act, people faced $10,000 fines and up to twenty years in jail for obstructing military operations in wartime. It targeted “Whoever, when the United States is at war, shall willfully cause or attempt to cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States, or shall willfully obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service of the U.S.” 50 The act empowered Postmaster General Albert Burleson, who, socialist Norman Thomas said, “didn’t know socialism from rheumatism,” to ban from the mail any literature he believed advocated treason or insurrection or opposed the draft. 51 The following year, Attorney General Thomas W. Gregory convinced Congress to expand the act to ban anyone who might “utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States or the Constitution of the United States, or the military or naval forces of the United States . . . and whoever shall by word or act support or favor the cause of any country with which the United States is at war or by word or act oppose the cause of the United States.” 52
The agents hired to enforce this crackdown on dissent were part of a burgeoning federal bureaucracy. The federal budget, which was less than $1 billion in 1913, had ballooned to over $13 billion five years later.
Hundreds of people were jailed for criticizing the war, including IWW leader “Big Bill” Haywood and Socialist Eugene Debs. Debs spoke out repeatedly against the war and was finally arrested in June 1918 after addressing a large crowd outside the prison in Canton, Ohio, where three Socialists were being held for opposing the draft. Debs ridiculed the idea that the United States was a democracy when it jailed people for expressing their views: “They tell us that we live in a great free republic; that our institutions are democratic; that we are a free and self-governing people. This is too much, even for a joke.” 53 He spoke only briefly of the war itself: “Wars throughout history have been waged for conquest and plunder. . . . And that is war in a nutshell. The master class has always declared the wars; the subject class has always fought the battles.” 54
The U.S. attorney for northern Ohio, E. S. Wertz, ignoring the advice of the Justice Department, had Debs indicted on ten violations of the Espionage Act. In solidarity with his jailed comrades around the world, Debs pleaded guilty to the charges. He told the jury, “I have been accused of obstructing the war. I admit it. Gentlemen, I abhor war. I would oppose war if I stood alone. . . . I have sympathy with the suffering, struggling people everywhere. It does not make any difference under what flag they were born, or where they live.” Prior to sentencing, he addressed the judge:
Your honor, years ago I recognized my kinship within all living beings, and I made up my mind that I was not one bit better than the meanest on earth. I said then, and I say now, that while there is a lower class, I am in it; while there is a criminal element, I am of it; while there is a soul in prison, I am not free. 55
Upbraiding those “who would strike the sword from the hand of this nation while she is engaged in defending herself against a foreign and brutal power,” the judge sentenced Debs to ten years in prison. 56
Socialist publications were banned from the mail. Patriotic thugs and local authorities broke into socialist organizations and union halls. Labor organizers and antiwar activists were beaten and sometimes killed. The New York Times called the Butte, Montana, lynching of IWW Executive Board member Frank Little “a deplorable and detestable crime, whose perpetrators should be found, tried, and punished by the law and justice they have outraged.” But the Times was far more upset by the fact that IWW-led strikes were crippling the war effort and concluded, “The IWW agitators are in effect, and perhaps in fact, agents of Germany. The Federal authorities should make short work of these treasonable conspirators against the United States.” 57
Under the 1917 Espionage Act, the U.S. imprisoned hundreds of draft protesters and war critics, including IWW leader “Big Bill” Haywood and the Socialist Eugene Debs. Debs (pictured here addressing a crowd in Chicago in 1912) had urged workers to oppose the war, proclaiming “Let the capitalists do their own fighting and furnish their own corpses and there will never be another war on the face of the earth.”
All things German were vilified in a wave of intolerance masquerading as patriotism. Schools, many of which now demanded loyalty oaths from teachers, banned the German language from their curricula. Iowa, not taking any chances, went further and, under the 1918 “Babel Proclamation,” banned the speaking of all foreign languages in public and over the telephone. Nebraska followed suit. Libraries across the country discarded German books, and orchestras dropped German composers from their repertoires. Just as French fries would later be renamed “freedom fries” by a know-nothing Congress furious at French opposition to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, their World War I counterparts renamed hamburgers “liberty sandwiches,” sauerkraut “liberty cabbage,” German measles “liberty measles,” and German shepherds “police dogs.” 58 German Americans faced discrimination in all aspects of life.
Given the widespread pressure for “100 percent Americanism,” it is no surprise that dissidents were not only ostracized, they were occasionally murdered by patriotic mobs. 59 The Washington Post assured its readers that occasional lynchings were a small price to pay for a healthy upsurge of patriotism. The Post editorialized in April 1918, “In spite of excesses such as lynchings, it is a healthful and wholesome awakening in the interior part of the country. Enemy propaganda must be stopped, even if a few lynchings may occur.” 60
The nation’s heartland had indeed been slow to rally to the cause. Early on, the conservative Akron, Ohio, Beacon-Journal noted that there was “scarcely a political observer . . . but what will admit that were an election to come now a mighty tide of socialism would inundate the Middle West.” The country had “never embarked upon a more unpopular war,” it contended. Antiwar rallies drew thousands. Socialist Party candidates saw their votes increase exponentially in 1917 in cities throughout the country. Ten Socialists won seats in the New York State Legislature. 61
Despite the ostracism, mass arrests, and organized violence, the Socialists and radical laborites known as Wobblies would not be silenced. While some Americans marched off to war to the strains of the hit song “Over There,” the Wobblies responded with a parody of “Onward Christian Soldiers” titled “Christians at War,” which began “Onward, Christian soldiers! Duty’s way is plain; Slay your Christian neighbors, or by them be slain.” And ended with “History will say of you: ‘That pack of God damned fools.’ ” 62
Wilson’s lofty rhetoric and assurances about fighting a war to end all wars seduced many of the nation’s leading progressives, including John Dewey, Herbert Croly, and Walter Lippmann. They convinced themselves that war afforded a unique opportunity to implement long-desired reforms at home. Antiwar midwestern progressives like Senators La Follette and Norris more accurately understood that war presaged the death knell of meaningful reform.
Among those who seized the opportunity to implement long-sought changes were the moral reformers, especially those who viewed the war as an opportunity to combat sexual vice. Ostensibly concerned about the health of the soldiers, they waged an aggressive campaign against prostitution and venereal disease. Red-light districts around the country were shut down, driving prostitutes underground and into the hands of pimps and other exploiters. 63 The crackdown intensified after the passage of the Chamberlain-Kahn Act in 1918, according to which any woman walking alone near a military base was subject to arrest, incarceration, and a forced gynecological exam, which reformers condemned as “speculum rape.” Those found to have venereal disease were quarantined in federal institutions. 64
The Commission on Training Camp Activities (CTCA) also endeavored to rein in male sexuality with an abstinence campaign that impugned the patriotism of soldiers who contracted venereal disease. The CTCA plastered training camp walls with posters reading “A German Bullet is Cleaner than a Whore” and “A Soldier who gets a dose is a Traitor.” One pamphlet asked, “How can you look the flag in the face if you were dirty with gonorrhea?” 65 While VD rates among soldiers did not rise as rapidly as some feared, pregnancy rates among high school girls living in the vicinity of military bases certainly did.
WWI anti-venereal disease posters. Moral reformers seized on the war as an opportunity to implement long-sought changes. The Commission on Training Camp Activities (CTCA) endeavored to rein in male sexuality with an abstinence campaign that impugned the patriotism of soldiers who contracted venereal disease.
General John “Black Jack” Pershing, who commanded the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during the war, tried to ride herd on troops when they got to France—a task that proved more difficult than defeating the Germans on the battlefield. CTCA head Raymond Fosdick took notice of the vast difference between French and American sexual attitudes. The French, he observed, “felt that an army could not get along without sexual indulgence and that to attempt to carry out such a policy was to court discontent, a lowering of morale and health standards, and perhaps even mutiny.” French Premier Clemenceau offered to set up licensed brothels for U.S. soldiers like the ones that serviced his own fighting men. Upon receiving the letter with Clemenceau’s offer, Secretary of War Newton Baker reportedly blurted out, “For God’s sake . . . don’t show this to the President or he’ll stop the war.” 66
The warnings proved futile. Those afflicted were segregated and ostracized. Moral reformers feared the veterans would return home and infect American women. But that was only one concern. Reformers also worried that the troops, having discovered what some called the “French Way,” would foist their newfound appetite for oral sex on innocent American girls. Colonel George Walker of the urological department fretted, “When one thinks of the hundreds and hundreds of thousands of young men who have returned to the United States with those new and degenerate ideas sapping their sources of self-respect and thereby lessening their powers of moral resistance, one indeed is justified in becoming alarmed.” 67
For the most part, reformers’ efforts to use the war as a laboratory for social and economic experimentation were cut short by the limited duration of U.S. involvement. The war years did, however, bring unprecedented collusion between large corporations and the government in an attempt to rationalize and stabilize the economy, control unfettered competition, and guarantee profits—something that the top bankers and corporate executives had striven for decades to achieve. As a result, American banks and corporations thrived during the war, with munitions makers leading the pack. Randolph Bourne, who decried fellow progressives’ fraudulent rationales for defending the war in his scathing article “Twilight of Idols,” observed elsewhere that “war is the health of the state.” 68
While reformers were hard at work, U.S. troops finally began arriving in Europe, where they contributed significantly to the Allied victory. Their arrival boosted Allied morale, and they assisted in winning some major battles. Arriving late, they managed to avoid the most brutal trench warfare Europeans on both sides had endured during the darkest times in 1916, when Great Britain suffered 60,000 casualties in a single day at the Somme. France and Germany together suffered almost a million casualties during the Battle of Verdun. Ordered to charge into the teeth of German machine guns and artillery, France lost half of its young men between the ages of fifteen and thirty. Americans first saw meaningful action in May 1918, six months before the war’s end, when they helped beleaguered French forces turn the tide and repulse the Germans along the Marne. In September, 600,000 Americans fought valiantly to break through the German lines. The Germans surrendered on November 11, 1918. In all, of the 2 million U.S. soldiers who reached France, over 116,000 died and 204,000 were wounded. By comparison, European casualty figures were truly staggering—perhaps as many as 10 million dead soldiers and 20 million dead civilians, the latter due mostly to disease and starvation.
Had the war dragged on, the casualty figures might have been much higher. The unprecedented wartime mobilization of science and technology had already begun to transform the nature of warfare. Even more frightening innovations appeared to be imminent.
Atop that list was a new generation of chemical weapons. The taboo against using chemical weapons and other poisons in war dates back to the Greeks and Romans. Various efforts were made to codify this ban over the centuries. In 1863, the U.S. War Department’s Lieber Code of Conduct prohibited “the use of poison in any manner, be it to poison wells, or food, or arms.” 69 Just one year earlier, in 1862, John W. Doughty, a New York schoolteacher, had sent Secretary of War Edwin Stanton a design for a projectile filled with explosives in one compartment and liquid chlorine in the other that could be used to drive Confederate troops out of their fortifications. The War Department didn’t pursue that suggestion or a later one by Forrest Shepherd, formerly a professor of economic geology and agricultural chemistry at Western Reserve University, to incapacitate Confederate soldiers with hydrogen chloride vapors. Other ideas for chemical weapons were also afoot during the Civil War. An 1862 article in Scientific American informed readers that “several incendiary and asphyxiating shells have been invented for the purpose of scattering liquid fire and noxious fumes around the space where they explode.” The 1905 Washington Evening Star obituary of chemist William Tilden contained the followed intriguing tidbit: “Tilden had a scheme for producing chemically a means of settling wars quickly by making them terribly destructive. He is said to have interested General Grant in this matter, and at the suggestion of the latter finally abandoned it, because, as General Grant said, such a terrific agency for destroying human life should not be permitted to come into use by the civilized nations of the world.” 70
Others shared Grant’s sense of how “civilized” nations should behave. The Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases of 1899 outlawed the wartime use of “projectiles” whose “sole object” was “the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases.” 71
Germany broke the spirit if not the letter of the Hague Convention when it first successfully used poison gas at the Second Battle of Ypres on April 22, 1915, following an abortive attempt at Bolimów on the eastern front. A yellowish green plume of chlorine gas blanketed French troops along four miles of trenches with catastrophic results. Over six hundred soon lay dead. Many more were temporarily blinded and a good number taken prisoner. The Washington Post headlined its front-page article “Crazed by Gas Bombs” and reported German threats that more potent gas weapons were on the way. 72 The Germans accused France of having been the first to use such weapons. The French had in fact made prior use of a chemical irritant on a limited scale at the start of the war. But Ypres represented a new departure. The Post reported that French soldiers died from “agonizing suffocation,” their bodies turned black, green, or yellow, and were driven insane. “This use of poison gases,” the Post predicted, “will doubtless go on record as the most striking and distinguishing novelty of the present war, just as every great war of the past has been marked by some peculiarly surprising method of destroying life.” 73 The New York Times editorially condemned the use of poison gas not because it killed people more cruelly than other methods but because of the suffering of survivors, which was, “according to the victims and to expert observers, of a severity unparalleled in the dreadful annals of conflict.” After this harsh condemnation, the Times threw up its hands and accepted that if one side used such weapons, “others will be obliged in self-defense to imitate the deplorable example. That, as everybody says, is war.” 74 The British did indeed retaliate with poison gas at Loos in September, only to see the winds shift and the gas blown back into the British trenches, resulting in more British casualties than German.
European armies devised fairly effective countermeasures against these initially milder varieties of gases that at least reduced the number of fatalities. Between April 1915 and July 1917, British forces suffered 21,908 casualties and 1,895 deaths from gas warfare. On July 12, 1917, Germany unleashed much more potent mustard gas weapons against the British, again at Ypres. From that point until the end of the war the following November, British forces suffered 160,970 casualties and 4,167 deaths. Hence, by the time U.S. troops joined the fighting, deadlier varieties were being used by both sides, including those with phosgene, hydrogen cyanide, and mustard agents. Casualties skyrocketed, but, in relative terms, the number of fatalities declined sharply. 75 American chemists were determined to change that.
The United States launched a large-scale chemical warfare research program run initially under the aegis of several different departments until centralized under the newly established Chemical Warfare Service on June 28, 1918. Research programs were initially dispersed on a number of campuses before being consolidated in the Experiment Station at American University in Washington, D.C., in September 1917. Most of the nation’s leading chemists descended on the campus to conduct the research. The effort eventually employed over 1,700 chemists, working out of more than sixty buildings, many hastily constructed. By war’s end, 5,400 chemists were serving in the military in what was being labeled “the Chemist’s War.” 76
In rushing to serve their country, American chemists were following in the footsteps of their European colleagues. Germany’s chemical warfare research was centered in its prestigious Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, where such luminaries as Fritz Haber, James Franck, Otto Hahn, Walther Nernst, and Richard Willstätter all lent their services. Institute Director Haber rallied the others behind the notion that “science . . . belonged to humanity in peacetime and the fatherland in war.” 77 In Great Britain, scientists at thirty-three laboratories tested 150,000 organic and inorganic compounds in an effort to discover ever deadlier concoctions. The largest facility alone employed over a thousand scientists. 78
Scientists of all nations were eager to do their part to assist the war effort. Johns Hopkins physicist J. S. Ames wrote, “For the first time in the history of science men who are devoting their lives to it have an immediate opportunity of proving their worth to their country. It is a wonderful moment; and the universities of the country are seizing it.” University of Chicago physicist Robert Millikan gushed, “the world has been waked up by the war to a new appreciation of what science can do.” 79
The Chemical Warfare Service prioritized speed over safety. As a result, numerous deaths were recorded, according to electrical engineer George Temple, who had been head of motor maintenance at “Camp American University.” In an interview years later with the American University student newspaper, the Eagle, Temple recounted several incidents. In one, “three men were burned by a deadly dose of gas. The bodies were hauled away on a cart, the flesh ‘jiggling off their bones.’ ” 80 Each morning, during roll call, workers were asked to volunteer for burning with experimental gases. Temple volunteered seven times. In the laboratories, leaks often occurred. Canaries were kept nearby. The death of a canary meant that it was time to evacuate the building. 81
Temple described what it was like when researchers headed home after a day in the laboratories: “At the end of the day the camp personnel, their clothes impregnated by gas, would pile into the trolleys. As the trolley cars neared the downtown area, civilians began boarding them. Soon they were all sneezing or crying, depending upon the type of gas the soldiers had been working with.” 82 Living near campus was not particularly safe either, as former U.S. Senator Nathan Scott discovered. Scott, his wife, and his sister were “gassed” by a “cloud” that escaped from one of the campus labs. Scott and his sister sought treatment from the Experiment Station doctor and then at a local hospital. 83
Among those at American University was young Harvard chemist James Conant, who would go on to head U.S. scientific research during the next world war. His successful research on lewisite earned him a promotion in July 1918. The newly appointed twenty-five-year-old major was deployed to a Cleveland suburb to oversee a project to mass-produce lewisite. Working out of the factory of the Ben Hur Motor Company in Willoughby, Conant’s team produced artillery shells and aerial bombs packed with the deadly substance, of which contact with even the smallest amount was believed to cause “intolerable agony and death after a few hours.” 84
The CWS established its largest production facility adjacent to the Aberdeen, Maryland, proving ground. In early 1919, the New York Times detailed the massive operation at the site officially known as the Edgewood Arsenal, which it described as “the largest poison gas factory on earth,” producing three to four times as much as the British, French, and Germans combined. Reporter Richard Barry, who toured the facility, wrote, “I went through the hospitals and saw the men who had been struck down by the fiendish gases while at work; some with arms and legs and trunks shriveled and scarred as by a horrible fire, some with the deep suppurations still oozing after weeks of careful nursing.” Barry guessed that the casualty rate might have exceeded that of any division in France. 85
The facility was enormous, containing almost three hundred buildings serviced by twenty-eight miles of railway and fifteen miles of roads. It produced 200,000 chemical bombs and shells daily. Twelve hundred researchers and seven hundred assistants studied more than four thousand potentially poisonous substances. 86 Barry interviewed Colonel William H. Walker, the former chair of MIT’s chemical engineering department, who served as commanding officer of the proving grounds. Walker reported that two months before the armistice, the United States had perfected a new deadly approach to using chemical weapons. The United States was prepared to have its planes drop one-ton mustard gas containers over fortified German cities. One ton of gas would engulf an area of an acre or more and, Walker assured readers, “not one living thing, not even a rat, would live through it.” The new weapons were ready to deploy in September 1918, but the Allies balked at their use. England finally acceded, but France, fearing reprisals, withheld approval until the Allies had advanced sufficiently that the gas couldn’t blow back into French territory and the Allies commanded “the air so as to insure safety from possible reprisals.” Those conditions would not have been met until spring 1919.
At that point, Walker indicated, the United States would have had thousands of tons of mustard gas in France for the assault. “We could have wiped out any German city we pleased . . . and probably several of them, within a few hours of giving the release signal.” Walker concluded that the Germans’ knowledge of Allied plans was “a very big factor in [their] capitulation.” On Armistice Day, the CWS shuttered its Edgewood operations with 2,500 tons of mustard gas sitting on the piers ready for shipment. “Somehow we had been cheated of our prey,” Walker regretted, but he took comfort in his belief that the gas had expedited Germany’s surrender. 87
In the 1920 Army Reorganization Hearings, Assistant Secretary of War Benedict Crowell made clear how central the use of chemical warfare had been to the United States’ planned 1919 offensive. Crowell testified, “Our offensive in 1919, in my opinion, would have been a walk to Berlin, due to chemical warfare. Of course, that was kept as a secret.” 88
During the war, the combatants used a total of 124,000 metric tons of thirty-nine different toxic agents, dispersed, for the most part, by 66 million artillery shells. Among the German casualties in October 1918 was Lance Corporal Adolf Hitler, who described the incident in Mein Kampf: “My eyes were transformed into glowing coals and the world had grown dark around me.” 89
Barry reported that when he visited the Edgewood plant in December 1918, it was “being dismantled. The machinery is being carefully taken apart, oiled, and wrapped and stored away—ready for the next war, should there ever be one.” Disposing of the contaminated parts and gas would be a little more complicated, he mused, especially because the United States had produced enough gas to kill everyone in both North and South America. 90
Walker understood that chemical weapons could be made much more deadly if dropped by airplanes. Science fiction writers like Jules Verne in his novel Clipper of the Clouds (1886) and H. G. Wells in The War in the Air (1908) foresaw the frightening potential for conventional aerial bombardment in future wars. The world got a small taste of what this would be like prior to World War I: aerial attack from hot-air balloons can actually be traced back to late-eighteenth-century France, and Austria later used hot-air balloons to bomb Venice in 1849. Between 1911 and 1913, Italy, France, and Bulgaria employed aerial bombardment on a small scale in local skirmishes. 91 The prospect of using planes to drop chemical weapons was even more frightening.
World War I provided the first real showcase of air warfare, though it only offered a small glimpse of what was to come. Germany struck first on August 6, 1914. Its zeppelins dropped bombs on Liège, Belgium. Germany was the first country to bomb civilians from the air when an August 1914 attack on a Parisian railway station missed its target and killed a woman. In September, during the First Battle of the Marne, German airmen bombed Paris on several occasions. The first Allied urban aerial bombing came in December, when French airmen bombed Freiburg. By spring 1918, German bombing had injured over four thousand British civilians and left more than one thousand dead. Though used on a limited scale, the potential for air warfare was apparent. British forces had only 110 warplanes when the war began. But Great Britain, along with France, produced 100,000 more before the war was over. Germany produced 44,000. 92
During the 1920s, Great Britain made extensive use of aerial bombardment to defend and police its far-flung empire in places as disparate as Afghanistan, Egypt, India, Yemen, Somaliland, and especially Iraq, which British forces occupied following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. Under the euphemism of “air policing,” the Royal Air Force conducted an extensive bombing campaign against Iraqis resisting British colonialism. The commander of the 45th Squadron reported, “They [i.e., the Arabs and the Kurds] now know what real bombing means, in casualties and damage; they now know that within 45 minutes a full sized village . . . can be practically wiped out and a third of its inhabitants killed or injured by four or five machines.” 93
In the 1920s, Italian airpower strategist Giulio Douhet argued that aerial bombing now held the key to military victory and differentiating between soldiers and civilians was no longer possible. The United States’ leading advocate of airpower, General William “Billy” Mitchell, was thinking along similar lines. In his 1925 book Winged Defense, he warned, “If a nation ambitious for universal conquest gets off to a ‘flying start’ in a war of the future, it may be able to control the whole world. . . . Should a nation, therefore, attain complete control of the air, it could more nearly master the earth than has ever been the case in the past.” 94 Others tried to couch their fascination with aerial warfare in more positive terms. CWS director General Amos Fries coined the following fanciful slogan for his agency: “Every development of science that makes warfare more universal and more scientific makes for permanent peace by making warfare more intolerable” (italics in original). 95
While some planned for war, others planned for peace, fearing that another war augured even greater devastation. Will Irwin’s 1921 book The Next War went through twelve printings that year. Irwin, a journalist who had worked with the Committee for Public Information, painted a bleak picture of future prospects. He reminded readers that at the time of the armistice, the United States was manufacturing lewisite gas. He described the qualities that made it so effective and so terrifying:
It was invisible; it was a sinking gas, which would search out the refugees of dugouts and cellars; if breathed, it killed at once—and it killed not only through the lungs. Wherever it settled on the skin, it produced a poison which penetrated the system and brought almost certain death. It was inimical to all cell-life, animal or vegetable. Masks alone were of no use against it. Further, it had fifty-five times the “spread” of any poison gas hitherto used in the war. An expert has said that a dozen Lewisite air bombs of the greatest size in use during 1918 might with a favorable wind have eliminated the population of Berlin. Possibly he exaggerated, but probably not greatly. The Armistice came; but gas research went on. Now we have more than a hint of a gas beyond Lewisite. . . . A mere capsule of this gas in a small grenade can generate square rods and even acres of death in the absolute. 96
Chemists, the most conservative segment of the scientific community and, not coincidentally, the one most closely tied to industry, took pride in their contribution to the war effort. That contribution didn’t go unnoticed by others. The New York Times announced that chemists’ efforts “should be gratefully acknowledged by the lay public. Our chemists are among the best soldiers of democracy” and “the most effective of our national defenders.” 97
Chemists joined with their military and industrial allies in resisting postwar efforts to ban future uses of chemical warfare. In 1925, the League of Nations adopted the Geneva Protocol, outlawing the use of chemical and bacteriological weapons in war. The Coolidge administration supported it. Veterans’ groups, the American Chemical Society (ACS), and chemical manufacturers led the opposition. Meeting in Los Angeles in August, the ACS council unanimously resolved to go “strongly on record against the ratification of the Geneva protocol on poisonous gases, as against both National safety and on the grounds of humanity.” The chemists, five hundred of whom were still in the Chemical Warfare Officers’ Reserve Corps or the CWS, tried to convince the public that chemical weapons were actually more humane than other weapons, that the United States needed to be prepared for their use in the next war, and that the treaty might place the League of Nations in control of the U.S. chemical industry. Senator Joseph Ransdell of Louisiana hoped that the resolution would “be sent back to the Committee on Foreign Relations and buried so deep it would never appear before us again.” 98 He got his wish. The committee never released it for a floor vote. In the ten years that followed, forty countries—including every great power besides the United States and Japan—ended up ratifying the treaty. 99
Italian, British, and German bombers. Militaries first bombed targets, including civilians, during World War I. Germany began to do so in 1914, over Liege, Belgium. By spring of 1918, German bombs had injured over 4,000 British civilians and left over 1,000 dead.
Gas warfare scored its greatest successes against the poorly equipped Russian troops on the eastern front, who suffered 425,000 gas-induced casualties and 56,000 deaths. 100 For Russia, with 2 million dead and 5 million wounded, the war proved disastrous in all regards. Finally fed up with the tsar’s indifference to their hardships, the Russian people overthrew Nicholas II’s regime in March 1917. But many felt further betrayed when, with Wilson’s support, the reformist government of Alexander Kerensky opted to keep Russia in the war. The Russian masses demanded a sharper break with the past.
On November 7, 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, seized power, dramatically changing the course of world history. They were inspired by Karl Marx, a nineteenth-century German-Jewish intellectual who believed that class struggle would eventually result in an egalitarian socialist society. Marx, ironically, had doubted that a successful socialist revolution could occur in economically and culturally backward Russia. Ignoring Marx’s warnings, the Bolsheviks set out to reorganize Russian society at its roots, nationalizing banks, distributing landed estates to the peasants, putting workers in control of factories, and confiscating church property. Lenin’s Red Guard ransacked the old Foreign Office and brazenly published what it found: a web of secret agreements between the Allies from 1915 and 1916 that divided the postwar map into exclusive zones of influence. Much as the United States would react to the WikiLeaks publications of its diplomatic cables in 2010, the Allies were outraged at this brazen violation of the old diplomatic protocol, which now exposed the hollowness of Wilson’s call for “self-determination” after the war. Among the treaties was the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which divided up the Ottoman Empire among Great Britain, France, and Russia. Carving out new nations with little regard for historical and cultural affinities, it planted the seeds of future conflict in the oil-rich Middle East.
Not since the French Revolution some 125 years before had Europe been so profoundly shaken and changed. Lenin’s vision of worldwide Communist revolution captured the imagination of workers and peasants around the globe, posing a direct challenge to Wilson’s vision of liberal capitalist democracy.
U.S. soldiers undergoing anti-gas training at Camp Dix, New Jersey. Despite being proscribed by civilizations for centuries, chemical warfare became widespread during World War I. Thousands died from poison gas attacks.
Wilson’s Anglophile secretary of state Robert Lansing reported disappointedly that Lenin’s Communist message was resonating with workers. He warned Wilson on January 1, 1918, that Lenin’s appeal was directed “to the proletariat of all countries, to the ignorant and mentally deficient, who by their numbers are urged to become masters. Here seems to me to lie a very real danger in view of the present social unrest throughout the world.” 101
Wilson decided to make his own bold move in an attempt to steal Lenin’s thunder. He announced his Fourteen Points on January 8, 1918. This liberal, open, anti-imperialist peace plan endorsed self-determination, disarmament, freedom of the seas, free trade, and a League of Nations. Only such an exalted mission would justify continuing “this tragical and appalling outpouring of blood and treasure.” “The day of conquest and aggrandizement is gone by; so is also the day of secret covenants,” he declared in what later would turn out to be a boldfaced lie. 102 But suddenly two competing new visions for the postwar world were on the table.
Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia on November 7, 1917, dramatically altering the course of world history. Lenin’s vision of worldwide Communist revolution would capture the imagination of workers and peasants around the globe, posing a direct challenge to Woodrow Wilson’s vision of liberal capitalist democracy.
Lenin again caught the capitalist world off guard. On March 3, eight months before the armistice, he signed a peace treaty with Germany, pulling Russian troops from the war. Lenin was so desirous of peace that he acceded to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk even though it meant relinquishing Russian control over Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, Ukraine, Georgia, and more—over 300,000 square miles of territory and 50 million people. Wilson and the Allies were furious. They reacted quickly.
The conservative counterrevolution against the Bolsheviks was ferocious. Separate armies attacked the new Russia from all directions—native Russians and Cossacks, the Czech legion, Serbs, Greeks, Poles in the west, the French in Ukraine, and some 70,000 Japanese in the Far East. In reaction, Lenin’s co-revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky ruthlessly put together a Red Army of approximately 5 million men. The outspoken ex–Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill spoke for capitalists everywhere when he said that Bolshevism should be strangled in its cradle.
An estimated 40,000 British troops arrived in Russia, some deployed to the Caucasus to protect the oil reserves at Baku. Though most of the fighting would be over by 1920, pockets of resistance persisted until 1923. In a foreshadowing of what was to come some sixty years later, Muslim resistance in Central Asia lasted into the 1930s.
President Woodrow Wilson speaking at the Greek Theatre in Berkeley, California, September 1919. Reelected president in 1916 on the slogan “He kept us out of war,” Wilson entered World War I in 1917, hoping to give the United States a hand in shaping the postwar world.
Japan, France, Great Britain, and several other nations sent tens of thousands of troops to Russia, in part to assist conservative White Russians attempting to overthrow the fledgling Bolshevik regime. The United States initially hesitated to join them but finally sent over 15,000 troops to eastern and northern Russia with the hope of maintaining a limited eastern front against Germany and limiting Japanese gains. Wilson rejected proposals by British cabinet officer Winston Churchill, commander in chief of the Allied armies, Marshal Ferdinand Foch, and other Allied leaders for a direct military intervention to overthrow the Bolsheviks. Wilson resisted Foch’s ongoing entreaties, explaining “any attempt to check a revolutionary movement by means of deployed armies is merely trying to use a broom to sweep back a high tide. Besides, armies may become impregnated with the very Bolshevism they are sent to combat.” 103 Still, U.S. troops remained in the country until 1920, long after the original military rationale had ceased to exist. U.S. participation in this operation poisoned its relations with the new Soviet government from the start. 104 It also deepened mistrust toward Wilson and his motives on the part of a crucial group of mostly midwestern progressive senators—a mistrust that would come back to haunt him when he struggled to achieve his crowning vision, a league of nations.
These “peace progressives,” as Robert David Johnson and other historians have labeled them, held differing views of Russia’s new revolutionary government, but they all recoiled at the notion of a U.S. military intervention. California Republican Senator Hiram Johnson took the lead. He argued that the United States should deal with the issues that had given rise to Bolshevism—“oppression, and poverty, and hunger”—rather than intervening militarily to overthrow the new government, an undertaking he saw as part of Wilson’s “war against revolution in all countries.” He desired “no American militarism to impose by force our will upon weaker nations.” Mississippi Senator James Vardaman charged that the intervention had been conducted on behalf of international corporations that wanted to collect the $10 billion that the imperial Russian government had owed them. Robert La Follette deplored it as a “mockery” of the Fourteen Points—“the crime of all crimes against democracy, ‘self-determination,’ and the ‘consent of the governed.’ ” 105 Idaho Senator William Borah reported that people who returned to the United States after spending months in Russia were telling a very different story about conditions there than the Wilson administration was presenting. Borah had been hearing “that the Russian people very largely support the Soviet Government.” And, he continued, “If the Soviet Government represents the Russian people, if it represents 90 percent of the Russian people, I take the position that the Russian people have the same right to establish a socialistic state as we have to establish a republic.” 106 Johnson introduced a resolution to stop funding for the intervention, which gained strong support, deadlocking at 33–33. 107
While growing numbers were beginning to question aspects of Wilson’s diplomacy at home, he still seemed to offer a beacon of hope for war-weary Europeans. Adoring crowds mobbed him when he arrived in Europe on December 18, 1918, for the Paris Peace Conference. H. G. Wells recalled, “For a brief interval Wilson stood alone for mankind. Or at least he seemed to stand for mankind. And in that brief interval there was a very extraordinary and significant wave of response to him throughout the earth. . . . He ceased to be a common statesman; he became a Messiah.” 108
The Germans had surrendered on the basis of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, believing that they would be treated fairly. One German town greeted returning troops with a banner reading “Welcome, brave soldiers, your work has been done; God and Wilson will carry it on.” 109 The Germans even deposed the kaiser and adopted a republican form of government as a sign of good faith. But the ill-defined Fourteen Points proved a weak foundation on which to base negotiations. And Wilson mistakenly failed to get his allies to concur during the war when he had more leverage. He had naively told Colonel Edward House, “When the war is over, we can force [England and France] to our way of thinking, because . . . they will be financially in our hands.” 110
Despite their indebtedness, the Allies balked at Wilson’s terms. Having paid such a high price for victory, they had little interest in Wilson’s lofty rhetoric about making the world safe for democracy, freedom of the seas, and “peace without victory.” They wanted revenge, new colonies, and naval dominance. Wilson had already betrayed one of the central tenets by intervening in the Russian Civil War and maintaining forces in the country. More betrayals would follow. The British made it clear that they had no intention of abiding by Wilson’s call for freedom of the seas, which would have limited their navy’s ability to enforce British trade routes. The French made it equally clear they would not accept a nonpunitive treaty. France had lost well over a million soldiers and Great Britain just under a million. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George noted that in the United States “not a shack” had been destroyed. 111 The French also remembered their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, further fueling their desire to debilitate and dismember Germany.
Twenty-seven nations met in Paris on January 12, 1919. The task ahead of them was enormous. To varying degrees, the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian empires were collapsing. New countries were emerging. Revolutionary change was encroaching. Starvation was rampant. Disease was spreading. Displaced populations were seeking refuge. Visionary leadership was desperately needed. But Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando found Wilson, who considered himself the “personal instrument of God,” to be absolutely insufferable. 112 Clemenceau supposedly commented, “Mr. Wilson bores me with his 14 Points; why, God Almighty has only ten!” 113 Lloyd George took great pleasure in Clemenceau’s response to Wilson: “If the President took a flight beyond the azure main, as he was occasionally inclined to do without regard to relevance, Clemenceau would open his great eyes in twinkling wonder, and turn them on me as much as to say: ‘Here he is off again.’ I really think that at first the idealistic President regarded himself as a missionary whose function was to rescue the poor European heathen.” Lloyd George applauded his own performance under the difficult circumstances, “seated as I was between Jesus Christ and Napoleon Bonaparte.” 114
Few of Wilson’s Fourteen Points remained in the final treaty. The victors, particularly Great Britain, France, and Japan, divided the former German colonies and holdings in Asia and Africa along the lines established by the secret 1915 Treaty of London. They also carved up the Ottoman Empire. They sanitized their actions by calling the colonies “mandates.” Wilson resisted but ultimately went along. He rationalized his acquiescence by arguing that the Germans had “ruthlessly exploited their colonies,” denying their citizens basic rights, while the Allies had treated their colonies humanely 115 —an assessment that was greeted with incredulity by the inhabitants of those Allied colonies, like French Indochina’s Ho Chi Minh. Ho rented a tuxedo and bowler hat and visited Wilson and the U.S. delegation to the conference, carrying a petition demanding Vietnamese independence. Like most of the other non-Western world leaders in attendance, Ho would learn that liberation would come through armed struggle, not colonialist largesse. Mao Zedong, then working as a library assistant, expressed similar frustration: “So much for national self-determination,” he vented. “I think it is really shameless!” 116 Wilson went so far in compromising his principles that he even accepted a U.S. mandate over Armenia, leading Clemenceau to comment wryly, “When you cease to be President, we will make you Grand Turk.” 117
Allied leaders did little to hide the racism that underlay their continued subjugation of dark-skinned peoples. This was most apparent when Japan’s representatives—Baron Nobuake Makino and Viscount Chinda—proposed that a clause on racial equality be included in the Covenant of the League of Nations. The clause read, “The equality of states being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord, as soon as possible, to all alien nationals of States members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect, making no distinction, either in law or fact, on account of their race or nationality.” The Japanese proposal was rejected outright by defenders of the British Empire, including British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour and Australian Prime Minister William Hughes. As one British cabinet member, Lord Robert Cecil, explained, the clause raised “extremely serious problems” for the British Empire. 118
Having admitted to Lloyd George before the proceedings began that he was less interested in the details of the settlement than in the League of Nations—which he considered crucial to preventing future war—Wilson’s attempt to secure the kind of nonpunitive treaty he publicly advocated failed miserably. The treaty dealt very harshly with Germany. It included a “war guilt clause,” drafted by future secretary of state John Foster Dulles, that placed the entire blame on Germany for starting the war and required Germany to pay extremely heavy reparations. Wilson, intently focused on the League, repeatedly compromised on these and other crucial matters, disappointing even his strongest supporters. Clemenceau snidely remarked that Wilson “talked like Jesus Christ but acted like Lloyd George.” 119 Economist John Maynard Keynes condemned Wilson’s capitulation to this “Carthagenian Peace”—a tragic repudiation of his Fourteen Points—and predicted that it would lead to another European war. 120
Ho Chi Minh rented a tuxedo and bowler hat and visited Wilson and the U.S. delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, carrying a petition demanding Vietnamese independence. Like most of the other non-Western world leaders in attendance, Ho would learn that liberation would come through armed struggle, not the colonizers’ largesse.
Although Lenin wasn’t invited to Paris, Russia’s presence cast a pall over the meetings, like “the Banquo’s ghost sitting at every Council table,” according to Herbert Hoover. 121 Lenin had dismissed Wilson’s Fourteen Points as empty rhetoric and said that the capitalist powers would never abandon their colonies or accept the Wilsonian vision of peacefully adjudicating conflicts. His call for worldwide revolution to overthrow the entire imperialist system was finding a receptive audience. Colonel House wrote in his diary in March, “From the look of things the crisis will soon be here. Rumblings of discontent every day. The people want peace. Bolshevism is gaining ground everywhere. Hungary has just succumbed. We are sitting upon an open powder magazine and some day a spark may ignite it.” 122 The Allies were so worried about Communist revolutions in Eastern Europe that they inserted a clause in the armistice agreement forbidding the German army to evacuate the countries on its eastern frontier until “the Allies think the moment suitable.” 123 Though Béla Kun’s Communist government in Hungary would soon be toppled by invading Romanian forces and an attempt to seize power by the Communists in Germany failed, House and Wilson had reason to be alarmed at the radical tide sweeping Europe and beyond.
American workers also participated in the radical upsurge; 365,000 striking steelworkers led the way, followed by 450,000 miners and 120,000 textile workers. In Boston, police voted 1,134–2 to strike, leading the Wall Street Journal to warn, “Lenin and Trotsky are on their way.” Wilson called the strike “a crime against civilization.” 124 And a general strike in Seattle was led by a Soldiers’, Sailors’, and Workmen’s Council modeled on the Russian Revolution. Seattle Mayor Ole Hanson denounced it as “an attempted revolution.” The strikers, he charged, “want to take possession of our American Government and try to duplicate the anarchy of Russia.” 125 Over 5 million workers struck that year alone. When strikebreakers, protected by armed guards, local police, and newly sworn in deputies, were not sufficient to defeat the strikes, state militias and even federal troops were called in to finish the job, sending the labor movement into a tailspin from which it would not recover for well over a decade. Though the use of federal troops on behalf of powerful capitalists had been highly controversial in 1877, workers had increasingly learned that police, courts, troops, and the entire apparatus of the state would be arrayed against them when they struggled for higher wages, better working conditions, and the right to join unions.
Having badly weakened the Left during the war, government officials now tried to finish it off. In November 1919 and January 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer used a spate of largely ineffectual anarchist bombings as an excuse to unleash federal agents to raid radical groups and labor organizations across the country. Though called the Palmer Raids, the operation was actually run by the twenty-four-year-old director of the Justice Department’s Radical Division, J. Edgar Hoover. Over five thousand alleged radicals were arrested, many incarcerated without charges for months. Russian-born Emma Goldman and hundreds of other foreign-born activists were deported. This flagrant abuse of civil liberties not only devastated the progressive movement, it deliberately identified dissent with un-Americanism. But for Hoover, it was just the beginning. By 1921, his index-card system, cataloguing all potentially subversive individuals, groups, and publications, contained 450,000 entries. 126
From left to right: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, Italian Premier Vittorio Orlando, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference. At the conference, most of the lofty rhetoric of Wilson’s “Fourteen Points” was rejected by the other Allies, who were out for revenge, new colonies, and naval dominance in the postwar world.
In 1919, over 4 million U.S. workers struck for higher wages, better conditions, and organizing rights. As illustrated by this leaflet from the Seattle General Strike, the Russian Revolution helped inspire this intensified labor militancy.
After the Paris conference, Wilson gushed, “At last the world knows America as the savior of the world!” 127 Back in the United States, Wilson was greeted like anything but a savior by treaty opponents, who attacked from both the left and the right. Wilson fought back, touring the country. He argued that the United States needed to ratify the treaty so it could join the League of Nations, which was the only way it could rectify the problems created by the treaty. Senator Borah, leading the opposition among progressives like Senators La Follette, Norris, and Johnson, denounced Wilson’s proposed international body as a league of “imperialists” bent upon defeating revolutions and defending their own imperial designs. Borah thought the treaty, despite Wilson’s efforts to soften it, was “a cruel, destructive, brutal document” that had produced “a league to guarantee the integrity of the British empire.” 128 Norris condemned the treaty provision handing Shandong, the birthplace of Confucius, to Japan as “the disgraceful rape of an innocent people.” 129 They were joined by isolationists and others who wanted guarantees that the United States wouldn’t be drawn into military actions without authorization by Congress.
Ironically, Wilson’s own wartime policy had deprived him of many of his best allies. CPI head Creel pointed this out to the beleaguered president in late 1918, telling him “All the radical, or liberal friends of your anti-imperialist war policy were either silenced or intimidated. The Department of Justice and the Post Office were allowed to silence and intimidate them. There was no voice left to argue for your sort of peace. The Nation and the Public got nipped. All the radical and socialist press was dumb.” 130 Wilson’s obstinacy made a bad situation worse. Rather than compromise on proposed treaty modifications, Wilson watched the treaty and the League go down to defeat, finally falling seven votes short of ratification.
The peace proved particularly onerous for Germany. Reparations totaled $33 billion—less than one-fifth what France demanded but more than double what Germany had expected, at a time when its ability to pay was severely compromised by its loss of colonies and Polish-speaking territories. Germany also surrendered the port of Danzig and the Saar coal region. And the German people were embittered by the “war guilt clause.”
The House of Morgan’s fingerprints were all over the treaty’s economic clauses. As award-winning Morgan biographer Ron Chernow noted, “Morgan men were so ubiquitous at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 that Bernard Baruch grumbled that J. P. Morgan and Company was running the show.” The most prominent among the Morgan men was Thomas Lamont, the House of Morgan’s leading partner, upon whom Wilson relied. Another Morgan partner, George Whitney, observed that Wilson appeared to trust Lamont’s financial views more than anyone else’s. Lamont advocated setting German reparations at $40 billion and later held to the belief that, if anything, the Germans had gotten off easy. At Paris, he and the other bankers made sure that Morgan’s interests were well protected. 131
Although the reparations and the “war guilt clause” created a hostile and unstable environment in postwar Germany, their impact has sometimes been exaggerated. The reparations were more onerous on paper than in practice. Beginning in 1921, the actual payments were repeatedly revised downward based on Germany’s ability to pay. And the “war guilt clause”—Article 231—does not actually mention “guilt.” It holds Germany accountable for reparations for “all the loss and damage” resulting from “a war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.” 132 It is certainly true, however, that Hitler and other right-wing Germans exploited the postwar sense of victimization that came with defeat and Allied retribution. The fact that little of the fighting took place on German soil and that wartime government propaganda had led most Germans to believe that victory was imminent made the settlement even more difficult to swallow and lent credibility to Hitler’s allegations.
As this December 1919 Punch cartoon shows, the Senate’s rejection of U.S. participation in the League of Nations rendered the League largely ineffectual. Wilson had helped guarantee the League’s defeat by silencing potential anti-imperialist allies in the U.S. during the war.
Economic, social, and political instability also rocked postwar Italy, where armed fascisti—followers of Benito Mussolini—repeatedly clashed with leftist demonstrators and strikers. U.S. Ambassador Robert Johnson warned of the dangers of a takeover by Mussolini’s extreme right-wing forces. The U.S. Embassy reported in June 1921: “the fascisti seem to be the aggressors, while the communists . . . have . . . shift[ed] the imputation of lawlessness and violence from the party of ‘Red’ revolution to the self-constituted party of ‘law and order.’ ” Later, when Richard Child, Warren G. Harding’s ambassador to Italy, replaced Johnson, he did an about-face, praising Mussolini and castigating the Communists. Child and other embassy officials downplayed Mussolini’s right-wing extremism, extolling instead his anti-Bolshevism and willingness to use strong-arm methods to defeat labor. U.S. support continued even after Mussolini’s imposition of a Fascist dictatorship. Mussolini’s defenders included American business leaders like Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon, Thomas Lamont of J. P. Morgan, and Ralph Easley of the National Civic Federation. 133
Historians have long since discredited the myth that revulsion caused by the war and European entanglements plunged the United States into isolationism in the 1920s. In fact, World War I marked the end of European dominance and the ascendancy of the United States and Japan, the war’s two real victors. The twenties saw a rapid expansion of American business and finance around the globe. New York replaced London as the center of world finance. The era of U.S. domination of the world economy had now begun. Among the leaders in this effort were the oil companies.
The war proved that controlling oil supplies was central to projecting and exercising power. Great Britain and Germany tried to cut off each other’s oil supplies during the war. Great Britain, hurt by German attacks on its oil supply ships, first expressed concern about an oil shortage in early 1916. The Allies also blockaded Germany’s access to oil resources, and British Colonel John Norton-Griffiths attempted to lay oil supplies in Romania to waste when Germany moved to seize them in late 1916. Underscoring the importance of these developments, Britain’s Lord Curzon pronounced soon after the armistice that “the Allied cause had floated to victory upon a wave of oil.” The United States was key to that victory, having met 80 percent of the Allies’ wartime petroleum needs. 134 But once the war ended, oil companies were poised to grab whatever new oil-rich territories they could. As Royal Dutch Shell asserted in its 1920 annual report, “We must not be outstripped in this struggle to obtain new territory . . . our geologists are everywhere where any chance of success exists.” 135
Royal Dutch Shell trained its sights on Venezuela, where General Juan Vicente Gómez’s government offered friendly, stable conditions that seemed much more hospitable than the ongoing volatility and declining production in Mexico. 136 Concerned about Great Britain’s predominance in Venezuela and believing that production during World War I had largely depleted U.S. domestic supplies, U.S. companies soon joined the competition for Venezuelan oil. 137 In The Prize, Daniel Yergin’s pioneering book on the oil industry, the author describes Gómez as a “cruel, cunning, and avaricious dictator who, for twenty-seven years, ruled Venezuela for his personal enrichment.” 138 Indeed, according to historian Steven Rabe, Gómez essentially made the country “his private hacienda” as he “amassed a personal fortune estimated at $200 million and landholdings of 20 million acres.” Tellingly, the dictator’s passing in 1935 would be greeted in Venezuela with a weeklong “spontaneous popular outburst” in which demonstrators vented their rage by ravaging “his portraits, statues, and buildings,” and even “massacred” some of his “sycophants.” 139
Gómez’s power rested upon local caudillos (strongmen), an army staffed by his loyalists, and a network of domestic spies. Detractors faced harsh persecution. U.S. Chargé d’Affaires John Campbell White reported that prisoners in Venezuela were treated with “medieval severity.” The United States was always ready to step in if needed. In 1923, the United States sent a Special Service squadron to the country as a show of support in response to what turned out to be unfounded rumors of an impending revolution. 140
With an economy increasingly dependent on petroleum revenues, Gómez enlisted the oil companies to write parts of Venezuela’s business-friendly 1922 Petroleum Law. The companies reaped massive profits. Oil company workers and the environment fared less well. Spills and accidents occurred frequently. One oil well blowout in 1922 spread twenty-two miles, releasing nearly a million barrels of oil into Lake Maracaibo. 141
While Gómez was busy enjoying his wealth and fathering his alleged ninety-seven illegitimate children, his family and hangers-on, known as Gomecistas, bought up the choice properties and then sold them to foreign companies, accumulating vast fortunes for themselves and their leader, while their countrymen remained mired in poverty. In the process, Venezuelan oil production jumped from 1.4 million barrels in 1921 to 137 million in 1929, trailing only the United States in total output and first worldwide in exports. Of the three companies dominating the Venezuelan market, two were American-owned—Gulf and Pan American, which had been purchased in 1925 by Standard Oil of Indiana. 142 Combined, the two companies replaced Great Britain’s Royal Dutch Shell as Venezuela’s majority oil producers in 1928 and were responsible for 60 percent of production in the country by the time of Gómez’s death. 143
But left-wing opposition to the dictatorships of Gómez and his successors was growing. Oil workers occasionally went on strike for better conditions and pay, and in 1928 students at the Universidad Central in Caracas, known as the “Generation of ’28,” staged an uprising condemning the dictatorship and calling for a more democratic government. After years of struggle, in 1945, Rómulo Betancourt’s leftist Democratic Action (AD) succeeded in overthrowing the regime of Isaías Medina Angarita. Betancourt forged a relationship with the oil companies that was more representative of Venezuela’s interests. He was ousted in a 1948 military coup. While acknowledging the need for outside investment, these progressive reformers established a legacy of radical nationalist and anti-imperialist resistance to exploitation of Venezuelan resources by foreign oil interests. 144
By 1920, Americans had wearied of Wilsonian “idealism.” They were ready for what Warren G. Harding labeled a “return to normalcy,” which, in terms of the decade’s first two Republican presidents, meant a return to mediocrity. The Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover administrations sought ways to expand U.S. economic interests in Latin America without resorting to the heavy-handed gunboat diplomacy that marked the Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson regimes. During the 1920 presidential campaign, Harding seized upon vice presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt’s remark that as assistant secretary of the navy, he had personally written the constitution of Haiti to assure listeners that as president, he, Harding, would not “empower an Assistant Secretary of the Navy to draft a constitution for helpless neighbors in the West Indies and jam it down their throats at the point of bayonets borne by United States Marines.” He enumerated other things Wilson had done that he would not repeat: “Nor will I misuse the power of the Executive to cover with a veil of secrecy repeated acts of unwarranted interference in domestic affairs of the little republics of the Western Hemisphere, such as in the last few years have not only made enemies of those who should be our friends, but have rightfully discredited our country as their trusted neighbor.” 145
The Venezuelan dictator General Juan Vicente Gómez’s brutal and rapacious reign made his country a favorite of American and British oil companies. While amassing his own fortune, Gómez employed local caudillos (strongmen), an army staffed by his loyalists, and a network of domestic spies to ensure that Venezuela remained stable and hospitable to Western oil interests.
In fact, Harding and his Republican successors made more friends among U.S. bankers than among the inhabitants of those little republics. In May 1922, The Nation reported, revolutionaries sparked an uprising against “Brown Bros.’ extremely unpopular President of Nicaragua.” When the revolutionaries captured a fort overlooking the capital, the U.S. marine commander simply alerted them that he would use artillery if they didn’t relinquish control. The Nation saw this as typical of what was happening throughout Latin America, where U.S. bankers ruled through puppet governments backed up by U.S. troops. The magazine inveighed against this deplorable situation:
There are, or were, twenty independent republics to the south of us. Five at least—Cuba, Panama, Haiti, Santo Domingo, and Nicaragua—have already been reduced to the status of colonies with at most a degree of rather fictitious self-government. Four more—Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Peru—appear to be in process of reduction to the same status. Mr. Hughes is not treating Mexico as a sovereign, independent state. How far is this to go? . . . Is the United States to create a great empire in this hemisphere—an empire over which Congress and the American people exercise no authority, an empire ruled by a group of Wall Street bankers at whose disposal the State and Navy Departments graciously place their resources? These are the questions which the people, the plain people whose sons die of tropic fever or of a patriot’s bullet, have a right to ask. 146
Far from having become isolationist following the Great War, the United States found more effective ways than warfare to expand its empire. In fact, the war left an increasingly bitter taste in the mouths of most Americans. Although U.S. involvement in the First World War had been relatively brief and, by most measures, enormously successful, the nature of the fighting, marked by trench and chemical warfare, and the shaky postwar settlement combined to undermine the glory of the war itself. In its aftermath, Americans became increasingly disillusioned. A war fought to make the world safe for democracy seemed to have failed in its purpose. Nor was there much hope that this war would end all wars. Though some people nevertheless clung to the belief that the United States had engaged in a great crusade for freedom and democracy, for others the phrase rang hollow. A postwar literature of disillusionment emerged in the works of E. E. Cummings, John Dos Passos, Ernest Hemingway, Ezra Pound, Thomas Boyd, William Faulkner, Laurence Stallings, Irwin Shaw, Ford Madox Ford, Dalton Trumbo, and other writers as the nation learned once again that the initial euphoria of war would be erased by the reality of what the war actually achieved. In Dos Passos’s 1921 novel Three Soldiers, his wounded protagonist, John Andrews, suffers through a visit from a YMCA representative, intent on lifting his spirits, who says, “I guess you’re in a hurry to get back at the front and get some more Huns. . . . It’s great to feel you’re doing your duty . . . [Huns] are barbarians, enemies of civilization.” Andrews recoils at the notion that “the best that had been thought” was reduced to this. Dos Passos wrote, “Furious, hopeless irritation consumed him. . . . There must be something more in the world than greed and hatred and cruelty.” 147
Some expressed anger at the war. Others just expressed a profound sense of postwar malaise. In 1920, in This Side of Paradise, F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote of Amory Blaine and his young friends that “here was a new generation . . . grown up to find all Gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken.” 148 Gertrude Stein saw that same sense of ennui in Ernest Hemingway and his drunken friends and commented, “All of you young people who served in the war. You are a lost generation.” 149
Not to be outdone, Hollywood produced several successful antiwar movies, some of which are still classics. Rex Ingram’s The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) brought instant stardom to Rudolph Valentino. King Vidor’s The Big Parade was the top box-office draw in 1925. William Wellman’s Wings (1927) was the first film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, and Lewis Milestone’s powerful All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) remains one of the great antiwar films of all time.
The war proved demoralizing in a myriad of subtle ways as well. The prewar march of civilization grounded in a faith in human progress had been negated by a war that seemed to showcase barbarism and depravity. Put simply, the faith in human capability and human decency had disappeared. This was understandably evident on both sides of the Atlantic. Sigmund Freud, who became a household name in the United States during the 1920s, is a case in point. Freud’s prewar emphasis on the tension between the pleasure principle and the reality principle gave way to a postwar pessimism about human nature grounded in his focus on the death instinct.
Negative views of human nature were reflected in a loss of faith in essential human capabilities. The army presented psychologists with a vast laboratory on which to conduct experiments in human intelligence and the 3 million inductees provided an extraordinary pool of human guinea pigs. Working with army personnel, many of whom were trained in testing at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, psychologists administered intelligence tests to 1,727,000 recruits, including 41,000 officers. The data accumulated about educational levels were eye-opening. Some 30 percent of the recruits were illiterate. 150 The amount of education varied widely among the different groups, ranging from a median of 6.9 years for native whites and 4.7 years for immigrants to 2.6 years for southern blacks. The results of intelligence tests were even more sobering. The tests—albeit crude and culturally biased—found an astounding 47 percent of white draftees and 89 percent of blacks to be “morons.” 151
Nowhere was the subsequently degraded view of human intelligence more evident than in postwar advertising. The 1920s is often viewed as the golden age of advertising—the decade in which the industry really blossomed into the principal capitalist art form. As Merle Curti showed in his study of the advertising industry journal Printer’s Ink, before 1910, advertisers, by and large, assumed that consumers were rational and self-interested and could be appealed to on that basis. Between 1910 and 1930, however, the majority of comments indicated that advertisers were viewing consumers as nonrational. As a result, advertisements increasingly abandoned the reason-why approach and appealed to fantasies and emotions. 152 A speaker at a 1923 advertising convention in Atlantic City captured this sense when he warned, “Appeal to reason in your advertising, and you appeal to about four percent of the human race.” 153 This sentiment became accepted wisdom among advertisers. William Esty of the J. Walter Thompson agency instructed colleagues that all experts believed “that it is futile to try to appeal to masses of people on an intellectual or logical basis.” 154 John Benson, the president of the American Association of Advertising Agencies, observed in 1927, “To tell the naked truth might make no appeal. It may be necessary to fool people for their own good. Doctors and even preachers know that and practice it. Average intelligence is surprisingly low. It is so much more effectively guided by its subconscious impulses and instincts than by its reason.” 155
Nowhere was this postwar pessimism more apparent than in the writings of Walter Lippmann, who was, in many respects, the nation’s outstanding public intellectual during the decade. A leading socialist and progressive in the prewar period, Lippmann’s faith in human rationality steadily declined after the war. In his 1922 classic Public Opinion, he introduced the term “stereotypes” to describe the images in people’s minds that did not correspond to reality. He proposed substituting scientifically trained experts for the democratic public, for whom the world had become too complex. By the time he published The Phantom Public two years later, his faith in democracy had eroded further. The best people could do, he believed, was choose good leaders to guide them. Then, in his 1929 classic A Preface to Morals, he despaired over the very purpose of human existence in a meaningless universe, a view reflective of the United States’ broader existential crisis of 1929–1930.
The most acerbic of democracy’s critics was certainly H. L. Mencken, “the sage of Baltimore.” Mencken referred to the common man, mired in religion and other superstitions, as a “boob,” a member of the species “boobus Americanus.” He expressed contempt for the same yeoman farmers whom Jefferson anointed the backbone of democracy, exclaiming “we are asked to venerate this prehensile moron as . . . the citizen par excellence, the foundation-stone of the state! . . . To Hell with him, and bad luck to him.” 156
By the early 1920s, the America of Jefferson, Lincoln, Whitman, and the young William Jennings Bryan had ceased to exist. It had been replaced by the world of McKinley, Teddy Roosevelt, J. Edgar Hoover, and Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s failures, in many ways, provide a fitting capstone to a period in which the United States’ unique mixture of idealism, militarism, avarice, and realpolitik propelled the nation toward becoming a world power. Wilson proclaimed, “America is the only idealistic nation in the world” and acted as if he believed it were true. 157 He hoped to spread democracy, end colonialism, and transform the world. His record is much less positive. While supporting self-determination and opposing formal empire, he intervened repeatedly in other nations’ internal affairs, including Russia, Mexico, and throughout Central America. While encouraging reform, he maintained a deep mistrust of the kind of fundamental, and at times revolutionary, change that would actually improve people’s lives. While championing social justice, he believed that property rights were sacrosanct and must never be infringed upon. Though endorsing human brotherhood, he believed that nonwhites were inferior and resegregated the federal government. While extolling democracy and the rule of law, he oversaw egregious abuses of civil liberties. While condemning imperialism, he sanctioned the maintenance of the global imperial order. And while proclaiming a just, nonpunitive peace, he acquiesced in a harsh, retributive peace that inadvertently helped create the preconditions for the rise of Hitler and the Nazis. Wilson’s stunningly inept performance at Versailles and his combative intransigence upon his return home contributed to Senate defeat of the treaty and the League.
Thus the war would have consequences that went far beyond the horrors on the battlefield. The United States never joined the League of Nations, rendering that body impotent in the face of Fascist aggression in the 1930s. Revelations that the United States had entered the First World War on false pretenses, while bankers and munitions manufacturers—later labeled “merchants of death”—had raked in huge profits, created widespread skepticism about foreign involvements at a time when the United States needed to contend with a real “axis of evil”: Germany, Italy, and Japan. By the time the United States acted, it was much too late. The necessity of finally combating fascism would, however, afford the United States an opportunity to reclaim some of that democratic, egalitarian heritage on which its earlier greatness and moral leadership had rested. And, though late in entering World War II, the United States provided crucial assistance in defeating Europe’s fascists and played the decisive role in defeating Japan’s militarists. But by setting off the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of the war, the United States, once again, proved itself unready to provide the kind of leadership a desperate world cried out for.
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Which chemical element is named after the Greek for 'hidden one' ? | BBC Science - The periodic table: how elements get their names
The periodic table: how elements get their names
By Christopher Brooks BBC Scotland
Most people could name many of the elements, but how many of us know how they got those names?
Each of the 115 known chemical elements was discovered over the last few thousand years, from before recorded history began to the nuclear laboratories of the 21st century.
British scientists and the elements
Humphry Davy discovered nine elements using electrolysis - the splitting up of compounds into elements by applying electricity.
William Ramsay discovered a new group of unreactive elements using spectroscopy , now called the noble gases.
William Crookes identified helium for the first time, and also discovered thallium .
Their chosen names were influenced by an ever changing mix of language, culture and our understanding of chemistry.
So how did they get these names? And why do they end in -ium?
Ancient Elements
Several elements' names have Anglo-Saxon language origins, including gold, iron, copper and silver.
These metals were known long before they got these names, however. Gold can be found in its pure form in nature and although iron is usually found in ores which require smelting, the earliest known iron artefacts, from 3500 BCE, derive from purer metal from meteorites.
The Latin names of these elements are commemorated in their atomic symbols, Au (aurum) for gold and Fe (ferrum) for iron.
The Romans began the practise of element names ending in "-um," with Victorian scientists continuing the trend.
Meteoric iron was used by humans before smelting of iron ores was invented.
Element of uncertainty
Since 1947, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) has had the responsibility for approving elements' names, and deciding the single internationally recognised symbol for each element.
Before this, there were multiple historical occasions of elements being given several names, usually due to simultaneous discovery or uncertainty over a discovery.
The name of element 41 was not agreed for 150 years. It was called columbium in America and niobium in Europe until IUPAC finally decided the official name would be niobium in 1949.
Dr Fabienne Meyers, Associate Director of IUPAC, explains the current naming process : To start with, "the discoverers are invited to propose a name and a symbol."
"For linguistic consistency, the recommended practice is that all new elements should end in '-ium'," she adds.
The sake of naming an element is essentially to avoid confusion.”
End Quote Dr Fabienne Meyers Associate Direcor, IUPAC
"Since the sake of naming an element is essentially to avoid confusion, it is important to ensure that the proposed name is unique and has not been used earlier even unofficially or temporarily for a different element."
"After examination and acceptance by the division - which includes a public review period of five months - the name and symbol are then submitted to the IUPAC Council for approval."
The name is then published in the scientific journal Pure and Applied Chemistry .
Actinium to zirconium
A common source of names both now and historically, over a quarter of the elements are named after a place, often where they were discovered or synthesised.
These places range in size from continents (europium) and countries (americium, francium, polonium) to the the Scottish village Strontian (strontium).
Because of the great wealth of discoveries made there, four elements are named after the Swedish mining village, Ytterby (ytterbium, yttrium, erbium and terbium).
There is just one element that wasn't first discovered on Earth, and it too is named after its place of the discovery - helium, from the Greek word for Sun, helios.
Myth and legend
Dmitri Mendeleev published the periodic table in its modern form.
About a dozen elements take their name directly from legends, including titanium, arsenic and tantalum.
Nickel and cobalt are named after 'devil' and 'kobold', from the Germanic folk belief that malign creatures snuck into mines to replace valuable and similar-looking copper and silver ores with these less valuable ones.
In 1949 the artificial element Promethium was named after Prometheus, the man in Greek legend punished with eternal torture for stealing fire from the gods, as a reference to the great difficulty and sacrifice needed to synthesise new elements.
Eponymous elements
Modestly, no discoverer has ever named an element after him or herself, but several scientists have been honoured by having elements named after them. These include curium , einsteinium and fermium .
Seaborgium, named after American chemist Glenn Seaborg , was the first element to be named after a living scientist.
There is also mendelevium, named after Dmitri Mendeleev , the Russian scientist who established the first periodic table in 1869, and fitted the known elements into their places in the table based on their properties.
Elemental techniques
Sample of chlorine created by Humphry Davy in 1810. It is named after the Greek word for green.
Fifty elements were discovered in the 19th Century, the greatest number of any century. By comparison, twenty nine elements were discovered in the 20th Century, and five new ones have been synthesised so far in the 21st.
Frank James, Professor of the History of Science at The Royal Institution in London, where several elements were discovered, says that the contribution of British scientists was very important.
"Using electro-chemical methods, Humphry Davy either isolated or demonstrated the elemental nature of a total of nine chemical elements naming most of them in the process, such as sodium, potassium and chlorine."
British scientist William Ramsay used a powerful new technique, spectroscopy , to discover the noble gases, a group of elements which had evaded discovery due to their lack of reactivity. He used Greek words to name neon (new), xenon (stranger), krypton (hidden), and argon (inactive).
Colours and sense
Colours are a name source for nine elements. Each element can be identified by the colours it emits using spectroscopy, and several elements are named after the brightest colour they emit, including indium and rubidium.
WATCH: Brian Cox explains how the chemical elements are created within stars
Visible traits are a major source of names, but the other senses are represented too: osmium and bromine are named for their smell, and aluminium is named after the Latin word for the bitter tasting chemical in which it was first discovered, alum.
Ununpentium onwards
The newest element to be experimentally confirmed , element 115, will be called ununpentium until an official name is decided, and 114 (Flerovium) and 116 (Livermorium) were named in 2012.
IUPAC's Dr Meyers explains that although all recent elements have been named after people and places, "a mythological concept or character, a mineral or a property of the element could also be used as the root for an acceptable name."
And with no shortage of eminent scientists and important centres of science as inspiration, new names will always retain an element of surprise.
More on This Story
| Krypton (programming language) |
Who sculpted the figure of the Statue of Liberty ? | Table of Elements in Greek and Latin (Rome) Language.
Sidebar
Periodic Table of Elements
The Greek language and Greek myth have contributed greatly to the sciences, including chemistry. This is most apparent in the Periodic Table of Elements. A table of the elements with mythological influences, or at least have the Greek language to thank for their names, is below. For kicks, I have included the Latin (Roman) terms also. (Please note: this is not the complete table of elements, only those with Greek or Latin influences.)
Actinium
From the Greek wordaktinos (ray)
Aluminum
From the Latin wordalumen, or"bitter".
Antimony
From the Greek words anti (opposed) and monos (solitude)
Argon
From the Greek wordargon (inactive)
Arsenic
From the Greek wordarsenikos and the Latin wordarsenicum, meaning "yellow orpiment".
Astatine
From the Greek wordastatos (unstable)
Barium
From the Greek wordbarys (heavy)
Bromine
From the Greek wordbrômos (stench)
Cadmium
Symbol: Cd
Atomic Number: 48
From the Greek wordkadmeia (ancient name for calamine) and from the Latin word cadmia.Cadmus, in Greek myth, was the founder of Thebes.
Calcium
From the latin wordcalcis (lime)
Carbon
Ceres (asteroid), and the Roman version of Demeter, the goddess of agriculture.
Cesium
From the Latin wordcaesius (sky blue)
Chlorine
From the Greek wordkhlôros (green)
Chromium
From the Greek wordchrôma (color)
Copper
From the Latin wordcyprium, after the island of Cyprus and birthplace of Aphrodite.
Dysprosium
From the Greek worddysprositos (hard to get at).
Fluorine
From the Latin wordfluo (flow)
Gold
From the Latin wordaurum (gold). In Roman mythology, Aurora was the goddess of dawn--golden indeed.
Helium
From the Greek wordhêlios (sun); Helios in Greek mythology was the god of the Sun.
Hydrogen
Symbol: H
Atomic Number: 1
From the Greek words hudôr (water) and gennan(generate). Heracles fought the Hydra of Lerna (a sea town) for his second labor.
Iodine
From the Greek wordiôdes (violet).
Iridium
Symbol: Ir
Atomic Number: 77
From the Latin wordiridis (rainbow). The Greeks had a messenger goddess, Iris, whose colorful cape flowed behind her.
Iron
From the Latin wordferrum (iron)
Krypton
Symbol: Kr
Atomic Number: 36
From the Greek wordkryptos (hidden). In modern language, words such as "encrypt" can be discerned from the Greek.
Lanthanum
From the Greek wordlanthaneis (to lie hidden).
Lead
Symbol: Pb
Atomic Number: 82
Name Origin: From the Greek word protos (first). Some Greeks believd that the first god ever was Protogonus, or "first born".
Symbol Origin: From the Latin wordplumbum (lead)
Lithium
From the Greek wordlithos (stone)
Manganese
From the Latin wordmangnes (magnet)
Molybdenum
From the Greek word molubdos (lead)
Neodymium
Symbol: Nd
Atomic Number: 60
From the Greek words neos (new) anddidymos (twin). Twins appear regularly in Greek myth, from the Dioscuri (Castor & Polydeuces) to the divine twins (Artemis & Apollo).
Neon
Form the Greek word neos (new)
Neptunium
After the planet Neptune, the Roman sea god, identified as Poseidon in Greek myth.
Niobium
Symbol: Nb
Atomic Number: 41
After Niobe, daughter of mythical king (Tantalus). She had bragged about her set of seven girls and seven boys, scoffing at Leto for only having two children. Apollo and Artemis promptly killed her offspring. Niobe, in despair, was turned to stone by the gods.
Osmium
From the Greek word osmë (odor)
Oxygen
From the Greek words oxus (acid) andgennan (generate)
Palladium
From the Greek goddess (Pallas) and after an asteroid
Phosphorous
Symbol: P
Atomic Number: 15
From the Greek words phôs (light) andphoros (bearer), Phosphoros was a god of light in Greek myth.
Plutonium
After the planet Pluto and the Latin god of the Underworld (Hades in Greek).
Potassium
Symbol Origin: From the Latin word kalium
Praseodymium
From the Greek words prasios (green) anddidymos (twin)
Promethium
From the Titan Prometheus who stole fire of the sky and gave it to man.
Protactinium
From the Greek word protos (first) [see name origin for lead].
Radium
From the Latin word radius (ray)
Rhodium
From the Greek word rhodon (rose)
Rubidium
From the Latin word rubidus (red)
Ruthenium
From the Latin word Ruthenia (Russia)
Selenium
From the Greek word Selênê, known as the goddess of the moon.
Sodium
Symbol Origin: From the Latin wordnatrium (sodium)
Silicon
From the Latin word silex (flint)
Sulfur
From the Latin word sulfur (brimstone)
Tantalum
Symbol: Ta
Atomic Number: 73
After king Tantalus, a son of Zeus who earned the disfavor of the gods for attempting to serve his son Pelops as a meal. He was condemned to the Underworld with eternal thirst and hunger though a river and fruit tree were just beyond his grasp.
Technetium
From the Greek word technêtos (artificial)
Tellurium
From the Greek word tellus (Earth)
Thallium
From the Greek word thallos (young shoot)
Tin
Symbol Origin: From the Latin wordstannum (tin)
Titanium
From the Greek word titanos (Titans). The Titans were the "original" gods before the Olympians.
Uranium
Symbol: U
Atomic Number: 92
After the planet Uranus, the original sky god who was the son and spouse of Gaia, or Mother Earth.
Xenon
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The Liverpool FC anthem You'll Never Walk Alone comes from which Rodgers and Hammerstein musical ? | You'll Never Walk Alone - Lyrics and History - Liverpool FC
With hope in your heart
And you’ll never walk alone
You’ll never walk alone
Walk on, walk on
With hope in your heart
And you’ll never walk alone
You’ll never walk alone
Who sang it first? Liverpool or Celtic?
There is much discussion between Liverpool and Celtic fans about which group of fans first adopted the song as their own, but it is widely accepted that The Kop were the first group of fans to perform it on the terraces thanks to the local connection with Gerry and the Pacemakers, and the story that the group presented their version of the song to Bill Shankly.
From Wikipedia :
The song quickly became the anthem of Liverpool Football Club and is invariably sung by its supporters moments before the start of each home game.[11] The words “You’ll Never Walk Alone” also feature in the club crest and on the Shankly Gates entrance to Anfield, the home stadium.
According to former player Tommy Smith, Gerry Marsden presented Liverpool manager Bill Shankly with a tape recording of his forthcoming cover single during a pre-season coach trip in the summer of 1963. “Shanks was in awe of what he heard. […] Football writers from the local newspapers were travelling with our party and, thirsty for a story of any kind between games, filed copy back to their editors to the effect that we had adopted Gerry Marsden’s forthcoming single as the club song.”
There was also an article on The Guradian website which states that Liverpool fans were more than likely the original source of the song, again due to the Gerry and the Pacemakers connection. And the fact that a group of Scottish football fans might not be so aware of the musical Carousel (their stereotype, not mine!)
From The Guardian :
The song, originally written by Rodgers and Hammerstein in 1945 for the Broadway musical Carousel, only became a terrace favourite after it was covered by Gerry and the Pacemakers in November 1963. Almost immediately – as footage from Panorama in 1964 shows – Liverpool supporters adopted it.
As Paul Fields points out: “Before the early 60s football fans made noise and occasionally chanted something brief (like Play Up Pompey!) but it was the Kop that started singing popular songs of the day (mainly Merseybeat songs such as Gerry and the Pacemakers’ You’ll Never Walk Alone) and later started to adapt the lyrics of songs to celebrate the team and its players.
“If any Celtic fans still claim that they sang it first, it would have to predate Gerry’s version. Now can you really see thousands of working class Glaswegians in the 50s/early 60s spontaneously joining in a sing-along from a Rodgers and Hammerstein musical?” No, us neither.
Finally, here is the video for the Gerry and the Pacemakers version.
YNWA
| Carousel |
'Gourmet Night' and 'The Kipper and the Corpse' were the titles of episodes from which TV series ? | Liverpool or Celtic: who Walked Alone first? | Football | The Guardian
Liverpool or Celtic: who Walked Alone first?
Send your questions - to [email protected] and we'll do our best to help
Wednesday 12 March 2003 06.34 EST
First published on Wednesday 12 March 2003 06.34 EST
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Living in an area with a large contingent of Liverpool fans, writes Damian, who lives in Chester should you be wondering, I'm constantly being drawn into debates about who sang You'll Never Walk Alone first. I've failed to come up with evidence to support my belief that it was the Celtic faithful. I'd appreciate any information which serves to conclude this dispute once and for all.
While many Celtic fan-based websites provide the words to You'll Never Walk Alone, and it features on the CD Green & White Anthems, there is no historical evidence that Celtic fans sang it on their terraces first. Instead, a cursory glance back in time shows that Liverpool have the much stronger claims.
After all, the song, originally written by Rodgers and Hammerstein in 1945 for the Broadway musical Carousel, only became a terrace favourite after it was covered by Gerry and the Pacemakers in November 1963. Almost immediately - as footage from Panorama in 1964 shows - Liverpool supporters adopted it.
As Paul Fields points out: "Before the early 60s football fans made noise and occasionally chanted something brief (like Play Up Pompey!) but it was the Kop that started singing popular songs of the day (mainly Merseybeat songs such as Gerry and the Pacemakers' You'll Never Walk Alone) and later started to adapt the lyrics of songs to celebrate the team and its players.
"If any Celtic fans still claim that they sang it first, it would have to predate Gerry's version. Now can you really see thousands of working class Glaswegians in the 50s/early 60s spontaneously joining in a sing-along from a Rodgers and Hammerstein musical?" No, us neither.
ENGLAND PLAYERS ABROAD
Who the first English player to play professionally abroad? asked one reader whose name we can't find.
The man you're looking for, according to the brilliant statistical site rsssf.com is Herbert Kilpin, who played for FC Torinese in 1891, then for Mediolanum Milano from 1898 to 1900 and Milan from 1900-07.
But Kilpin's defining moment came in a Tuscan wine shop in 1899 when together with two friends he founded the Milan Cricket and Football Club - now known as the one and only AC Milan.
SHIRT SPONSORSHIP
Watching Auxerre v Liverpool recently, I saw that Liverpool's sponsor was missing from their kit due to it being illegal in France to advertise alcohol, says Craig Mark Scully. I wondered if there were any other cases of British teams having to play minus their shirt sponsor in European competition?
How long have you got, Craig?
"When Manchester United won the Cup Winners' Cup final in Rotterdam in 1991 they did it without any sponsors on their shirts," says Paul McGrory, kicking off a bumper crop of answers. "I think this was due to some clash with Uefa which would have meant Sharp paying extra money for this one match."
However most shirt sponsorship problems arise because certain countries - particularly France and in Scandinavia - ban alcohol advertising. Ergo: when Rangers played Auxerre in the group stages of the Champions League, they were sponsored by Center Parks rather than McEwans Lager. Meanwhile, Spurs were forced to remove the Holsten logo when they played Viking of Stavanger twice during the early 90s, according to Torgrim Svensen.
However Ravi Hiranand remembers how some clubs found a way round this. "Rather than bring in a different sponsor, Liverpool and Carlsberg instead decided to put the word 'Probably...' on the front of the shirt (referring of course to Carlsberg catchphrase 'Probably the best lager in the world')," he says. "A sneaky way of getting past the law while still getting a sponsor's word in."
But sometimes it's a case of political sensitivity, as Chelsea - sponsored by Arabian airline Emirates - decided when they visited Hapoel Tel Aviv.
Finally, sponsors' words don't always mean the same thing in your opposition's language, as Arsenal found out when they played in Italy a few years back. "The Gunners had to wear their change strip which had Sega as the sponsor," says Pat Stafford. "An Italian-speaking friend told me that 'Sega' is a slang term for self-gratification."
Spurs fans will have a field day with this.
IS THE SPL THE EASIEST LEAGUE TO WIN IN THE WORLD
Living in Scotland, one is forced into two very definite things - spending lots of time in the pub, and being subjected to inexplicable enthusiasm for a rubbish football league, says Cam Haskell. A frequent pub-bound assertion of mine is that the Scottish Premier League is one of the, if not the, worst leagues in the world, due to the total dominance of the Old Firm. If it's only going to be one of two teams winning everything each year, what's the point? I suspect that this dominance would also extend to the Scottish Cup and CIS Cup too. What I want to know is a percentage figure for Old Firm wins in these cups and the league and how it compares to other crummy leagues.
Only one light-hearted answer to this question so far.
"Taking it on a strictly percentage-based basis, two teams from 12 means only 16.66% of the teams in the league have a chance of winning it," says Billy Stewart.
"In the English Premiership, only three teams have ever won it (two of which still totally dominate the league). This means that only 15% of the teams have a chance of winning the league and I do not see that changing in the foreseeable future. Therefore there is at least one league which has a higher level of dominance than Scottish football."
Not bad, Billy. But can any number crunchers out there reach a more scientific conclusion?
CAN YOU HELP?
"What is the record for the most yellow cards in a single game
in English football," ponders Matthew Bateman.
"Has it ever been statistically proven that a player is more likely
to score against his old club than in an 'average game'," asks
Victor Ardern, "or is it just that such events seem more
noticeable.
"And on the same theme, which player has the best scoring
record when playing against their former employers?"
Send your answers - or new questions - to [email protected] and we'll do our best to help
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The name of which chemical element derives from the Greek word for 'lazy'? | How did argon get its name? | Reference.com
How did argon get its name?
A:
Quick Answer
The noble gas argon was named by its discoverers, Baron Rayleigh and William Ramsay, in 1894. The name comes from the Greek word argon, the neuter form of the word argos, which means lazy, idle and living without labor. It was so named because of its inert qualities.
Full Answer
Argon is chemically inactive and only forms compound-like structures under extreme conditions. Ramsay and Rayleigh were doing similar experiments concurrently and discovered the element at about the same time. They decided to make the announcement of the discovery and naming of the element together. Their work was preceded by Henry Cavendish, who had predicted the gas's existence almost 200 years earlier.
In the experiment that led to Cavendish's hypothesis, he removed oxygen and nitrogen from air and found that a small amount of gas remained. Ramsay and Rayleigh identified this unknown gas as argon.
Argon was the first of the noble gases to be discovered. Upon its announcement by Ramsay and Rayleigh, it created a problem for scientists, as they did not know where to place it on the periodic table. Ramsay suggested that the table should be extended to include a whole new group; his suggestion was eventually accepted. Soon after, the remaining members of the noble gases group were found.
| Argon |
Who currently holds the title of Lord of Mann ? | Argon
Argon
Argon
Argon is the chemical element with atomic number 18 and chemical symbol Ar. Argon is a noble gas, and as such it is almost completely non-reactive. In fact, the name "argon" is derived from the Greek word for "lazy" or "inactive." Argon is primarily used as a protective gas, as well as for lighting.
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Ulysees is the Roman equivalent of which name from ancient Greek mythology ? | Who Is Ulysses? - Homer's Odyssey
Who Is Ulysses? - Homer's Odyssey
Who Is Ulysses? - Homer's Odyssey
Ulysses carrying the Palladium. Clipart.com
By N.S. Gill's Ancient/Classical History Glossary
Updated August 17, 2016.
Ulysses is the Latin form of the name Odysseus commonly found in Vergil's Latin, Dante's Italian (Ulisse), and the English of Thomas Bulfinch, Alfred Lord Tennyson, and James Joyce. The Greek 'd' in Odysseus became a Latin 'l' in Ulysses.
Ulysses is the hero of the Odyssey , the Greek epic poem attributed to Homer. Ulysses spends 10 years trying to get back home to Ithaca after the Greeks win the Trojan War. Ulysses comes up with the idea of the Trojan Horse that permits the Greeks to get inside the Trojan city walls, torch the city, and go home. On his way home, Ulysses and his men encounter various monsters and have lots of adventures. Ulysses is known for his cunning, which he uses when his men find themselves stuck in the cave of the Cyclops Polyphemus. However, Ulysses' trick, which includes blinding Polyphemus, puts Ulysses on the bad side of the Cyclops' father, Poseidon (Neptune, since we're dealing with the Latin version). When Ulysses finally reaches his home island of Ithaca, he plots to take vengeance on the suitors who have been wooing his wife and eating his family out of hearth and home.
continue reading below our video
Profile of Odysseus
Go to Other Ancient / Classical History Glossary pages beginning with the letter
a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | wxyz
Also Known As: Ὀδυσσεύς, Ulixes
Examples: James Joyce wrote a novel called Ulysses that deliberately alludes to the Ulysses of the Odyssey. Another famous Ulysses was the 18th U.S. president, Ulysses S. Grant.
| Odysseus |
What name was given to the Nazi takeover of Austria in 1938 ? | Babylon 5 Behind the Scenes: Literary and Historical References: Ships
Ships' Names from the Classical World
Many Earth Force ships bear names from Classical mythology and history. Most of these originate in Ancient Greece, but some are also taken from indigenous Roman myth. This note is intended to give a short outline of the stories behind the names.
The predominance of Greek names is easily explained, as Classical mythology heavily relies on its Greek legacy. The Romans later adopted many of the Greek stories and complemented them with figures from the lost culture of pre-Roman Italy. Very often this meant that the protagonists remained the same, but were given other names.
Greek mythology is based on a complex creation story which brought forth a number of different orders of natural and supernatural beings. The following is only an outline of the central pedigree: In the beginning, Gaia, and Ouranos (Earth and Heaven) begot the Titans. These in turn were overthrown by their rebellious children, the Gods. The families of the immortal Gods eventually faded into mortal humanity. Gods and Humans could interbreed, producing powerful demi-Gods. Besides there was a range of minor spirits, monsters, nymphs and the like.
Some of the ships' names are also taken from real Greek and Roman history.
Acheron
In Greek mythology, one of the rivers of the Underworld. It may mean something like `River of moaning'. If the Dead are buried properly, they are ferried across the Acheron by Charon. Only Heracles and Orpheus ever crossed the Acheron alive and returned to the world of the living. Acheron is also often used as a name for the Underworld itself. It seems a strange choice of name for the ship that carries Lochley to Babylon 5. (No Compromises)
Achilles
In Greek mythology, a prminent figure in the defence of Troy. He was the son of a mortal men and Thetis, the Goddess of the Mediterranean. In the Trojan War, he was the champion of the Greek army. When he had some differences with Agamemnon, the God's favoured Troy, until Achilles managed to slay Hector, the son of the Trojan king. Achilles was invulnerable on most of body except his heel, and he was eventually killed by an arrow which struck him there. Reputedly, the arrow was directed by the God Apollo. The meaning of the name is unknown, it may well be older than Greek.
The Achilles is a freighter who gets attacked by raiders in an attempt do divert attention from a coup for a Centauri faction on Babylon 5 (Signs and Portents). The name is mentioned by jms as belonging to the same group of Omega Class destroyers as the other ships with Classical names ( "Point of No Return" ).
Agamemnon
In Greek mythology, the name of the king who led the Greek army against Troy. He was the brother of Menelaos, whose wife Helena had been abducted by the Trojan prince Paris. Before leaving Greece for Troy (in modern Turkey), he was made to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to Artemis in order to get a favourable wind. Iphigenia was saved by the godess and transferred to a temple out of reach of her father. On his return from Troy ten years later, Agamemnon was betrayed by his wife Klytaimnestra and subsequently slain by her lover. The Character probably goes back to an older deity of the Earth.
The Agamemnon was was built shortly after the Earth-Minbari War; she was Sheridan's ship before he came to Babylon 5 and again when he moved to win back Earth. He also encountered her a few times while he was captain of Babylon 5 and was on board when he was betrayed to Earth. (Points of Departure; All Alone in the Night; Messages from Earth; Between the Darkness and the Light; Face of the Enemy; Endgame). Jms confirms that the choice name for Sheridan's ship is no accident.
Agrippa
In Roman history, a common by-name borne by many powerful people, including consuls, Romanised Hebrew kings and memebers of the first imperial dynasty.
The Agrippa is one of the Earth ships that attack Babylon 5 after it has declared independence. She gets destroyed in the battle. (Severed Dreams)
Alexander
In Greek history, a conqueror of the late 4th century BC, known as Alexander the Great. As king of Macedonia, he set out to fight off the threat to his small kingdom from Persia. In the process, he conquered the huge Persian Empire and walked his troops as far as the borders of India. He died at the age of 33. His name means `a defender of men'. Alexander was also the by-name of Paris in the Story of the Trojan War. It was a common name in ancient Greek, but it seems likely that the ship was named for Alexander the Great. The Alexander was General Hague's ship, with which he defected from President Clark's forces at an early date. Together with the Churchill, the Alexander defended Babyon 5 gainst Earth Force after Babylon 5 had declared independence. (Severed Dreams). She appears again later patrolling space at the re-taken colony Proxima 3 (No Surrender, No Retreat)
Apollo
In Greek mythology, a God of light, son of Zeus and brother of the hunter goddess Artemis. He was adopted by the Romans, who knew his sister as Diana. His name, Greek Apollon, means `proclaimer'. The destroyer Apollo took the lead in Earth's Defence against Sheridan in the civil war. (Endgame)
Delphi
A place in Greece, where Apollo provided guidance to men through the medium of a prophetess, the Pythia. This `oracle' of Delphi was used by legendary heroes as well as historical characters.
Heracles
In Greek mythology, a demi-God, son of Zeus and the mortal woman Alkmeme. He was designated to be king of Mycene by his father. However, Hera, wife of Zeus, prevented this and Heracles ended up being a servant of the king of Mycene, Eurystheus. Heracles was renowned for both his supernatual strenght and his intelligence. With the help of these qualities and his nephew and devoted friend Iolaos he managed to solve 12 dangerous tasks set by Eurystheus, who hoped that Heracles would not survive them. Heracles is now better known by his Latin name Hercules. His name means `famous for strength'. He was venerated, especially by the common people, as a helper in need. The Heracles led a number of Earth Force ships against Sheridan in defence of Proxima 3. The others defected or were destroyed.(No Surrender, No Retreat)
Hydra
In Greek mythology, a serpent of the sea. As one of his tasks, Heracles had to kill the Hydra. In later versions of the story she had nine heads, one of them immortal. Her name means `the watery one'.
Hyperion
In Greek mythology, name of a Titan and epithet of the Sun-God Helios, his son; hyper-ion meaning `one who walks above'. The ship was named for the original Web host to the `Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5' (A Voice in the Wilderness). There is also a Hyperion class of ships, which contrasts with the more modern Omega Class, to which most of the other ships named here belong. The Hyperion has fought in the Earth-Minbari War and can be seen with the Prometheus in Atonement.
Juno
In Roman mythology, Goddess of women, marriage and birth; equalled with the Greek Hera as wife of Jupiter (Greek Zeus), the king of the Gods. Her name may possibly linked with words for `young woman', it has nothing to do with her husband's name, despite the apparent similarity.
The Juno remained non-hostile at Proxima 3 and defected to join Sheridan. (No Surrender, No Retreat)
Nemesis
In Greek mythology, the personification of just revenge. She is said to bethe daughter of the Titans Nyx (Night) ans Okeanos (Ocean) and in some versions of the story the mother of Helena, the beauty who became the cause of the Trojan War.
The Nemesis fought at Proxima 3 and defected to Sheridan's Party.(No Surrender, No Retreat)
Pollux
In Greek mythology, two brothers by the same mother, Pollux, son of Jupiter, was immortal, his brother Castor was mortal. When his brother died, Pollux grieved so much that Jupiter had pity and put them both into the night sky, where they became the constellation Gemini (Latin for `twins'). Pollux is the Latin form of the Greek name Polydeukes (`one who cares much'). The brothers were venerated as protectors of those in danger or in need.
The Pollux was destroyed in the battle for Proxima 3 (No Surrender, No Retreat).
Prometheus
In Greek mythology, a Titan who gave humanity the secret of fire, which he had stolen from the Gods. Zeus punished him by chaining him to a rock, where an eagle slowly devoured his liver. He was eventually freed by Heracles. His name means `one who thinks ahead'.
The Prometheus had fired the first shot in the Earth-Minbari-War.(A Late Delivery from Avalon; Atonement; In the Beginning)
Vesta
In Roman mythology, a Goddess of fire as a life-giving element, associated with the hearth and the altar. The eternal fire in her temple was guarded by holy virgins. The cult goes back to pre-Roman times in Italy.
In the Battle for Proxima 3, the Vesta was commanded by an old friend of Sheridan's, who refused to engage Sheridan's White Star (No Surrender, No Retreat). Her hull sports an emblem of torches.
Zeus
In Greek mythology, the highest of the Gods. He had led the rebellion of the Gods against their parents the Titans. He is also a notorious womaniser who consequently became the father of a great number of Gods and demi-Gods. Among the most famous of his offspring is Europa, the personification of Europe. The Roman equivalent of Zeus is Jupiter. Both names come from an ancient word meaning something like `daylight' or `divine'. (The -piter part of Jupiter means `father'.) The Zeus appears briefly in the battle for Earth. (Endgame).
The odd one out here is the Icarus, a civlian ship with a classical name. It is however rather significant, as its history closely resembles the Classical story. The story is of Greek origin, although the spelling Icarus is Latin. Ikaros was the son of Daidalos. Both were held in prison in Crete, from where they fled with wings made of feathers and wax. Despite his father's warning, Icarus became over-confident and flew too high, too close to the sun. The wax melted, Ikaros fell into the sea and died. Similarly, Interplanetary Expedition's Icarus embarked on a mission rather beyond their capabilities. By landing on Z'ha'dum, they ventured too far and perished. (novel: The Shadow Within; references in Knives; Revelations; In the Shadow of Z'ha'dum; Z'ha'dum)
This document was prepared with the help of
Gerhard Fink, Who's who der antiken Mythologie, München 1993 (in German, sorry)
This is a kind of dictionary of mythological figures, and an equivalent in English is certainly available.
Der Kleine Pauly, Lexikon der Antike , 5 vols.
Short version of one of the most comprehensive Encyclopedias of the Classical World.
Frisk, Griechisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch, 2 vols.
A dictionary of Ancient Greek etymology.
David Bassom, The A to Z of Babylon 5, London 1996
The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5 (Guide and Archives of jms-Postings)
If you are interested in the details, the most fundamental Greek sources are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and Hesiod's Theogony. The former relate events leading up to the Fall of Troy (also called Ilion) and the subsequent troubled voyage home of Ulysses (Odysseus). These epic poems, which were probably written down around the 8th century BC, provide copious background information in addition to the stories. Hesiod's Theogony (`origin of the Gods') is a treatise on the prehistory of the world, written around the same time. All three texts are available in translation.
Incidentally, Ulysses is also the subject of Tennyson's poem, which Sinclair likes to quote (e.g. The Parliament of Dreams).
Copyright by Katrin Thier 1999
Last update: June 26, 2004
| i don't know |
Which branch of mathematics is named after the Latin word for pebble ? | Amazing Math Topics: Why Calculus Rocks
Why Does Calculus Rock?
Dear Ms. Hardtke,
I am replying to the question about how the border-lines apply to calculus. Knowing the unusual sense of humor shared by math teachers, I initially thought the answer was something silly like "Calculus Rocks!" I also considered the answer had something to do with limits, as calculus relies critically on the concept of limits, and the letter is written between the borders.
Then I wondered what the word 'calculus' means and what its etymology was, as trigonometry deals with the measure of triangles; geometry deals with questions of shapes and sizes; and algebra, founded by Abu Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kwarizmi (derived from the Arabic word "al-jabr"), is the extension of arithmetic and the study of equations.
The word 'calculi' means pebble or small stone in Latin and from it are *derived* the words "calculate" and "calculus". The root word became associated with mathematics because of early Greek mathematicians in circa 600 B.C. who did arithmetic with the aid of pebbles ( http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calculus ). The word "calculus" usually refers to "Differential and Integral Calculus", which investigates motion and rates of change.
Ancient Greek accountants laid pebbles in columns on a sand tray and manipulated them to do all their calculations. The grooves on the early counting boards were known as "alveoli" and the pebbles as "calculi" ( http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57564.html ). Such counting boards were the predecessor to the abacus. The calculator can be considered the modern electronic equivalent of an ancient sandtray and pebbles.
Linguistic evidence also shows that the Romans used pebbles on a board for calculations. The Roman expression for "to calculate" is "calculus ponere" (literally "to place pebbles"). When Romans wished to settle accounts, they would use the expression "vocare aliquem ad calculos" ("to call them to the pebbles") ( http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57572.html ).
So, in sum, the border-lines relate to calculus because of the etymology and origins of the word.
Hope you had a great summer!
Sincerely,
| Calculus |
Which sporting venue was known for a time as Billy Williams' Cabbage Patch ? | Al-Khwarizmi - Islamic Mathematics - The Story of Mathematics
The Story of Mathematics
ISLAMIC MATHEMATICS - AL-KHWARIZMI
Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (c.780-850 CE)
One of the first Directors of the House of Wisdom in Bagdad in the early 9th Century was an outstanding Persian mathematician called Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi. He oversaw the translation of the major Greek and Indian mathematical and astronomy works (including those of Brahmagupta ) into Arabic, and produced original work which had a lasting influence on the advance of Muslim and (after his works spread to Europe through Latin translations in the 12th Century) later European mathematics.
The word �algorithm� is derived from the Latinization of his name, and the word "algebra" is derived from the Latinization of "al-jabr", part of the title of his most famous book, in which he introduced the fundamental algebraic methods and techniques for solving equations.
Perhaps his most important contribution to mathematics was his strong advocacy of the Hindu numerical system, which Al-Khwarizmi recognized as having the power and efficiency needed to revolutionize Islamic and Western mathematics. The Hindu numerals 1 - 9 and 0 - which have since become known as Hindu-Arabic numerals - were soon adopted by the entire Islamic world. Later, with translations of Al-Khwarizmi�s work into Latin by Adelard of Bath and others in the 12th Century, and with the influence of Fibonacci �s �Liber Abaci� they would be adopted throughout Europe as well.
An example of Al-Khwarizmi�s �completing the square� method for solving quadratic equations
Al-Khwarizmi�s other important contribution was algebra, a word derived from the title of a mathematical text he published in about 830 called �Al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa'l-muqabala� (�The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing�). Al-Khwarizmi wanted to go from the specific problems considered by the Indians and Chinese to a more general way of analyzing problems, and in doing so he created an abstract mathematical language which is used across the world today.
His book is considered the foundational text of modern algebra, although he did not employ the kind of algebraic notation used today (he used words to explain the problem, and diagrams to solve it). But the book provided an exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, and introduced for the first time the fundamental algebraic methods of �reduction� (rewriting an expression in a simpler form), �completion� (moving a negative quantity from one side of the equation to the other side and changing its sign) and �balancing� (subtraction of the same quantity from both sides of an equation, and the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides).
In particular, Al-Khwarizmi developed a formula for systematically solving quadratic equations (equations involving unknown numbers to the power of 2, or x2) by using the methods of completion and balancing to reduce any equation to one of six standard forms, which were then solvable. He described the standard forms in terms of "squares" (what would today be "x2"), "roots" (what would today be "x") and "numbers" (regular constants, like 42), and identified the six types as: squares equal roots (ax2 = bx), squares equal number (ax2 = c), roots equal number (bx = c), squares and roots equal number (ax2 + bx = c), squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx), and roots and number equal squares (bx + c = ax2).
Al-Khwarizmi is usually credited with the development of lattice (or sieve) multiplication method of multiplying large numbers, a method algorithmically equivalent to long multiplication. His lattice method was later introduced into Europe by Fibonacci .
In addition to his work in mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi made important contributions to astronomy, also largely based on methods from India , and he developed the first quadrant (an instrument used to determine time by observations of the Sun or stars), the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. He also produced a revised and completed version of Ptolemy's �Geography�, consisting of a list of 2,402 coordinates of cities throughout the known world.
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Which country has launched its Mars Orbiter spacecraft, also known as Mangalyaan, from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre ? | Liftoff! India's First Mars Probe Launches Toward the Red Planet
Liftoff! India's First Mars Probe Launches Toward the Red Planet
By Miriam Kramer, Staff Writer |
November 5, 2013 05:00am ET
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India's first mission to Mars, the Mars Orbiter Mission, launches the Mangalyaan orbiter toward the Red Planet atop a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on Nov. 5, 2013 from the Indian Space Research Organisation's Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation
India's first-ever mission to Mars launched into space today (Nov. 5), beginning the country's first interplanetary mission to explore the solar system.
With a thunderous roar, India's Mars Orbiter Mission rocketed into space at 4:08 a.m. EST (0908 GMT) from the Indian Space Research Organisation's Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, where the local time will be 2:38 p.m. in the afternoon. An ISRO Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle launched the probe on its 300-day trek into orbit around the Red Planet.
A Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle launches India's first mission to Mars, the Mars Orbiter Mission, from the the Indian Space Research Organisation's Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on Nov. 5, 2013.
Credit: ISRO
"The journey has only just begun," said ISRO Chairman K. Radhakrishnan after the successful launch. [ India's First Mars Mission (Photos) ]
Less than an hour after liftoff, Radhakrishnan reported that India's Mars probe successfully entered a staging orbit around Earth. Mars Orbiter Mission director Kunhi Krishnan describing the launch as a start to a "grand and glorious" mission.
If all goes well, India's first Mars orbiter — called Mangalyaan (Hindi for "Mars Craft") — will arrive at the Red Planet on Sept. 24, 2014, making India the fourth country to successfully deliver a spacecraft to Mars. The $73.5 million Mangalyaan spacecraft weighs 2,980 pounds (1,350 kilograms). Through the course of several orbits, the spacecraft will perform a series of maneuvers to place it on a path to Mars.
| India |
What was the name of the Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury ? | India`s first spacecraft to Mars successfully put into Earth`s orbit | Zee News
India`s first spacecraft to Mars successfully put into Earth`s orbit
By Philaso G. Kaping | Last Updated: Tuesday, November 5, 2013 - 20:03
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Zee Media Bureau/Philaso G Kaping
Sriharikota: India has launched its first mission to Mars on Tuesday at 02:38pm (0908 GMT) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre here in Andhra Pradesh.
The spacecraft was carried onboard the indigenous PSLV-C25 rocket which injected it into Earth`s orbit after 40 minutes from lift-off.
The 350-tonne launch vehicle will orbit earth for nearly a month before picking up the necessary velocity to break free from Earth’s gravitational pull.
The Rs 430-crore project, informally known as "Mangalyaan", was approved on 3 August, 2012 and the Indian Space Research Organisation immediately jumped into action to create India’s first interplanetary spacecraft.
"I am extremely happy to announce PSLV-C25 placed Mars Orbiter spacecraft very precisely in elliptical orbit around Earth. Now it will be a complex mission to take the Mars Orbiter from the Earth`s orbit to Mars orbit," K Radhakrishnan, ISRO chairman, said.
The Bangalore-based organisation and its 16,000 staff also share their rocket technology with the state-run defence body responsible for India`s rapidly evolving missile programme.
So far only three other space agencies including United States’ NASA, Russia’s Roscosmos and the Europe’s space agency have achieved the feat of reaching Earth’s closest neighbour.
Some of the objectives of the mission are to develop the technologies required for design, planning, management and operations of an interplanetary mission and also to study the Martian surface and atmosphere using indigenous scientific instruments.
NASA, which will launch its own probe to study Mars on November 18, is helping ISRO with communications.
The spacecraft is expected to reach Mars` orbit on September 14, 2014.
| i don't know |
What was the title of the only UK No. 1 hit for Dusty Springfield ? | The Hit Songs of Dusty Springfield | Spinditty
The Hit Songs of Dusty Springfield
The Hit Songs of Dusty Springfield
Updated on December 15, 2016
Joined: 2 years agoFollowers: 130Articles: 80
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Dusty Springfield | Source
The Best of Dusty Springfield
In my humble opinion, Dusty Springfield's hit songs have rightly been cited as among the best by any British female singer of her generation.
Starting out as a member of The Springfields, she progressed to a solo career in the 1960s and was among the forefront of the British Invasion, enjoying success in both the USA and the UK.
Although not immediately recognisable in her earlier recordings, her preference for the soul music coming out of America became more apparent as her career blossomed. She has been credited with introducing the Motown Sound to the UK; when on TV in the Sixties she hosted a showcase of the music, singing along with Martha Reeves.
You can hear that soulfulness in many of the songs featured here, all of which appeared on the British music charts of the time. During the 1960s, there was sometimes a discrepancy between the Dusty Springfield songs released as singles in the UK and the USA. Therefore, there may be tracks missing here that were popular in the States which were not so in Britain, and vice versa.
However, there is no denying the popularity of Dusty Springfield, not only in the 1960s, but also during her comeback in the 1980s and 1990s. If, like me, you enjoy the output of one of the finest popular singers the UK has produced, then you are in for a treat!
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1963: "I Only Want to Be With You"
Dusty's first hit in the UK was this Number 4 song written by Mike Hawker and Ivor Raymonde.
Unequivocally catchy, Dusty delivers a full blooded vocal full of defiance that, at the time, had not been matched by many female singers in the rock era.
With the beginnings of the British Invasion taking place in the US, it also became her first hit record in America too.
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Hit Songs of 1964
Stay Awhile: This Number 13 UK hit is a song that includes much that is reminiscent of Phil Spector's Wall of Sound. It seems the three minute single had not fully arrived yet, as this clocks in at a little under two minutes.
I Just Don't Know What to Do With Myself: One of Dusty Springfield's biggest hits of the 1960s, this is an emotionally laden ballad that defined her plaintive, soulful vocals. It reached Number 3 in the UK, but strangely failed to chart in the USA.
Losing You: Dusty's third and final UK Top 20 hit of 1964. Catch a glimpse of Gene Pitney in the video from the 1960s pop show Ready, Steady, Go!
Stay Awhile
I Just Don't Know What to Do With Myself
Losing You
Hit Songs of 1965
Your Hurtin' Kinda Love: A minor Top Forty hit in the UK, this was nevertheless another Dusty vocal tour-de-force, as she infuses her soulful voice into a standard pop-style Sixties song.
In the Middle of Nowhere: Another huge hit in the UK that missed the mark in the US, the song is an uptempo "growler" from Dusty that made the Top Ten in July.
Some of Your Lovin': Written by the famed songwriting team of Gerry Goffin and Carole King, this song became Dusty Springfield's favourite performance and was another Top 10 hit in October.
Your Hurtin' Kinda Love
In the Middle of Nowhere
Some of Your Lovin'
Little By Little
Hit Songs of 1966
Little By Little: 1966 was to be Dusty Springfield's most successful year singles wise. This first hit of the year really did not indicate the direction in which she was headed, but it nevertheless gave her a rock inspired Top 20 hit.
You Don't Have to Say You Love Me: Surprisingly, this was Dusty's only ever UK Number One hit. Originally an Italian song entitled "Lo Che Non Vivo (Senza Te)," it was given an English lyric full of unrequited love in which she gives one of her finest vocal performances.
Goin' Back: Not released as a single in the US, if pushed, this is quite possibly my favourite of Dusty Springfield's songs. Another track penned by Gerry Goffin and Carole King, Dusty's rendition will surely break your heart. It peaked at Number 10 in July.
All I See is You: Dusty is still in distress as the lyrics prove with this emotional ballad that saw it rise up the British charts to a peak of Number 9 in October.
You Don't Have to Say You Love Me
Goin' Back
All I See is You
I'll Try Anything
Hit Songs of 1967
I'll Try Anything: A return to an uptempo Dusty, this song was more reflective of her soul preferences, sounding somewhat like the Tamla Motown sound that she was happy to promote. However, it broke a streak of three UK Top 10 hits by only peaking at Number 13.
Give Me Time: This tearjerker followed later in 1967, but by this time the record buying public's attention was being drawn to the Summer of Love and not impassioned ballads. Still a fine recording, though it did not perform well in the music charts, peaking at a lowly Number 24. It became the B-Side of her American hit The Look of Love.
Give Me Time
I Close My Eyes and Count to Ten
Hit Songs of 1968
I Close My Eyes and Count to Ten: Dusty Springfield returned to the UK Top Five with this plaintive mid tempo number that produced yet another fine vocal performance.
Son of a Preacher Man: This would be Dusty Springfield's last UK Top 10 hit for eighteen years, but it seems she saved the best for last. As the 1960s came to a close, she finally recorded several songs in a genre that was close to her heart, with musicians whom she admired. Son of a Preacher Man was lifted from one of the best albums of the decade: Dusty in Memphis.
Son of a Preacher Man
What Have I Done to Deserve This?
In Collaboration With the Pet Shop Boys - Hits From the 1980s & 1990s
In the late 1980s, pop-synth duo The Pet Shop Boys rediscovered Dusty Springfield and featured her on their latest single of the time, "What Have I Done to Deserve This?" This led to a revival in her career and saw her appear in both the UK and US music charts into the early 1990s.
Several of these hit songs were either written and/or produced by The Pet Shop Boys and are included here. They are "Nothing Has Been Proved," "In Private," "Reputation," and "Arrested By You" which were all taken from her UK Top Twenty album: Reputation & Rarities.
Nothing Has Been Proved
| You Don't Have to Say You Love Me |
In the Muppett shows, what is the name of Kermit the Frog's nephew ? | Forgotten Hits - DUSTY SPRINGFIELD
Forgotten Hits
DUSTY SPRINGFIELD
The Dusty Springfield Story
Our DUSTY SPRINGFIELD Series first ran in FORGOTTEN HITS back in 2004. Below, you'll find the original introduction for this series:
When I first decided to do a feature on DUSTY SPRINGFIELD, I approached FH List Member MFPING, who had recently completed his outstanding series on CONNIE FRANICS for FORGOTTEN HITS. Jokingly (well, HALF-kidding anyway), he asked if he was becoming the guy who'd cover all the big-haired divas of the '60's ... in fact, he even sent us this hysterical picture of Connie and Dusty from what must have been something like UN-Glamour Magazine:
(Quite honestly, I'm not sure if this is a REAL picture of CONNIE and DUSTY ... or a photo of the hot air balloons used in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade ... but I figured I'd run it anyway!!!) ***
I suggested to PING that he read DANCING WITH DEMONS: THE AUTHORIZED BIOGRAPHY OF DUSTY SPRINGFIELD, written by PENNY VALENTINE and VICKI WICKHAM. I was in the midst of reading it myself and found it to be a difficult read ... way too much "inner circle" name-dropping ... and facts that seemed to take away from the story at hand. All the self-abuse was played up larger than the accolades of a very successful career. I remember telling PING that there was a good story here to tell and that we needed to do so in a more interesting, entertaining way. And HE said:
I have to apologize for not getting back to you sooner on the Dusty Springfield email. I went out, got the book a couple of days after your email, and finished it a little over a week later. I have to say that the book really did suck big time and didn't leave me feeling like I knew anything worthwhile about what made her tick. Your idea about a feature on her is interesting, and I would be beyond honored to co-author a piece with you, but I am having trouble envisioning how we would work it, aside from me trashing the book and you filling in the blanks, lol
So, we set out to tell a more "interesting" side of the story of DUSTY SPRINGFIELD, focusing more on her career and, if not completely downplaying her demons and idiosyncrasies, at least putting them all into one place and then getting back to the music that we all fell in love with. (Let's face it ... the DUSTY SPRINGFIELD Story doesn't have a happy ending! It WOULD, however, make an EXCELLENT BEHIND THE MUSIC television special. There is no question that her so-called "personal demons" greatly affected the longevity of her singing career.)
Unfortunately, due to a family emergency, PING had to drop out of this project unexpectedly. In carrying on alone, I tried to retain our original vision when putting this piece together. I can only hope that, to that end, I have succeeded. As such, I dedicate this piece to Michael, his late father and his entire family in their difficult time. (Hang in there, Michael...there are plenty of other divas for us to cover!)
DUSTY SPRINGFIELD was born MARY ISABEL CATHERINE BERNADETTE O'BRIEN (now is THAT an Irish-Catholic name or what?!?!?) on April 16, 1939.
To compensate for what she felt was little family recognition, she found her way through music and, in the late 1950's, auditioned to join THE LANA SISTERS, a British equivalent of THE ANDREWS SISTERS or THE BEVERLEY SISTERS. Along with RISS CHANTELLE and LYNNE ABRAMS, MARY O'BRIEN became one of the made-over bubble-cut blondes, renaming herself "SHAN" for this show-business experience. Performing with THE LANA SISTERS taught DUSTY quite a bit about stage presence and performance ... the group appeared regularly on BRIAN MATTHEWS'popular BBC radio program SATURDAY CLUB and opened for successful British acts like CLIFF RICHARD and ADAM FAITH as well as American recording artists touring U.S. airbases in Europe such as NAT KING COLE and JOHNNY RAY.
While DUSTY was off touring with the LANAS, her brother DION had formed a new folk duo with his friend TIM FEILD. In 1961, at the ripe old age of 21, DUSTY joined her brother and THE SPRINGFIELDS were born. Changing their names to TOM, TIM and DUSTY SPRINGFIELD, the trio started to take off on British TV. In 1962, a year and a half before THE BEATLES burst upon the American Music Scene, the British band THE SPRINGFIELDS scored a rare #20 U.S. hit with their version of SILVER THREADS AND GOLDEN NEEDLES, a song later covered (with varying degrees of success) by LINDA RONSTADT, THE COWSILLS, JODY MILLER and, on the Country Charts, DOLLY PARTON, TAMMY WYNETTE and LORETTA LYNN. (Ironically, this single never charted in England where THE SPRINGFIELDS had five other Top 40 Pop Hits between 1961 and 1963.)
TOM SPRINGFIELD maintained from the inception of the band's career that THE SPRINGFIELDS were on a three-year plan. True to his word, the group disbanded in 1963 ... but not before they appeared on the pilot episode of READY, STEADY, GO, the hugely successful British Television Music Series.
BTW: Dusty's brother TOM SPRINGFIELD didn't exactly disappear off the music charts after THE SPRINGFIELDS split up...he went on to write and produce many of THE SEEKERS' biggest hits, including I'LL NEVER FIND ANOTHER YOU, A WORLD OF OUR OWN and GEORGY GIRL.
The Springfields
1964 was a big year for EVERYTHING British and DUSTY SPRINGFIELD was no exception. Her hits I ONLY WANT TO BE WITH YOU, STAY AWHILE, WISHIN' AND HOPIN', and ALL CRIED OUT were all Top 40 Hits here in the U.S. that year. (You can add LOSING YOU and I JUST DON'T KNOW WHAT TO DO WITH MYSELF to that list on the British Charts.)
In September of 1964, she was one of the featured performers on a bill that included THE RONETTES, THE SHANGRI-LAS, MARTHA AND THE VANDELLAS, THE TEMPTATIONS, THE EXCITERS, THE SUPREMES, MARVIN GAYE and SMOKEY ROBINSON AND THE MIRACLES ... imagine seeing THAT show!!! (And all for probably around $4.00 - $5.00!!!)
One of the first American songs to influence Dusty was TELL HIM by THE EXCITERS, the Top 5 Hit from early 1963. She loved the whole "girl group" sound and now here she was, sharing the stage with some of the biggest names in Girl Group History. She was so enamored by MARTHA REEVES AND THE VANDELLAS that she would often come out on stage to sing back-up with them ... the great white, bubble-blonde hope! In fact, DUSTY hosted a special edition of READY, STEADY, GO that featured many of the Motown artists of the day. (BERRY GORDY has credited this program with breaking many of his acts in Great Britain.) One of the thrills of her lifetime was singing a duet with MARTHA REEVES on DUSTY's big hit at the time,WISHIN' AND HOPIN'.
In 1964, DUSTY made International Headlines when she began a tour of South Africa, refusing to perform in front of any segregated audiences. (Apartheid was a BIG issue at the time and Dusty actually had it written into her contract that all her shows were to be in front of mixed audiences ONLY ... in fact, after three shows, she was pretty much forced to leave the country ... but not before the shockwave of her bold stance shot through the record industry.)
1965 was a quieter year for Dusty ... only one of her singles made the US chart (and that was the low-charting LOSING YOU, #84.) In Great Britain, however, YOUR HURTIN' KIND OF LOVE, IN THE MIDDLE OF NOWHERE, SOME OF YOUR LOVIN' and LITTLE BY LITTLE all made the UK Top 40.
While touring Italy that year, she came across a beautiful song called IO CHE NON VIVO SENZA TE. Dusty loved the melody and wanted to record the song, but a literal translation to English wasn't working, so she hired her manager, VICKI WICKHAM and YARDBIRDS' manger SIMON NAPIER BELL to write a new set of English lyrics. The result was her first #1 smash: YOU DON'T HAVE TO SAY YOU LOVE ME remains one of Dusty's biggest and best-known hits. (It peaked at #3 here in the States where, years later, ELVIS PRESLEY also scored a hit with his version of this tune.) The lyrics were actually pretty revolutionary at the time ... taking an opposing look at love and relationships.
Dusty was hot again but soon was turning up in the British tabloids ... seemed everyone wanted to know about her love life. Although occasionally Dusty would be linked with some male singer or movie star heartthrob, the truth was her preference was other women ... and, in 1966, this was not a lifestyle that enjoyed mass-approval by the public. Rumors that she was closer to MARTHA REEVES than her WISHIN' AND HOPIN' duet ... and known liaisons with back-up singers (and roommate / sleep-over pals) MADELINE BELL and NORMA TANEGA (both of whom would have their OWN Top 40 One-Hit Wonder in the '60's ... our previously featured I'M GONNA MAKE YOU LOVE ME and WALKIN' MY CAT NAMED DOG respectively) as well as quite a few other female companions, kept the British rags full of Dusty stories and speculations. In 1968, she decided to come to the States to escape the intrusion into her personal life and record her next album ... and what an album it was.
THE ITALIAN JOB: Dusty's recording of YOU DON'T HAVE TO SAY YOU LOVE ME went all the way to #1 in Great Britain. ELVIS PRESLEY's version, released in 1970, peaked at #10 and topped Billboard's Adult Contemporary Chart for a week. ELVIS enjoyed a fair amount of success translating Italian songs to English himself ... both IT'S NOW OR NEVER (adapted from the Italian song O SOLE MIO) and SURRENDER (from the Italian song COME BACK TO SORRENTO) topped the charts in late 1960 / early 1961.
DUSTY IN MEMPHIS is regarded by critics to be one of the landmark, must-have LPs of the '60's ... but, in fact, when it was first released it hovered near the bottom of the LP Charts. It peaked at #99, spending just three months on the charts and initially only sold about 100,000 copies. (It fared even worse back in Jolly Old England.) Yet it was the perfect marriage of artist, material and producer and still holds up well today.
Dusty's contract with Philips Records had expired and Atlantic Records, one of the premier R&B independent labels, couldn't wait to sign her up. ARETHA FRANKLIN had recently jump-started her career by signing with the label and, as we learned in our HISTORY OF ATLANTIC RECORDS feature, they were known for the "respect" they had for their artists. The Memphis and Muscle Schoals sound were at their peak at the time. Dusty always had a voice that favored R&B and producers JERRY WEXLER, ARIF MARDIN and TOM DOWD decided to make the most of it by selecting material that would showcase this side of Dusty's style.
The lead-off single, SON OF A PREACHER MAN, returned Dusty to The Top Ten on both sides of the ocean. It's gone on to become a '60's classic (and became a key-point on the soundtrack to one of the coolest scenes in the cult-flick hit PULP FICTION.) The song was first offered to ARETHA FRANKLIN, who turned it down, feeling it not only didn't fit her style, but also would never be a hit record. Ironically, ARETHA would go on to record her own version a couple of years later. It pales in comparison and only charted for two weeks as the "tag-along" B-Side to her #13 Hit CALL ME. Sadly, after hearing Aretha's version, Dusty became self-conscious about performing the song and even began adopting some of Aretha's phrasing when singing what truly was the definitive version in concert.
When JERRY WEXLER first presented the demos for Dusty's consideration prior to recording the album, she rejected EVERY song flat out. She said that there was nothing in the pile that she felt she could do justice to and flew back to England. A couple of weeks later, she reconsidered and, back in Memphis, selected the 11 songs that ultimately made up the LP. EVERY song she picked was from the originally rejected batch ... only this time, they were DUSTY's choices. Quite honestly, these were the songs she would have been most comfortable singing anyway: CAROLE KING and GERRY GOFFIN (4 songs), BURT BACHARACH and HAL DAVID, BARRY MANN and CYNTHIA WEIL, and newcomer RANDY NEWMAN (2 songs) were composers whose songbooks she regularly raided for material.
Her follow-up single DON'T FORGET ABOUT ME / BREAKFAST IN BED failed to make The Top 40 (it stopped at #52) and, in 1969 THE WINDMILLS OF YOUR MIND (from the Motion Picture THE THOMAS CROWN AFFAIR starring STEVE McQUEEN and FAYE DUNAWAY) peaked at #22. (It was the ONLY song Dusty really fought to keep off the album, finally giving in because of her previous success with the soundtrack hit THE LOOK OF LOVE, #22 in 1967.) She released another single from these session that did NOT appear on the album, but the TONY JOE WHITE song WILLIE AND LAURA MAE JONES stalled at #71.
In an effort to keep the soulful magic alive, another album was planned, only this time the sessions would be moved to Philadelphia where THOM BELL, KENNY GAMBLE and LEON HUFF were at the helm. (In the mid-'70's, TSOP, "The Sound of Philadelphia," would be all the rage and this team was unstoppable, producing hit after hit ... however, Dusty's next album, A BRAND NEW ME, while spawning the #22 title single, did even worse on the charts, stalling at # 107. (In England, the title was changed to FROM DUSTY, WITH LOVE ... after the failure of Dusty's "new sound" on the MEMPHIS album, they must have figured it'd be a tough sell for yet another "brand new Dusty".) A BRAND NEW ME would turn out to be DUSTY SPRINGFIELD's last trip into the American Top 40 for nearly 20 years.
DIDJAKNOW?: After the critical acclaim of Dusty's recording her album in Memphis, several other artists attempted the quest of gold by recording there ... most notably the return to Memphis of their most famous citizen, ELVIS PRESLEY! However, ALL of Dusty's "Memphis" vocals were actually recorded in New York City!!! It had always been her style in the past to record her vocals last after all the other musicians had gone home. She would turn the music up so loud in the studio that the engineers and producers couldn't even hear her sing ... and then, with the mike right up in her face, turn out a letter-perfect vocal. She would then analyze that vocal phrase by phrase, doing countless re-takes until it sounded right to her ears. Despite the pleas of her producers (who felt they already had a perfect track), Dusty would sometimes re-record as little as one word 40-45 times to get just the sound she wanted. Regardless of what the record label may have said, Dusty really DID produce her own records!!! In all of the previous recording sessions held in Memphis featuring this crackerjack studio band, the musicians had been most successful by establishing the "groove" right there in the studio, with the vocalist finding their own way to mesh with that "groove" ... literally creating the final sound on the recording floor. Dusty simply could not adapt to this style and redid ALL of her "Memphis" vocals in New York City!
Dusty had spent her whole life seeking the attention of her closest family and friends. From a very early age, she would deliberately hurt herself ... purposely touching hot tea kettles on the stove to burn her hands or cutting herself with any variety of sharp objects. Those meeting her for the first time or new to her inner circle found Dusty to be suicidal ... but the truth is that Dusty always knew when to stop ... just how far to take this personal abuse. She made countless trips to the hospital (and psychiatric wards) over the years, always seeking the complete attention of those closest to her.
This trait coupled with the relative failure of her two U.S. albums and the obsessive journalistic need to exam her alternative-style sex life, led Dusty to move to the United States in 1970. She began frequenting gay clubs here (much more openly than she could at home) and developed long, deep, lifetime friendships with other publicly "open" celebrities like ELTON JOHN and BILLIE JEAN KING. One of Dusty's running jokes was that she could always tell when her career was hot again because the premier female impersonators were including her in their act. In 1970 she said "I couldn't stand to be thought to be a big butch lady but I know that I'm as perfectly capable of being swayed by a girl as by a boy," publicly "outing" herself again in the media.
In the early '70's, she began having vocal problems, many of which could be attributed to a lack of self-confidence. She had also put on weight and appeared bloated and blotchy and was drinking heavily. Her drug usage had also increased. She sang background vocals on ELTON JOHN's great TUMBLEWEED CONNECTION album as well as his #1 single THE BITCH IS BACK. She was devastated when ELTON selected KIKI DEE (one of Dusty's former back-up singers) to duet with him on his #1 Hit DON'T GO BREAKING MY HEART.
By the mid-70's, she was living next door to the legendary PHIL SPECTOR, one of her first musical inspirations. After two lackluster albums for Atlantic, she moved to ABC / DUNHILL and producers LAMBERT AND PORTER, who were in the process of resurrecting the career of THE FOUR TOPS after their long association with Motown Records. Whereas THE FOUR TOPS ran up a string of ABC / Dunhill "comeback" hits like KEEPER OF THE CASTLE, AIN'T NO WOMAN LIKE THE ONE I'VE GOT, ARE YOU MAN ENOUGH, SWEET UNDERSTANDING LOVE and ONE CHAIN DON'T MAKE NO PRISON, all Top 40 Hits, Dusty never even hit the charts during her ABC affiliation. By the end of 1973, she had checked herself into Alcoholics Anonymous. Career-wise, she was at an all-time low. She had had only two chart singles on either side of the ocean during the entire decade: her version of THE RASCALS' tune HOW CAN I BE SURE peaked at #36 in 1970 and a tune called BABY BLUE stalled at #61 in 1979, both on the UK charts only.
By 1980, DUSTY was back to drinking heavily and had added the anti-depressant drug Nardil to her daily diet. She was also taking Quaaludes and Cocaine and, for the first time in her life, took up smoking ... to the tune of three to four packs of cigarettes a day. She moved to Toronto to be with CAROLE POPE of the Canadian band ROUGH TRADE, with whom she was also having a relationship. She would do occasional appearances there and often left with lesbian groupies. By 1981, she was flat broke ... and sold her prized Rhythm And Blues Record Collection to GRAHAM NASHfor money she would eventually spend on cocaine. As if Dusty's career couldn't sink any lower, she spent most of 1981 and 1982 lip-synching her hits in gay bars.
The following year she checked herself back into rehab at a foundation called The Friendly House. Here, she met the woman who would eventually get her off drink for good. PEGGY ALBRECHT saved Dusty's life ... by the end of 1983, she was finally sober, an astonishing ten years after her first Alcoholics Anonymous meeting.
Dusty decided she wanted her career back ... if she wasn't able to reclaim her position as one of the premier female vocalists in the world, she would at least let people know that she was still around. She also decided to pursue the acting career that inspired her to get into show business in the first place. (Back in the early '60's, she determined that there were too many female actresses competing for the same parts and decided to try to make it as a singer in what she felt was a "less-crowded" field!)
Near the end of her rehabilitation, she met a singer know simply as TEDDA, whom she was immediately stricken with. The relationship was turbulent to say the least. Dusty had always had wild parties, inviting guests to smash plates and china, partake in massive food fights and trash hotel rooms in ways THE WHOonly dreamed of. This new relationship took all of this to the limit ... and then some ... yet Dusty decided that she wanted to marry Tedda. A lesbian wedding was not yet a common practice and special arrangements had to be made. Before the ceremony was over, they were already fighting and hitting each other ... Dusty would later say that the ceremony should have kicked off with the phrase "Dearly beloved and barely tolerated."
Things got much worse over the next several weeks. One night, Tedda hit Dusty across the face with a saucepan, smashing her mouth and knocking out some teeth. Dusty came back and whacked Tedda over the head with a skillet. According to DANCING WITH DEMONS: THE AUTHORIZED BIOGRAPHY OF DUSTY SPRINGFIELD, written by PENNY VALENTINEand VICKI WICKHAM (Dusty's long-time manager), "Dusty's face would never fully recover. Even though Helene (her friend) lent her money to have plastic surgery done on her mouth in New York, Dusty chose the cheapest job possible and spent the rest on drugs. From then on, her once expressive face looked frozen and the smile that had enchanted everybody who met her was tight and lopsided." After ending the relationship, Dusty helped KAREN TOWNSHEND, wife of WHO guitarist PETE TOWNSHEND, set up a charity to support battered wives.
In the late '80's, Dusty was approached by THE PET SHOP BOYS about recording a "duet" for their new album. (THE PET SHOP BOYS were hot, having already scored five straight Top 20 Hits in the UK, including the #1 Hits WEST END GIRLS and IT'S A SIN ... they would top the charts twice more with ALWAYS ON MY MIND and HEART.) They were also an openly gay duo and Dusty seemed a most logical choice to collaborate with. When Dusty asked what type of sound they were looking for, they simply told her to "just sing like you" and the result, WHAT HAVE I DONE TO DESERVE THIS, topped the charts on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Dusty's career was hot again ... solo singles like NOTHING HAS BEEN PROVED, IN PRIVATE, REPUTATIONand ARRESTED BY YOU all hit the British charts. Plans were made for her to return to America in 1994 to record DUSTY IN NASHVILLE, a 26 year follow-up to her MEMPHIS album ... but it never happened.
Dusty was diagnosed with cancer. It was first discovered in her breast and treatment seemed to cure it. In fact, by the mid-'90's, there was also talk of a THREE DIVAS tour featuring Dusty, DIONNE WARWICK and PETULA CLARK in an obvious attempt to cash in on the success of THE THREE TENORS. Again, it never happened. The cancer was back and had spread to her bones.
In 1998, it was falsely reported in the press that Dusty had sold her back catalog for $6,000,000 ... in fact, she had sold her future royalties for $750,000, with the money to be used to live out her final days as comfortably as possible. The following year, it was announced that Dusty would be inducted into The Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame. Sadly, she died on March 2nd, just 16 days before the ceremony. Long-time friend ELTON JOHNaccepted the award on her behalf.
We hope you have enjoyed our special feature on DUSTY SPRINGFIELD. DUSTY left us with some GREAT music that has stood the test of time. Contrary to what she may have believed, she truly was one of a kind.
Here are some of the original comments we received when this Dusty Springfield Series first ran in Forgotten Hits back in 2004:
Hi there:
Although I already have a large collection of Dusty's music, I look forward to this week's salute to her for many reasons ... not the least of which is the information you provide along with the fine music. "Silver Threads and Golden Needles" remains my personal favorite song by Dusty; if there's a "flaw" anywhere in that song, I sure haven't found it in 40 years of "constant airplay" on my various turntables and CD players. To this day, the opening notes make me smile, lean back and listen, and get transported once again. Odd factoid about Dusty ... I read after her death a couple of years ago that she'd left a provision in her will that her cat was to be given caviar every day for the rest of its life.
Thanks for all you do ... Brad
Boy, you just NEVER hear SILVER THREADS AND GOLDEN NEEDLES by THE SPRINGFIELDS on the radio anymore ... yet ANOTHER Top 20 National Hit erased and ignored by these "know it all" programmers. (Boy, in hindsight it sure does sound a lot like a SEEKERS record! Play this one back to back with I'LL NEVER FIND ANOTHER YOU and you'll see what I mean!!! Of course, ANOTHER reason could be the fact that this #4 SEEKERS Hit from 1965 was written and produced by DUSTY's brother TOM SPRINGFIELD!!!) kk
When I think of Dusty Springfield, I think of Wishin' and Hopin' ... that song reminds me of Rawhide ... The cook for the Drive was Wishbone ... Now ... how is THAT for word association? LMVO Ron
The stuff on Dusty Springfield is just plain GOOD! Thanks.
Hil
Thanks, Hil ... I appreciate that! (kk)
Thank you for featuring Dusty Springield. I have always liked her music. My favorite song from her has to be The Windmills Of Your Mind. I have several of her CD's, but I don't remember ever hearing "I Don't Want To Hear It Anymore." You are right ... it IS a great track! :)
Flowrsong
DUSTY's version of I DON'T WANT TO HEAR IT ANYMORE was the PRIZE discovery of putting together this piece ... I LOVE it!!! (kk)
It IS a GREAT song, but her version pales in comparison to Jerry Butler's take on it. His version bombed, too (it only got to #95 in the summer of 1964). Ping
Wow, I didn't realize this song went back that far ... I never really think about RANDY NEWMAN being around during "The BEATLES Years"! (LOL) I will have to give this one a listen! (kk)
>>>We decided to tell the story of DUSTY SPRINGFIELD, focusing more on her career and, if not completely downplaying her demons and idiosyncrasies, at least putting them all into one place and then getting back to the music that we all fell in love with. (kk)
you made it perfect by doing it that way :) DominoGal
Wow! Dusty's life really does have a sad ending, does it not? For sometime I've thought of her life as 'bitter sweet', but now I realize that it was much more bitter than sweet. Nonetheless, she has always been and still remains my favorite female singer. In many respects I appreciate her full, mystifying voice so much more now that I recognize a measure of the sorrows she endured. Thank you Kent, PING, and BRITINVLVR for the materials you have added to this tremendous series.
A question: At the time of Dusty's death I think that I recall her funeral being televised. On PBS or BBC perhaps? This occurred at such a hectic time of my own life that I was unable to pursue it. This series has rekindled my interest so I ask if anyone is aware of the broadcast and how a copy may be obtained.
Many thanks,
Scott
Tenere In Vividus Sonus
Wow ... I'm not aware of anything being televised ... anybody out there able to shed some light on this? Thanks for the kind words ... I learned a lot myself about DUSTY SPRINGFIELD during the course of doing the research for this series! (kk)
This may not be your cup of tea, but when I heard it today, I couldn't stop playing it. I love a song with a certain amount of longing and angst. The never ending pursuit of something we don't have. Coupled with the smokey soulful sound of Springfield's voice ... ahh. It hits the spot like a cold beer on a hot afternoon.
I wondered who were the writers of the song, so I did a search on Mark Barkan & Vic Millrose. Barkan had also written "Pretty Flamingo" recorded by Manfred Mann and had co-written (along with Ritchie Adams) the Banana Splits theme song. (lol) Millrose collaborated with Tony Bruno and Bob Elgin on "Last Chance To Turn Around," recorded by Gene Pitney in 1965. I have both of those songs. Unless you're a big Manfred Mann or Pitney fan, these songs aren't all that great. Suzanne
Suzanne then sent us a copy of the song and lyrics to I'LL TRY ANYTHING, a #29 Hit for DUSTY SPRINGFIELD back in 1967.
Just prior to running our DUSTY SPRINGFIELD Series we featured a recording by BARRY MANILOW of a song called SANDRA, ironically about a woman accidently cutting herself in the kitchen one day. We then received this email from MFPING:
Interesting coincidence that you recently featured this song in Forgotten Hits and now you're doing a series on Dusty Springfield. The very first version of this song I heard was by Springfield when it was used on a local public affairs program about housewives suffering from depression (this was back in the mid-70's). I tried for years to find the song with no luck, and eventually found the Manilow version instead. (I recently got a hold of Dusty's version courtesy fo DJF0321.) I have to say that I immediately preferred his version over hers, as good as hers is. "Sandra" remains one of only two Manilow songs I can stomach (the other being "Ships"). If you've never heard Dusty's version of "Sandra", I can send it along to you (as soon as I find the CD where I copied it, lol). Ping
Actually, I have it, too, and ALMOST used it in the series ... but the MANILOW version just tied in so perfectly with the OTHER "lovelorn" series I was doing that I used his instead. It still freaks me out to hear Dusty singing about the wife who "cut herself ... quite by mistake" in light of her own personal experiences. (kk)
The DUSTY SPRINGFIELD Hit List
Here's a recap of how DUSTY's records performed on the Pop Charts, both here and abroad:
DUSTY SPRINGFIELD remains one of the greatest, most unique female vocalists of our time. Her Top 40 Hit list on both sides of the Atlantic are most impressive:
8/61 - BREAKAWAY (UK as THE SPRINGFIELDS) #31
11/61 - BAMBINO (UK as THE SPRINGFIELDS) #16
8/62 - SILVER THREADS AND GOLDEN NEEDLES (US as THE SPRINGFIELDS) #20
12/62 - ISLAND OF DREAMS (UK as THE SPRINGFIELDS) #5
3/63 - SAY I WON'T BE THERE (UK as THE SPRINGFIELDS) #5
7/63 - COME ON HOME (UK as THE SPRINGFIELDS) #31
11/63 - I ONLY WANT TO BE WITH YOU (UK, #4; US, #12)
2/64 - STAY AWHILE (UK, #13; US, #38)
6/64 - WISHIN' AND HOPIN' (US #4)
7/64 - I JUST DON'T KNOW WHAT TO DO WITH MYSELF (UK, #3)
9/64 - ALL CRIED OUT (US, #31)
10/64 - LOSING YOU (UK, #9, US #84)
2/65 - YOUR HURTIN' KIND OF LOVE (UK, #37)
9/65 - IN THE MIDDLE OF NOWHERE (UK, #8)
9/65 - SOME OF YOUR LOVIN' (UK, #8)
1/66 - LITTLE BY LITTLE (UK, #17)
3/66 - YOU DON'T HAVE TO SAY YOU LOVE ME (UK, #1; US, #3)
7/66 - GOING BACK (UK, #10)
9/66 - ALL I SEE IS YOU (UK, #9; US #20)
2/67 - I'LL TRY ANYTHING (UK, #13; US, #29)
3/67 - GIVE ME TIME (UK, #24; US, #60)
7/67 - THE LOOK OF LOVE (US, #22)
7/68 - I CLOSE MY EYES AND COUNT TO TEN (UK, #4)
11/68 - SON OF A PREACHER MAN (#9, UK; #10, US)
5/69 - THE WINDMILLS OF YOUR MIND (#22, US)
11/69 - A BRAND NEW ME (#22, US)
9/70 - HOW CAN I BE SURE (#36, UK)
12/87 - WHAT HAVE I DONE TO DESERVE THIS? (with THE PET SHOP BOYS) #1 US; #2 UK
2/89 - NOTHING HAS BEEN PROVED (#16, UK)
12/89 - IN PRIVATE (#14, UK)
5/90 - REPUTATION (#38, UK)
Here are two more quick DUSTY SPRINGFIELD stories that should give you some insight into the type of person she really was. Both come from the VALENTINE / WICKHAM book DANCING WITH DEMONS and show a little bit of the "Diva" side of Dusty (with a sense of humor.)
***
DUSTY had a real passion for speed ... she loved to drive fast ... unsafely so ... probably part of her deep-rooted death wish that haunted her most of her life. (The only times that DUSTY was ever truly happy was when she was performing in front of an audience and then, if she sensed ANY rejection or unhappiness, she would brood about it for weeks afterwards.) Her longtime friend and companion NORMA TANEGA once explained DUSTY's frustrations and inner demons this way: "She wanted to be straight, she wanted to be a good Catholic girl and she wanted to be black." Instead, she saw herself as the opposite of everything she ever really wanted and needed to be.
In DANCING WITH DEMONS, they recount the story of the time that Dusty (and her close friend Helene) traveled to Ireland in an effort for Dusty to get closer to her roots. Dusty was practically blind without her glasses yet rarely drove less than 80 miles per hour. Helene says "Dusty refused to drive less than eighty miles an hour around tiny country lanes full of hedge-lined blind corners" and she was not wearing her glasses on this particular day. Helene could not bear to look out of the front window. "I do have good peripheral vision and it was so frightening in case something was coming round that hedge. We argued through every village because her instructions always gave you multiple choices and I was usually too terrified to concentrate." Sometimes, they would pass so close to the walls of houses that Helene, with her side window down, would have curtains from passing kitchens flapping in her face. They got lost, drove round the same villages three times and fought. Once, as they tore through a town, there was a loud metallic click."What was that?" asked Dusty."It was your side view mirror hitting the side view mirror of the other car," replied Helene."Well ... he was going too fast," Dusty reasoned. "Dusty ... he was parked! It was a PARKED car we hit!" Helene explained.
***
Although always portrayed as one, Dusty was never quite a "diva" in the sense of flying around the world in her private Lear Jet and having her servants and subordinates wait on her hand and foot. If anything, she was more a creature of habit. When touring or visiting a particular city, she would insist on having the exact same hotel room as the last time she was there ... it felt more like "home" to her. (She probably had had a wild party there last time anyway, complete with food fights and shattered glass ... these were Dusty's passions.) She liked that sense of familiarity.
When it became standard practice to visit the hospital for chemotherapy sessions, she was appalled to come in one morning and find another patient in "HER" hospital room. She told the nurses that she wanted the patient moved straight away. When the nurses explained to Dusty that this patient was much sicker than she was, she responded without a moment's hesitation, "Yes, but I've had more hit records than HE has."
Copyright Kent Kotal / Forgotten Hits, 1998 - 2017 ... All rights reserved
| i don't know |
'The Knowledge' that London taxi drivers need to learn is an intimate knowledge of all streets within a 6 mile radius of which London mainline station ? | The case against London cabbies
The case against London cabbies
It's time to end the archaic privileges of taxi drivers
Email
I lost my misguided faith in black cabs last week, on the corner of Royal College Street in north London. It was the tiniest trip — 2.4 miles from Bloomsbury to my Camden flat at 11.30 in the evening. Hard to mess up, too: empty roads, good weather and the easiest of routes — practically a straight line to my flat. To my horror, the cabbie dodged the obvious, straight route and embarked on an extended loop through the traffic-choked hub of Camden Town tube station and Camden Market.
I pointed him in the right direction and he reluctantly did a U-turn and headed up Royal College Street. Not a word of apology — and still a £11.20 fare for a ten-minute journey. No tip, needless to say.
I can’t know whether he was ripping me off or merely clueless. But either way, in the days of satnav, it’s staggeringly incompetent. And in the days of highly efficient taxi and minicab apps — like Uber, Addison Lee and Kabbee — it’s unforgiveable. The exclusive privileges given to black cabs must go.
Black cabs are the go-slow thugs of the road. Overpriced, selective in who they pick up, arrogant about their knowledge and the Knowledge, nasty to other drivers, homicidal to bicyclists, bullying to competitors, they crawl across our cities in a puffed-up bubble of self-importance that has needed pricking for years.
The myth that the Knowledge is some astounding feat of memory is no longer true, if it ever was. In 15 years, no black cab driver has ever known the quickest route to my flat. Yes, it’s impressive to learn 320 routes within a six-mile radius of Charing Cross. And cabbies were particularly gratified in 2000, when scientists at University College London discovered that black cab drivers often had an enlarged hippocampus — the part of the brain associated with navigation in birds and other animals. But none of that matters with modern technology. Google Maps and TomTom can even tell you where surprise traffic jams are. No hippocampus can do that.
There’s no justification left for a predominant, controlling group of cabs, with a monopoly on being hailed on the street or from airport taxi ranks. Access to the job is controlled through oral, one-on-one exams by PCO examiners, giving them a hugely subjective role in choosing who makes the grade. Throw in exclusive parking spaces for black cabs and the right to use bus lanes, and you have one of the last unreformed trades, with heavily restricted practices, in the country.
The moment any rival tries to open up the market, black cab drivers bring the capital to a halt. A few years ago, Westminster council decided, utterly reasonably, to set up a minicab rank off Leicester Square, from Thursday to Saturday, from 9 p.m. to 4 a.m. — when black cabs are inevitably in short supply. In response, a huge fleet of black cabs blocked the Mall for several hours and brought central London to a standstill.
With their exclusive rights protected by the Public Carriage Office, and their rivals held back, black cabs behave like any cartel — they squeeze their advantages for all their worth. On countless occasions, I’ve gone nuts at the little tricks drivers use to extend the journey time: gradually slowing down in approach to a green light, willing it to turn red; slowing down before a zebra crossing in the hope that a pedestrian will come along; moving off at the lights at a glacial pace; piling on infinitesimal fractions of seconds to the journey by taking a particularly wide arc into a corner; scrupulously staying out of yellow boxes painted over crossroads, apparently for Highway Code reasons, but really to catch another red light.
The list of offences goes on: refusing to take bikes because of their deep-seated hatred of bicyclists; playing Radio 5 Live at offensively loud volume; refusing to pick you up, even with their yellow light on, because they don’t like the look of you or because you’re on the wrong side of the street and they’re heading home in the other direction. If you want to see how fast black cabs can really go, watch one racing home for Match of the Day.
Worst of all is the price — they are the second most expensive taxis in the world after Tokyo. The official Public Carriage Office tariff is up to £8.40 for a mile, and up to £33 for six miles, but they acknowledge those figures rise with heavy traffic or delays.
My disastrous journey last week came in at £4.67 a mile. My regular train journey from London to Pembroke costs £20 for the cheapest single, £135.50 for the most expensive — that’s from 8.3p a mile to 56p a mile. The cheapest return flight from London to Rome on BA is £115 — 1,143 miles at just over 10p a mile.
And as the fares soar, the traffic stays stationary. The average pace of central London traffic in 2012 — 8.98 mph — is the same as it was 125 years ago, when hansom cabs were ferrying Sherlock Holmes to and from 221b Baker Street.
Gone, too, is the black cab driver’s supposed reputation for safety. That went, thanks to John Worboys, the porn star and stripper turned black cabbie, convicted in 2009 of drugging and sexually assaulting 12 women.
And then there’s the plain, surly aggression of some black cab drivers. A few years ago, a cabbie in St James’s Square threatened me after he wrongly accused me of letting my parked bike fall over and hit his cab. ‘I’ve got a good eye for faces and I’ll get you,’ he barked, jabbing his finger a foot from my nose, ‘I can make you disappear.’
He was some way from being the best cab driver in St James’s Square, let alone the world. Give me a minicab driver with a satnav and rock-bottom fares any time.
Harry Mount is the author of How England Made the English.
Subscribe to The Spectator today for a quality of argument not found in any other publication. Get more Spectator for less – just £12 for 12 issues .
| Charing Cross |
Which area of Czechoslovakia was transferred to Germany after the Munich conference of September 1938 ? | London – Travel guide at Wikivoyage
For other places with the same name, see London (disambiguation) .
Double-decker Routemaster bus at a stop outside St Paul's Cathedral
London is a huge city with several district articles that contain information about specific sights, restaurants, and accommodation.
Noisy, vibrant and truly multicultural, London is a megalopolis of people, ideas and frenetic energy. The capital and largest city of the United Kingdom , it is also the largest city in Western Europe and the European Union. Situated on the River Thames in South-East England , Greater London has an official population of a little over 8 million, but the estimate of between 12 and 14 million people in the greater metropolitan area better reflects its size and importance. Considered one of the world's leading "global cities", London remains an international capital of culture, music, education, fashion, politics, finance and trade. Among international tourists, London is the most-visited city in the world.
Districts[ edit ]
The name London originally referred only to the once-walled "Square Mile" of the original Roman (and later medieval) city (confusingly called the " City of London " or just "The City"). Today, London has taken on a much larger meaning to include all of the vast central parts of the modern metropolis, with the city having absorbed numerous surrounding towns and villages over the centuries, including large portions of the surrounding "home counties", one of which - Middlesex - being completely consumed by the growing metropolis. The term Greater London embraces Central London together with all the outlying suburbs that lie in one continuous urban sprawl within the lower Thames valley. Though densely populated, London retains large swathes of green parkland and open space, even within the city centre.
Greater London is all of the area surrounded by the M25 orbital motorway, and consists of 32 London Boroughs and the City of London that, together with the office of the Mayor of London, form the basis for London's local government. The Mayor of London is elected by London residents and should not be confused with the Lord Mayor of the City of London. The names of several boroughs, such as Westminster or Camden , are well-known, others less so, such as Wandsworth or Lewisham . This traveller's guide to London recognises cultural, functional and social districts of varying type and size:
Understand[ edit ]
The Tower of London
"When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford"
— Samuel Johnson
History[ edit ]
Settlement has existed on the site of London since well before Roman times, with evidence of Bronze Age and Celtic settlement. The Roman city of Londinium, established just after the Roman conquest of Britannia in the year 43, formed the basis for the modern city (some isolated Roman period remains are still to be seen within the City). After the end of Roman rule in 410 and a short-lived decline, London experienced a gradual revival under the Anglo-Saxons, as well as the Norsemen, and emerged as a great medieval trading city, and eventually replaced Winchester as the royal capital of England. This paramount status for London was confirmed when William the Conqueror, a Norman, built the Tower of London after the conquest in 1066 and was crowned King of England in Westminster .
London went from strength to strength with the rise of England to first European then global prominence, and the city became a great centre of culture, government and industry. London's long association with the theatre, for example, can be traced back to the English renaissance (witness the Rose Theatre and great playwrights like Shakespeare who made London their home). With the rise of Britain to supreme maritime power in the 18th and 19th centuries (see Industrial Britain ) and the possessor of the largest global empire, London became an imperial capital and drew people and influences from around the world to become, for many years, the largest city in the world.
England's royal family has, over the centuries, added much to the London scene for today's traveller: the Albert Memorial , Buckingham Palace , Kensington Palace , Royal Albert Hall , Tower of London , Kew Palace and Westminster Abbey being prominent examples.
Despite the inevitable decline of the British Empire, and considerable suffering during World War II (when London was heavily bombed by the German Luftwaffe in the Blitz), the city is still a top-ranked world city: a global centre of culture, finance, and learning. Today London is easily the largest city in the United Kingdom, eight times larger than the second largest, Birmingham , and ten times larger than the third, Glasgow , and dominates the economic, political and social life of the nation. It is full of excellent bars, galleries, museums, parks and theatres. It is also the most culturally and ethnically diverse part of the country, making it a great multicultural city to visit. Samuel Johnson famously said, "when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life". Whether you are interested in ancient history, modern art, opera or underground raves, London has it all.
The City and Westminster[ edit ]
The Queen Elizabeth II Tower, until 2012 unnamed, is the iconic tower that is home to the bell known as 'Big Ben'
If you ask a Londoner where the centre of London is, you are likely to get a wry smile. This is because historically London was two cities: a commercial city and a separate government capital.
The commercial capital was the City of London . This had a dense population and all the other pre-requisites of a medieval city: walls, a castle (The Tower of London), a cathedral (St Paul's), a semi-independent City government, a port and a bridge across which all trade was routed so Londoners could make money (London Bridge).
About an hour upstream (on foot or by boat) around a bend in the river was the government capital ( Westminster ). This had a church for crowning the monarch (Westminster Abbey) and palaces. As each palace was replaced by a larger one, the previous one was used for government, first the Palace of Westminster (better known as the Houses of Parliament), then Whitehall, then Buckingham Palace. The two were linked by a road called The "Strand", old English for riverbank.
London grew both west and east. The land to the west of the City (part of the parish of Westminster) was prime farming land ( Covent Garden and Soho for example) and made good building land. The land to the east was flat, marshy and cheap, good for cheap housing and industry, and later for docks. Also the wind blows 3 days out of 4 from west to east, and the Thames (into which the sewage went) flows from west to east. So the West End was up-wind and up-market, the East End was where people worked for a living.
Modern-day London in these terms is a two-centre city, with the area in between known confusingly as the West End.
See the 5 day forecast for London at the Met Office
London Eye
Despite a perhaps unfair reputation for being unsettled, London enjoys a dry and mild climate on average. Only one in three days on average will bring rain and often only for a short period. In some years, 2012 being an example, there was no rain for several weeks.
Extreme weather is rare. Occasionally there may be heavy rain that can bring localised flooding or strong winds that may down trees, but overall you are unlikely to encounter anything too lively.
Winter[ edit ]
Winter in London is mild compared to nearby continental European cities due to both the presence of the Gulf Stream and the urban heat effect. The average daily maximum temperature is 8°C (46°F) in December and January. Daylight hours become increasingly shorter with darkness falling at 15:00 in December.
Snow does occur, usually a few times a year but rarely heavily (a few years being exceptions such as the winters of 2009 and 2010, with temperatures dipping down to sub-zeros regularly). Snow in London can be crippling, as seen at the end of 2010. Just 7 cm (3 in) of snow will cause trains to stop running, airports to see significant delays, and the postal service to come to a halt. London is a city which does not cope well with snow; walkways, stairs, and streets will not be cleared by shovels or ploughs. The streets will be salted/gritted, but will remain slick and snow/slush covered until the sun melts it away. This is due to a lack of widespread snow-clearing infrastructure as the city does not often see snow.
Spring[ edit ]
Spring in the capital can be something of a weather rollercoaster with big variations in temperature day by day. It can be a very wet time of year, but the increases in day length from March onwards and steady temperature increases as the season progresses can make it a pleasant time to visit.
Days can be mild and warm, but the temperature will often dip at night as the sun's warmth dissipates.
The beginning of spring in March can be as cold as winter, so be sure to bring something warm to wear!
Summer[ edit ]
Summer is perhaps the best season for tourists as it has long daylight hours as well as mild temperatures. The average daily high temperatures in July and August are around 24°C (75°F). The highest temperature ever seen in London stands at 38.1°C (100.6°F), which was recorded on 10 August 2003 at Kew Gardens.
Humidity across the city can increase and stay high over the course of several days and nights, leading to unexpectedly muggy conditions. Also, upon occasion, clouds of dust from storms in the Sahara desert can be blown across Europe and lead to increases in pollution levels.
Despite the increased warmth, the weather in summer can be variable. Occasional prolonged instances of rain and unexpected dips in temperature can occur. If you're coming during the summer it is still advised to dress in layers and bring some waterproofs!
Autumn[ edit ]
Autumn in London can vary from year to year: In some years September and October can see temperatures not far below those seen in summer due to a phenomenon known as an "Indian summer", but in other years the temperature can decrease rapidly to winter levels and stay there. Day length at the beginning of autumn is near that of summer, meaning that a September trip can still be as easy to plan as an August one. Mid-autumn is also a wonderful time to wander one of London's many tree-filled parks as the leaves fade from green to gold.
Autumn tends to be the wettest and windiest season but, again, this can vary from year to year.
It's best to see autumn in London as being like a box of chocolates: You never know what you're going to get!
Tourist information centres[ edit ]
Since the closure of the Britain and London Visitor Centre in December 2011 due to cost-cutting by the government, London has no centrally located tourist information centre.
The City of London Information Centre, as the last remaining information centre in any of the Central London boroughs, is now the only impartial, face-to-face source of tourist information in Central London. It is located in St. Paul's Churchyard, next to St. Paul's Cathedral, and is open every day other than Christmas Day and Boxing Day, from 09.30-17.30 Monday to Saturday, and 10.00-16.00 on Sunday.
There is no office for tourist information for the whole of the UK nor for the whole of England.
By plane[ edit ]
Summary map of rail connections to London airports
Due to London's huge global city status it is the most served destination in the world when it comes to flights.
London (all airports code: LON) is served by a total of five airports. Travelling between the city and the airports is made relatively easy by the large number of public transport links that have been put in place over recent years. However, if transiting through London, be sure to check the arrival and departure airports carefully as transfers across the city may be quite time consuming. In addition to London's five official airports (of which only two are located within Greater London), other regional UK airports conveniently accessible from London. Since they offer a growing number of budget flights, choosing those airports can be cheaper (or even faster, depending on where in London your destination is).
For transfers directly between London's airports, the fastest way (short of an expensive taxi or private helicopter) is the direct inter-airport coach service by National Express . Coaches between Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton run at least hourly, with Heathrow-Gatwick services taking 65 min (£18) and Heathrow-Stansted services 90 min (£20.50) (services between Stansted and Luton run only every two hours). However, it's essential to allow leeway, as London's motorways, especially the orbital M25 and the M1, are often congested to the point of gridlock. Some of these coaches have toilets on board.
Main article: Heathrow Airport
51.47146 -0.45351 1 Heathrow Airport ( IATA : LHR). is London's largest airport and the world's busiest airport in terms of international passenger movements, with services available from most major airports world-wide. It has 4 active terminals. (updated Apr 2015)
Terminals:
Terminal 2, the Queen's Terminal is the Star Alliance terminal. It reopened in June 2014 following redevelopment and until October 2014 there was a timetable of airline moves to this new terminal.
Terminal 3 has a few Oneworld flights: Virgin Atlantic, British Airways (Barcelona, Budapest, Gibraltar, Helsinki, Lisbon, Prague, Vienna, Warsaw), various international carriers such as American, Cathay Pacific, Emirates and Qantas. Some Delta flights.
The above terminals are located in the middle of the airport & accessed via tunnel. This was to save space when the airport's runways were configured in a Star of David. 4 of the runways were abandoned because they couldn't accommodate jumbo jets.
Terminal 4 is the SkyTeam terminal. It is located to the south of the airport.
Terminal 5 is the Oneworld terminal and opened in 2008. It is west of the airport, close to the M25.
Until 2015, there was a Terminal 1, but that has been closed and is being demolished.
Flights landing at Heathrow have to wait in one of four queues called stacks. However, only one runway can be used at a time because the other runway has to be used for planes taking off. The arrival time on the ticket is the time when the plane is scheduled to join a stack plus the time the plane is estimated to have to wait for.
Here's a quick summary of transport options from Heathrow to central London:
Fastest: by Heathrow Express rail (Paddington Station - Heathrow 1, 2, 3 & 5), ☎ +44 845 600 1515 . Every 15 min, journey time 15 min. Travelcard & Oyster card not valid. These train lines terminate at London Paddington which for most people will require a Tube, bus, or cab ride to their final destination. Despite the Heathrow Express & Connect's speed, they are often not the fastest way to a final destination in London. One way, adult prices: £18 (if purchased online or from ticket machine/office) and £23, when purchased onboard; round trip is £34.
Second fastest: by Heathrow Connect rail (terminal 3), Arriva Hotel (Paddington Station - Heathrow 1, 2, 3 & 4), ☎ +44 845 678 6975 . Travelcard & Oyster card not valid to Heathrow. Often requires a change for Terminal 4 or 5. Follows same route as Heathrow Express but stops at several intermediate stations to London Paddington so journey is 25 minutes and trains less frequent. Unlike Heathrow Express trains, the Heathrow Connect trains are poorly marked both at the airport and at Paddington. Ask a Heathrow Express attendant how to get to the train from the airport. For the return trip, Heathrow Connect leaves from Paddington Platform 12. One way £9.10, round trip £17.80.
Cheapest: by London Underground (Piccadilly line) , ☎ +44 845 330 9880 . Every few minutes, journey time approximately 1 hour, however this depends on your destination. For the cheapest single fare ask for an Oyster card (£5 refundable deposit). Or a Zone 1-6 Travelcard is valid. The first train leaves at 05:14 and the last train leaves for central London at 23:46 (Monday to Saturday). When travelling from central London to the airport check your destination carefully - some trains don't go to the airport and those that do go have 2 distinct routes. During the day trains are at least every 10 minutes and usually more frequent. Weekend engineering works can result in replacement buses being run in place of the trains - check with the Transport for London website beforehand . With Oyster one way £2.90 (off-peak) to £4.80 (peak).
Bus N9 operates service from midnight-05:00 between Heathrow and Piccadilly Circus and Trafalgar Square, roughly following the Piccadilly Line into central London. Buses depart every 20 minutes and take about 1 hour 15 minutes to reach central London. Flat fare of £1.50, accepts Oyster Card or Contactless Credit/Debit, but no longer accepts cash.
Taxi. A taxi from Heathrow to central London will cost £45-60. You may wish to consider taking a taxi if you have a lot of baggage or small children. Alternatively you can catch public transport into the city centre and then take a taxi. There are two types of taxis: Black cabs (these can be hailed on a street or at a taxi rank) and licensed mini cabs (these are typically cheaper - but must be booked in advance over the phone or on the web). There are over 1000 minicab companies in London.
Pre-booked Mini Cab. A pre-booked sedan transfer from Heathrow to central London will cost £39-44. This an excellent and cheaper alternative to a black cab. The big advantage is the fixed fare, regardless of traffic conditions or route. There are dozens of companies serving Heathrow, just google 'heathrow minicab'. Once booked, the driver will be waiting for you with a sign bearing your name in the arrivals area. Tipping when using minicabs is not required, although it is certainly welcome.
Also: to South London , ☎ +44 845 748 4950 . Bus 285 / or taxi to Feltham railway station (20 minutes) then a train to London Waterloo on the South Bank or Clapham Junction in South West London . Furthermore, bus X26 is an express route calling at Hatton Cross, Teddington Broad St., Kingston Wood St., Kingston Cromwell Rd., New Malden Fountain, Worcester Park, Queen Victoria, Cheam Broadway, Sutton Police Station, Carshalton High St., Wallington Green, East Croydon & West Croydon St Michaels bus station. Zone 1-6 Travelcard valid on all London buses and trains. £2 single.
Main article: Gatwick Airport
51.1565 -0.1634 2 Gatwick Airport ( IATA : LGW). is London's second airport, also serving a large spectrum of places world-wide. It is the world's busiest single runway airport and is split into a North Terminal and South Terminal. The two terminals are linked by a free shuttle train (5 minutes). The train station is located in the South Terminal. (updated Nov 2015)
Transport options into central London:
By rail: Gatwick Express , ☎ +44 845 850 1530 . Every 15 min, journey time 30-35 min. To London Victoria. Travelcard not valid. One way £19.90, round trip £33.20, for the cheapest fare visit their website.
By rail: Southern Railway , ☎ +44 845 127 2920 . At least every 15 min, journey time 35-40 min. To London Victoria via Clapham Junction (same route as Gatwick Express - but with intermediate stops). Much cheaper than Gatwick Express - £13.50 (cheaper if booked in advance).
By rail: Thameslink , ☎ +44 871 200 2233 . To London Bridge, Blackfriars, City Thameslink, Farringdon, St Pancras International, Luton Airport and further north. Much cheaper than Gatwick Express - about £10 (they occasionally have advance tickets priced at half that).
By bus: easyBus . Every 15-20 min, journey time 60-90 min. To Earl's Court/West Brompton. One way prices start from £2. Book online.
By bus: National Express . Every 30 min, journey time 75-110 min. To London Victoria. One way prices start from £7. Book online.
By Minicab , ☎ +44 7505 616915 . Journey time 90-120 min. approx £70.
By car. 47 km (29 mi).
By cycle . There is a long-distance cycle path into Central London, but as it involves an indirect route, going over the North Downs and through South-East London, it will likely be quite a ride. For adventurous people.
When departing, no drinking fountains are to be found in the South Terminal departure lounge after passing through security.
51.8900 0.2615 3 Stansted Airport ( IATA : STN). is London's third airport, and is dominated by the two low-cost airlines EasyJet and Ryanair . (updated Nov 2015)
Transport options into central London:
By rail: Stansted Express to London Liverpool Street , ☎ +44 845 600 7245 . Every 15 min, journey time 45-60 min. Single £23.40, return £37.50. Book 30 days in advance: single £8, return £16. Travelcards not valid. First class fares available. Children aged 5-15 travel at half fares. Most budget carriers' websites offer reduced price deals for the Stansted Express..
By rail then London Underground: Stansted Express to Tottenham Hale then London Underground (Victoria line) , ☎ +44 845 600 7245 . Every 15 min. If you are going to South London, the West End or West London then take the Stansted Express to Tottenham Hale then the London Underground (Victoria line). At Tottenham Hale ask for an Oyster card for the best fare. Single £21.00, return £33.50, then £3.20 (peak)/£2.70 (off-peak) for single Oyster fares to central London by Underground. Cash Underground fares cost considerably more..
By coach: National Express , ☎ +44 870 580 8080 . Every 15-30 min. Journey time to Stratford: 1 hour. To Liverpool Street: 80 min. To Victoria: 90 min. To Stratford (tube: Stratford) or Victoria (tube: Victoria). Folding bicycles only. To Stratford: £8 single, £14 return. To Liverpool Street: £7.50 single (online in advance?). To Victoria: £10 single, £16 return. Travelcards not valid.
By minibus: EasyBus . To Baker Street (tube: Baker Street) From £2 (advance web purchase) to £8 single. Travelcard not valid..
By taxi, ☎ +44 20 8577-0009 . Journey time 90-120 min. The airport is a long way from central London. It's normally a better idea to take a train to Liverpool Street and continue by taxi from there. approx £70.
By Minicab , ☎ +44 1279 816901 . Journey time 90-120 min. Stansted Airport Cars, located just outside of the terminal complex. approx £70.
London Luton[ edit ]
London Luton Airport - main entrance
51.8794 -0.3760 4 London Luton Airport ( IATA : LTN). is London's fourth airport after Heathrow , Gatwick and Stansted . It's nearer to central London than the latter two airports at 35 mi (57 km) north of central London and situated 1.7 mi (2.8 km) east of Luton town centre. It's a major hub for easyJet , Ryanair , Wizz Air , Thomson Airways and Monarch Airlines . The vast majority of routes served are within Europe, although there are some charter and scheduled routes to destinations in Northern Africa and Asia. (updated Nov 2015)
Except for the City Airport, Luton Airport is the smallest of the London international airports, but still a major hub for many low-cost airlines and over 10 million passengers fly through the airport each year. It has the same facilities as the other major airports and also, like Stansted, it is commonplace for some passengers on early morning flights to sleep in the terminal before their flights. There can be heavy traffic congestion on the access road caused by the surge of early flights. The Parkway Airport station, which serves the terminal, is about 20 minutes walk back into town, although there is a regular shuttle bus charging £1.60 to take you to the station. If your train ticket says Luton Airport (rather than Luton Airport Parkway), then the bus ride is included in the ticket.
The airport is a major hub for easyJet, Ryanair, Wizzair, Thomson Airways and Monarch Airlines, with other airlines also serving the airport like Aer Arann, FlyBE and El Al, to cities primarily in Scotland , Europe, North Africa and the Mediterranean Basin. If leaving on a morning flight (departing between 0700-0830), it is advisable to leave extra time to check in and clear security due to the large number of flights leaving (particularly Wizzair).
By rail . Journey time: 20-55 min. £12.50 one way. Travelcard not valid. The airport has its own railway station "Luton Airport Parkway", served by trains 24 hours a day from Central London using "Thameslink" or "East Midlands Trains" from St Pancras International. There are up to 10 trains an hour, depending on the time of day. All trains go to London St Pancras International, but many also continue on to Blackfriars, London Bridge and Elephant & Castle, Gatwick Airport and Brighton. The station is nearly 2 km (1 mi) from the terminal building, a shuttle bus service connects the terminal and airport every 10 minutes, costing £1.60 each way. At rush hour times, this journey can take up to 25 minutes. Railway ticket offices can now sell through tickets to Luton Airport that include the shuttle bus, although some ticket office staff may not be aware of this if the station doesn't have direct trains to Luton. If the destination on your ticket says "Luton Airport" the shuttle bus is included, but if it says "Luton Airport Parkway" you will have to buy a bus ticket.
By coach: Green Line number 757 , ☎ +44 844 801 7261 . Every 20 min, journey time 90 min. To Victoria (tube: Victoria) via Brent Cross, Finchley Rd tube station, Baker St, Marble Arch and Hyde Park Corner. £14 one way if bought from the driver, tickets can be purchased in-advance online from £2. Service is run by Greenline and in conjunction with easyBus (but can be used by all travellers regardless of airline you travel with). Travelcard not valid.
By coach: National Express , ☎ +44 870 580 8080 . Every 20 min, journey time 90 min. To Victoria (tube: Victoria) via Golders Green and Marble Arch. From £1 (advance web purchase) one way. Travelcard not valid.
By car. 60 km (34 mi) north of London, just off the M1 motorway which connects London with the Midlands and the North of England. Depending on where you are travelling from in London and time of day, journey times take 45-90 mins. Road users should plan their journey and check traffic conditions, as if an incident occurs on London's busy roads, journey times can dramatically increase. It costs £2 to stay in the "drop off zone" for a maximum of 10 minutes (non-extendable without penalty). There is also a short stay car park nearby. The "Medium stay" car park allows a short period of free parking (30 minutes), so passengers may be left here to catch the shuttle bus to the airport and collected, if the arrival time is known with certainty. No parking or drop-off is permitted at any other roadside locations - this is enforced by cameras and "parking charges" of £80 (£40 if paid promptly).
London City Airport[ edit ]
London City Airport
51.5038 0.0495 5 London City Airport ( IATA : LCY). is London's fifth airport after Heathrow , Gatwick , Stansted and Luton . A commuter airport close to the City's financial district, and specialising in short-haul business flights to other major European cities. There are also growing numbers of routes to holiday destinations that include Malaga , Ibiza and Mallorca . (updated Nov 2015)
The airport is located on a former Docklands site in the London Borough of Newham, some 11 km / 6.9 miles east of the City of London and a short distance from Canary Wharf. It mainly offers flights to major European cities by full service carriers. British Airways operates two services a day to New York JFK on weekdays and a daily service on weekends using an Airbus A318 in an entirely business class configuration.
Not as expensive to fly into than it used to be, and you may indeed find that in some instances this may be your cheapest London airport to fly to. This doesn't take into account the cost savings of not coming from the distant larger London airports with £10+ transfer costs. Then there is the added bonus is that it is close to central London with its convenient link to the DLR. Minimum check in times for most airlines is around 30 minutes, with some offering 15 minute check in deadlines. Queues for security can be long at peak business times. Touchdown to the DLR (including taxi, disembarkation, immigration and baggage reclaim) can be as fast at 5 minutes, although 15 minutes is normal.
To get to the city centre the following options exist:
By Docklands Light Railway (DLR). See also: Get around . The DLR runs to Bank station. Change to the Jubilee line at Canning Town (for Canary Wharf or Stratford). Travelcard valid.
By taxi. Journey time approximately 30 min. £20-35.
By car. 10 km (6 mi).
By bus . Take the 474 bus to Canning Town station and then the 115 or N15 into central London. See also: Get around . Travelcard valid.
Other airports near London[ edit ]
London Southend Airport ( IATA : SEN), ☎ +44 1702 608100 , e-mail: [email protected] . Southend airport serves a range of destinations in Europe with Aer Lingus Regional and easyJet. By rail, a journey time of 55-65 min. Travelcard not valid. The airport has its own railway station "Southend Airport", and is served from Liverpool Street, via Stratford by trains 17 hours a day. There are up to 8 trains an hour, depending on the time of day. The station is approximately 200m from the terminal building.
Lydd Airport ( IATA : LYX). (aka London Ashford Airport) has rather seasonal, limited services and is used primarily for businessmen. (updated Nov 2015)
Southampton Airport ( IATA : SOU), ☎ +44 870 040 0009 . Every 30 min, journey time 1 hour. This is not officially a London airport, though accessible enough to conveniently serve the capital, especially South West London. A couple of budget carriers serving an increasing number of European destinations are based here. Direct trains connect Southampton airport to London Waterloo station. £30-35 round trip. Bournemouth Airport similarly operates a couple of Ryanair flight among others, and is not too far west on the train line from Southampton.
Birmingham International Airport ( IATA : BHX), ☎ +44 870 733 5511 . Every 20 min, journey time 72 min with Virgin Trains. This is another non-London airport worth considering as a less congested and hectic alternative to Heathrow, being just over an hour away from London. As a major airport serving the UK's second largest city, there is a good choice of long distance and European destinations. Direct trains connect Birmingham International to London Euston and Watford. The train station is connected to the terminal via a free shuttle train (2 minutes). From £10 (advance web purchase) one way, £35-100 round trip.
Other small airports, such as Oxford Airport can also be useful. Kent International Airport and Shoreham Airport (near Brighton) are similarly small. Biggin Hill in Bromley borough had a rejected licence bid in 2010 for commercial flights for the Olympics but may receive one in the near future.
Wikivoyage has a guide to Rail travel in the United Kingdom .
London is the hub of the British rail network - every major city in mainland Britain has a frequent train service to the capital, and most of the smaller, provincial cities and large towns also have a direct rail connection to London of some sort - although the frequency and quality of service can vary considerably from place to place.
Rail fares to London vary enormously from very cheap to prohibitively expensive - the golden rules are to book Advance tickets for a particular train time, don't travel into the city on Friday afternoons and Sundays, and avoid leaving buying tickets until the day of travel. There are three basic types of ticket, which are summarised below. Much of the advice applies to rail travel in general within the United Kingdom.
Anytime - travel on any train, any operator at any time, returning within one month with few restrictions. Very expensive however - on a long distance journey from Northern England or Scotland for example - an Anytime return ticket to London won't leave you with any change out of £250!
Off-peak - travel on certain trains within a specific time-frame; again returning within one month. Typically this excludes anything that arrives into London during the morning rush hour (before 10:00 typically), or any train which departs during evening rush hour (16:30-18:30). Weekends generally carry no restrictions on the use of Off-Peak tickets. There are however, a monumentally complex number of exceptions for which Off-Peak tickets are and aren't valid which are barely fathomable to the British, never mind overseas visitors. If you are in any doubt at all about the validity of an Off-Peak ticket, ask a guard at the station or a ticket office before getting on a train - as on-train conductors can be notoriously unforgiving. Super Off-Peak tickets have further restrictions on the time at which they can be used and differ depending on the train operator. Again, ask at the ticket office or the guard before boarding the train.
Advance - travel on a specific day and train time, booked up to 12 weeks in advance either in person at a railway station, over the telephone, or online. Two Advance single tickets for the outward and return legs of the journey are generally cheaper than the Off-Peak return ticket. Better deals can often be had by going directly to the train operator's website. The earlier you book, the more you save - you can get down to as little as £12.00 one-way from Scotland for example, but these tickets are non-refundable, and cannot be used on anything other than the date, train time and operator that is printed on the reservation. Go on any other train and get caught and you will be obliged to pay the Anytime fare for the journey you are making - which, as we've said before, is hideously expensive!
The local and commuter rail companies within the London and Home Counties area also have a bewildering array of special fares which are all in essence, variations of the Off-Peak ticket and are far too detailed to cover here, go directly to the website of the operator concerned for more information. If you only intend to use trains within the Greater London boundary, then the Oyster Card (explained below) is by far the easiest and cheapest option to use.
Seats can be reserved for free on all long-distance trains to London - the reservation is always issued automatically with an Advance ticket, and with most Off-Peak and Anytime tickets bought on-line. If, for whatever reason you hold an Anytime or Off-Peak ticket and there is no seat reservation coupon, then it is highly recommended you get one from any railway station ticket office - if you want to avoid camping out in the vestibule for all or part of the journey!! First Class is available on all long distance services to London, the standard of service varies from operator to operator, but in general you get a wider, more comfortable seat, free tea/coffee for the duration of the journey, and some sort of complimentary catering service. If can be great value if you get an Advance first-class fare, but it is extremely expensive otherwise, and to be honest - not really worth it. You can pay a Weekend supplement (generally £15-£20) to sit in the first class section of the train on Saturdays and Sundays, - useful if the service you are on is hideously overcrowded - but you don't get the same catering service as during the week.
If you are the holder of a Britrail pass, things are simpler - reservations are not required. However, if you wish to be guaranteed a seat, rather than standing for a lengthy journey (trains can be very busy, especially at peak times) then you can make a seat reservation at any station. If you intend to use the overnight Sleeper trains to London, you will have to pay a berth supplement for every member of your party - provided there is berth availability on the train.
London has one international high speed rail route (operated by Eurostar 0870 518 6186 ) from Paris (2hr 15min), Brussels (1hr 50 min) and a selection of French cities, diving under the sea for 35 km (22 mi) via the Channel Tunnel to come out in England. It terminates at Saint Pancras International Station. For domestic train services, there are no fewer than 12 main line National Rail terminals (although in conversation you may hear the brand National Rail infrequently if ever it differentiates main line and London Underground services; journey planner online or phone 0845 748 49 50). With the exception of Fenchurch Street (tube: Tower Hill) these are on the London Underground. Most are on the Circle line. Clockwise starting at Paddington, major National Rail stations are:
51.515449 -0.175743 1 London Paddington , serves South West England and Wales including Slough, Maidenhead , Reading , Oxford , Bath , Bristol , Taunton , Exeter , Plymouth and Cardiff and Swansea . Also the Central London terminus of the Heathrow Airport Express (see above) and serves some suburban stations such as Acton Main Line and Ealing Broadway.
51.522590 -0.163936 2 London Marylebone , serves some north western suburban stations such as Amersham , Harrow on the Hill and Wembley Stadium. Also serves Aylesbury , High Wycombe , Banbury , Stratford-upon-Avon and the city of Birmingham . It is much cheaper but slightly slower to take a train from Marylebone to Birmingham instead of a train from London Euston.
By coach[ edit ]
Most international and domestic long distance coach (U.S. English: bus) services arrive at and depart from a complex of coach stations off Buckingham Palace Road in Westminster close to London Victoria rail station. All services operated by National Express or Eurolines (see below) serve 51.492302 -0.149050 15 London Victoria Coach Station , which actually has separate arrival and departure buildings. Services by other operators may use this station, or the 51.493117 -0.146068 16 Green Line Coach Station across Buckingham Palace Road. The following are among the main coach operators:
National Express , ☎ +44 870 580 8080 . is by far the largest domestic coach operator and operates services to / from London from throughout England, Wales and Scotland . Advance ticketing is usually required and recommended practice in any case. Fares are low - especially when booked in advance via the web. A few journeys are fast but most are notably slower than using the train.
Eurolines , ☎ +44 870 514 3219 . is an associate company of National Express, and runs coach services to / from London with various cities in Northern Ireland , the Ireland and continental Europe. Advance ticketing is required.
Megabus , ☎ +44 900 160 0900 (premium rate). operates budget coach services from/to London (Victoria Coach Station) to/from several major regional cities, it is even possible to get to Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. Also offers service to continental Europe including Paris, Brussels and Amsterdam. Fares are demand responsive but can be very cheap (£1.50 if you book far enough in advance). Megabus also offer a Sleeper service to Glasgow and Edinburgh.
Greyhound , ☎ +44 900 096 0000 (premium rate). coach services with free wi-fi, newspapers and extra legroom. From/to London (Victoria Coach Station) to/from several cities. Fares can be very cheap.
From Paris[ edit ]
Since the opening of the French long distance bus market in 2015, several companies have entered the market and many also serve a London-Paris route, which crosses under the Channel via the Channel tunnel. Travel time tends to be upwards of seven hours, but fares are accordingly low in order to compete with airlines and Eurostar. Companies offering this service include ouibus , Flixbus and the companies Megabus and Eurolines mentioned above
By car[ edit ]
London is the hub of the UK's road network and is easy to reach by car, even if driving into the centre of the city is definitely not recommended.
Comparatively few people will actually drive into (or anywhere near) the centre of London. The infamous M25 ring road did not earn its irreverent nicknames "The Road To Hell" and "Britain's biggest car park" for nothing. The road is heavily congested at most times of the day, and is littered with automatically variable speed limits which are enforced with speed cameras. Despite the controversial "congestion charge", driving a car anywhere near the centre of London remains a nightmare with crowded roads, impatient drivers and extortionate parking charges (if you can find a space in the first place, that is!). From Monday through Friday, though, parking in the City of London is free after 18:30; after 13:30 on Saturday and all day Sunday.
Renting a car[ edit ]
Motorways[ edit ]
Greater London is encircled by the M25 orbital motorway, from which nearly all the major trunk routes to Scotland, Wales and the rest of England radiate. The most important are listed below.
M1: The main route to/from the North, leading from the East Midlands, Yorkshire and terminating at Leeds. Most importantly, Britain's longest motorway - the M6, branches from the M1 at Rugby, leading to Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, the Lake District and onwards to the Scottish border, and ultimately Glasgow.
A1/A1(M) The A1 is the original, historic "Great North Road" between England and Scotland's capital cities and has largely been converted to motorway standard; it runs up the eastern side of Great Britain through Peterborough, York, Newcastle and continues north through Northumberland and the Scottish Borders to Edinburgh.
M40/A40: Arrives in London from a north westerly direction, linking the city with Oxford and providing an additional link from Birmingham.
M4: The principal route to/from the West - leading to Bath, Bristol and cities South Wales (Cardiff and Swansea). It is also the main route towards Heathrow Airport.
M3: The main route to London from the shipping port of Southampton.
M2/M20: Together, these motorways are the main link to the coastal ferry (and Channel Tunnel) ports of Dover and Folkestone from Continental Europe.
M11: The M11 connects Stansted Airport and Cambridge to London which terminates on the north-eastern periphery of the city.
A roads[ edit ]
A roads are major roads which can vary in scale from local routes to major thoroughfares.
A10: Begins at the Monument in central London and heads north through Islington, Hackney, Haringey, Enfield and then out of London into Hertfordshire and onto Cambridge. Connects to the M25 in Enfield.
North Circular Road (A406)/South Circular Road (A205)[ edit ]
The North Circular Road and South Circular Road are two roads are connected at the east end of the circle in North Woolwich by the Woolwich Free Ferry. The ferry runs approximately every 10–15 minutes and is free of charge, but has limited space and can get very busy at peak times. The ferry stops running after 22:00, so at night it's advisable to travel through Docklands and use the Blackwall Tunnel instead.
A406: The A406 is a major road that passes through north London that connects east and west. It is a dual carriageway for most of its length and has direct connections with the M4, M40, M1 and M11 motorways as well as numerous other A roads. It is one of the main routes to Brent Cross Shopping Centre .
A205: While the A406 is mostly a purpose-built road, the A205 was not fully built and instead incorporated local roads of varying width. It can become heavily congested. The road picks up where the A406 terminates at the opposite end of the Woolwich Ferry and passes through Woolwich, Catford, Dulwich, Clapham, Wandsworth and Richmond. It re-joins the A406 at the Chiswick Roundabout.
Get around[ edit ]
Transport maps
London is the home of the famous Tube map, and TfL produce some excellent maps to help you get around:
Tube and trains with Oyster card information
Bus maps - if you know which borough you're in, these maps are very useful
River buses - great if you're near the Thames
Engineering work
Some parts of the Underground and Overground are frequently closed at weekends to allow engineers to upgrade and repair the track (the Underground is 150 years old, so it takes a lot of work to keep it running!) Usually there will be enough of the network still running to make most destinations accessible. If you are not in a hurry, this is a good reason to consider taking a bus instead. Always check before you travel: don't get caught out!
Ticketing
You must have a valid ticket at all times when travelling by bus, tram or train in London. If you don't show a valid ticket or a validated Oyster card when a ticket inspector asks to see it, you will have to pay a Penalty Fare, which is usually £40 (increased to £80 if it isn't paid within 21 days.) When travelling by train in London, always buy your ticket before you get on the train. If using an Oyster Card, ensure that you touch in and out on a yellow reader before and after travelling by tube or train, even if there are no barriers or they are left open.
London has one of the most comprehensive public transport systems in the world. Despite residents' perpetual (and sometimes justified) grumbling about unreliability, public transport is often the best option for getting anywhere for visitors and residents alike.
In central London use a combination of the transport options listed below - and check your map! In many cases you can easily walk from one place to another or use the buses. Be a Londoner and only use the Tube as a way of travelling longer distances. You're here to see London - you can't see it underground!
Transport for London (TfL) is a government organisation responsible for all public transport. Their website contains maps plus an excellent journey planner . TfL publishes a useful 'coping guide' specially designed for travellers who wish to use public transport during their visit to London. This can be downloaded in PDF format and printed as an 18-page brochure. TfL also offers a 24-hour travel information line, charged at premium rate: tel +44 843 222 1234 (or text 60835) for suggestions on getting from A to B, and for up to the minute information on how services are running. Fortunately for visitors (and indeed residents) there is a single ticketing system, Oyster, which enables travellers to switch between modes of transport on one ticket.
The main travel options in summary are:
Central London
By bus : This is the cheapest and usually the best way to get around London as a tourist: on the Underground, you won't see anything! With an Oyster card , the bus fare is £1.50 per journey, and this is capped at £4.40 each day. This means that travelling by bus is one of the most cost-effective ways of getting around. Buses are also wheelchair and pram/buggy-accessible. As of 6 July 2014, you can no longer buy cash single tickets on the bus . Instead you will need to pay with an Oyster, a contactless credit/debit card, or buy a pre-paid Travelcard at a station.
By Tube / Underground : 11 colour-coded lines cover the central area and suburbs, run by TfL. In the morning and evening peaks on weekdays the Underground is very busy, especially the Circle and Central lines. You can often get to your destination in an alternative way; check the Bakerloo, Victoria and Piccadilly lines. Large parts of the Underground are also inaccessible to wheelchairs and parents with prams/buggies so you may want to consider taking the bus instead. Signs can be seen to be vague, especially if you are unfamiliar with what compass point direction (e.g. northbound) you're travelling in, as these are most often given rather than destinations. A person new to the Tube can become very frustrated trying to work out where a particular connection at a particular station is found. Even regular travellers will tell you they can become confused when going to unfamiliar stations. Just be patient and realise mistakes can be made and you can recover. Each station is staffed by at least two personnel at all times who can advise you on your route and full system maps are on the walls of every platform and ticket office. Additionally, on every platform, there are individual line maps showing all the stations served by trains calling at that platform.
By Docklands Light Railway (DLR) : An automatic metro system running from the City to East London via the Docklands, providing links with London City Airport, Canary Wharf, Stratford (for Westfield Stratford City and the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park), Greenwich and the ExCel Exhibition Centre. This is part of the TfL fare system so you must always remember to touch your Oyster card in at the start and out at the end of your journey.
By foot : In central London, tube stations are close together (especially Leicester Square and Covent Garden). Walking to the next station often takes under 5 minutes, and is more scenic than using the tube. The street layout is confusing, so a street map is essential (many underground stations have central London maps for £2). Ask a local if you get stuck.
By boat : Commuter ferries and pleasure cruises along the River Thames. Some (but not all) services accept Oyster cards: special fares apply, so check before you set out.
Airport Express : Express rail services run to Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton airports (tickets are generally sold at a premium), privately run and not part of the TfL network.
By bicycle : There are hire bicycles (known to Londoners as "Boris bikes") operated by TfL available for pick up in Central and East London. You will need a credit or debit card with a PIN. If you bring your own bike, there are plenty of cycle lanes and traffic is normally considerate.
Suburban London
By tram (Tramlink) : A tram service that operates only in southern suburbs around Wimbledon and Croydon.
By Overground : Orange-coloured lines circling the northern suburbs; connecting Stratford (for Westfield Stratford City and the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park) with Richmond Upon Thames. At Highbury and Islington it is possible to connect to Croydon and Crystal Palace in South London via the East End. There is also an interchange for Barking in East London at Gospal Oak and a line connecting Euston Station with Watford Junction in Hertfordshire. Another line runs from Willesden Junction in North West London to Clapham Junction in south via Shepherd's Bush (for Westfield). At Clapham Junction you can connect with mainline trains to Brighton, Gatwick Airport, Southampton and other points south. Part of TfL's network.
By National Rail : A complex network of suburban rail services, privately run and not part of the TfL network, although all operators now accept Oyster payments within greater London only. Watch out, though: if you want to travel further afield, you will need to buy a separate paper ticket before you get on the train, or you may be charged a Penalty Fare or prosecuted.
Using your credit card as ticket[ edit ]
On buses, trains and the Tube, you can use your credit card, debit card, or prepaid card as a ticket , if the card was issued in the UK and if it supports contactless payment. Your card supports contactless payment if it has a symbol of three waves on it. When you enter a station or get on the bus, you just touch the card against the yellow validation reader, as if it were an Oyster card. The price is the same as with an Oyster card (see below). The price per day is automatically capped at the price of a day ticket. You also avoid the (sometimes very long) queues at ticket machines, and the deposit of £5 for an Oyster card. The same card cannot be used by two or more different passengers.
Oyster card[ edit ]
Oyster Card
Oyster is a contactless electronic smartcard run by Transport for London. Unless you have a contactless credit card (see above), Oyster is the most cost-effective option if you plan to be in London for any more than a couple of days, or if you intend to make return visits to the city: the savings quickly recover the initial purchase cost. You can buy an Oyster card from any Tube station for a deposit of £5. You can "top up" an Oyster card with electronic funds. This money is then deducted according to where you travel. The cost of a single trip using the Oyster card is considerably less than buying a single paper ticket with cash. Prices vary depending on distance travelled, whether by bus or tube, and on the time of day. You can also add various electronic seven-day, 1 month and longer-period Travelcards onto an Oyster, and the card is simply validated each time you use it.
The deposit is fully refundable if you hand it in at any staffed Tube station's ticket office, and you will also get any pay-as-you-go credit refunded. If you have less than £10 credit on your card, you can claim an instant refund of the credit and deposit at some ticket machines after 48 hours of purchase of your Oyster card. However, your Oyster card, and the credit on it, never expires, so keep it around in case you return to London. Be prepared to give your signature on receipts or even show ID for refunds over a few pounds.
Oyster is valid on all red London buses, and almost all trains in London: a list of destinations is available on the London Tube and Rail Services map . Oyster is not valid on buses or trains outside London: if you need to travel beyond the stations on the map, you will have to pay for a paper ticket. (If you do not, you may be liable for a penalty fare or prosecution!) Oyster is also not accepted on long-distance coaches, nor on tour buses, charter buses or on the community bus route 812 in Islington .
Also, Oyster can not be used on:
the Heathrow Express;
the Heathrow Connect, beyond Hayes and Harlington;
High Speed One trains between St. Pancras International and Stratford International.
If you have a National Railcard, such as the 16-25 Railcard or the Senior Railcard, you can register this with your Oyster card at a Tube ticket office to receive substantial discounts on your off-peak pay-as-you-go fares.
Using your Oyster[ edit ]
When using your Oyster card to travel, make sure the reader is displaying an orange light, then place it flat against the reader. Listen carefully for a single beep, and watch for a green light: if this happens, it means your card has been accepted, and you can proceed. If you hear two beeps and see a red light, this means your card has not been accepted. Take the card off the reader, wait for the orange light, and try again; if this continues to happen, ask for help from a member of staff.
When getting on any kind of train, such as the Tube, the DLR or the London Overground, simply touch your Oyster card on the yellow circular reader at the start and end of your journey. At stations with ticket gates, these readers will be on the right-hand side of the gates; at stations without gates, they will be on free-standing cabinets. Always make sure you touch in at the start, and out at the end of your journey! If you do not, the system has no way of knowing where you have travelled, and you will be charged the maximum fare.
Usually you will not need to touch your Oyster card on a reader when changing trains. However, some stations have pink Oyster "route validators" on the platforms: if you are getting off one train and getting onto another at one of these stations, touch your Oyster on the pink reader so that the system charges you the right fare for the route you have taken. There are a few other situations where you might need to touch out when changing trains: always ask a member of railway staff if you are in doubt.
When using a London bus, you only touch in once, when getting on the bus. Most buses have their Oyster reader on the ticket machine next to the driver. Some buses have Oyster readers on poles next to the middle and rear doors. You don't need to touch out when you get off the bus - if you do, you will be charged twice.
Some buses on routes 9 and 15 in central London are operated by heritage Routemasters. These buses have only one entrance, at the back, and are operated by conductors. Simply take your seat on the bus, and have your Oyster card ready: the conductor will take your card and scan it with a hand-held ticket machine.
When using a tram, simply touch your Oyster card on the reader on the tram platform before you get on a tram.
Tips[ edit ]
Don't try to insert your Oyster card into the slot at the ticket gates! Touch it flat against the yellow reader, and wait for a single beep and a green light.
On the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), and on some Overground and National Rail stations in the outlying parts of the city, there are no entry or exit gates (except at interchanges with the Tube like Bank or Stratford.) You have to be sure to touch your Oyster card on the readers (which are clearly signposted) as you enter and leave. Failure to do this when you begin a journey is regarded as fare dodging, and if you are caught you could be charged a Penalty Fare or prosecuted. Equally, failing to touch out when you leave a station will result in you being overcharged for your journey, as the system will make a default deduction of £8.60 since it doesn't know which station you left at.
You should always keep your Oyster card separately from your wallet with your bank cards, cash, identity documents, etc. This is because if you take your wallet out to touch in at busy stations it makes you a prime target for pickpockets. It also means that if your wallet is stolen you will lose your means of travel as well as your money! Always keep your wallet in a secure inside pocket or a closed bag, and keep your Oyster card in a separate pocket. (If you buy your Oyster from a Tube station, it will usually come in a wallet of its own.)
You should also be very careful if you have contactless credit or debit cards or RFID identity cards from your employer, as these can interfere with your Oyster if you keep them in the same wallet. This usually results in an error message but may mean you get charged the full fare from your contactless credit or debit card instead.
Be careful standing near the readers on some buses - they are often quite sensitive and may read your card from several centimetres away, even if you did not intend this.
Try not to keep your Oyster in your back pocket. Not only does this make it easy to pickpocket, it also means it is likely to crack or bend when you sit down.
Pay-as-you-go (PrePay)[ edit ]
You can top up your Oyster card with cash at any Tube station ticket machine or ticket office (you can use a credit card if it has a PIN number) with Oyster pay-as-you-go, also known as PrePay. Money is then deducted from your Oyster card each time you travel. When travelling by train, the fare is calculated based on where you started and ended your journey. Pay-as-you-go is much cheaper than paying by cash for each journey. For instance, a cash fare on the Tube in Zone 1 costs £4.70, while with an Oyster Card it costs £2.40. Bus fares are flat and you will be charged the same fare every time you get on the bus, regardless of whether you're getting off after one stop or going right to the end of the route.
The amount of Oyster credit deducted from your card in one day is capped at the cost of the equivalent day Travelcard for the journeys you have made. This means that on a day-to-day basis, you will always get the best fares when using Oyster pay-as-you-go. If you travel by bus only, your total fares are capped at £4.40 each day: this makes bus travel very good value in central London if you are making lots of journeys.
Don't forget: when travelling by train, make sure you touch your Oyster in and out at the start and end of each journey, or you will be charged extra!
Travelcards[ edit ]
A Travelcard gives you unlimited travel on trains within the relevant zones, and unlimited travel on all red London buses, even outside the zones of your Travelcard. You can have your Travelcard loaded onto your Oyster, or you can have it as a paper ticket. For periods longer than 7 days, you will usually need to register your Oyster card or provide some form of photographic I.D. Especially for the Zone 1-2 tickets, the paper Day Travelcard is substantially more expensive than the maximum Oyster fare (£12 vs. £6.40). Therefore, an Oyster card will generally offer much better value.
Zones
£225.10
£2,344
The above prices are adult prices and are correct throughout 2015. For an up-to-date and comprehensive list of fares, see TfL's web site .
If you are using Oyster and travel beyond the zones of your Travelcard, you will be charged an extension fare from your pay-as-you-go credit when you touch out at your destination. If you are using a paper Travelcard and need to travel beyond your zones, you should get off at the boundary of your last valid zone and buy a ticket for the rest of your journey: if you do not, you will be charged a penalty fare and may be prosecuted!
Validity[ edit ]
The following table summarises the validity of the different tickets you can use on Oyster. For most tourists, trains and buses are the only transport you will use, but Oyster is not valid at all on airport express trains to Heathrow, Gatwick, Luton, Stansted or Southend. However, Oyster is valid on the Piccadilly line to Heathrow Airport, as this is an Underground train.
Bus
By foot[ edit ]
A reminder on the streets of London to "Look Right" when you cross the road
London is a surprisingly compact city, making it a walker's delight. In many instances, walking is the quickest method of transport between two points.
Because Britain drives on the left hand side of the road, for most foreign visitors it can be all too easy to forget that traffic will come at you from the opposite direction than you are used to when crossing a street - for this reason remember to look right when you cross the road. If you are using a pedestrian crossing, don't think it's safe to risk it, even if you can't see any traffic coming: always wait for the green man to appear, and then cross quickly and carefully.
Particularly on Central London's busiest streets, it is easy to spot native Londoners as they weave in and out of the large crowds at fast speed; tourists who cannot will stand out. Make sure you're aware of your surroundings when in London—Londoners are usually very considerate, but a group of tourists standing in the middle of the pavement can be a major annoyance! Try standing to the side of busy pavements and footpaths, especially if you're with a group.
Walking alternatives to the Tube[ edit ]
In some instances it can be more pleasant or faster to walk your intended route instead of taking the Tube. Walking to another Tube station can also help you to avoid crowds. By looking at a map you'll notice that some central London Tube stations are very close to each other. TfL have produced a map detailing the walking time and number of steps between various popular stations. Here are some more specific instructions for some of the stations that tourists use:
Leicester Square station - Covent Garden station: Come out of the station with the Hippodrome casino behind you. Cross Charing Cross Road and walk up Cranbourn Street. Walk straight over at the junction and continue onto Long Acre. Walk straight up Long Acre to arrive at Covent Garden station. Approximate walking time: 5 minutes
Embankment station - Waterloo station: Come out of the station onto Victoria Embankment, walk up the stairs and head across the River Thames using the Hungerford Bridge. At the other end of the bridge keep walking straight and away from the River Thames. Follow the railway line. You will come to some blue metal work and a walkway underneath the railway line called Sutton Walk. Follow this, cross the road and Waterloo station is ahead of you. Approximate walking time: 15 minutes
Westminster station - Waterloo station: Come out of the station and head across the River Thames using Westminster Bridge. Keep heading straight until you come to a junction. Turn left and walk down York Road. Stay on York Road until you come to a railway bridge. Waterloo station will be on your right. Approximate walking time: 15 minutes
Green Park station - Hyde Park Corner station: Come out of Green Park station onto the road. This is Piccadilly. Walk west along Piccadilly following the edge of Green Park. When you come to a roundabout head straight across it. Hyde Park and Hyde Park Corner station will be on your right. Approximate walking time: 10 minutes
Oxford Circus station[ edit ]
Oxford Circus station can become extremely busy on weekday evenings and, if convenient, it is worth walking to other Tube stations.
Oxford Circus station - Bond Street station: Head west along Oxford Street from the road junction. You should see the London College of Fashion and BHS. Keep walking west and you will come to Bond Street station. Approximate walking time: 10 minutes
Oxford Circus station - Tottenham Court Road station: At the road junction head east along Oxford Street heading past Topshop. Keep walking past H&M and McDonalds and you will eventually see a skyscraper (surrounded by a construction site)- this is Centre Point. Keep heading straight and Tottenham Court Road station is on the road junction here. Approximate walking time: 25 minutes
Geographic Central London Underground map
Full geographic London Underground map
The London Underground , known popularly as the Tube due to its tube-like tunnels drilled through the London clay, is a network of 11 lines which criss-cross London in one of the largest underground rail networks in the world. It was also the first: the oldest section of the Hammersmith & City Line, opened as the Metropolitan Railway in 1863. The Tube is an easy method of transport even for new visitors to London and is equivalent to subway and metro systems in other world cities.
The routes operated by the London Underground fall into 2 broad types: the older "sub-surface" lines, encompassing the Metropolitan, District, Circle and Hammersmith & City lines, date from the nineteenth century. The other, newer (a term used loosely here) "deep level" routes, were largely constructed in the early- to mid- twentieth century. The differences are that the sub-surface lines are usually accessed by walking down a short set of stairs, whereas the deep-level lines are accessed by a complicated network of escalators or lifts. It is the deep lines which are served by the iconic tube-shaped trains which, despite their small size, can only just fit through the tunnels.
Each line has stations with interesting architectural and artistic features typical of the era they were opened. As you travel around the network look out for Victorian finery, Edwardian glazed tiles, smooth Art Deco symmetry, and striking modern masterpieces. Various conservation pieces are also present, such as the heritage 1900s station name roundel sign at Caledonian Road on the westbound platform.
Although not part of the London Underground, the zonal fare system includes: The Docklands Light Railway (or "DLR", a local transit system in the Docklands area using computer-operated "driverless" trains), Croydon Tramlink routes, and the London Overground (which is operated as part of the National Rail network). Some national rail stations are also assigned a zone, for Oyster cards. Those that don't don't accept Oyster.
Night Tube[ edit ]
The Night Tube , introduced in 2016, is a limited 24-hour Tube service that operates on certain lines on Fridays and Saturdays. As of December 2016, it runs on the following lines:
Victoria line: Trains run every 10 minutes on average
Central line: Trains run approximately every 10 minutes between White City and Leytonstone and approximately every 20 minutes between Ealing Broadway to White City and Leytonstone to Loughton/Hainault. There is no service between North Acton and West Ruislip, Loughton and Epping, and Woodford and Hainault.
Jubilee line: Trains run every 10 minutes on average
Northern line: Trains run on average every 8 minutes between Morden and Camden Town and every 15 minutes from Camden Town to High Barnet/Edgware. Trains are not stopping at Charing Cross until July 2017. There is no service on the Mill Hill East and Bank branches.
Piccadilly line: Trains run every 10 minutes on average between Cockfosters and Heathrow Terminal 5. There is no service on the Terminal 4 loop or between Acton Town and Uxbridge.
Ticketing[ edit ]
Travel on the Tube system will always require the purchase of a ticket or the use of an Oyster card or contactless payment card if you have one; fare evasion is treated as a serious matter.
Single tickets are charged at two rates, depending on the payment method. Cash fares are zonal, Zones 1-2 being £4.70 between any two stations in those zones, a zone 1-6 single ticket is £5.70. Single Oyster fares are charged by the number of zones crossed, starting at £2.20 for 1 zone up to £5 for 6 zones. There are additional fares payable for zones beyond 6, but these are mostly outside what is considered London. Paper travelcards valid for 1 day, 3 or 7 days are also available and can also be used on buses, National Rail trains, the DLR and Croydon Tramlink. They are priced by zones: a 1-day travelcard for Zones 1-2 costs £9 (Day anytime). Under operator-specific schemes, registered students, seniors and the disabled can claim specific discounts by showing a suitable photocard having been obtained in advance of travel.
Almost all stations have automatic ticket barriers. If you pay by Oyster card or a contactless payment card, just tap your card against the yellow pad to open the barriers (ensure that you do this upon both entrance and exit). If you have a paper ticket, insert it face-up into the slot on the front of the machine, and remove it from the top to enter the station. If you have a single-ticket it will be retained at the exit gate. If you have luggage or if your ticket is rejected there is normally a staffed gate as well.
Paper tickets can be purchased from vending machines in the station's ticket hall. There are two types of machine: the older machines that have buttons for different fare levels and accept only coins and the new touchscreen machines that have instructions in multiple languages, offer a greater choice of ticket and accept bills and credit/debit cards (if your card has no embedded microchip, you cannot use these machines and you must pay at the ticket counter).
Navigation[ edit ]
All lines are identified by name (e.g. Circle line, Central line, Piccadilly line). Many lines have multiple branches rather than running point-to-point, so always check the train's destination (which is shown on the front of the train and the platform indicator screens, and will be broadcast on the train's PA). Some branches, such as at High Street Kensington station, run as shuttles and require a transfer onto the "main line".
In central London, taking the Tube for just one stop can be a waste of time; Londoners joke about the tourists who use the Tube to travel between Leicester Square and Covent Garden stations, a journey which can take over 10 minutes on the Tube, despite the two stations being only a couple of minute's walk apart. This is especially true since the walk from a Tube station entrance to the platform at some central stations can be extensive. The Tube map also gives no information on London's extensive bus and rail network.
Trains on most days and on most lines run from around 05:30 to about 01:00. They are usually the fastest way to travel in London, the only problem being the relative expense, and that they can get extremely crowded during rush hours (07:30-10:00 and 16:30-19:00). On warm days take a bottle of water with you as there is no air conditioning on most of the trains (only the Circle, Metropolitan, District, and Hammersmith & City lines have air conditioned trains). Also, engineering works usually take place during weekends or in the evening. Contact TfL , especially if you plan to travel on a Saturday or a Sunday when entire lines may be shut down.
Tube maps[ edit ]
The Tube is made up of 11 lines each bearing a traditional name and a standard colour on the Tube map. To plan your trip on the Tube work out first which station is closest to your starting point and which is closest to your destination. You can change between lines at interchange stations (providing you stay within the zones shown on your ticket). Since the Tube map is well designed it is very easy to work out how to get between any two stations, and since each station is clearly signed it is easy to work out when to exit your train. Visitors should , however, that the Tube map is a diagram and not a scaled map, making it misleading for determining the relative distance between stations as it makes central stations appear further apart and somewhat out of place - the most distant reaches of the Metropolitan Line for example are almost 60 km (40 mi) from the centre of the city.
Tube maps are freely available from any station, most tourist offices, and are prominently displayed in stations. The National Rail map also shows National Rail services is displayed as a large poster at most Tube stations.
Finally, direction signs for the platforms indicate the geographical direction of the line, not the last stop of the line. It is always advisable to carry a pocket Tube map to help you with this.
Northern line[ edit ]
The Northern line has two separate routes through the city centre which split at Euston and rejoin at Kennington. One (the Charing Cross Branch) runs through the West End serving Leicester Square, Charing Cross and Waterloo, while the other route runs via the City of London (called the Bank branch, or the City branch) with major stops at King's Cross St Pancras and Bank. Despite the confusing layout of the line, it is fairly easy to work out which way your train is going; for example a northbound Northern line train to Edgware along the Charing Cross branch will be displayed on the indicator as "Edgware via ChX" and the on-board PA will announce "This train terminates at Edgware via Charing Cross".
Onboard[ edit ]
Be considerate of your fellow passengers as best you can.
Although the doors on some Tube trains have buttons, they have been disconnected from the electricity & don't do anything. Pushing a button will only mark you out as a tourist. If the train pulls into the station and the doors don't open immediately then wait for a few seconds - the driver undershot the station and will need to drive the train forward a short distance.
Tube safety and etiquette
Beware of pickpockets. Keep bags zipped up and do not keep valuable items in your back pockets.
Drinking alcohol or smoking anywhere on the London Underground is illegal.
Allow passengers to get off the train before boarding yourself by standing to the right or to the left of the train doors.
Move down the carriages between the seating rows if you are standing during busy periods.
Give up your seat to the elderly and those less able to stand, especially if the seat is labelled "Priority Seat". On the Piccadilly line these seats are also intended for those with luggage travelling to Heathrow so they can place their suitcases next to them.
The grab poles on the trains are for everyone, not just you. Refrain from leaning either yourself or any bags on the grab poles as this prevents your fellow passengers from holding on!
If you are wearing or carrying a large bag then take it off and either put it on your lap or between your legs. The space that the bag takes up on your back could be used by someone and you're also likely to hit people in the face when you turn around.
Try to avoid eating food that has a strong odour. No one's saying you shouldn't eat, but not everyone in the carriage will appreciate the smell of your tuna and cheese sandwich.
Out of consideration for your fellow passengers always take your litter out of the carriage and away with you until you find a bin. The trains are cleaned only once or twice a day.
Never try to board or leave a train when the door warning (a rapidly-repeating high pitch beep) is sounding. Many older trains (especially those on the Bakerloo, Circle, District and Piccadilly lines) are not fitted with sensors to detect if the doors are blocked and it's all too easy to become stuck in the doors, although the train cannot start if the doors are still open. It is also not worth trying to force yourself onto a packed train carriage.
Do not use flash photography or tripods when taking photographs. Camera flashes can distract train operators and tripods are not safe in the enclosed space of a platform. Trust us - your photographs will look better without flash even though it's not well-lit down there!
Do not pass between carriages through the emergency doors (unless you are on the Circle line, Hammersmith & City line, Metropolitan line or most District line trains as these trains have large open vestibules without doors) when the train is moving. These are emergency exits only. You could easily fall and get crushed by the carriages behind the one you're leaving or be electrocuted by the electric fourth rail.
Curved platforms have the words "Mind the Gap" written on the platform edge (there will also be announcements saying these words). When the train stops, the carriage doors will usually line up with this warning. On some stations this gap may be larger than you think, so be careful when boarding trains where you see or hear this notice. Accidents have occurred where people have fallen down through the gap onto the track.
When using the escalators, always stand on the right to allow people in a hurry to pass. If you are standing on the left people will occasionally grumpily ask for you to get out the way, especially during rush hour when commuters are far less forgiving. Many stations have escalators in groups of 3. In the rush hour, there may be 2 escalators going in the peak direction and sometimes the one on the right may be standing and the one on the left will be walking.
Have your Oyster card or ticket ready before you reach the top of the escalators or lift so you do not need to stop and find them. Some stations do not have large ticket halls (an example being Covent Garden, which is exit only at peak times) and blocking the people behind you is inconsiderate. Stopping at the top of the escalators or lifts is very dangerous - if you stop at the top of an escalator or just outside a lift you can expect to be shoved by upset people behind you!
Be careful at the ticket barrier of people coming up close behind you in an attempt to get through the barrier on your ticket. If you are passing swiftly through the ticket barriers you should not feel anyone bumping into your back. This isn't a regular occurrence but it can happen.
Crime and accidents[ edit ]
Crime levels on the Tube systems are comparable to but typically lower than many other subway systems, and traveller advice about watching luggage and valuables is reasonable. Owing to a heightened security climate, and a history of political violence targeting the Tube, unattended baggage may be treated as a suspect or explosive device and may be destroyed. Lost items (if not destroyed) will end up at the Lost Property Office (Tube: Baker Street). You can fill in a form online describing your lost item and TfL will contact you if it is found.
The Tube system is covered by an extensive CCTV system, although it is not advised to be reliant on this fact when travelling.
The London Underground considers its safety record to be a matter of professional honour, major accidents being incredibly rare. Front-line staff are well trained for emergencies and will follow well rehearsed procedures. In addition front-line staff are generally appreciative of traveller vigilance, if concerns are politely expressed. If you notice something that concerns you please speak to a member of staff or a British Transport Police officer.
Photography[ edit ]
Although there is no specific bylaw barring casual photography, owing to the increased threat from terrorism, some front-line staff can be nervous about the intent and nature of photographers. If you are visiting a station for the sole purpose of photography, or you plan to be in the station for some time, you should let a member of front-line staff know your intentions. At busy stations you should take care not to cause an obstruction. Under no circumstances should direct photography of security critical equipment (such as CCTV cameras) be taken, and it is advised to ask before photographing front-line staff. Flash photography is explicitly prohibited on safety grounds, as it could distract safety critical personnel. Tripods are also prohibited due to the obstruction they can cause.
Large scale or commercial photography or filming requires a specific permit which can be obtained through TfL. More information about filming on TfL property is available at this website .
By bus[ edit ]
Bus stop
London's iconic red buses are recognized the world over, even if the traditional Routemaster buses, with an open rear platform and on-board conductor to collect fares, have mostly been phased out. These still run on the central section of route 15 daily between about 09:30 and 18:30, every 15 minutes.
Buses are generally quicker than taking the Tube for shorter (less than a couple of stops on the Tube) trips, and out of central London you're likely to be closer to a bus stop than a Tube station. Most buses in London are very frequent (at least every ten minutes.) Buses are usually accessible for buggies and wheelchairs. Buses also have a flat rate fare which stays the same no matter how far you travel (you will need to pay the fare again if you board a different bus).
Using the bus[ edit ]
Over 5 million bus trips are made each weekday; with over 700 different bus routes you are never far from a bus. Each bus stop has a sign listing the routes that stop there. Bus routes are identified by numbers and sometimes letters. For example, route 8 runs between Oxford Circus and Bow Church, via Liverpool Street and Bethnal Green. It is not possible to buy tickets for cash on the bus so you must have a valid Travelcard, Oyster card or contactless credit or debit card before you get on. Alternatively, tickets may be purchased from most newsagents in London, or from ticket machines at certain central London stops.
Buses have very clear blinds on the front, with their route number and their destination. When you see your bus approaching, signal clearly to the driver that you intend to get on their bus: the way to do this is to stick your hand out, with an open palm. The driver will indicate and pull into the stop.
Most buses have two doors. Form an orderly queue at the front door: when you reach the driver, touch your Oyster or contactless card on the reader, or show them your Travelcard or pass. Some buses are worked by the 'New Routemaster': you can get on this bus at any of its three doors, as long as you touch in your Oyster or contactless card as soon as you board. Some buses on routes 15 over the central section from Trafalgar Square to Tower Hill are run by the original heritage Routemasters: simply take a seat on the bus, and wait for the conductor to come round to scan your Oyster card. Always wait for people to get out of the bus before you enter.
Hold on tight - especially if you can't find a seat! Buses can accelerate and brake very fast so always grab hold of one of the handrails.
Most buses have a system called iBus fitted: this announces the bus's destination at every stop, and announces the stops and nearby landmarks, both with an announcer's voice and on a screen at the front of the bus. Keep a close eye on this, because this will tell you where you need to get off. The screen may also display the current time, but this will disappear when someone pushes stop, or is sometimes hidden behind gaffa tape (reason unknown). On Routemasters, the conductor will usually make announcements.
When you are nearing your stop, press one of the red "STOP" buttons on the handrails once only. You'll hear a bell, or a buzzer, and the words "Bus Stopping" will appear on the iBus screen, replacing the clock. Hold on tight until the bus has stopped, and then get off the bus using the middle or rear door once it has opened.
If you're travelling on a heritage Routemaster, there are only two bell-pushers: alternatively, there is a cord hanging from the ceiling on the lower deck which you can pull to ring the bell. Be very careful only to ring it once: two bells is the signal the conductor uses to tell the driver to continue past the next stop!
Finally, always watch out for moving traffic when you get off the bus, especially if you are on a bus with an open platform at the back (a Routemaster or a New Bus for London) Don't try to get off the bus until it has stopped, or is moving very slowly, and always be careful of cyclists and pedestrians.
Tips[ edit ]
Watch out for pickpockets! If you think you have been pickpocketed, always call out to the driver and other passengers. If you realise you have been pickpocketed after you've left the bus, call 101 (the police non-emergency number).
If you are taking a pram/buggy with you, you must be prepared to fold it and carry your child if the bus is crowded or if a wheelchair user needs to get on the bus.
Smoking and drinking alcohol is not allowed on buses. Non-alcoholic drinks and most food is fine, but be considerate: fast food is often smelly and leaves a mess. Be especially careful if you have a hot drink.
Don't stand on the upper deck of the bus or on the stairs. This is dangerous and you can fall and hurt yourself very badly. If you need to stand when the bus is busy, move downstairs.
Don't obstruct the aisle or the gangway with luggage.
Don't speak to the driver or try to get their attention when the bus is moving unless it is an emergency.
Some buses terminate early and don't run the full length of the route. Always check the destination blind on the front of the bus, and if in doubt, ask the driver or the conductor. Drivers will usually announce a change in the bus's destination - but not always!
You should always signal to the driver very clearly with your hand if you want the bus to stop, especially at quieter bus stops. The driver might drive past the stop if no one does this and no one on the bus is getting off.
If your bus terminates early (e.g. destination Trafalgar Square but terminates at Aldwych) and you have paid using Oyster or contactless debit/credit card, ask the driver for a continuation ticket (sometimes called a transfer ticket.) This will will allow you to board another bus of the same route number to reach your destination without paying again.
Bus route maps
The adult bus fare is £1.50. It is no longer possible to pay a bus fare with cash, so you must pay with an Oyster card, contactless credit or debit card or a paper Travelcard you have already bought.
Unlike on the Tube, you are charged for each bus you travel on. If you change buses then you will be charged a new bus fare up to the daily/weekly price cap.
Oyster[ edit ]
If you have a seven-day or monthly Travelcard or Bus and Tram Pass on your Oyster, that includes free bus travel across all of London, even outside the zones of your Travelcard (buses aren't subject to zones). You still need to touch in when you get on the bus, but you won't be charged.
If you do not have a Travelcard, the fare of £1.50 is taken from your Oyster pay as you go credit as soon as you touch in when you get on the bus. The most you will be charged for single bus journeys in one day is £4.40: daily bus and tram travel is 'capped' at this level. So if you make three bus journeys in one day, you will be charged £1.50, £1.50, and then £1.40 for the third journey which takes you up to the cap; all further bus journeys made once you've reached this cap are effectively free as long as you touch in when you get on the bus.
If you have some money on your Oyster, but not enough for the full fare, the system will let you go into a negative balance to make one more journey, but you will not be able to use your Oyster again until you top up to clear the negative balance. You should be given a paper slip telling you that it is time to top up when this happens. code: if(bal>0) then(successful=true)(bal=bal-30). ifOther then(successful=false)
Don't forget to touch your Oyster on the reader as soon as you get on the bus. If you don't, you may be liable to a Penalty Fare or prosecution.
Contactless credit, debit or prepaid cards[ edit ]
You can also pay for with most contactless debit, credit or prepaid Visa, MasterCard/Maestro or American Express cards. You touch the card flat against the reader, like you would with an Oyster card, but your account is charged instead.
The total charges for that day are calculated and taken out of your account overnight. As with Oyster, you are charged £1.50 for each bus fare, up to a cap of £4.40 each day. In addition, a weekly price cap applies from Monday to Sunday, so you will never pay more than £21 for bus travel on a contactless card in any one week.
If you have more than one contactless card, or an Oyster and a contactless card, be careful and keep them in separate pockets, and only touch one on the reader. The system is supposed to reject both cards if it doesn't know which one you want to pay with, but there is a small chance you may be charged twice for the same journey. You may also be charged transaction charges with foreign cards, and some cards might not work if they are older or not programmed correctly: contact your card issuer in the event of problems.
NFC payment chips, for instance on a wristband or a mobile phone, may also work, but be prepared to have a backup payment method if they do not work.
Concessions[ edit ]
Children aged 10 and under travel for free on the bus when accompanied by an adult. Children between the ages of 11 and 15 must touch in using a special kind of Oyster card called a Zip card, yet journeys are still free. If they do not have a Zip card they must pay the full fare using an adult Oyster or contactless card. 16-18 Student Oyster cards (only available to students studying in London) go up to age 18 and journeys are still free. Residents of England who have an ENCTS free bus pass (for the elderly or disabled) also get free travel: simply show your pass to the driver or conductor.
Hopper fare[ edit ]
Introduced by London mayor Sadiq Khan in 2016, the Hopper fare allows you to make two bus or tram journeys for the price of one if you use an Oyster card or contactless payment method. Your second journey must be made within an hour of touching in on the first bus or tram you are travelling on and you must also use the same card for both journeys.
Example: You touch in on the 329 bus and ride for 30 minutes. You leave the bus and go to the shops for 20 minutes. You then continue your journey onwards on the W9 bus. Your journey on the W9 bus would be free.
Night buses[ edit ]
Standard bus services run from around 06:00-00:30. Around half past midnight the network changes to the vast night bus network of well over 100 routes stretching all over the city. There are two types of night buses: 24 hour routes and N-prefixed routes.
24-hour services keep the same number as during the day and will run exactly the same route, such as the number 88, for example. N-prefixed routes are generally very similar to their day-route, but may take a slightly different route or are extended to serve areas that are further out. For example, the 29 bus goes from Trafalgar Square to Wood Green during the day; however, the N29 bus goes from Trafalgar Square to Wood Green and then continues to Enfield.
Night buses run at a 30 minute frequency at minimum, with many routes at much higher frequencies up to every 5 minutes.
Prices stay the same, and daily travelcards are valid until 04:29 the day after they were issued, so can be used on night buses. Most bus stops will have night bus maps with all the buses to and from that local area on it, although it is good to check on the TfL website beforehand, which also has all those maps easily available.
While Britons on public transport are normally a model of reserve, those using night buses have a bit of a reputation for loud and rowdy behaviour. This is mainly because passengers are often people who have been having a good time in central London's clubs and bars; particularly true on buses leaving central London between 01:00 and 03:00. While the buses are normally quite safe, if this is a concern for you, consider taking a pre-booked minicab instead, or failing that sit or stand on the lower deck of the buses nearer the driver. Always call out to the driver if you are pickpocketed, threatened or attacked.
By DLR[ edit ]
Docklands Light Railway (DLR) is a dedicated light rail network operating in East London , connecting with the Tube network at Bank, Tower Gateway (close to Tower Hill station), Canning Town, Heron Quays (close to Canary Wharf Tube station), and Stratford. As the trains operate automatically, it can be quite exciting - especially for children - to sit at the front and look out through the window, whilst feeling as though one is driving the train oneself. The DLR also runs above ground on much of its route, and travels through many scenic parts of London, including the Docklands area where most of London's skyscrapers are located. Apart from the trains looking very different and running slightly less frequently than the Tube, visitors may as well treat the two systems as one system.
Unlike on the Tube, most DLR stations do not have ticket gates (except for Bank and Stratford). Also, unlike the Tube, you do need to push the buttons to open the doors. You can top up an Oyster card, buy a Travelcard or buy a paper ticket (at a substantial premium) from the ticket machines at the station. (Most stations are unstaffed, so if you want to pay by cash, make sure you have plenty of change!) As there are no gates, when travelling by Oyster you must always remember to touch in at the start of your journey and touch out at the end. Even if you are changing to the Underground at Canary Wharf/Heron Quays, you must still touch in/out at the DLR station: the system will recognise that you have made an interchange between the two stations and treat it as part of the same journey.
The DLR can be a little confusing as the routes are not easily distinguished. Generally trains run on the following routes:
Bank - Canary Wharf - Greenwich - Lewisham;
Stratford - Poplar - Canary Wharf - Greenwich - Lewisham;
Bank - Poplar - Canning Town - London City Airport - Woolwich Arsenal;
Tower Gateway - Poplar - Canning Town - Royal Victoria - Custom House (for ExCeL) - Beckton;
Stratford International - Stratford - West Ham - Canning Town (then on to Beckton via Custom House, or on to Woolwich Arsenal via London City Airport)
Check the displays on the platform, which will show you the destination and the wait for the next three trains, and also check the destination displays on the front and side of the train and listen for announcements. At busy times, some trains do not run the full length of the route. Take the first train, listen for announcements, and change where necessary.
Canning Town[ edit ]
Beware Canning Town station as it is very busy and the line divides into two sections - one heading to Woolwich Arsenal and the other heading to Beckton. The Woolwich Arsenal branch will take you to London City Airport and the Beckton branch will take you to Custom House for ExCel. Always check the destination on the front of the train before getting on; especially at off-peak times, if you get on the wrong branch then the return train could take several minutes!
By train[ edit ]
Wikivoyage has a guide to Rail travel in the United Kingdom , with information applicable to using the National Rail system within London.
The British railway system is known as National Rail (although some older signs still refer to it as "British Rail"). London's suburban rail services are operated by several private companies under tightly-written government contracts, and mostly run in the south of the city, away from the main tourist sights. Only one line (Thameslink) runs through central London - on a north-south axis between London Bridge or Blackfriars stations, and the underground level of St Pancras main line station. There is no one central station - instead, there are twelve mainline stations dotted around the edge of the central area, and most are connected by the Circle line (except Euston, Fenchurch St and those South of the river like Waterloo and London Bridge).
Most visitors will not need to use National Rail services except for a few specific destinations such as Wimbledon, Hampton Court, Kew Gardens (Kew Bridge station), Windsor Castle, Greenwich, or the airports, or indeed if they are intending to visit other destinations in the UK. It's important to know that the quickest route between two stations is often a combination of the Tube as well as National Rail trains. For instance, if you are going from central London to Wimbledon, it will usually be much quicker to go to Waterloo and take the first Wimbledon train (around fifteen minutes, maximum) rather than take the District line, which can take up to 45 minutes.
Your pay-as-you-go Oyster card is valid in London zones 1-6, but not beyond, so be careful—if you want to travel beyond, you will need to buy a paper ticket from the ticket office at the station. If you travel beyond the London zones with no valid ticket, you will be charged a Penalty Fare (on National Rail services this is usually £20), you will have to buy another ticket for the remainder of your journey, and you will also be charged the maximum Oyster fare because you didn't touch out. This adds up to a lot, so be careful and make sure you plan your journey! If in doubt, ask at the ticket office.
There are express trains to Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted airports. Tickets are often sold at a substantial premium, so you may want to consider taking the slightly slower 'stopping' services instead: for instance, an Anytime single from Victoria to Gatwick costs £19.90 on the Gatwick Express, and only £14.40 when marked "Route Southern Only"—taking a Southern train to Gatwick is only eight minutes longer. Don't forget: Oyster cards are not valid to the main airports, except for London City Airport and to Heathrow when travelling by Tube.
Don't throw your ticket away until you're out of the station at your destination! Many stations have ticket gates which you will need to put your ticket through to exit; also, you need to retain all the parts of your ticket throughout your journey, as a member of railway staff may need to see it.
Beware of pickpockets . Don't openly display your phone, wallet and other valuables.
Drinking alcohol or smoking anywhere on the Overground is illegal.
Always stand well behind the yellow line painted on the platform. At some stations on the North London and West London lines freight trains run in the gap between Overground trains - because these trains are not stopping they can travel through stations at speed. Turbulence from these trains is dangerous and standing behind the yellow line ensures that you are kept safe. When the yellow line is some distance away from the platform edge it means that fast trains go through the station thereby increasing the danger - take heed and stand behind the line!
Move down inside the carriages if you are standing during busy periods.
Most Overground trains have "walk-through" carriages with no doors separating each car. If the train is busy, try moving to the other end or towards the centre. Always remember that a train has more than one door!
Give up your seat to the elderly and those less able to stand, especially if the seat is labelled "Priority Seat." These seats are a slightly different shade of orange to most seats for easy identification.
The doors on the Overground will not open automatically. Wait for the button to light up and start beeping, then push it to open the train doors.
Trains will usually run every 15 minutes or less, and more frequently on busy routes.
Do not use flash photography or tripods when taking photographs. A camera flash can distract train drivers and tripods are not safe on the platform.
The route from Highbury & Islington to New Cross/West Croydon/Crystal Palace is known as the "East London line" and used to be part of the Underground. The route from Willesden Junction to Clapham Junction is similarly the "West London line"; the Clapham Junction to Surrey Quays route is the "South London line"; the route from Richmond to Stratford is the "North London line"; the Gospel Oak to Barking LINe is occasionally called the "GOBLIN"; the route from Euston to Watford is the "Watford DC line".
In common parlance, Londoners may refer to travelling by "overground" (or "overland"), meaning going by National Rail (as opposed to going by Underground). However, only one service is officially called Overground - London Overground is a Transport for London rail service. It is operated and promoted just like the Underground, with the logo like the Tube (except orange) on stations and full acceptance of Oyster cards throughout. Trains will usually run every fifteen minutes or less.
London Overground consists of seven separate routes, forming a loose outer orbital with 'corners' at Clapham Junction, Surrey Quays, Highbury & Islington and Willesden Junction. These routes are:
West London Line: Clapham Junction - Willesden Junction - trains continue to Stratford as North London line trains at peak times;
North London Line: Richmond - Willesden Junction - Gospel Oak - Highbury and Islington - Stratford;
Watford DC Line: Euston - Willesden Junction - Wembley Central - Watford Junction;
Gospel Oak to Barking Line: Gospel Oak - Barking;
East London Line: Highbury & Islington - Shoreditch High Street - Whitechapel - New Cross Gate - West Croydon/Crystal Palace;
East London Line: Dalston Junction - Shoreditch High Street - Whitechapel - New Cross;
South London Line: Clapham Junction - Peckham Rye - Surrey Quays (continues as East London line)
Most London Overground lines use Class 378 Capitalstars: spacious, air-conditioned trains in a distinctive orange livery. These trains have plenty of seating and standing room, and big windows allowing for great "urban scenic" views. The GOBLIN line uses Class 172 Turbostars. These trains are similar to the capitalstars, but are smaller and use a diesel bus engine rather than being electric.
London Overground appears on the Tube map as an orange line, usually with a gap in the middle. At many stations (Whitechapel, for instance) trains leaving from the same platform will go to different destinations, so listen carefully for announcements and always check the destination on the front of the train. The Overground can be a great way to avoid changing trains in central London by skirting around the centre. It's also well-connected: you can frequently change for Underground trains, other Overground destinations, or for mainline National Rail services from Stratford, Clapham Junction and Watford Junction.
By tram (Tramlink)[ edit ]
Tramlink, opened in 2000, is the first tram system to operate in London since 1952. South London is poorly served by the Tube and lacks east-west National Rail services so the network connects Wimbledon in South West London to Beckenham in South East London and New Addington, a large housing estate in South Croydon. The network is centred on Croydon , where it runs on street-level tracks around the Croydon Loop.
Route 3 (Wimbledon to New Addington - green on the Tramlink map) is the most frequent service, running every 7 or 8 minutes Monday to Saturday daytime and every 15 minutes at all other times. Beckenham is served by Routes 1 and 2 (yellow and red on the Tramlink map), which terminate at Elmers End and Beckenham Junction respectively. Both services travel around the Loop via West Croydon and run every 10 minutes Monday to Saturday daytime and every 30 minutes at all other times. Between Arena and Sandilands, these two services serve the same stops.
By bicycle[ edit ]
Cycling in the United Kingdom
Cycling on the pavement (sidewalk) is illegal, except where a cycle route has been designated by signs or painted lines.
When cycling on roads, you must ride on the left with other vehicles.
You must have working front and rear lights during hours of darkness. Flashing LED lights are legal. Reflective clothing is always a good idea at night.
Helmets are not compulsory for cyclists in the United Kingdom, and their effectiveness is as much a matter of debate here as anywhere else. In London, many cyclists, especially those seen in rush hour, also wear filter masks, but their efficacy is even more disputed.
It is illegal to jump through a red light for cyclists as well as motorists. Advance stop lines at traffic lights allow cyclists to wait ahead of other traffic at red lights. In practice, most car drivers ignore this and occupy the cycle space when waiting at lights.
When approaching a zebra crossing you should always take care and watch for pedestrians waiting to cross the road. You must be prepared to slow down or stop to allow them to cross as detailed in Rule 195 of the Highway Code . If someone is on a crossing already, you must stop as a car or other vehicle would and allow them to cross safely - weaving around pedestrians may frighten them and lead to an accident!
The rules for cyclists are available in the British Government publication The Highway Code
Due to the expense of other forms of transport and the compactness of central London, cycling is a tempting option. Excellent free cycle maps can be obtained from your local tube stations, bike shop, or ordered online.
London now offers a city-wide bicycle hire scheme known as Santander Cycles , operated by Transport for London. For an hourly charge, bicycles may be hired from automated hire stations around the city. The bikes, all coloured a distinctive bright blue, can be unlocked and ridden around the city with a credit card, and must be returned to another hire station by locking the bike into the rack.
Despite recent improvements, London remains a relatively hostile environment for cyclists. The kind of contiguous cycle lane network found in many other European cities does not exist. The safest option is to stick to minor residential roads where traffic can be surprisingly calm outside rush hours.
Most major roads in London will have a bus lane which is restricted to buses, taxis and bicycles.
Cycle-lanes exist in London with both on road and off road routes. The network is not comprehensive, and on the road lanes vary in quality (normally between one and two metres wide). Cycle superhighways (major cycle routes) are painted blue other cycle lanes are green or red; however, some are indicated just with an stencilled image of a bike on the road. If the line between the traffic lane is solid cars may not use it as it is a mandatory cycle lane. A dashed line indicates a recommended cycle lane and motorists may make use of this road space, but it is recommended they don't. Many improvements have been made for cyclists in the city over the last few years, Noticeably, there are many new signposted cycle routes and new cycle lanes as well as a review of junctions considered dangerous for cycling. A new network of " Cycle super-highways " has been launched: these are indicated by bright blue-painted tarmac. Motor vehicles often park on cycle lanes, rendering them unusable.
Normally a cyclist should keep to the left of the lane when cycling on a road with traffic, to allow faster-moving traffic to overtake. However, it is legal for a cycle to dominate a lane by maintaining a central road position like any other vehicle. This will make you unpopular with any traffic behind you but it is recommended in London on approach to right-hand turns at junctions. Making a right-hand turn from the normal left-position means crossing the lane of traffic, which may often ignore you and any turn signals you might have been using, leading to near misses and even collisions.
The towpaths in North London along the Grand Union Canal and Regent's Canal as well as in Londons parks and green ways provide traffic-free cycle path in the capital. The Grand Union canal connects Paddington to Camden and the Regent's Canal connects Camden to Islington, Mile End and Limehouse in East London. It takes about 30-40 min to cycle from Paddington station to Islington along the towpaths.
Care should be taken lock your bike properly as many areas, some surprisingly busy, attract cycle thieves, while chaining a bicycle to a railing which appears to be private property can occasionally lead to said bike being removed.
Taking bikes on trains is very limited in London due to overcrowding. Non-folding bikes can be taken only on limited sections of The Tube network, mostly only on the above-ground sections outside peak hours. For this reason, folding bicycles are becoming increasingly popular. There is a map showing this on the Transport for London website. Most National Rail operators allow bicycles outside peak hours also.
Critical Mass London is a cycling advocacy group which meets for regular rides through central London at 18:00 on the last Friday of each month. Rides start from the southern end of Waterloo Bridge.
The London Cycling Campaign is an advocacy group for London cyclists. With active local groups in most of the city's boroughs, it is recognised by local and regional government as the leading voice for cycling in the capital.
By taxi[ edit ]
London Cab
London has two types of taxis: the famous black cab, and so-called minicabs. Black cabs are the only ones licensed to "ply for hire" (i.e. pick people up off the street), while minicabs are more accurately described as "private hire vehicles" and need to be pre-booked.
The famous black cab of London (not always black!) can be hailed from the kerb or found at one of the many designated taxi ranks. It is possible to book black cabs by phone, for a fee, but if you are in central London it will usually be quicker to hail one from the street. Their amber TAXI light will be on if they are available. Drivers must pass a rigorous exam of central London's streets, known as 'The Knowledge', to be licensed to drive a black cab. This means they can supposedly navigate you to almost any London street without reference to a map. They are a cheap transport option if there are five passengers as they do not charge extras, and many view them as an essential experience for any visitor to London. Black cabs charge by distance and by the minute, are non-smoking, and have a minimum charge of £2.20. Tipping is not mandatory in either taxis or minicabs, despite some drivers' expectations - use your discretion. If you like the service you may tip. If the ride has been uncomfortable or unsafe, or if the driver was rude, don't. Most Londoners will simply round up to the nearest pound.
Taxis are required by law to take you wherever you choose (within Greater London) if their TAXI light is on when you hail them. However some, especially older drivers, dislike leaving the centre of town, or going south of the River Thames. A good way to combat being left at the side of the curb is to open the back door, or even get into the cab, before stating your destination.
Minicabs are normal cars which are licensed hire vehicles that you need to book by phone or at a minicab office. They generally charge a fixed fare for a journey, best agreed before you get in the car. Minicabs are usually cheaper than black cabs, although this is not necessarily the case for short journeys. Licensed minicabs display a Transport For London (TfL) Licence - usually in the front window. One of the features of the license plate is a blue version of the famous London Transport "roundel". A list of licensed minicab operators can be found at TfL Cabwise .
Uber is available in London and generally charge cheaper fares than black cabs, although higher "surge" prices are charged at times of high demand. Vehicles can only be booked via the smartphone app.
Some areas in London are poorly served by black cabs, particularly late at night. This has led to many illegal minicabs operating - just opportunistic people, with a car, looking to make some fast money. Some of these operators can be fairly aggressive in their attempts to find customers, and it's now barely possible to walk late at night through any part of London with a modicum of nightlife without being approached. These illegal cars are also regularly unsafe: women are assaulted every week by illegal minicab operators (11 per month) and there is also a risk of robbery. You should avoid minicabs touting for business off the street and either take a black cab, book a licensed minicab by telephone, or take a night bus. Always remember: if it's not licensed and it's not pre-booked, it's just a stranger's car. Never get into an un-booked minicab.
TfL operate a service called Cabwise , which will determine your location and provide three local, licensed cab numbers. If you have an iPhone or an Android smartphone, you can use the Cabwise application (search your platform's app store) or text CAB to 60835 (be careful - this might not work from some phones!) You can also use an app such as Hailo , which allows you to summon a black cab to your location and will provide a map and approximate wait time for your taxi to arrive. Most railway stations will also be able to provide a list of good local cab firms (many will display this outside the station, even after the last train of the night has gone.)
By car[ edit ]
Londoners who drive will normally take public transport in the centre; follow their example. Unless you have a disability, there is no good reason whatsoever to drive a car in central London.
Driving into central London on weekdays during daylight hours incurs a hefty charge, with very few exemptions ( that rental cars also attract the charge). Cameras and mobile units record and identify the number plates and registration details of all vehicles entering the charging zone with high accuracy. The Central London Congestion Charge M-F 07:00-18:00 (excluding public holidays) attracts a fee of £8 if paid the same day, or £10 if paid on the next charging day. Numerous payment options exist: by phone, on-line, at convenience stores displaying the red 'C' logo in the window and by voucher. Failure to pay the charge by midnight the next charging day incurs a hefty automatic fine of £80 (£40 if paid within 2 weeks).
Despite the Congestion Charge, London - like most major cities - continues to experience traffic snarls. These are, of course, worse on weekdays during peak commuting hours (i.e. between 07:30-09:30 and 16:00-19:00). At these times public transport (and especially the Tube) usually offers the best alternative for speed and reduced hassle. Driving in Central London is a slow, frustrating, expensive and often unnecessary activity. There are many sorts of automatic enforcement cameras and it is difficult (and expensive) to park. A good tip is, that outside advertised restriction hours, parking on a single yellow line is permissible. Parking on a red line or a double yellow line is never permissible and heavily enforced. Find and read the parking restrictions carefully! Parking during weekdays and on Saturday can also mean considerable expense in parking fees - fees and restrictions are ignored at your extreme financial peril - issuing fines, clamping and towing vehicles (without warning!) has become a veritable new industry for borough councils staffed by armies of traffic wardens.
For the disabled driving can be much more convenient than using public transport. If disabled and a resident of a member state of the EU then two cars can be permanently registered, for free, for the congestion charge.
Motorcycles and scooters are fairly common in London as they can pass stationary cars, can usually be parked for free and are exempt from congestion-charging. Scooters and bikes with automatic transmission are much more preferable - a manually-geared racing bike is completely impractical unless you have excellent clutch-control (although it has to be said you will see plenty of them being ridden aggressively by motorcycle couriers and locals as it can be the fastest way to get around!) Likewise to bicycles, car-drivers can show disregard to anyone on two wheels and larger vehicles have an unwritten priority so take care when crossing junctions. Crash helmets are mandatory. Parking for bikes is usually free - there are designated motorcycle-parking areas on some side-streets and some multi-level parking lots will have bike parking on the ground level.
By boat[ edit ]
A river bus at Tower Millennium Pier
London is now starting to follow the example of cities such as Sydney and Bangkok by promoting a network of river bus and pleasure cruise services along the River Thames. London River Services (part of Transport for London) manages regular commuter boats and a network of piers all along the river and publishes timetables and river maps similar to the famous tube map. While boat travel may be slower and a little more expensive than tube travel, it offers an extremely pleasant way to cross the city with unrivalled views of the London skyline - Big Ben, St Paul's Cathedral, the Tower of London, etc. Sailing under Tower Bridge is an unforgettable experience.
Boats are operated by private companies and they have a separate ticketing system from the rest of London transport; however if you have a Travelcard you get a 33% discount on most boat tickets. Many boat operators offer their own one-day ticket - ask at the pier kiosks. Generally, tickets from one boat company are not valid on other operators' services. Oyster cards can be used as payment for the 'Clipper'-styled commuter services but not for tour boats.
View from Greenwich Observatory which is easily reached by boat services plying the Thames
Boats run on the following routes:
Bankside - Millbank
Westminster - Embankment - Festival - Bankside - London Bridge City - St. Katharine's - Westminster
Westminster - Embankment - St. Katharine's - Westminster
Westminster - Kew - Richmond - Hampton Court
Westminster - London Eye - Tower - Greenwich
Westminster - St. Katharine's - Greenwich - Barrier Gardens
Woolwich Arsenal - QEII for the O2 - Greenwich - Masthouse Terrace - Greenland - Canary Wharf - Tower - London Bridge City - Bankside - Embankment - London Eye
Woolwich Arsenal - QEII for the O2 - Greenwich - Masthouse Terrace - Greenland - Canary Wharf - Tower - London Bridge City - Blackfriars - Embankment - London Eye
Woolwich Arsenal - QEII for the O2 - Greenwich - Masthouse Terrace - Greenland - Canary Wharf - Tower - London Bridge City - Embankment - London Eye
Some key tourist attractions that are easily accessible by boat include:
Hampton Court Palace
HMS Belfast
plus all the central London sights in Westminster and the South Bank
As well as the Thames, consider a trip along an old Victorian canal through the leafy suburbs of North London. The London Waterbus Company runs scheduled services (more in summer, less in winter) from Little Venice to Camden Lock with a stop at the London Zoo (pick up only). The 45-minute trip along Regent's Canal is a delightful way to travel.
By skate[ edit ]
Inline skating on roads and pavements (sidewalks) is completely legal, except in the "square-mile" of the City of London . Roads are not the greatest but easily skateable. Central London drivers are more used to skaters than those in the outskirts.
By cable car[ edit ]
The Emirates Air Line is London's newest form of transportation constructed in 2012. It consists of a cable car that runs across the River Thames in east London and connects the Greenwich Peninsula on the south bank (near The O2) and the Royal Docks on the north bank (near the ExCeL Exhibition Centre). The Greenwich Peninsula terminal connects to the North Greenwich Tube station on the Jubilee line and the Royal Docks terminal connects to the Royal Victoria DLR station. Although it is part of the TfL network and uses Oyster cards, the Air Line sees more frequent use by tourists than by commuters.
Keep in mind if you are travelling to The O2 that the Emirates Air Line service usually finishes much earlier than the Tube and DLR. If the event you are attending is finishing late then you should have an alternative mode of transport to get back across the river.
See[ edit ]
London with children
London can be stressful with kids - check London with children for slightly less stressful sightseeing. However, it is a breeze with children over 7.
London is a huge city, so all individual listings are in the appropriate district articles and only an overview is presented here.
Landmarks[ edit ]
Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace. The London residence of the Queen, in Westminster . Open for tours during the summer months only, but a must-see sight even if you don't go in. (Tube: Green Park)
London Eye. The world's fourth-largest observation wheel, situated on the South Bank of the Thames with magnificent views over London. (Tube: Waterloo)
Marble Arch is a white Carrara marble monument designed by John Nash. It is located in the middle of a huge traffic island at one of the busiest intersections in central London where Oxford Street meets Park Lane in Mayfair . (Tube: Marble Arch)
Piccadilly Circus is one of the most photographed sights in London. The Shaftesbury Memorial, topped by the statue of Anteros (now popularly identified as Eros), stands proudly in the middle of Piccadilly Circus while the north eastern side is dominated by a huge, iconic neon advertising hoarding. Occasionally there will be scaffolding or fencing around the Eros statue in order to protect it during times when large crowds are anticipated. (Tube: Piccadilly Circus)
St Paul's Cathedral, also in the City , is Sir Christopher Wren's great accomplishment, built after the 1666 Great Fire of London - the great dome is still seated in majesty over The City. A section of the dome has such good acoustics that it forms a "Whispering Gallery". There is also a viewing area that offers views of the surrounding area including the Millennium Bridge that lies nearby. (Tube: St Paul's)
Tower Bridge. The iconic 19th century bridge located by the Tower of London near the City . It is decorated with high towers featuring a drawbridge. The public are allowed access to the interior of the bridge via the Tower Bridge Exhibition, tickets for which can be purchased on the website or at the bridge. (Tube: Tower Hill)
St Paul's Cathedral
Tower of London. Situated just south east of the City , is London's original royal fortress by the Thames. It is over 900 years old, contains the Crown Jewels, is guarded by Beefeaters, and is a World Heritage site. It is also considered by many to be the most haunted building in the world. If you are interested in that sort of thing its definitely somewhere worth visiting. Sometimes there are guided ghost walks of the building. You can even have a good meal in one of the buildings on the property. (Tube: Tower Hill)
Trafalgar Square . Home of Nelson's Column and the lions, and once a safe haven for London's pigeons until the recent introduction of hired birds of prey. The "Fourth Plinth" has featured a succession of artworks since 1999. Overlooked by the National Gallery, it's the nearest London has to a "centre", and has been pedestrianised. (Tube: Charing Cross)
Westminster Abbey and the Palace of Westminster, including the Queen Elizabeth II Tower (the clock tower commonly known as the name of its bell, Big Ben) and the Houses of Parliament, in Westminster . The seat of the United Kingdom parliament and World Heritage site, as well as setting for royal coronations since 1066, most recently Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. The Palace of Westminster is open to the public only for viewing parliamentary debates, tours of the building are available in July – August when Parliament is away on summer recess. Westminster Abbey also has a restaurant and a café that both serve good food. (Tube: Westminster)
30 St Mary Axe or The Gherkin, a peculiarly-shaped 180 m (590 ft) building in the City. There is no public access to the building itself but it can be viewed from the roads and small paved areas directly in front of and behind the building . Security guards can be overzealous in this area and you may be asked to move on or stop taking photographs if you are doing so (although this may seem overbearing, it is private land and they can ask you to leave if they wish). Commanding views of this building can also be obtained from public roads near the site such as Leadenhall Street . Of minor interest to history fans is an inscription on Bury Street dedicated to a young Roman girl who was found buried here by archaeologists in 1995 . Her remains were moved to the Museum of London while the Gherkin was being constructed, and were reburied in 2007 at the original site.
The Shard , e-mail: [email protected] . 1 April - 31 October 10:00 - 22:00, 1 November - 31 March 10:00 - 19:00. A futuristic triangular skyscraper that dominates the London skyline and is the tallest building in the EU. There is a viewing deck on the 72nd floor that is open to the public, tickets for which must be booked via the website. There are also restaurants and the expensive luxury hotel Shangri-La on the lower floors.
Museums and galleries[ edit ]
Central London hosts an outstanding collection of world-class museums and galleries, several of truly iconic status.
Even better, London is unique among global capitals in that the majority of the museums have no entrance charges, allowing visitors to make multiple visits with ease. Special or temporary exhibitions usually attract an admission charge.
London museums and galleries with no general admission charge (free entry!) include:
British Museum (Tube: Holborn)—a treasure trove of world cultures from across the ages, on a par with the Paris Louvre and New York's Metropolitan Museum
National Gallery (Tube: Charing Cross)—houses the national collection of paintings in the Western European tradition from the 13th to the 19th centuries
Parks[ edit ]
St James' Park
The "green lungs" of London are the many parks, great and small, scattered throughout the city including Hyde Park , St James Park and Regent's Park . Most of the larger parks have their origins in royal estates and hunting grounds and are still owned by the Crown, despite their public access.
Hyde Park and adjoining Kensington Gardens make up a huge open space in central London and are very popular for picnics. (Tube: High Street Kensington, Marble Arch, Green Park or Hyde Park Corner)
Regent's Park is wonderful open park in the northern part of central London.(Tube:Camden Town, Regent's Park)
St James's Park has charming and romantic gardens ideal for picnics and for strolling around. St. James's Park is situated between Buckingham Palace on the west and Horse Guards Parade on the east.
Hampstead Heath is a huge open green space in north London. It's mot a tended park as such and is remarkably wild for a metropolitan city location. The views from the Parliament Hill area of the heath overlooking the city skyline are quite stunning. (Tube: Hampstead, Overground: Hampstead Heath, Gospel Oak)
Richmond Park also is a huge green space, but has a thriving deer population that is culled in the spring. Excellent place for cycling. (Tube:Richmond then Bus:371)
Bushy Park , near to Hampton Court Palace, is the second-largest park in London. More low-key than its larger cousin, Richmond Park, it too has a large deer population. Bushy Park contains numerous ponds, bridleways, two allotments, and at its northern edge, the National Physical Laboratory.
One of more than 800 Blue Plaques throughout London
Blue Plaques[ edit ]
English Heritage runs the Blue Plaques programme in London. Blue Plaques celebrate great figures of the past and the buildings that they inhabited. These are among the most familiar features of the capital’s streetscape and adorn the façades of buildings across the city. Since the first plaque was erected in 1867, the number has grown steadily and there are now more than 800. Recipients are as diverse as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Sigmund Freud, Charles de Gaulle, Jimi Hendrix and Karl Marx. Look out for these around the city.
London Pass[ edit ]
Whereas some London museums offer free entry, some other top London attractions are ridiculously expensive. For example, entry to Westminster Abbey costs £20 per person (adult), and entry to the Tower is £23.10 per person if bought online (2015). These prices can be sometimes mitigated by a purchase of London Pass, which needs to be done at the London Pass website . The pass comes in several varieties and gives access to over 60 attractions, including both Westminster Abbey and the Tower. For example, a day pass costs £52 for an adult (2015). The best strategy, if one wants to visit several expensive high-profile attractions, is to buy a day pass and to try visiting all of them in the same day. This obviously requires some advanced planning.
Do[ edit ]
London is a huge city, so all individual listings are in the appropriate district articles. To make the most of the city's tremendous cultural offerings (performing arts, museums, exhibitions, clubs, eateries and numerous others), visitors will do well to pick up a copy of a cultural magazine like Time Out London (available at most corner shops and newsagents) which gives detailed information and critiques on what's around town including show times and current attractions. The Time Out London website also has major shows listed. There is also a Time Out iPhone/iPod app available although the print version tends to be more detailed.
Live music[ edit ]
London is one of the best cities in the world for concerts, spanning from new musical trends to well known bands. Between huge concert facilities and small pubs, there are hundreds of venues that organise and promote live music every week. Many concerts, especially in smaller or less known places are free, so there is plenty of choice even for tourists on a budget.
London has long been a launchpad for alternative movements, from the mods of the 60s, punks of the 70s, new romantics of the 80s, the Britpop scene of the 90s and in recent years the indie rock movement spearheaded by The Libertines and their ilk. It has one of the world's most lively live music scenes: any band heading a British, European or World tour will play London, not to mention the local talent. London's music scene is incredibly diverse, covering all genres of music from electro-jazz to death-metal, and all sizes of bands, from the U2s and Rolling Stones of the world to one man bands who disband after their first gig. This diversity is reflected in prices. As a rough guide: £20+ for 'top 40' bands in arena sized venues, £10+ for established bands in mid sized venues, £6+ for up and coming bands and clubnights in smaller venues, £5- for upstarting bands in bars and pubs.
London has hundreds of venues spread out over the city and the best way to know what's going on where is to browse online ticket agencies, Music Magazine's gig directories and individual bands' MySpace pages. A few areas which have higher concentrations of pubs and venues than others. Kilburn in North West London has long been known as an Irish area; though their numbers have somewhat declined, a visit to a local pub will show their influence remains today. Kilburn's The Good Ship is a favourite place for young aspiring bands to try to get a foot off the ground, due to its inclusive policies and fair payment system. Good for those who would like to see bands "before they were big", who appreciate £5 entrance fees, good beer and friendly staff.
One of the easiest to use and most comprehensive listings websites is LondonEars .
Theatre[ edit ]
The West End, especially the areas concentrated around Leicester Square, Covent Garden, Shaftesbury Avenue and Haymarket, is one of the world's premier destinations for theatre, including musical theatre. Covent Garden has the only Actor sponsored school in the city called the Actors Centre which also gave way to the London Acting Network , a London acting community support group. In the centre of Leicester Square there is an official half-price TKTS booth. For up-to-date listings see the weekly magazine Time Out or check the official London theatreland site.
The South Bank is another area well known for world class theatre, and is home to both the National Theatre and the Globe Theatre, the latter of which is London's only thatched building and an attraction in itself. Each Globe performance has over 700 £5 tickets. London's theatre scene outside of these two main districts is known as "the Fringe". Several of the larger and more established fringe theatres are an excellent way to see top quality productions of plays that may well transfer to the West End, but at lower than West End prices. The most significant of these are:
The Royal Court (Nearest Tube is Sloane Square). This theatre specialises in new writing, and recent productions that have transferred to great acclaim include 'Enron' by Lucy Prebble and 'Jerusalem' by Jez Butterworth, which had long runs in both the West End and on Broadway.
The Menier Chocolate Factory (Short walk from London Bridge station). This small theatre adjacent to Borough Market has done spectacularly well with revivals of musicals, including 'Sunday in the park with George' and 'A Little Night Music' both by Stephen Sondheim and which had runs in both the West End and Broadway.
The Lyric Theatre (Short walk from Hammersmith Tube station), e-mail: [email protected] . Not to be confused with its West End namesake this fascinating theatre comprises a Victorian interior transplanted into a modern office building. It offers a mix of modern interpretations of Shakespeare, musicals (Sprink Awakenings was a notable success) and plays that reflect the multicultural nature of its location, in particular serving the Asian and Afro-Caribbean populations of West London.
Other things to do[ edit ]
A Guardsman on duty at Buckingham Palace
Changing the Guard , Buckingham Palace SW1A 1AA. Buckingham Palace: alternate days 11:30 (except daily May-Jul). Horse Guards Arch: M-Sa 11:00, Su 10:00. The 45 min ceremony which occurs every morning outside Buckingham palace often features Guards regiments with bearskins and red tunics together with military bands. All these soldiers are fighting troops and there will be times when other regiments mount the guard at Buckingham Palace while units are deployed on active service overseas. In Whitehall, cavalry of the Household division on horseback and foot make the formal changeover between the previous guards on duty and the new guards at Horse Guards Parade. The Household division has guarded the royal family since 1660 and continue to do so today.
Take a walk through London's Royal Parks. A good walk would start at Paddington station, and head through Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, Green Park (passing Buckingham Palace) and St James Park before crossing Trafalgar Square and the River Thames to the South Bank and Waterloo Station. At a strolling pace this walk would take half a day, with plenty of places to stop, sit, drink, eat en route.
Watch a film. As well as the world-famous blockbuster cinemas in the West End, London has a large number of superb art house cinemas. In the summer months, there are often outdoor screenings at various venues, such as Somerset House and in some of the large parks.
Watch football . Take in a home match of one of the city's 15+ professional football clubs for a true experience of a lifetime as you see the passion of the "World's Game" in its mother country. London will have five clubs in the top Premier League in the upcoming 2015–16 season—Arsenal, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United. A level down, in the Football League Championship, finds Brentford, Charlton Athletic, Fulham, and Queens Park Rangers (QPR). Five other clubs are in lower levels of the professional league system—Millwall in Football League One; and AFC Wimbledon, Barnet, Dagenham & Redbridge and Leyton Orient in Football League Two. Many of the bigger clubs will require booking in advance, sometimes many months ahead, but smaller clubs allow you to simply turn up on match day and pay at the gate. (Owing to strict anti-tout regulations, the resale of tickets is not allowed.)
You will be able to find a ticket to a quality football match on any Saturday during the season. (updated Jun 2015)
Wimbledon . Wimbledon is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and is widely considered the most prestigious. Naturally it is a regular feature on the Tennis calendar. London goes "tennis crazy" for two weeks when the competition commences in late June and early July. One of the greatest traditions is to eat Strawberries and Cream with sugar. (Tube:Southfields)
Open House London Weekend . Explore many of the city's most interesting buildings during the London Open House Weekend - usually held on the third weekend of September. During this single weekend, several hundred buildings which are not normally open to the public are opened up. See website for details of buildings opening in any given year - some buildings have to be pre-booked in advance - book early for the popular ones!
Winter skating. London has a outdoor ice rinks that open in the winter months. Considered by some to be somewhat overpriced and overcrowded, they nonetheless have multiplied, easing congestion and increasing competition. Most charge from £10-12 (adults) for an hour on the ice, including skate hire. See the district articles for the City of London , East End and Leicester Square .
Summer skating. In summer (and also in winter, for the more dedicated) there is also a thriving roller skating (on inline and traditional "quad" skates) scene in London, catering to many disciplines including street hockey, freestyle slalom, dance, general recreational skating (including three weekly marshalled group street skates) and speed skating. This mostly centres around Hyde Park (on the Serpentine Road) and Kensington Gardens (by the Albert Memorial). See the district articles for Mayfair-Marylebone and South West London .
Tours. If you don't feel like splashing out on one of the commercial bus tours, you can make your own bus tour by buying an Oyster card and spending some time riding around London on the top deck of standard London buses. Of course you don't get the open air or the commentary, but the views are very similar. You will likely get lost but that is half the fun; if it worries you go for a commercial tour. One tour, for instance, can be obtained from The London Pass. There is a website for this company. Essentially what it does is sell a 24-hour ticket to use the company's buses to see the essential sites of London and a boat tour on the Thames (with the same ticket) provides a river tour of some of metropolitan London. Taking a tour like this is a good way to spend much of a first day in London, so you can decide what you want to see up close later. Other commercial tours offer similar services.
Spitalfields Markets, 65 Brushfield St London E1 6AA (Straight down Bell Lane past 66-68 and keep walking). Visit the thriving old Spitalfields markets which were the original London fruit markets. They have a daily market selling amazing vintage odds and ends and new fresh clothes! Visit 66/68 Bell Lane nearby to see a wealthy merchants house, rumor has it John Lennon once played on the roof of this building with Yoko Ono.
For a guided tour of London check out The Literary London Walking Tour - an interesting, informative and funny walk through London and its literary hotspots of the past and present. Meet local writers and poets and listen to them perform their works (£15 per person - FREE for all June and July 2012).
Learn[ edit ]
Universities in London
London attracts more students from overseas than any other city in the world, and is home to a huge variety of academic institutions. Its universities include some of the oldest and most prestigious in the world. The University of London is a federal university system with many constituent colleges, though for all practical purposes each constituent college operates as a separate university. London School of Economics and Political Science is located on the boundary of Covent Garden and Holborn in Westminster, 18 Nobel Prize winners and 50 world leaders have studied here. The School offers a well regarded lecture programme that is open to the public. Speakers have included Tony Blair, Bill Clinton, the Dalai Lama and Paul Krugman. Event schedule and ticket information available from the LSE website. University College London academic research is cited more than any other university in the UK, and its courses are regarded as among the best in Britain. The campus is located just north of the British Museum in the literary area of Bloomsbury. Notable alumni include Mahatma Gandhi, Alexander Graham Bell and the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham, whose mummified body is on display at the school in a wooden cabinet called the "auto-icon". Imperial College London is the UK's leading university specialising in science, engineering, business and medicine. The campus is located in a beautiful area of South Kensington, surrounded by numerous cultural institutions including the Natural History Museum and the Victoria & Albert Museum. Notable alumni include Sir Alexander Flemming, Thomas Henry Huxley, and H.G. Wells. Others include King's College London , School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), Queen Mary, University of London , London Business School and the University of Westminster
Learn English[ edit ]
London is a natural place to learn and improve spoken and written English. There are a huge range of options, from informal language exchange services to evening classes and formal language schools. There unaccredited schools charging hefty fees and offering qualifications that are viewed as worthless. If choosing a course from a privately-run school or college, it is important to ensure the institution is accredited by the British Council.
Some links to British Council accredited schools:
Linguaenglish London . Lingua London is a family-run English language school and has been teaching English only courses in London for over 10 years.
Language in London . This is the first school in the world to win the British Council prize for innovation in English teaching.
Rose of York . Rose of York has been teaching English language courses for over 21 years and they offer full-time, intensive or part-time English courses
Work[ edit ]
London is one of the world's leading financial centres and so professional services is the main area of employment, although this sector has been hit hard by the global financial crisis. As of mid-2010, the job market in London has recovered somewhat. It is best to check with recruiters and staffing agencies.
London is hugely popular as a working holiday destination - work in bars and the hospitality industry is relatively easy to find.
Wages are generally higher in London than the rest of the UK, in part due to the addition of London weighting, although the cost of living is higher still.
Buy[ edit ]
Harrods
London is one of the world's most fashion conscious cities, which explains the abundance of clothing shops from the flagship stores of Oxford Street to the tiny boutiques of Brick Lane .
Though not particularly known for bargain shopping, nearly anything you could possibly want to buy is available in London. That being said, during major sales, such as the annual Boxing Day sale after Christmas, prices for certain items have been known to be slashed by up to 70%, meaning that it is possible to find bargains for genuine luxury-branded goods if you are there at the right time. In Central London, the main shopping district is the West End (Bond Street, Covent Garden, Oxford Street and Regent Street). On Thursdays many West End stores close later than normal (19:00-20:00).
Oxford Street . Main shopping street, home to flagship branches of all the major British high street retailers in one go including Selfridges , John Lewis (includes a food hall), Marks & Spencer and other department stores. It is best to shop here in the morning as the street becomes increasingly busy during the day. (Tube: Oxford Circus)
Regent Street (between Oxford Circus and Piccadilly Circus). Includes such gems as Hamleys, considered to be London's flagship toy store spread out on seven levels, and the London Apple Store. (Tube: Oxford Circus, Piccadilly Circus)
Bond Street . Some of the world's most luxurious designer stores such as Cartier, D&G, Jimmy Choo, Louis Vuitton and Versace. (Tube: Bond Street)
Tottenham Court Road . Contains some of the world's most luxurious designer interior stores such as Heals, whilst the southern end is famous for its large concentration of hi-fi, computer and electronics stores. (Tube: Tottenham Court Road, Goodge Street)
Covent Garden . Fashionable area home to quaint outlets and relatively expensive designer stores. Around Seven Dials, chains include Adidas Originals, All Saints, Carhartt, Fred Perry, G Star Raw and Stussy. For shoes head for Neal Street. Also the London Transport Museum whose gift shop has some of the best souvenirs in the city (old maps, vintage Tube posters, etc.). London's second Apple Store is located here as well. (Tube: Covent Garden)
Charing Cross Road (near Covent Garden). A book lover's haven! New, second-hand, antiquarian and specialist. (Tube: Tottenham Court Road, Charing Cross)
Denmark Street (at the north end of Charing Cross Road near Tottenham Court Road station). Also known as Tin-Pan Alley, this is a music lover's paradise with an amazing array of music shops, bars and clubs in one short street. (Tube: Tottenham Court Road)
Soho . Offers alternative music and clothes. Now home to Chappell of Bond Street's historic music shop. (Tube: Oxford Circus)
Camden Town . Alternative clothing and other alternative shopping, popular with teenagers and young adults. Has the headquarters for Cyberdog - a large shop which sells clothing and accessories for the club and rave scene. Camden Lock Market is also worth a visit to see independent artists plying their wares. (Tube: Camden Town)
Chelsea . The King's Road is noted for fashion, homeware and children's clothing. On Wednesday many stores close late. (Tube: South Kensington)
Knightsbridge . Department stores include the world famous Harrods (includes a food hall) and Harvey Nichols. On Wednesday many stores close late. (Tube: Knightsbridge)
Beauchamp Place . Shop where royalty and celebrities shop! One of the world's most unique and famous streets. Over the years it has developed a strong reputation as one of London’s most fashionable and distinctive streets, housing some of the best known names in London fashion, interspersed with trendy restaurants, jewellers and speciality shops including the world famous trademark Fortuny . (Tube: Knightsbridge)
Westminster . Some of the world's most famous shirts are made on Jermyn Street. Savile Row is home to some of the world's best men's bespoke tailors including Henry Poole, Gieves & Hawkes, H. Huntsman & Sons, Dege & Skinner and many others (Tube: Westminster)
Westfield London in Shepherd's Bush is one of the two largest shopping mall complexes in Greater London. This was the first Westfield to be built and spurred regeneration of the local area. It is served by both the London Overground and Underground. It is easiest to get here via public transport, but there is reasonable car parking space available. (Tube: Shepherd's Bush)
Westfield Stratford City in Stratford is a large shopping mall complex very similar to Westfield London in Shepherd's Bush, but located on the edge of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. There is ample car parking and you can also park here to access the Park itself. This Westfield is easier to access by car due to its close proximity to the A12 road. (Tube / DLR: Stratford)
Markets[ edit ]
Borough Market is a great (if expensive) food market , offering fruit, vegetables, cheese, bread, meat, fish, and so on, much of it organic. The market opens Th-Sa. For market shopping, it's best to go in the morning, or after 14:00, since it starts to get very crowded by around 11:30 when the lunch crowd comes in. Lunch here is good though because there are many stalls that offer fresh made fast food on the spot; from ostrich burgers to falafel, most tastes are catered for. (Tube: London Bridge)
Old Spitalfields Market is an excellent market for clothes from up-and-coming designers, records, housewares, food, and all things trendy. Find it at 65 Brushfield St, E1 6AA (straight down Bell Lane past 66-68 and keep walking). Visit 66/68 Bell Lane nearby to see a wealthy merchants house, rumour has it John Lennon once played on the roof of this building with Yoko Ono. (Tube: Liverpool Street)
Airports[ edit ]
Tax-free shops in airports are not strong in variety, prices are equal to London, and they close rather early as well. Shop listings at airport web sites can help to plan your tax-free (vs traditional) shopping. In the evening allow an extra half hour as closing hours are not always strictly respected.
Many big department stores in central London have an information booth where they can give you the paperwork needed to reclaim tax on purchases made at the store when you get to the airport.
Practical[ edit ]
London, like the rest of the UK, uses the British Pound Sterling.
Retail prices for most items, with a few exceptions, always include VAT (at 20%). Visa and MasterCard/Maestro are the two most commonly-accepted debit/credit cards, although most large shops will also accept American Express. If your card does not have a microchip (for Chip & PIN) some machines (for instance, at Tube stations) will be unable to read your card. Some shops may ask you for additional identification, especially in relation to high value items, or items that are under age-related restrictions. Most shops no longer accept personal cheques. Contactless or NFC-enabled VISA and MasterCard cards can also be used for purchases of usually up to £20 in lieu of Chip & Pin, even on London Underground fare gates and buses.
£50 notes are not often used in everyday transactions and most shops will not accept them. When exchanging money at a bureau de change make sure to ask for £5, £10 and £20 notes only. The Bank of England's guide to bank notes may be of use.
Splurge
£50+
It is a huge task for a visitor to find the "right place" to eat in London - with the "right atmosphere", at the "right price" - largely because, as in any big city, there are literally thousands of venues from which to choose, ranging from fast food joints, pubs, and mainstream chains all the way up to some of the most exclusive restaurants in the world which attract the kind of clientele that don't need to ask the price. Sorting the good from the bad isn't easy, but London has something to accommodate all budgets and tastes. As London is one of the world's most multicultural cities, it is possible to find virtually every cuisine from around the world here if you look hard enough.
Following is a rough guide to what you might get, should you fancy eating out:
Smoking Ban
Smoking is illegal in all enclosed and indoor public spaces in the UK.
Up to £5 - you can get a good English pub or cafeteria breakfast with a rack of bacon, beans in tomato sauce, egg, sausage, orange juice and coffee or tea. Most pubs stop this offer at 11:00, but there are literally hundreds of backstreet cafes (colloquially known as "greasy spoons") which will serve this sort of food all day. Most supermarket chains offer a "meal deal", consisting of a sandwich, a drink and a bag of crisps or fruit for £3 together, while buying the sandwich only can be the same price. If you are going to be on a budget for several days, the supermarkets are a good option.
£7 - will buy you a couple of sandwiches and a soft drink, some takeaway fish and chips, or a fast food meal. There are also mostly Chinese restaurants which serve an all-you-can-eat buffet for around this price. These are dotted about the West End and it is well worth asking a member of public or a shopkeeper where the nearest one is. These restaurants make much of their revenue on drinks although these are usually still moderately priced. The food while not being of the finest standard is usually very tasty and the range of dishes available is excellent. There are literally thousands of so-called takeaways in London and are a cheap alternative to a restaurant meal. Check with your hotel management if they allow food deliveries before ordering in. Most takeaways will offer some form of (usually very limited) seating, but not all do.
£6-10 - will get you a good pub meal and drink or a good Chinese/Indian/Italian/Thai/Vietnamese buffet. Many pubs have a buy-one-get-one-free offer, and you can either order two main dishes for yourself or bring a friend.
£15 - some more expensive French, Mediterranean and international restaurants do cheaper two or three course lunch menus.
£25 - offers you a lot more choice. You can have a good meal, half a bottle of wine and change for the tube home. There are plenty of modest restaurants that cater for this bracket.
£50 (to almost any amount!) - with more money to spend you can pick some of the city's finer restaurants. It may be a famous chef (like Michel Roux, Jr, or Gordon Ramsay) or simply a place that prides itself on using the finest ingredients. Worth the splurge to impress a special someone. These establishments often need to be booked well in advance, and most will enforce a dress code of some sort, like Rules of Covent Garden, the oldest restaurant still extant.
Prices inevitably become inflated at venues closest to major tourist attractions - beware the so-called tourist traps. The worst tourist trap food, in the opinion of many Londoners, is served at the various steak houses (Angus Steak House, Aberdeen Steak House, etc. - they are all dotted around the West End and near the main train stations). Londoners wouldn't dream of eating here - you shouldn't either! Notorious areas for inflated menu prices trading on travellers' gullibility and lack of knowledge are the streets around the British Museum, Leicester Square and Piccadilly Circus. Even the major fast food chains charge a premium in their West End outlets - so watch out.
Pubs in the touristy areas of London are usually a poor choice for food although there are some brilliant "gastro-pubs" hidden away. In general avoid all pubs that have graphic-designed and printed menus - it's people's experiences in these kind of places that gives Britain a bad name for food! Look around you - see any locals tucking in? No? - then you shouldn't either. The other rule to follow when avoiding poor food is the same as in any other part of Europe - is the menu available in multiple languages? If yes then start running!
Kappacasein cheese toastie from Borough Market
In the suburbs, the cost of eating out is reduced drastically. Particularly in large ethnic communities, there is a competitive market which stands to benefit the consumer. In East London for example, the vast number of chicken shops means that a deal for 2 pieces of chicken, chips (fries) and a drink shouldn't cost you more than £3 especially on Brick Lane. Brick Lane is also known for being home to London's version of the beigel (spelt "bagel" in the United States and Canada, but pronounced the same way), with Brick Lane Beigel Bake and Britain's First & Best Beigel Shop being among the sole remnants of what was once a thriving Jewish community in the neighbourhood. Another good (and cheap) lunch option is a chicken or lamb doner (gyro) at many outlets throughout the city, though meat quality is often poor.
For more authentic Cockney food, try pie and mash, which originates from the working-class in the East End. Usually minced beef and cold water pastry pie served with mashed potato, mushy peas and "liquor" gravy, it tastes a lot better than it sounds. Some of the best pie houses are M. Manze in Peckham or F. Cooke in Hackney Broadway Market. Water Souchet and London Particular (green-pea and ham) are classic Cockney soups, though hard to find on menus. For those game, jellied eels, pickled-cockles and whelks are all traditional London seafood.
Central London's Borough Market offers wholesale produce as well as individual stalls that sell small bites and drinks for a casual and cheap meal. Kappacasein Dairy has a popular stand in the market famous for their grilled cheese which has earned the praise of Giada De Laurentiis and Ruth Reichl.
Of course, the quintessential British dish fish and chips is widely available in London, but the standards can be pretty disappointing in the tourist trap pubs. The best-rated fish and chips shops in London are generally located in the suburbs, away from all the tourist fare in central London.
Tipping may also be different than what you're used to. All meals include the 20% VAT tax and some places include a service fee (10-12%). The general rule is to leave a tip for table service, unless there's already a service charge added or unless the service has been notably poor. The amount tipped is generally in the region of 10%, but if there's a figure between 10-15% which would leave the bill at a conveniently round total, many would consider it polite to tip this amount. Tipping for counter service, or any other form of service, is unusual - but some choose to do so if a tips container is provided.
Restaurant streets[ edit ]
While central London is full of restaurants and cafes, there are some areas where the majority of diners are Londoners, rather than tourists, and in general you will get a much more pleasant, better value, and less crowded eating experience than you will find in the West End. These places are best visited in the evenings.
Clapham Junction is not just a train station, but also home to many good restaurants and bars, in particular on Lavender Hill and Battersea Rise. (Overground: Clapham Junction)
Drummond Street in the Euston area has a fine mix of Indian restaurants - a short walk from Euston railway station. (Tube: Euston)
High Street Croydon Croydon is derided by most Londoners, however this suburban gem of a road has at least 30 decent restaurants, including three Argentinians, a South African curryhouse, a couple of fancy modern European brassieres, and just about every other type of cuisine you can think of. (Overground: East Croydon)
Kings Street extends on to Chiswick High Road from Hammersmith Tube Station and is one long road of a choice of restaurants at very reasonable prices, some bargain mentions are the Thai restaurants offering 2 course lunch for £7. Nearby Shepherds bush is about a 15 minute walk and is alive with bars and pubs in the evening. (Tube: Hammersmith)
Lordship Lane in East Dulwich provides a good selection of European restaurants and a few award winning gastropubs. (train: East Dulwich)
Upper Street in Islington has dozens of excellent restaurants, popular with young professionals. (Tube: Highbury & Islington, Angel).
Wardour Street, in Soho, is full of nice cafes and restaurants. (Tube: Piccadilly Circus)
Restaurant areas[ edit ]
As one of the world's most cosmopolitan cities, you can find restaurants serving food cuisine from nearly every country, some of it as good as, if not better than in the countries of origin.
Indian food in London is especially famous and there is hardly a district without at least one notable Indian restaurant.
If you are looking for other particular regional foods these tend to be clustered in certain areas and some examples are:
Kingsland Road for good cheap Vietnamese.
Tooting , East Ham, Wembley and Southall for authentic & cheap Indian eateries including South Indian restaurants serving hot pongal, dosas, idlis and other South Indian "tiffin" items.
Other nationalities are equally represented and randomly dotted all over London. It is usually wisest to eat in restaurants on main thoroughfares rather than on quiet backstreets.
Chains[ edit ]
Like other capitals in the world, London has the usual array of fast food outlets. Sandwich shops are the most popular places to buy lunch, and there are a lot of places to choose from including Eat and Pret a Manger. Some Italian-style sandwich shops have a very good reputation and you can identify them easily by looking at the long queues at lunchtime. If all else fails, central London has lots of mini-supermarkets operated by the big British supermarket chains (e.g., Sainsbury's, Tesco) where you can pick up a pre-packed sandwich.
Fast food with an Asian flair is easy to find throughout the city, with lots of Busaba Eathai, Wagamama, and Yo! Sushi locations throughout the city. Nando's, a popular pseudo-Portuguese restaurant chain, has spicy peri-peri style grilled chicken. For burgers, GBK (Gourmet Burger Kitchen) has been joined by other franchises such as Byron and Haché.
List of popular chains[ edit ]
Sandwiches[ edit ]
Subway . Offers hot and cold sandwiches for takeaway and limited sit-down eating. Store locator on website is a bit iffy but there are multiple central London locations including one at Tower Hill.
Burgers[ edit ]
McDonald's . Perhaps the most famous and recognised burger chain in the world. Serves a consistent menu at consistent prices. Locations pretty much everywhere. Some restaurants are open 24 hours a day.
Burger King . Another famous burger chain with a similar ethos to McDonalds but fewer locations. The most central one is located in Leicester Square while others are more scattered.
Gourmet Burger Kitchen , ☎ +44 345 450 8937 , e-mail: [email protected] . This chain is more expensive and with less focus on takeaway. Multiple central London locations. They can also be found in both Westfield London and Westfield Stratford.
Five Guys . A recent arrival from the United States. Has multiple London locations but only a few in central London. You have to phone ahead to order takeaway.
Pizza[ edit ]
Domino's . A popular takeaway only pizza chain. Multiple locations with fairly big delivery areas.
Pizza Express . Very popular sit-down restaurants offering more "gourmet" pizzas (but not too gourmet) in multiple central London locations. They are family friendly as well.
Giraffe . Family friendly sit-down restaurants. Offers a variety of food including brunch, burgers, burritos, and ribs.
Wahaca . Sit-down restaurants offering Mexican market food. Multiple central London locations.
Zizzi . Sit-down restaurants that serve Italian food. Not many restaurants in central London but there are lots scattered across the city including one at Tower Hill.
Vegetarian and vegan[ edit ]
London has plenty of vegetarian and vegan restaurants many of them championing organic foodstuffs, and a quick search in Google will produce plenty of ideas, so you never have to see a piece of cooked meat all week.
If you are dining with carnivorous friends most restaurants will cater for vegetarians and will have at least a couple of dishes on the menu. Indian/Bangladeshi restaurants are generally fruitful, as they have plenty of traditional dishes (good Indian/Bangladeshi options can be found in the Brick Lane area of Spitalfields or further afield in East Ham, Tooting Broadway and Southall. These also tend to be very cheap eats with authentically prepared dishes with a true local ambience). There are also many vegetarian Thai buffet places where you can eat fake meat in tooth-achingly sweet sauces for under £5. These can be found on Greek and Old Compton Streets in Soho and Islington High Street .
Mildred's is a great veggie restaurant in the back streets of Oxford Circus.
Religious[ edit ]
Due to the mix of cultures and religions, many London restaurants cater well for religious dietary requirements. The most common signs are for Halal and Kosher meat, from burger joints to nice restaurants. There are lots of Halal restaurants [1] and shops all over London including Whitechapel Rd and Brick Lane in the East End , Bayswater, Edgware Rd and Paddington and in many parts of north London . There are plenty of Kosher restaurants in Golders Green , Edgware and Stamford Hill along with some central delis such as on Charing Cross Road.
Convenience stores and supermarkets[ edit ]
Convenience stores such as Tesco Metro, Sainsbury Central/Local, Budgens, Costcutter, SPAR, Co-op as well as privately-run "corner shops" sell pre-made sandwiches, snacks, alcohol, cigarettes, drinks etc. Most are open from 05:00-23:00 although some such as Tesco Metro or convenience stores located at petrol stations may open 24 hours (although some will stop selling alcohol after a certain time) that Whistlestop convenience stores (located in or around train stations) are notoriously overpriced and should be avoided.
If using a petrol-station convenience store late at night (i.e. after 23:00) the store will be locked and you should order and pay through the external service window.
Supermarkets[ edit ]
Although Tesco, Sainsbury's and other supermarkets run smaller stores in central London, full-size superstores (including Morrisons and ASDA) are rare in the city centre and usually require a 15-20 minute Tube ride to reach them. The closest large stores to central London are:
[2] The ASDA store close to Crossharbour DLR Station on the Lewisham line. This is about a 15 minute ride from Bank station or at the end of the 135 24-hour bus route.
[3] The Tesco in the Surrey Quays shopping mall which is next to Canada Water station on the Jubilee line - again about 10–15 minutes from the centre of town.
There are larger Sainsbury's stores in both Whitechapel [4] (the nearest Tube is Whitechapel) and in Camden Town [5] (nearest Tube is Camden Town). Both of these stores are located in Travelcard Zone 2.
Marks & Spencer also operate food halls branded as "Simply Food". They can be found across central London . The smaller ones, such as those found in train stations, tend to focus mostly on "ready to eat" food such as sandwiches, drinks, and snacks.
Drink[ edit ]
London is home to a great many pubs, bars and nightclubs. The online city guide View London and the weekly magazine Time Out tell what's going in London's night life, as well as cultural events in general.
Pubs & bars[ edit ]
London is an expensive place and your drink is likely to cost more than its equivalent elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Expect to pay around £4 for a pint of lager or Guinness (or around £3.50 for a pint of ale) in an average pubs. As with restaurants, pubs close to major tourist attractions cash in on travellers' gullibility so be on your guard for the tourist traps where higher prices are not unheard of. Despite this however it is still possible to find a sub-£3 pint in central London - it takes some determination. If you're looking to save money and meet travellers then pub crawls are guided tours that run nightly in central London. You'll save the ticket price on the savings you get from discounted drink deals and what you would have spent on club entry. The "1 Big Night Out" pub crawl is the biggest operator and starts from near Leicester square underground station.
Many local pubs, especially those run by chains like Wetherspoons and Scream tend to be more reasonably priced with good drink promotions on weekday nights and during the day. As with the rest of the UK, chain pubs abound which Londoners tend to avoid like the plague. A good place to get cheap beer is at any one of the Sam Smith pubs found across Central London, including Soho and the City.
In the Bloomsbury area , check out The Court (near the north end of Tottenham Court Road) and The Rocket (Euston Road). Both are fairly cheap to drink at, given that they cater for students of the adjacent University College London. Directly opposite the British Library is The Euston Flyer, popular with locals and commuters alike given its close proximity to St Pancras International railway station.
Classier bars and pubs can be much more expensive. However, the cost of alcohol drops significantly the further away you go from the centre ( West London tends to be an exception, with prices pretty much the same as the centre). For a more reasonably priced (but brilliant) cocktail bar than you'll find in the central and West End areas Lost Society in Clapham situated on Lavender Hill, cocktails here cost around £7-8 each.
Two historic London breweries are Young's and Fullers. Young's was founded in Wandsworth in 1831 (but has relocated to Bedford ) and nowadays it has 123 pubs in central London alone. The Founder's Arms next to the Tate Modern on the river embankment, is one of the brewery's most well known establishments with a great view of the River Thames. Fullers was founded a bit later in 1845 at Chiswick (where you can take a most enjoyable tour of the brewery, including beer-tasting) and the jewel in its crown is probably the Grade I listed Old Bank Of England on Fleet Street , thanks to its breath-taking interiors. Fuller's flagship beer is the famous 'London Pride', however to try a truly authentic Cockney pint, ask at bars if they serve a seldom seen now Porter, a dark style of beer originating in London in the 18th Century, similar but less heavy then a Stout. For a different taste, try a gin and tonic.
It's hard to say which pub in London is truly the oldest but it's easy to find contenders for the title. Many pubs were destroyed in the Great Fire of London – indeed, Samuel Pepys supposedly watched the disaster from the comfort of the Anchor in Borough . Pubs were rebuilt on sites that claimed to have been working pubs since the 13th century. Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese in Fleet Street is on the site of an old monastery and its cellar dates back to the 13th century. The Princess Louise and Citty of York are two lovely pubs close by, along High Holborn with interesting decor; as is the Jerusalem Tavern of Farringdon, a converted Georgian coffee shop, which sells the Norfolk beer, St. Peters. The Royal Oak of Borough, is another pub which is the only representative of an out-of-town brewery in London, that of Harvey's of Lewes. The food is fantastic as is the atmosphere. Those interested in London's historic and literary connections can't miss The Spaniard's Inn in Hampstead . Dick Turpin is said to have been born here; John Keats and Charles Dickens both drank here; it's mentioned in Dickens' The Pickwick Papers and Bram Stoker's Dracula. The Goose at Catford , was reputedly a favourite hole of Karl Marx.
For the best view in the city, try pubs on the banks of the Thames. The South Bank has lots of good bars with plenty of iconic bridges and buildings in sight the cocktail bar in the OXO tower is a secret that most tourists walk by everyday. Heading towards Bermondsey , pub crowds become a little less touristy.
If you're after gastropubs, you may like to visit London's first, The Eagle, in Clerkenwell , established in 1991. You can also try Time Out's favourite newcomer, The Princess Victoria on Uxbridge Road, Shepherd's Bush .
The "Bermondsey Beer mile" is home to many craft breweries which are open in the middle of the day most Saturdays. Situated under the railway arches on lines going to London Bridge, these quaint breweries are home to high quality beer at cheap to average London prices (~£2.00 per half). Best places include Kernel Brewery and Brew by Numbers.
Wine buffs can enjoy the famous Davys wine bars that dot the city. The company, established in 1870, import wines and own over thirty bars in the centre. Other big names in wine include the Michelin-starred Cellar Gascon and Vinoteca, both in Smithfield . For a posh wine tasting experience, there is Vinopolis by Borough Market, though a tour price will be as eye-watering as the produce sampled.
Big hotels, such as The Langham, The Dorchester and The Ritz, and upmarket clubs around Leicester Square and Soho are reliable bets for a date at the bar. The Connaught Hotel in Mayfair-Marylebone boasts its house bar, plus the Time Out magazine favourite, The Coburg. Still in Mayfair, The Polo Bar at The Westbury is very intimate.
You can rely on most up-and-running bars to offer a short cocktail menu and there are also bars that position themselves as cocktail specialists.
Nightclubs[ edit ]
Nightlife is an integral part of London life and there are countless nightclubs in and around Central London with music to suit even the most eclectic of tastes. Districts in London tend to specialize to different types of music.
The Farringdon/Hoxton/Shoreditch area has many clubs playing drum and bass, techno, house and trance music and is home to the superclub Fabric (which is closed, and due to re-open). The clubs in this area are often home to the world's top DJs and attracts a lively, hip and friendly crowd. Big name drum and bass, house and techno DJs also appear at clubs scattered around Kings Cross (Egg, Scala), Elephant (Ministry of Sound, Corsica Studios), Southwark (Cable), Whitechapel (Rhythm Factory), and at mixed nights at the Vauxhall clubs (see below). Nights are also hosted in disused Hackney warehouses or south London car parks.
The area around Mayfair is home to the more upmarket clubs in London. This area attracts a rather more showy crowd who love to flaunt what they have and is a must go to celebrity spot. Beware that drinks are ridiculously expensive and many clubs operate a guestlist-only policy. Music played here is often of the commercial chart, funky house, hip hop and R&B genre. Notable clubs include China White, Luxx, Maddox, Jalouse, Funky Buddha, Whisky Mist, Mahiki, No 5 Cavendish Square, Embassy, Vendome and Maya.
Nightclubs around the Leicester Square area hold the same music policy, but are rather more accessible, with numerous club and pub crawl promoters scattered around the area offering deals on entry. Notable clubs are Cafe De Paris, 1 Big Night Out pub crawl, Penthouse, Sound, Tiger Tiger, Zoo bar and Ruby Blue.
The Camden area is home to clubs which play Indie, metal and rock music and notably the Electric Ballroom, the world-famous Koko (Fridays) and Underworld. Camden clubs are mostly shut (or empty) on the weekdays.In South London, London's Afro-Caribbean centre Brixton is home to numerous venues with all kinds of music, including a particular presence in reggae, ska, afrobeat, hiphop, and dubstep. In recent years more venues have opened in Peckham and New Cross.
Gay and lesbian[ edit ]
London has a vibrant gay environment with countless bars, clubs and events in almost every district in the city.
The nucleus of London's gay scene is undoubtedly Old Compton St and the surrounding area in Soho but over the last couple of years Vauxhall has seen a boom in Gay venues. You will find that many areas, particularly in Camden Town and Shoreditch , that straight bars will have a mixed clientele. To find out what is going on during your visit, you can check:
qxmagazine.com . A weekly magazine that comprehensively covers the London gay scene with handy night by night listings available on-line and in print
Boyz Magazine . Which is published fortnightly and is freely available at most London gay venues, and contains listings of everything that is happening in all the major clubs in London and the South East.
Gay Pride is held every year in June with parade and street parties. The choice of places to go sometimes seem to be unmanageable.
London Gay and Lesbian Switchboard (LLGS), ☎ +44 20 7837 7324 , e-mail: [email protected] . This voluntary service has been operating since 1974 and as well as providing counselling they offer an incredibly thorough information service about Gay events, accommodation and businesses in London.
Splurge
Over £140
London has hundreds of options for accommodation to suit all budgets from hostels through historic bed and breakfasts (B&Bs), mainstream chain hotels and apartments all the way to some of the most exclusive luxury hotels in the world such as The Savoy, The Ritz and Claridges where a stay in a top suite will cost upwards of £1,000 per night. The average cost of hotel accommodation in London is higher than in any other major British city. Prices invariably become inflated close to major sporting tournaments (such as the London Marathon, Wimbledon or major England football/rugby fixtures), or other important events taking place in the city - so it pays to plan your trip around such occasions or book your accommodation well in advance.
In general, most people tend to stay within "Zone 1" of the underground, however do your research carefully - sometimes being that extra five minutes away from a station can make the difference in cost and quality of local food and drinking options. In any case, you can always catch a bus anyway - by far the best way to see the city and get about generally.
Hotels[ edit ]
Your budget will have a lot to do with what part of London you will want to stay in. Tourist-standard prices range from £20-200 per person per night. Expect smaller than average rooms especially at the low end of this range. As a general rule, expect to pay between £75-150 per night for a 2 or 3 star hotel in the central area of the city. Many of the big name chain hotels now offer substantial discounts (with rates often down as low as £30-£50 per room per night) if you book well in advance, but the drawback is that you have to pay the full amount upfront at the time of booking and there are no refunds if you cancel. The heart of the West End is the most expensive place to stay and most hotels are either 4 or 5 star and most will command a hefty price premium.
The City can also be very expensive during the week, as it relies heavily on the business market but prices often drop over the weekend and it can be a good way of getting into a higher standard of accommodation than you could otherwise afford. Bear in mind though that this part of central London becomes a ghost town over the weekend, and you will find that few (if any) bars and restaurants will be open.
A top tip however is to always check the likes of LondonTown.com, Expedia and LateRooms as well as the hotel's own website - since there are often deals to be had which can reduce the costs significantly.
The extra cost of getting around is probably not significant compared to savings made by staying in a hotel further out near an Underground or railway station. Always be sure though to check where the closest Tube station is to your hotel. Staying further out will be cheaper but when travelling in allow 1-2 min per Tube stop (near the centre), around 2-3 min per stop (further out) and 5-10 min per line changes. This can easily total up to a 1 hour journey if there is a walk at each end. There are many hotels close to transport hub stations such as Stratford, Greenwich, Ealing Broadway, Wimbledon and East Croydon.
A more imaginative alternative could be to stay in a nearby town with quick and easy train travel to London. For example, lively Brighton (otherwise known as 'London by Sea') is only an hour away, but your budget will go much further and there are excellent accommodation options.
Some of the better value options are to be found in the following central districts:
Bloomsbury . Relatively quiet district with a wide range of accommodation, and has enjoyed a surge in popularity following Eurostar's move to St Pancras International station. Cartwright Gardens features a dozen small B&Bs in historic houses. Many budget options are located on Argyle Square (just off the Euston Road). Gets a little seedy towards and beyond King's Cross railway station.
Earl's Court and West Kensington in west central London. Budget and modest accommodation as well as good 4-star hotels. Be careful with the cheapest accommodation in this area though as it will likely be very seedy indeed.
Paddington and Bayswater in north west central London. Has undergone a lot of change largely resulting from the Heathrow Express train coming into Paddington station. Good hotels can be found in the immediate area of the station and in quieter spots a short walk away as well as in the traditional mid-range accommodation area further south in Bayswater.
Westminster . Lots of small B&Bs around the back of Victoria railway station in the Pimlico area.
A slightly left-field option is to check the Landmark Trust , a building preservation charity who purchase notable old buildings in the UK, renovate and run them as holiday lettings. An interesting approach to saving old buildings for sure.
Try booking a hotel in Canary Wharf if you are staying for the weekend - 4* hotels can be very cheap due to a lack of business customers. This also goes for the small area around Bank tube station.
Hostels[ edit ]
Not necessarily as unpleasant as you may think, and as long as you don't mind sharing with others, they are the most cost-effective option and also offer breakfast, and kitchens for self-catering.
There are independent hostels throughout the city which are listed in the relevant district articles.
In the summer season, many of the colleges and universities in Central London open up their student halls of residence as hotels during vacations, at usually much lower rates than proper hotels, but expect very basic facilities (e.g. communal bathrooms, no catering facilities), but you will get the personal privacy that you don't get in hostels for not very much more cost.
Apartments[ edit ]
Some apartment-hotels offer good value accommodation for those travelling in a group - often better quality than many hotels but at a cheaper individual rate per person.
Capsule-style crash spaces are just arriving, but they are only in central locations.
Short-term apartment or flat rentals are an attractive option for many travellers to London, and there are innumerable agencies offering them, almost all of them nowadays through the internet. A key consideration for renting a short term flat is if you are visiting in a large group or a family. In such cases a short stay in London can be more affordable compared to staying in a hotel. Your best protection is to deal only with London apartment rental agencies which have been recommended by independent sources you feel you can trust, and to deal only with those that accept confirmations via credit card.
Alternative accommodation[ edit ]
Travellers can choose from a variety of homestay styles such as homeswapping (lovehomeswap.com), living in a temporarily vacated room (anyfriendofours.com) or the high end version where companies specialize in homestays with full hotel services such as housekeeping and concierge (viveunique.com). Most of the time these options are safe but it is important that guests and homeowners take equal precaution to ensure their valuables are safe guarded. Homeowners should always provide guests with terms and conditions of their live-in house rules to ensure there are no mishaps and both parties are at ease. This new trend allows guests to enjoy a less touristy version of London as most of these homes will be in residential areas which each have their own unique charm and experiences.
Holiday rentals[ edit ]
Hotels are generally expensive in London when compared with other European cities. As a result the city has a vast number of self-catering accommodation on offer, many of them are apartments in various central areas of the capital. Well established local sites include Holidaylettings.co.uk , Perfect Accommodation , Space Apart Hotel , Owners Direct and Alpha Holiday Lettings . If you are looking to stay in just a room or part of the property, Airbnb matches holiday makers with hosts who only rent out part of their homes.
Wi-Fi access[ edit ]
London is unfortunately not noted for free public wifi access - although the number of hotspots is continuing to grow.
O2 Free Hotspots . O2 offers free WiFi around London's busiest streets including parts of Oxford- and Regents Street. Click on the link to see the map. Free.
Online-4-Free.com . One of the most promising (it seems) for traveller-frequented areas, a service that provides blanket coverage along the banks of the River Thames (and some surrounding streets) from Millbank down to Greenwich Pier, and a small 'cloud' in Holborn - the free service asks only that you view a short advertisement every half hour to get 256 kbit/s (higher rates and ad-free come at a small charge). Free.
Tate Modern . Offering for a trial period free wi-fi internet access.
British Library . Offers free internet access throughout the library with registration.
Stay safe[ edit ]
In an emergency, telephone "999" (or "112"). This number connects to Police, Ambulance and Fire/Rescue services. You will be asked which of these three services you require before being connected to the relevant operator.
Crime[ edit ]
Like many big cities, London has a variety of social problems, especially begging, drug abuse and theft (mobile phones are a favourite, often snatched by fast-moving cyclists).
A Traditional 'Blue Lamp' outside a Police Station in London
London has the oldest police force in the world, The Metropolitan Police Service , and on the whole, London is a safe place to visit and explore. Alongside the regular Police, there are over 4,000 Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) that provide a highly visible presence on the streets and can deal with low-level crime. Normal precautions for the safe keeping of your personal possessions, as you would in any other city, are suggested.
The Metropolitan Police have placed significant resources in combating street level crime. Working in conjunction with borough councils, they have brought the level of theft and pickpocketing in major retail areas in London to a manageable level. Pickpocketing in London is in general not as rampant as in other major European cities, though it still pays to be vigilant and take the usual precautions in securing your valuables.
Street gang culture is a growing problem in London as with many other cities in England. While most groups of youngsters are not likely to present any danger to tourists, some people feel the need to be slightly more vigilant in certain areas, especially certain outer suburbs. Violent crime is in general not common, and typically occurs in impoverished neighbourhoods that tourists are unlikely to wander into by accident.
Main precautions to take[ edit ]
Keep valuables out of sight: Many crimes are opportunistic - a lot of mobile phones are snatched from restaurant tables. By keeping items such as cash and mobile phones out of sight theft can easily be prevented. Don't flash your cash unnecessarily!
Keep bags zipped up and close to your body: If your bag is hanging open it's like putting up a flashing neon sign saying "Steal from me!" Use zips and inside pockets to secure items wherever possible. Never leave valuables such as mobile phones, wallets or travel documents in an outside section of your bag.
Be aware of your surroundings: Before using your mobile phone have a look around you. Put your back against something solid such as a wall or window so you can't be approached from behind. Constantly look around you even if you are in a busy area. Don't walk and talk/text!
Late at night[ edit ]
If you're planning to go out late at night and are worried about safety try to frequent crowded areas such as the West End. There are always plenty of people on the street, even at 04:00. Generally, outside central London, the South, and East suburban areas are considered more dangerous, notably Brixton , Peckham and Hackney , although some parts of North-West London such as Harlesden and northern Camden are also known trouble spots.
The main problem right throughout London to various degrees is drunken behaviour, particularly on Friday and Saturday nights and after football matches. Loud and rowdy behaviour is to be expected and fights and acts of aggression also occur. If you are harassed, it is best to simply ignore and walk away from those concerned. Trouble spots can be expected around popular drinking locations such as Soho and in various suburban centres.
Scams and cons[ edit ]
London has a large number of con artists around, all trying to convince you to hand over your money one way or another.
Cup and ball game: This is perhaps the most common scam and is frequently seen on the busier pedestrian bridges such as Westminster Bridge. A person will lay out a mat with three cups on it. They will pretend to hide a ball under one of the cups, move the cups around, and then ask you to place a bet on where the ball-containing cup has landed. There is no ball - the con artist will have spirited it away! This con always has people acting as lookouts in the crowd and they will pretend to win every now and again so it looks like the game is winnable. Also beware if you are just stopping to watch as you could be pick-pocketed! The best defence is to walk straight past these events and not engage at all. If you have a mobile phone/cellphone that works in the UK you can phone the police on 101 (the non-emergency equivalent to 999) and report them, but it is advised to move away to do this as you may be harassed by the con artist or their lookouts if they overhear you.
Overzealous street performers: Most street performers are happy to just do their thing, let you watch, and then you can throw them a few coins if you liked the show. However, some street performers will actively grab and harass passers-by in order to get attention and money. They may forcefully pose with you and ask you to take a photograph and then demand money for the photo opportunity. They may also take this opportunity while you're distracted to pick-pocket you. Don't engage with any street performer who is pushy or forceful - try and walk away, or call out "Get off me!" or "No!" and draw attention to yourself if you can't escape easily. Again, you can report these street performers on the 101 number as above.
Tissue sellers on trains: Beggars will get onto a train and place tissues on the seats with a note begging for money. They want you to feel pity for them and buy the tissues. This is an organised scam and the money goes towards criminal enterprises. If you see this happening on a train don't buy the tissues and ignore anyone who asks you for money for them. If you're above ground you can text the British Transport Police on 61016 to report it.
"Clip joint": 'Every night, Soho presents a particular danger: the "clip joint". The usual targets of these establishments are lone male tourists. Usually, an attractive woman will casually befriend the victim and recommend a local bar or even a club that has a "show". The establishment will be near-desolate, and, even if the victim has only a drink or two, the bill will run to hundreds of pounds. If payment is not immediately provided, the bouncers will lock the "patrons" inside and take it by force or take them to an ATM and stand over them while they extract the cash. To be safe, if a woman you just met suggests you a place, try to recommend a different bar. If she insists on hers then walk away and do not listen to her suggestions. Sometimes this con trick takes place when someone is lured into a private club with the promise of something perhaps more than a drink (like a 'private show' or sex for a small amount of money). A 'hostess fee' will appear on the bill for several hundred pounds, even though there has been nothing more than polite conversation.
"Stress tests": If anyone offers you a free "stress test", they are likely trying to recruit you into the Church of Scientology. The best option is to walk away or just say "No thank you" politely, as people are commonly harassed into giving personal details.
Needing money for phone/train tickets/the bus/et al.: A man or woman will approach you asking for money for public transport. They will claim that they have lost their Travelcard or that it has been damaged somehow. Most people upon losing their Travelcard will seek aid at a train station and not approach random strangers! Another variant of this scam exists wherein a man or woman will ask for change so they can make a call at a phone box (this is a frequent scam in the Shoreditch area). Occasionally a man with a very convincing fake gash on his arm will ask for money so that he can get to hospital (strangely refusing the offer of you calling an ambulance, as you would do for most injured people in the street).
Ticket machine scam: One of the most popular scams in London , is the ticket machine scam [6] : while buying a ticket at a train station someone will approach you and act as if they want to help you buy the right ticket. In reality they will wait until your money is in the machine, then lean across, cancel the transaction and pocket your cash. Say "No thanks" politely - you know what ticket you want to buy!
Selling/asking for a donation for "lucky heather": This scam, usually operated by women, involves someone handing you "lucky heather" (a small flower usually wrapped in foil) and then either trying to sell it to you or asking for a monetary donation. They will come up with a vague charity ("money for sick children", "money for orphaned babies", and so on) and show you a purse full of supposed "donations". If you are handed one of these flowers either hand it back or drop it on the ground and leave. Be aware that you if you take the flower and leave without "donating" you could be chased and harassed by the people involved in the scam. This scam has been seen in Chinatown around the time of Chinese New Year.
Street collections[ edit ]
Although not illegal, London is a known hotspot for charity collectors, some of whom can be extremely persuasive in trying to obtain a donation; therefore they have earned the name "charity muggers" or "chuggers". If you do not want to donate, be polite but forceful, and under no circumstances provide any form of bank details. Larger charities ask their collectors to have specific and verifiable identification.
Transport[ edit ]
Don't take illegal minicabs (see Get around for details). Minicabs are not allowed to ply for trade on the street and any minicab doing this should be avoided.
Travelling on the lower deck of a night bus is generally safer, as there are more passengers around, and you are visible to the bus driver.
If you have been the victim of crime on the railways or the London Underground you should report the crime as soon as possible to the British Transport Police, who have an office in most major train and Tube stations. Or if you have been a victim of crime in the City of London you should report the crime to the City of London Police. Elsewhere, you should report your crime as normal to the Metropolitan Police.
If you've lost an item on the Underground, Overground or Docklands Light Railway, in a licensed black cab or on a red London bus you should contact the TfL Lost Property Office (Tube: Baker Street) as soon as possible. In respect of other rail and coach services, the relevant service operator should be contacted.
Stay healthy[ edit ]
The UK's National Health Service (NHS) will provide emergency treatment for anyone in the UK, irrespective of whether they reside in the UK, but if you are not UK resident you will be expected to make a contribution (up to the entire cost) towards such treatment. The UK Government has, as of 2015, announced it intends to start charging for the use of the NHS (including emergency treatment) by visitors from outside the EU, to reduce the impact of so-called "health tourism".
You can find NHS services near you here .
Emergencies[ edit ]
For a serious medical emergency (unconsciousness, stroke, heart attack, heavy bleeding, broken bones, etc.) dial 999 or 112 and ask for an ambulance. These numbers are free of charge from any telephone. As emergency response is prioritised in London, do not be concerned if the telephone operator asks you for details about the nature of the emergency. Depending on the urgency an ambulance will probably be dispatched while you are talking to the operator so don't be worried about wasting time. The operator will also be able to reassure you and offer you advice on how to help the patient until the ambulance arrives. You should also try to have an address or general location of the patient before you call as this will help to save time. Please also try to stay with the patient even if you do not know them.
London's ambulance coverage is excellent with highly trained and friendly staff. For instances of major trauma there is also London's Air Ambulance , two helicopters that can deliver an advanced trauma team within minutes to anywhere in London. At night the helicopters do not fly and a rapid response car is dispatched instead.
Emergencies can also be dealt with at most NHS hospitals with an A & E (Accident & Emergency) department. In A & E, be prepared to wait for a long time (the average is 4 hours) during busy periods before being given treatment if your medical complaint is not too serious. For less serious problems, try a GP's ("General Practitioner", or family doctor) surgery, Urgent Care Centre , or a high-street pharmacist.
Major A & E hospitals in London are:
Central Middlesex Hospital, Acton Ln, Park Royal, NW10 7NS
Charing Cross Hospital, Fulham Palace Rd, Hammersmith, W6 8RF
Chelsea & Westminster Hospital, 369 Fulham Rd, Chelsea, SW10 9TR
Greenwich District Hospital, Vanbrugh Hill, SE10 9HE
Guy's Hospital, St. Thomas St, Bankside, SE1 9RT
Homerton University Hospital, Homerton Row, Homerton, E9 6SR
King's College Hospital, Denmark Hill, SE5 9RS
Lewisham Hospital, High St, SE13 6LH
Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Stadium Road, Woolwich, SE18 4QH
Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton Ln, SW15 5PN
Royal Free Hospital, 23 East Heath Rd, Hampstead, NW3 1DU
The Royal London Hospital, Whitechapel, Tower Hamlets, E1 1BB
St. Marys NHS Trust, Praed St, Paddington, W2 1NY
St. Thomas' Hospital, Lambeth Palace Rd, South Bank, SE1 7EH
University College London Hospitals NHS Trust, 25 Grafton Way, Bloomsbury, WC1E 6DB
Whittington Hospital, Highgate Hill, Archway, N19 5NF
General medical advice[ edit ]
For advice on non-emergency medical problems, you can ring the 24 hour NHS Direct service on 111.
Treatment for non-emergency conditions, or for hospital admissions resulting from emergencies, is normally free for people holding a European Health Insurance card (EHIC) issued by most European governments, or certain other countries listed here . In the absence of such a card you would be well advised to get private travel health insurance.
At large organised events, and in many theatre productions, basic medical assistance and first aid is provided through the support of organisations such as St John Ambulance or the stewards for the event.
Pharmacies[ edit ]
Pharmacies (often referred to as chemists) are found across London , with chains like Lloyds Pharmacy and Boots being prevalent. Many independent pharmacies also exist. Most large supermarkets also have pharmacy counters, although these do not stock some of the stronger remedies.
Pharmacists are also able to offer advice on many health problems and recommend medicines that might help.
Private healthcare[ edit ]
London is also home to some of the most renowned - and most expensive - private medical treatment facilities, the most notable of which being the host of private consultants and surgeons on Harley Street in Marylebone .
Cope[ edit ]
Embassies and High Commission[ edit ]
Some countrSomehave a (separate) consulate for their consular services for issuing visas, passports, notary services, etc., in a different location than the main embassy/high commission chancery so check their website or call them before going to the embassy.
Go next[ edit ]
Aylesbury - Historic market town, 35 miles north-west of London.
Bath . Roman relics, rich in Georgian architecture and makes an easy day trip from Paddington station.
Berkhamsted - Historic market town, features the ruined castle of William the Conqueror, canal-side pubs and Ashridge Forest.
Birmingham . Boasts many events, pubs and clubs, and shopping opportunities. Trains can take as little as 85 minutes from Euston or Marylebone or a coach from Victoria takes 3 hours.
Bournemouth . Large beach resort on the edge of the New Forest , with seven miles of golden sand. Only a two hour ride on the train from Waterloo station.
Brighton . Fashionable beach town about 90 km (55 mi) south. Less than an hour by train from Victoria station.
Brussels ( Belgium ) Only 2 hours via Eurostar from St. Pancras Station.
Canterbury . Site of the foremost cathedral in England, constructed during the 12th-15th centuries.
Eastbourne . A leafy, seaside resort town, of 'timeless' Victorian architecture, with a lovely pier and bandstand. Famous for Beachy Head chalk cliffs, popular viewing platform and suicide spot!
Hastings . Seaside town, famous for the Battle of 1066.
Hemel Hempstead . 30 miles north of London, a small town dating back to the 8th century. Also home to the UK's largest indoor ski slope.
Henley-on-Thames . About 55 km (35 mi) west of London, a quaint and typical English town, great for walks by, and aquatic activities on, the Thames. Home to the famous boating Regatta in Summer
Lewes . Delightful mid-Sussex town, with a picturesque brewery and the famous Guy Fawkes festival in November.
Lille ( France ). Only 1 hour 20 minutes via Eurostar from St. Pancras Station.
Manchester . If you have time it is worth visiting Britain's other great cities and Manchester has very much to offer. Manchester can be reached in around 2 hours by train and is about 320 km (200 mi) to the north. It is the second most visited city in England (after London).
Maidstone , county town of Kent , known as the Garden of England.
Margate and Ramsgate , twin seaside resorts of the Isle of Thanet in Kent .
Paris ( France ). Only 2 hours via Eurostar from St. Pancras station.
Medway Towns . Has a strong naval history in Chatham Dockyards , with medieval attractions like Rochester Cathedral and Castle. Has a strong literary connection with Charles Dickens, you can visit his museum and a former residence.
Oxford and Cambridge . The university cities make for ideal days out of London.
Portsmouth . Home of the Royal Navy and of real interest to nautical enthusiasts. Also offers access to the Isle of Wight .
Shrewsbury . A very traditional town full of medieval black and white timber-framed buildings along winding, steep, narrow streets set on the River Severn easily reached by taking the train (change at Wolverhampton or Crewe) from Euston.
St Albans . Small, quaint "cathedral city" just north of metropolitan London. Easily accessed from J22 on the M25 motorway or about 30 minutes on the train out of Farringdon station.
Stonehenge . Among the most famous landmarks in England. The mysterious stone ring was built thousands of years ago, today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . You can get there by a guided bus tour or by train (1 hr 30) to the nearby city Salisbury , where you can also visit the 13th-century cathedral with the highest spire in the country.
South Downs and North Downs National Parks offer beautiful, rolling chalk hills for a day's stroll or longer hikes.
Southend-on-Sea . An Essex seaside town with pebble and sand beaches, fairground rides, arcades, and the longest pier in the world. Make sure to grab yourself a delicious Rossi ice cream - a local delicacy since 1932 - while you're there! Only 40 minutes by train from Fenchurch Street station.
Shaftesbury . One of the oldest and highest towns in Britain. This small Dorset town has been described as "beautiful" by visitors.
Winchester . Former capital of England and attractive "cathedral city" with lots to see. About an hour away by train from Waterloo.
Windsor . Nearby Thames-side town with magnificent castle and Royal residence located only one hour by train outside of London. Makes for a very easy day trip.
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Kielder Water is a large artificial reservoir in which English county ? | Kielder
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Kielder
Kielder Water is a large artificial reservoir in Northumberland in North East England. It is the largest artificial lake in the United Kingdom by capacity and it is surrounded by Kielder Forest, the largest human-made woodland in Europe. It was planned in the late 1960s to satisfy an expected rise in demand for water to support a booming UK industrial economy. It was constructed between 1975 and 1981 by an AMEC/Balfour Beatty[1] joint venture and was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1982. It took two years for the valley to fill with water completely once construction was completed.
Keilder column
Kielder Forest is a large forestry plantation in Northumberland, England, surrounding the reservoir Kielder Water. It is the largest man-made woodland in Europe.
Kielder is dominated by conifers. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) covers 75% of the planted area; this species thrives in the damp conditions afforded by northern Britain. Other species include Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta), which cover 9% of the area each. The remainder is made up of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), larch (Larix spp.), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and broadleaves including birch (Betula spp.), Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), cherry (Prunus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), Beech (Fagus sylvatica), and willow (Salix spp.).
475,000 cubic metres of timber is harvested annually to supply local sawmilling, chipboard, pulp and wood fuel customers. Most of this volume comes from clearfelling areas; an increasing percentage however is sourced from stands harvested under continuous cover silviculture systems. Clear felled areas are replanted with a mix of coniferous and broadleaf tree species, opportunities are also taken to increase the proportion of open space and to improved the riparian habitat. As with all Forestry Commission woodlands timber is independently certified under the Forest Stewardship Council scheme.
The forest contains a number of sites of special scientific interest, primarily associated with the upland moorland environment. A programme of restoration of Border Mires is ongoing. The forest is one of the last English strongholds of the European red squirrel, and provides excellent habitat for many species of birds of prey. A large population of roe deer is actively managed. Many archaeological remains can be found within the forest and are an important cultural link to the often turbulent history of the area.
Kielder Castle Visitor Centre is an 18th century hunting lodge built by the Duke of Northumberland, which has been converted into a visitor and information centre. It is located on the edge of Kielder Village at the head of the River North Tyne valley.
The Castle serves as a hub for the growing number of recreational facilities on offer, walking and cycling trails, picnic areas and a forest drive.
The forest contains a number of art and architectural installations including a Skyspace[1] designed by James Turrell and Wave Chamber, a camera obscura in a stone cairn by Chris Drury.
The forest also contains Kielder Observatory which is an astronomical observatory.
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Who designed the National Theatre building on the South Bank in London ? | The Planning of Kielder Water & Forest Park | Engineering Documentary Films - YouTube
The Planning of Kielder Water & Forest Park | Engineering Documentary Films
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Published on Mar 5, 2016
The Planning of Kielder Water & Forest Park | Engineering Documentary Films
Kielder Forest is a large forestry plantation in Northumberland, England, surrounding Kielder village and the Kielder Water reservoir. It is the largest man-made woodland in England. Its 250 square miles (650 km2) are three-quarters covered by forest.[1] The majority of the forest lies within The Border Forest Park with the southern tip, known as Wark Forest, lying within Northumberland National Park.
Kielder Water is a large artificial reservoir in Northumberland in North East England. It is the largest artificial lake in the United Kingdom by capacity and it is surrounded by Kielder Forest, the largest man-made woodland in Europe. The scheme was planned in the late 1960s to satisfy an expected rise in demand for water to support a booming UK industrial economy. But the decline of traditional heavy industry, together with more water-efficient industrial processes and better control of water supply leakage, served to undermine the original justification for the reservoir and many came to criticise the government-funded project as a white elephant.
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The formula pi times radius squared times height gives the volume of which three-dimensional geometric shape ? | Geometric Formula Review | Purplemath
Geometric Formula Review
Purplemath
There are many geometric formulas, and they relate height, width, length, or radius, etc, to perimeter, area, surface area, or volume, etc. Some of the formulas are rather complicated, and you hardly ever see them, let alone use them. But there are some basic formulas that you really should memorize, because it really is reasonable for your instructor to expect you to know them.
For instance, it is very easy to find the area A of a rectangle: it is just the length l times the width w:
Arect = lw
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The "rect" in the formula above is a subscript, indicating that the area "A" being found is that of a rectangle. Because I'm going to be discussing area, volume, etc, formulas for different shapes, I'm using the subscripts to make clear the shape to which the particular formula refers (while using "A" for "area", "SA" for "surface area", "P" for "perimeter", and "V" for "volume"). Subscripting of this sort can be a useful technique for making your meaning clear, so try to keep this in the back of your mind for possible future use.
If you look at a picture of a rectangle, and remember that "perimeter" means "length around the outside", you'll see that a rectangle's perimeter P is the sum of the top and bottom lengths l and the left and right widths w:
Prect = 2l + 2w
Squares are even simpler, because their lengths and widths are identical. The area A and perimeter P of a square with side-length s are given by:
Asqr = s2
Psqr = 4s
You should know the formula for the area of a triangle; it's easy to memorize, and it tends to pop up unexpectedly in the middle of word problems. Given the measurements for the base b and the height h of the triangle, the area A of the triangle is:
Of course, the perimeter P of the triangle will just be the sum of the lengths of the triangle's three sides.
You should know the formula for the circumference C and area A of a circle, given the radius r:
Acir = πr2
Ccir = 2πr
("π" is the number approximated by 3.14159 or the fraction 22/7)
Remember that the radius of a circle is the distance from the center to the outside of a circle. In other words, the radius is just halfway across. If they give you the length of the diameter, being the length of a line through the middle going all the way across the circle, then you'll first have to divide that value in half in order to apply the above formulas.
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The above are all "flat", two-dimensional shapes. Sometimes you will have to deal with three-dimensional shapes, such as cubes or cones. For these kinds of shapes, you'll be finding the surface area (if you were painting the object, this is the area that you'd have to cover) and the volume (being the interior space that you could fill, were the shape hollow).
The formula for the volume V of a cube is easy, since the length, the width, and the height are all the same value s:
Vcube = s3
The formula for the surface area (the area you would measure if you needed to paint the ouside of the cube) is fairly easy, too, since all the sides have the same square area of s2. There are six sides (top, bottom, left, right, front, and back), so the surface area SA is:
SAcube= 6s2
The formulas get a bit more complicated for a "rectangular prism", which is the technical term for a brick. The volume V is still fairly simple, being length times width times height:
Vrect = lwh
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The surface area formula is a bit more ornate. (Try to follow the reasoning that I'm going to use, because you'll probably forget the formula, but it's easy to recreate if you just take a little time and think about it.) The top and bottom of the "brick" have the same area, being length times width. The left and right sides of the brick have the same area, being width times height. And the front and back of the brick have the same area, being length times height. (Draw a picture, labelling the dimensions, if you're not sure of this.) Then the formula for the surface area SA of a brick is:
SArect= 2lw + 2wh + 2lh
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Cylinders (which are like tubes, but with caps on the ends) also come up occasionally. The volume V of a cylinder is easy: it's the area of the end (which is just the area of the circle) times the height h:
Vcyl = πr2h
The surface area SA is the area of the ends (which are just circles), plus the area of the side, which is a circle's circumference times the height h of the cylinder:
SAcyl = 2πr2 + 2πrh
Depending on the class you're taking, you might also need to know the formula for the volume V of a cone with base radius r and height h:
...or the volume V of a sphere (a ball) with radius r:
You may notice other formulas cropping up in your homework or classroom exercises. You may need to memorize these other formulas (there are many!), so be sure to check with your instructor before the test to learn which you will be expected to know.
Some instructors provide all of the geometric formulas, so your test will have a listing of anything you might need. But not all instructors are this way, and you can't expect every instructor, every department, or "common", department-wide, or otherwise standardized tests to give you all this information. Ask your instructors for their policies, but remember that there does come a point (high school? SAT? ACT? college? "real life"?) at which you will be expected to have learned at least some of these basic formulas. Start memorizing now!
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Who is the Patron Saint of grocers and police ? | Volume Formula | Finding Volume of Shapes | MathCaptain.com
Volume of a Cone Formula
Cone is a three-dimensional figure that tapers smoothly from a circular base to a point at the top. This point is called apex of the cone. The straight line joining apex and center of base is known as axis of the cone. A cone whose axis is exactly perpendicular to the base is known as right-circular cone. If we take a right-angled triangle and rotate it about its perpendicular side, then a imaginary three-dimensional shape is formed which is called a right-circular cone. A right-circular cone is shown in the following figure:
The radius of the base of a cone is denoted by "r". The length of axis or the distance between apex and center of the base is called height of the cone and is denoted by "h". The lateral height of the cone is referred as its slant height and is denoted by "l".
Volume of a cone is the amount of fluid occupied in it. The volume of cone is derived by the following formula:
Where,
Area of base = Area of circle = $\pi$ r2
Hence, formula for volume of cone can be rewritten as follows:
Where,
Volume of a Sphere Formula
A sphere is a three-dimensional form of a circle. A sphere is a ball. All the points on the surface of a sphere are equidistant from a fixed point which is called center of the sphere and this distance is called its radius. A sphere can be solid or hollow. Sphere is shown in the following figure:
Volume of a sphere is the amount of fluid enclosed by it. Formula for volume of a sphere is given below:
Where, r = Radius of sphere.
Volume of a Hemisphere Formula
Earth is divided into four hemispheres: eastern, western, northern and southern. But geometrically, a hemisphere is exactly half of a sphere. When a sphere is cut by a plane passing through its center, sphere is divided into two parts. Each part is called hemisphere. A hemisphere may be solid or hollow. Following are the figures showing solid and hollow hemispheres respectively:
Volume of a hemisphere is amount of fluid contained in it. Volume of hemisphere is just half of that of sphere.
Volume of hemisphere = $\frac{1}{2}$ $\times$ Volume of a sphere
Volume of hemisphere = $\frac{1}{2}$ $\times$ $\frac{4}{3}$$\pi r^{3}$
Therefore, volume of a hemisphere is given by the following formula:
Where, r = Radius of hemisphere.
Volume of a Cube Formula
A cube is three-dimensional form of a square. A shape bounded by six squares with same sides is known as a cube. The angle between two adjacent sides of a cube is right angle. If a room has equal length, width and height, then it is an example of cube. A cube may also be called "regular hexahedron".
The formula for volume of a cube is given below:
Where, a = Side of cube.
Volume of a Pyramid Formula
A pyramid is a three-dimensional shape which has triangular lateral sides converging to a single point. This point is called apex of the pyramid. A pyramid must have at least three lateral triangles as it is a three-dimensional figure. The base of a pyramid can be any polygon like triangle, square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon etc. A pyramid with circular base is called cone which has been described above. Following two figures are examples of hexagonal pyramid and triangular pyramid respectively:
Formula for calculating volume of a pyramid is given below:
Height of a pyramid is perpendicular distance of apex of pyramid to its base.
Volume of a Square Pyramid Formula
A pyramid with a square base is called a square pyramid. A square pyramid as four triangular lateral side. The perpendicular distance from apex of the pyramid to its base is called its height.
Volume of a square pyramid is same as that of a general pyramid. The only difference is that in place of area of base, we use area of square.
$Volume\ of\ Pyramid= $$ \frac{1}{3}$$\times Area\ of\ Base \times Height$
$Volume\ of\ square\ Pyramid= $$\frac{1}{3}$$\times Area\ of\ square\ base \times Height$
If each side of square base measures "a", then area of square base = a2.
Therefore, volume of square pyramid is given by:
Where,
a = Side of square base
h = Height of the pyramid.
Volume of a Prism Formula
Prism is a three-dimensional shape which has two end faces. These end faces are parallel to each other and are of same shape and size. These end faces may be any polygon. Prisms have same cross section perpendicular to its height. It means that if we cut a prism by a plane perpendicular to the height, we obtain a same shape.
Prisms are of two types:
Regular Prism: A prism with regular base is called regular prism. It means that all the sides of base are equal.
Irregular Prisms: A prism with irregular base is called irregular prism. It means that all the sides of base are not equal.
A prism is demonstrated in the following figure:
The space enclosed by a prism is called its volume. Volume of a prism is given below:
Volume of a Rectangular Prism Formula
A prism whose end faces are rectangle is called rectangular prism. When we take cross section of a rectangular prism perpendicular to its height, we get a rectangle. A rectangular prism is simply a cuboid. Following figure is demonstrating a rectangular prism:
Volume of the rectangular prism is same as volume of prism. The only difference is that we use area of base as area of rectangle.
Volume of rectangular prism = Area of rectangular base $\times$ height
Therefore, volume of rectangular prism can be defined as follows:
Volume of a Box Formula
A box is a three-dimensional shape which has six rectangular faces. A box is also called a cuboid and a regular rectangular prism. Opposite faces of a cuboid or a box are parallel and congruent to each other. All the adjacent sides of a box are perpendicular to one another.
Volume of a box is the amount of fluid held by it. The formula for volume of a box or cuboid is same as the formula for that of a rectangular prism:
Where,
Volume of a Cylinder Formula
A cylinder has two end faces which are flat and circular. These two faces are parallel and congruent to each other. If we take a rectangular sheet of paper and roll it along its length, we get a cylinder. The line segment joining the centers of the end faces is called axis of a cylinder.
A cylinder whose axis is perpendicular to its base is referred as right circular cylinder. When the cylinder is not right-circular cylinder, its height is referred as perpendicular distance between the two end faces. Following image is demonstrating a right circular cylinder:
The formula for volume of a cylinder is given by:
Volume of cylinder = Area of base * height
If radius of circular base is denoted by "r" and height by "h".
Therefore, formula of for volume of a cylinder is rewritten as:
A tetrahedron is a three-dimensional shape with four triangular faces, three of which meet at a point called vertex. Tetrahedron has 6 edges and 4 vertices. Tetrahedron is a type of pyramid.
Volume of a tetrahedron is same as that of volume of pyramid which is given as follows:
A regular tetrahedron is a tetrahedron in which all four triangles are equilateral triangles. Following is the image showing a regular tetrahedron:
Let us assume that each side of regular tetrahedron is "a". Then,
Area of base = Area of equilateral triangle ΔBDC
Area of base = $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{4}a^{2}$.........1
In right triangle BED, using Pythagorean theorem,
DE2 = BD2 - BE2
DE = $\sqrt{a^{2}-\frac{a^{2}}{4}}$
DE = $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}a$
Since DE is a median of ΔBDC,
∴ DO = $\frac{2}{3}$ DE
DO = $\frac{2}{3}$ $\times$ $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}a$
DO = $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}a$
In right triangle AOD, using Pythagorean theorem,
AO2 = AD2 - DO2
AO = $\frac{\sqrt{6}}{3}a$
AO = height = $\frac{\sqrt{6}}{3}a$ .........2
Using equation 1 and 2, we obtain
Volume of regular tetrahedron = $\frac{1}{3}$ $\times$ $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{4}a^{2}$$\times$$\frac{\sqrt{6}}{3}a$
Therefore, the formula for volume of regular tetrahedron is given below:
A triangular prism is a kind of prism in which two end faces are congruent triangles and are parallel to each other. A triangular prism has five faces. Other three faces are parallelograms.
Volume of a prism = area of base $\times$ height
and area of base = area of triangle
Therefore, Formula for volume of triangular prism is given below:
Where,
Formula for Volume of a Square Prism
A prism whose end faces are squares is called square prism. When we take cross section of a square prism perpendicular to its height, we get a square. A square prism is simply a cuboid with square base. A square prism which has square lateral surfaces is a cube.
If each side of square base is "a" and height of the prism is "h", then we have
Volume of square prism = Area of base $\times$ height
Therefore, formula for volume of a square prism can be expressed as follows:
Where,
a = Side of square base
h = Height of prism.
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What is the more common name of the Chilean Pine ? | Araucaria araucana (monkey puzzle) | Plants & Fungi At Kew
Discover plants and fungi
Araucaria araucana (monkey puzzle)
The monkey puzzle was given its name by an observer who thought that monkeys wouldn't be able to climb the spiky branches.
Araucaria araucana in Chile (Photo: Martin Gardner)
Species information
Araucaria araucana (Molina) K. Koch
Common name:
monkey puzzle, Chile pine (English); araucaria, pino araucana, pino Chileno, piñonero (Spanish)
Conservation status:
Vulnerable (VU) according to IUCN Red List criteria. Declared a Natural Monument in Chile in 1990.
Habitat:
Mixed deciduous and evergreen forest, or growing as pure stands; in moist loamy soil or in stabilised volcanic ash; on the lower slopes of mountains.
Key Uses:
Ornamental; edible seeds; a valuable timber tree, but logging of wild trees now strictly prohibited; a sacred tree in indigenous culture.
Known hazards:
The rigid spines on the trunk and leaf tips are potentially hazardous. This is a tree to avoid climbing!
Taxonomy
Genus: Araucaria
About this species
The monkey puzzle or Chile pine (Araucaria araucana) is an evergreen conifer native to Argentina and Chile. It was discovered in about 1780 by a Spanish explorer and introduced to England by Archibald Menzies in 1795. Menzies was a plant collector and naval surgeon on Captain George Vancouver's circumnavigation of the globe, travelling in Captain James Cook's old ship, HMS Discovery. He was served the seeds of this conifer as dessert while dining with the governor of Chile and later sowed them in a frame on the quarter deck, returning home to England with five healthy plants. One of these monkey puzzles could be seen at Kew until it died in 1892.
The common name alludes to the fact that the task of climbing the tree, with its sharp branches tightly clothed with spiny leaves, would puzzle even a monkey.
Synonym:
Discover more
Geography and distribution
Native to southwest Argentina and southern and central Chile, where it grows at 600 to 1,800 m above sea level.
Description
Araucaria araucana pollen cones at Kew
An evergreen, pyramid-shaped tree, the monkey puzzle grows up to 50 m high with a trunk circumference of up to 2.5 m. The tree's most distinguishing feature is its leaves. They are stiff, dark green and glossy with a spiny tip and completely cover each branch, closely overlapping each other. The visual effect is wholly unusual and while many consider the appearance of the tree majestic, others find its scaly, almost reptilian foliage somewhat scary. The horizontal branches are produced in tiers and have few side branches. The female cone is globular and up to 20 cm in diameter; the male cone is cylindrical and up to 15 cm long. Trees normally have cones of only one sex, rarely both.
Threats and conservation
The monkey puzzle is well-adapted to fire, volcanic activity having long caused wildfires in its natural habitat, so this is not a threat under natural circumstances. However, fires resulting from human activities (especially agricultural clearances) cause severe damage to remaining populations of the tree. Research in Chile, carried out under the auspices of the Flagship Species Fund of the U.K.’s Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) and Flora & Fauna International (FFI), found at least 80% of the trees remaining in one study area had suffered fire damage.
Monkey puzzle stem
Despite being officially declared a Natural Monument in 1990 (making it an offence to cut down wild trees), forests outside of protected areas are still subject to high levels of damage due to burning, grazing and conversion to commercial plantations. The majority of the forests occur in a relatively small area of the Chilean and Argentinean Andes; the most threatened populations are in the coastal cordillera in southern Chile. Araucaria araucana is listed in CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix 1, which includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
Monkey puzzle is one of the iconic threatened trees included in The Global Trees Campaign – an international initiative of Fauna & Flora International (FFI) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), aimed at saving threatened trees.
Uses
The name Araucaria araucana comes from the Araucanos, a group of Amerindian tribes of the Araucana linguistic family, some of whom still live in Chile and Argentina. The Araucanos consider monkey puzzles to be sacred. They traditionally ate the seeds (piñones), which although edible, taste better roasted than raw. Piñones continue to be an important part of the diet of Araucanos living close to monkey puzzle populations. The dried seeds are made into a flour, which the Araucanos then use to make a fermented beverage (muday). The seeds are also fed to livestock, especially during the winter.
Local people used to cut trees for fuelwood and construction, but large-scale logging of Araucaria forests followed the arrival of Europeans in the region in the 19th century. Monkey puzzle was at one time considered to be the most valuable timber in the southern Andes, being used for railway sleepers, pit props in mines, ship masts, and for paper pulp. In the 1940s, it was even reported as being used in the construction of aeroplanes.
A recent study indicates that local communities have begun to replant degraded areas of logged forest with Araucaria araucana and other useful native plant species. Indigenous knowledge and the involvement of local communities could play a role in developing sustainable use strategies in the future.
Monkey puzzles in Bicton Gardens, Devon (Photo: Derek Spicer)
The monkey puzzle is often planted as an ornamental in parks and gardens, where its unusual appearance is admired. In the UK, it was most widely planted in the Victorian era. However, because it grows to a great height and gardens have become smaller, its popularity has waned. Nevertheless, the sight of a monkey puzzle tree (especially a mature specimen bearing cones) will often arouse curiosity and comments from passers-by.
The planting of Araucaria araucana was a popular means of creating impressive avenues on large estates in the UK and other countries in the 19th century, such as this example in Bicton Gardens, Devon (image, right). Younger trees have since been planted to replace those damaged in the 1987 storm.
Millennium Seed Bank: Seed storage
Kew's Millennium Seed Bank Partnership aims to save plant life world wide, focusing on plants under threat and those of most use in the future. Seeds are dried, packaged and stored at a sub-zero temperature in our seed bank vault.
Description of seeds: Average 1,000 seed weight = 4,235 g. Seeds are dispersed by animals.
Number of seed collections stored in the Millennium Seed Bank: None.
Seed storage behaviour: Recalcitrant. Sensitive to desiccation.
Composition values: Average oil content = 5.45%.
Araucaria araucana seed cones
Monkey puzzle at Kew
One monkey puzzle, which stands beside the Orangery, was planted in 1978. There are other specimens planted in the Pinetum by the Lake, including two recently collected on a Kew expedition to the tree’s native homeland of Chile. Other Araucaria species can be seen in the Temperate House.
A grove of monkey puzzles can be seen in Bloomer’s Valley at Kew’s sister garden Wakehurst.
The Economic Botany Collection contains 23 specimens of Araucaria araucana, including cones, seeds and samples of the wood. Dried and spirit-preserved specimens of monkey puzzle are held in the behind-the-scenes Herbarium, where they are made available by appointment to researchers.
References and credits
Aagesen, D.L. (1998). Indigenous resource rights and conservation of the monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana, Araucariaceae): a case study from southern Chile. Econ. Bot. 52(2): 146-160.
Conifer Specialist Group (2000). Araucaria araucana. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. < www.iucnredlist.org> . Downloaded on 15 November 2010.
Echeverria, C., Zamorano, C. & Cortés, M. (2004). Conservation and Restoration of Monkey Puzzle (Araucaria araucana) Forests in Chile. Final Report. Global Trees Campaign. 16 pp.
Farjon, A. (2010). A Handbook of the World’s Conifers (Vol 1). E.J. Brill, Leiden & Boston.
Herrmann, T.M. (2006). Indigenous knowledge and management of Araucaria araucana forest in the Chilean Andes: implications for native forest management. Biodiversity and Conservation 15(2): 647-662.
World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (2010). The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available online (accessed 15 November 2010).
Kew Science Editor: Aljos Farjon
Kew contributors: Steve Davis (Sustainable Uses Group)
Copyediting: Emma Tredwell
While every effort has been taken to ensure that the information contained in these pages is reliable and complete, the notes on hazards, edibility and suchlike included here are recorded information and do not constitute recommendations. No responsibility will be taken for readers’ own actions.
| Araucaria araucana |
What was the title of the only U.K. No.1 hit for the group The Dave Clark Five ? | Monkey puzzle | Attractions At Kew Gardens
Buy images of Araucaria araucana (monkey puzzle)
Menzies was served the seeds of the conifer as dessert during a dinner hosted by the governor of Chile. Rather than eat them, he sowed them in a frame on the ship’s quarterdeck and returned to England with five healthy plants. Sir Joseph Banks, Kew’s unofficial director, planted two seeds in his own garden and three at Kew. One survived in the Gardens until 1892.
The specimen at Kew is a much younger tree. It was planted here in 1978 and should live to be over 100 years old. More specimens can be seen in the Pinetum, including two of wild origin recently collected on a field trip to Chile.
Take a closer look
Monkey puzzles have green, glossy leaves that overlap and completely cover each branch. Some people say they look a bit reptilian. Do you agree?
Individual leaves can last 10 to 15 years. Where leaves have died, you might see the occasional bare patch on older branches.
The tree gets its common name because gardeners thought its spiny branches would puzzle a climbing monkey. The monkey would also be puzzled to find itself in Chile, of course – there are no wild monkeys in this South American country.
Tree biology
Before the name 'monkey puzzle' caught on, this tree was often called the Chilean pine. However, is not a pine at all, coming from a different family. It is an evergreen conifer, and the indigenous people of Arauco, Chile eat its tasty seeds.
In the wild, monkey puzzles are found in Chile and Argentina, 600 to 1,800 metres above sea level in moist areas rich with volcanic ash. They grow in mixed deciduous and evergreen forests or in pure stands. Here they can live to be around 150 years old. They have a shorter lifespan in drier or more polluted climes.
Cultivation and uses
Originally discovered by Spanish explorer Don Francisco Dendariarena in the 1600s, monkey puzzle was for a while the most valuable timber in the southern Andes, used for railway sleepers, pit props, ship masts and paper pulp. Today it is a protected icon of the Global Trees Campaign and these uses have largely ended.
Its toasted seeds are still eaten by people living near monkey puzzle forests and its productivity (once it begins producing seed at around 30 to 40 years old) gives it commercial crop potential.
Chile declared the monkey puzzle tree a national monument in 1990.
Quick facts
Scientific name: Araucaria araucana. This species was named after the Chilean province of Arauco where the tree was first discovered.
Family: Araucariaceae
Place of origin: Chile
Conservation status: Vulnerable. Though protected by national monument status (it is illegal to cut down a wild monkey puzzle in Chile) and a CITES listing (controlling trade), this tree is still at risk in the wild.
Date planted: 1978
Height: This tree is a relative baby at 11.1 metres. Specimens up to 50 metres high are known.
Find out more
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Which actor was the first director of the National Theatre ? | National Theatre: Rufus Norris is new director - Telegraph
Theatre News
National Theatre: Rufus Norris is new director
Rufus Norris, director of Festen and London Road, will take over the artistic directorship of the National Theatre in April 2015
Image 1 of 2
Rufus Norris is to take over from Sir Nicholas Hytner as director of the National Theatre Photo: Getty Images
By Hannah Furness and Serena Davies
10:45AM BST 15 Oct 2013
Rufus Norris was named this morning as the new director of the National Theatre .
Norris, 48, has become the first actor and the first non-Cambridge graduate to be appointed director of National Theatre in four decades, as he pledges to bring adventure, bravery and risk to arguably the most important job in British arts.
Norris, who has worked on an opera with Damon Albarn, a feature film which premiered in Cannes and a host of award-winning theatre productions, has now formally accepted the role, succeeding Nicholas Hytner, who announced in April that he will step down at the end of March 2015, after what will be 12 years in the post. .
Saying he was "nervous" but excited at taking on a National Theatre in the "rudest possible health", he has pledged to bring a fresh outlook, courageous projects and "attack" the role with gusto.
Speaking at a press conference, he said the appointment was a "huge honour and privilege", adding he had celebrated by having a "nice tea while my kids took the p--- out of me".
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14 Oct 2013
RADA-trained Norris is the first actor to take the role since the theatre's first artistic director Sir Laurence Olivier, having worked as a painter and decorator and "played in bands" in his youth.
He is also the first NT boss not to have read English at Cambridge since 1973;his four immediate predecessors (Sirs) Peter Hall, Richard Eyre, Trevor Nunn and Nicholas Hytner all did.
Norris been an associate director of the National for the past two years, with productions including the acclaimed The Amen Corner and Table, performed in the Shed theatre. He also directed London Road, the multi-award winning musical. Earlier in his career, he made his name with Festen and with a version of Cabaret, which is currently touring.
Hytner disclosed the appointment, announced to staff moments before it was released publicly, was received with a standing ovation and a "roar louder than anything ever heard" at the theatre before.
Norris said: "This appointment is a great honour and I am thrilled at the prospect and challenge of leading this exceptional organisation, where it has been a privilege to work under the inspirational leadership of Nick Hytner.
"The National is an extraordinary place, full of extraordinary people, and I look forward with relish to the task ahead - that being to fill our theatres with the most exciting, accessible and ground-breaking work our unique and broad community of artists has to offer."
He has previously spoken about the difficulties faced by black actors finding work in Britain, and pledged continue the "positive moves" to address gender imbalance.
When asked about his background as an actor, Norris said he believed “hand on heart” that it was the “only way” to develop as a director, with his background giving him “an insight into the way people do their job”.
After being told he was the first non-Cambridge gradute to take the role since Oliver, he added: “Of course there have been times in my life where I’ve regretted being a painter and decorator and playing in bands for four years when I could’ve been at university. But I’m sitting here, it’s worked out.
“A lot of people who go to Oxford and Cambridge are very, very clever, but it doesn’t mean they're the only clever people.
“Of course I’m proud of the fact we’re breaking down what might be perceived to be a barrier and perhaps long ago was, but I don’t think it is anymore.”
Hytner, whose time in charge of the theatre on London's Southbank has seen it stage money-spinning hits The History Boys, War Horse and One Man, Two Guvnors as well as the controversial Jerry Springer The Opera, announced he was stepping down earlier this year after more than a decade in the role.
Hailing the appointment of his successor, he said: "I could not be more delighted that the board of the National Theatre has appointed Rufus Norris as the National's next director. He has been a superb associate director for the last two years, actively involved in repertoire planning, and delivering a series of outstanding productions.
"His work as a director is always searching, deeply considered and adventurous and I have no doubt he will bring these qualities to the running of the National.
"His appointment will be welcomed with great excitement both within the National and in the theatre at large."
John Makinson, chairman of the National Theatre, said the appointment was a "unanimous" and "enthusiastic" decision from the board, who were seeking someone with the "summoning power" to continue to attract the world's biggest stars.
He added Norris had "rare integrity and rare breadth", and would be "brave, exciting and adventurous" in his outlook.
National Theatre executive director Nick Starr will also leave next year after 12 years, allowing a phased handover of the top jobs.
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What was the name of the drummer in TV's The Muppet Show ? | Rufus Norris: how the National Theatre needs to change | Stage | The Guardian
Rufus Norris
Rufus Norris: how the National Theatre needs to change
As Norris announces his first NT season as director, he talks about arts cuts, diversity, life after War Horse and enticing an audience into a ‘broad church’
Rufus Norris backstage at the National Theatre. Photograph: David Levene for the Guardian
Friday 25 September 2015 07.00 EDT
Last modified on Tuesday 20 September 2016 06.01 EDT
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Theatres, like schools, take on the personality of the person who runs them. Which is why Rufus Norris , six months into his tenure as artistic director of the National Theatre can’t be surprised that his every move is under scrutiny. How he behaves is the best indicator of what Britain’s most powerful theatrical institution will become.
When he arrived to meet the press last week, in a loose denim shirt and leaning against a precarious table to make his season announcement, it was a marked difference in style from that of his predecessor, Nicholas Hytner , more relaxed and less dynamic. The way he answers questions also breaks with the past; where Hytner was fluently politic, Norris pauses and then answers with devastating directness. “I have a growing reputation of being a bit trigger-happy on the candid front,” he says when we meet the next day. “But I would much sooner have that. I try to be as open and honest in any given environment as I can be.”
We are talking in his office at the National, where meetings are landing like planes at Heathrow. No sooner does one group take off than the next lands, with insistent demands, giving Norris barely a chance to draw breath. This, he says, is the single biggest challenge of the job. “It is a steeplechase and it never stops. Every day, there are new and unexpected hurdles. There is no preparation for it really. You just have to get in there and do it. It’s partly about stamina. You have to be able to shift your mind very quickly.”
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An award-winning theatre director with hits such as Festen and Cabaret under his belt, one of his first tasks as National Theatre boss was to oversee the film of his production of London Road , Alecky Blythe ’s reimagining of a series of murders in Ipswich as a verbatim musical. He has just returned from the Toronto film festival where it was hailed as “a revelation”.
News of his appointment was greeted enthusiastically within the building where he has been an associate director since 2011 and he is by all accounts the kind of man people want to work with. That said, doubters point out that he has had no experience of running a building and the National is a big building with which to start. He meets the sceptics head on. “I didn’t know what I was letting myself in for and I didn’t know whether or not I could do it. I still don’t. I had a lovely chat with Oskar Eustis who runs the Public Theater in New York the other day and I asked him how long it was before he felt he was in the job. He said the end of the third year. That felt about right to me.”
Norris’s aim is to make a National Theatre for everyone. “It’s not that every show will be for everyone,” he adds, quickly. “Not at all. But the National Theatre has to be a broad church, I would love it to be a broader church and I think it is very important that we reflect the city and the country we are in. We have to be national in terms of what we are debating, the subjects we are looking at, and particularly the people and stories we are representing.”
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Chiwetel Ejiofor in Everyman, adapted by Carol Ann Duffy. Photograph: Tristram Kenton/Guardian
The emphasis of his programming is on increasing diversity, on gender equality and co-production, making the audience base as wide as it can possibly be. “But excellence has to be the first port of call so each project is judged on that.” In this respect, his direction of the opening production of Everyman , in a modern translation by Carol Ann Duffy and starring Chiwetel Ejiofor , was his mission statement. “If I was going to put down a marker and say this is what this place is about, then that would be it.”
Norris, 50, is the first director of the National Theatre since Laurence Olivier not to have been to Cambridge, and to have worked as an actor. He is also the only one to have worked as a painter and decorator to make ends meet. That sense of difference runs deeper. His childhood was spent in Ethiopia, Malaysia and Nigeria, and “because I didn’t grow up in this country, despite having a very close family unit, I never really felt I belonged here”.
He joined a youth theatre in pursuit of a girl, but when the girl vanished, he discovered he had found another family. “To be in a situation with lots of like-minded people where you have a sense of shared endeavour was great.” Perhaps because his upbringing made him an outsider looking in, he values the ability of theatre to explain the world around him. “I believe in theatre because of its power to enable an audience to stand in the shoes of somebody else. It is as simple as that.”
He’s instinctively inclusive, and fundamentally radical. “I have a small bum and a low boredom threshold so I like theatre that is engaging and dynamic. It’s all about eyes on stalks, the things that demand you sit forward.” His own shows have brought into the National voices not often heard – the Ipswich residents caught up in the murders of prostitutes, Mumbai slum dwellersin Behind the Beautiful Forevers , or the black worshippers in James Baldwin’s The Amen Corner – and striking visual effects. These are paramount in his next show wonder.land , already warmly received at the Manchester international festival , the new Damon Albarn musical that uses Lewis Carroll as a starting point for an exploration of the online world.
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Thusitha Jayasundera, in pink and Meera Syal, in green, in Behind the Beautiful Forevers. Photograph: Tristram Kenton/Guardian
Partly inspired by what he has observed about his own children – he has sons of 18 and 15 with his wife, the playwright Tanya Ronder – it’s a bold choice as the National’s Christmas family show. Yet in many ways, the surprise of Norris’s regime is not how radical but how classical it has been. He may have brought in Stephen Adly Guirgis’s The Motherf**er with the Hat to shake up audiences and programme printers, but he also presented Farquhar’s The Beaux Stratagem . Next year will bring new plays from untested talent, but also Terence Rattigan’s The Deep Blue Sea and Rory Kinnear in Brecht and Weill ’s The Threepenny Opera. “The spine of what we do will always be classical work,” he said when we first talked two months ago. “Our heritage and how to reimagine and rework these fantastic plays is a huge part of our remit and our core audience are massively important to us.”
Ticket sales are a healthy 89% of capacity. But he admits that he has been disappointed by the reception of some of the works he has championed. “It’s tricky, isn’t it? Because you want everybody to think you are great.” He pauses and smiles, broadly. “So sometimes, when you put something on and people are a bit mealy mouthed about it … ” His voice trails away.
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The reaction to Patrick Marber’s new play The Red Lion is one of the disappointments. “It’s a beautiful play yet part of the learning curve is that plays about football, or maybe this play about football, have not caught on. I’ve been surprised by that but I have no regrets at all. Bringing Patrick back into the fold has been one of the great privileges of my working life.”
The only real ripple so far was the departure of his chief executive, former Film4 boss Tessa Ross . Yet even that seems to have been accomplished amicably. “We discovered that you can’t have two people running an organisation. We thought we could manage it because we agreed on everything. In the end, it proved complicated. But it doesn’t feel like there is any scar tissue, certainly not between Tessa and me and the organisation is healthy. From my point of view, it made me understand a lot more about the mantle of what I have taken on and made me step up to that.”
Certainly, there will be plenty on his plate. At the press conference he announced that next March, the West End production of Michael Morpurgo ’s War Horse is to close, after eight years in which it has earned the National more than £13m. That leaves a considerable hole in the coffers at exactly the moment when arts organisations are bracing themselves for budget cuts of between 25-40%. This is on top of a 30% cut in real terms in Arts Council funding over the last seven years.
Norris says the theatre is considering “six pages of ideas that our director of finance has come up with” of ways to get leaner, which include looking again at the question of Sunday opening, which is not always as popular as was hoped. “There’s no point in pretending we can endlessly go on growing,” he says. “The most important thing by far is that we make sure we can fulfil the initiatives and the innovations we really want to pursue.”
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What he can’t do, he says, is pin his faith on finding another hit. “You hope, but you don’t take action on hope. Every producer in the West End is trying to grow hits; if there was a secret formula they would all be billionaires. The truth is that all the examples from this building that have done well have not been predicted. The only way to think about it in pragmatic as well as philosophical terms is to look at how you make work, and support the artist to do the best they can.”
To that end, Norris’s most significant act has been to integrate the literary department and the Studio into a unified new work department. “The Studio really is our unsung jewel,” he says. “It’s a resource no one else in the theatre world has got. It gives us the opportunity to develop all kinds of work, all kinds of artists and be a resource not just for the stages here but for the whole theatrical community nationwide. It’s a question of planting seeds.”
You hope, but you don't take action on hope. Every producer in the West End is trying to grow hits
Behind Norris’s easygoing manner, you sense the steel. He has a vision for the future and is working towards it, building on Hytner’s legacy, while shaping it in his own way. His predecessor will soon be working close by – running a new theatre at Tower Bridge. But a direct rival on the South Bank holds no terrors.
“I’m naturally competitive,” says Norris. “Every time I see something really good, it spurs me on. And I think the more good theatre there is, the more people want to see.” His only problem is finding the time to see anything. “I work five nights a week and often at weekends. The thing I am not doing enough of at the moment is going to see other shows outside the building, but that will come.”
There is no doubting his purpose, to keep the National Theatre at the centre of the nation’s culture and at the heart of its debates. “I went through a period in my 30s when I thought theatre was dying and film was the thing. Then you get a bit older and you realise that everyone has been thinking that for ever. Theatre will never die because as a culture and as a species, the value of story is immense and that live connection between the story teller and the audience is a really vivid, vital thing.”
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What is the more common name of the wild hyacinth ? | What is a Wild Hyacinth?
What is a Wild Hyacinth?
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Wild hyacinth , Camassia scolloides, is a perennial flowering plant belonging to the lily family which is native to the Eastern United States and southeastern Canada. It is an herbaceous plant, which means it has a soft green stem that dies off every winter, in contrast to a brown woody stem like those found on rose bushes. The plant grows from a bulb that remains alive all winter, producing new leaves, stems and flowers every spring. Common names for this plant include camas, quamash , Indian hyacinth and Eastern or Atlantic camas.
This attractive plant has waxy green leaves which can grow up to 12 inches (30.5 cm) long. These leaves surround a flower stock which can grow up to 2 feet (.61 m) high. The flowers of wild hyacinth range from white to blue to lavender. The blossoms have six petals that splay out in a star shape, and 6 stamens which stretch out from the center, ending in bright yellow anthers. They produce a strong, sweet scent and attract bees and other pollen seeking insects.
Wild hyacinth grows naturally in areas with plenty of moisture and rich, well-drained soil. They can be found both in open prairies and woodlands, primarily due to their ability to grow well in either shade or sunshine. The bulb of one species, Camassia quamash, was used for food by Native Americans, but the rest of the plant is poisonous. In fact, gardeners with sensitive skin may wish to wear gloves when handling the plant.
In the US, wild hyacinth can be found in the eastern half of the continent along the Eastern seaboard from Georgia up to the Canadian border and ranging as far west as Illinois in the north and Texas in the South. Due possibly to the cooler temperatures in Canada, the plant occurs naturally in limited areas on some of the islands in Lake Erie. The plant has been placed on Canada’s protected species list under the Endangered Species Act of 2007.
Hyacinth is also cultivated for gardens and grown indoors. The seeds of the plant grow first into bulbs which eventually produce the plant. Most gardeners prefer to start with a bulb since it takes five years to grow a mature plant from seed. Medium to large bulbs should be planted approximately 6 inches (15.2 cm) deep and several inches apart; smaller bulbs should be planted a bit closer to the surface.
Other species of flowers throughout the world, such as various bluebells found in Asia, Europe and Africa, are also referred to as wild hyacinth. Unlike the American variety, these plants have bell or trumpet shaped blossoms. Though they also grow from bulbs or rhizomes, they do not have a separate flower stock. Their blossoms, which grow at the end of the leaf stems, occur in a range of blues, pinks and whites. Other common names for the European variety include wood hyacinth , Spanish bluebell and harebell.
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Which Conservative politician has used the pseudonyms Michael Green and Sebastian Fox in his business life ? | Wild hyacinth - definition of wild hyacinth by The Free Dictionary
Wild hyacinth - definition of wild hyacinth by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/wild+hyacinth
wild hyacinth
n.
1. A bulbous plant (Camassia scilloides) in the lily family native to eastern North America, having a spike of white, blue, or violet flowers with bright yellow anthers.
2. Any of several plants having flowers resembling those of a hyacinth, especially of the genus Brodiaea.
wild hyacinth
(Plants) another name for bluebell 1
wild′ hy′acinth
n.
any of several plants having flowers resembling those of a hyacinth, as the camass, Camassiascilloides, of the central U.S.
[1840–50, Amer.]
bluebell , harebell , Hyacinthoides nonscripta , Scilla nonscripta , wood hyacinth
liliaceous plant - plant growing from a bulb or corm or rhizome or tuber
genus Hyacinthoides , Hyacinthoides - small genus of perennial bulbs of western Europe and North Africa; sometimes placed in family Hyacinthaceae
2.
Camassia , genus Camassia , genus Quamassia , Quamassia - genus of scapose herbs of North and South America having large edible bulbs
camas , camash , camass , camosh , quamash - any of several plants of the genus Camassia; North and South America
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Quamassia
References in classic literature ?
The hillside was covered with Mariposa lilies and wild hyacinth, down through which his horse dropped slowly, with circumspect feet and reluctant gait.
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But now it had the charm for her which any broken ground, any mimic rock and ravine, have for the eyes that rest habitually on the level; especially in summer, when she could sit on a grassy hollow under the shadow of a branching ash, stooping aslant from the steep above her, and listen to the hum of insects, like tiniest bells on the garment of Silence, or see the sunlight piercing the distant boughs, as if to chase and drive home the truant heavenly blue of the wild hyacinths.
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While park rangers won't point fingers, they say some hikers are damaging pristine chaparral, native grasses, wild hyacinth that is now in purple bloom, and other flowers.
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Which was the last four funnelled liner to be operated by the Cunard line ? | Cunard Line - Cunard Steam-Ship Co. - Aquitania - Imperator - Mauretania - Kaiserin Auguste Victoria
The Aquitania (45,647 grt, 901 ft. long) was built in 1914 and served as a troop ship in two world wars.
Being the last four-funnelled liner, she was scrapped in 1950.
The Imperator (52,117 grt, 919 ft. long) made her maiden voyage for Hamburg-American Line in 1913 - then the world's largest liner.
Ceded to Britain after WW1, she was chartered to and eventually acquired by Cunard Line to become the Berengaria in 1921.
After having been damaged by fire in 1938 she was sold for scrap.
*
The Mauretania (31,938 grt, 790 ft. long), sister of the Lusitania, was the world's largest liner when built in 1907.
She became legendary for holding the Blue Riband as the fastest liner for 20 years.
With the depression and after the merger of Cunard and White Star Lines she became redundant and was broken up in 1935.
The Kaiserin Auguste Victoria (24,581 grt, 699 ft. long) was built in 1906 for the Hamburg-American Line.
She was yet another "world's largest", until the advent of the Lusitania.
After WW1 she was taken over by Britain as war reparations.
After a short period with Cunard she was sold to Canadian Pacific and renamed Empress of Scotland in 1921.
She was broken up in 1931.
*
The Caronia (19,594 grt, 678 ft. long) and Carmania (19,524 grt, 675 ft. long) were both completed in 1906.
The Carmania is noted for being the Cunard Line's first turbine steamer, whereas her sister had traditional reciprocating enigines.
Both survived the war and were finally sold to breakers in 1932.
*
When this line closed down she was sold to Canadian Northern Steamships (the Royal Line)
in 1910 and sailed between Avonmouth and Montreal until WW1.
After service as a troop transport she sailed for a few years for Cunard Line,
since Cunard had bought Canadian Northern Steamships in 1916.
She was sold for scrap in 1922.
The Saxonia (14,281 grt, 600 ft. long) started her career in 1900, initially on the Liverpool-Boston route.
She is listed in the 1920 Cunard sailing schedule, but during its validity she was being refitted.
She sailed a few more years before being broken up in 1925
You may use my images on another website.
Then please credit them as being from the collection of Björn Larsson,
and preferably provide a link to my Introduction page .
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Which three-funnelled White Star liner was originally known as the Bismarck ? | RMS Aquitania | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
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RMS Aquitania was a Cunard Line ocean liner designed by Leonard Peskett and built by John Brown & Company in Clydebank, Scotland. She was launched on 21 April 1913 [4] and sailed on her maiden voyage to New York on 30 May 1914. Aquitania was the third in Cunard Line's "grand trio" of express liners, preceded by the RMS Mauretania and RMS Lusitania , and was the last surviving four-funnelled ocean liner. [5] Widely considered one of the most attractive ships of her time, Aquitania earned the nickname "Ship Beautiful". [3]
In her 36 years of service, Aquitania survived military duty in both world wars and was returned to passenger service after each. Aquitania's record for the longest service career of any 20th-century express liner stood until 2004, when the Queen Elizabeth 2 (ultimate career service of 40 years) became the longest-serving liner.
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The origins of Aquitania lay in the rivalry between the White Star Line and Cunard, Britain's two leading shipping companies. White Star's Olympic and Titanic were larger than the latest Cunard ships Mauretania and Lusitania by 15,000 gross tons. The Cunard duo were significantly faster than the White Star ships, while White Star's ships were seen as more luxurious. Cunard needed another liner for its weekly transatlantic express service, and elected to follow White Star's Olympic class with a larger, slower, but more luxurious ship. [3]
Design, construction and launch
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Aquitania shortly before her launch
Aquitania was designed by Cunard naval architect Leonard Peskett. [3] Peskett drew up plans for a larger and wider vessel than his two previous Cunard ships Lusitania and Mauretania. With four large funnels the ship would resemble the famous speed duo, but Peskett also designed the superstructure with "glassed in" touches from the smaller Carmania , a ship he also designed. Another design feature from Carmania was the addition of two tall forward deck ventilator cowlings. With Aquitania's keel being laid down at the end of 1910, the experienced Peskett took a voyage on the rival Olympic in 1911 so as to experience the feel of a ship reaching nearly 50,000 tonnes as well as to copy pointers for his company's new vessel. Though Aquitania was built solely with Cunard funds, Peskett nevertheless designed her to strict Admiralty specifications "just in case of a war". Aquitania was built in the John Brown and Company yards in Clydebank, Scotland, [4] where the majority of the Cunard ships were built. The keel was laid in the same plot that had built Lusitania, and would later be used to construct Queen Mary , Queen Elizabeth , and the Queen Elizabeth 2 . [6]
In the wake of the Titanic disaster, Aquitania was one of the first ships to carry enough lifeboats for all passengers and crew. [3] Two of these lifeboats were motorised launches with Marconi wireless equipment. As required by the British Admiralty , she was designed to be converted into an armed merchant cruiser, and was reinforced to mount guns for service in that role. Aquitania was launched on 21 April 1913 after being christened by Alice Stanley , the Countess of Derby, and fitted out over the next thirteen months. In May 1914 she was tested in her sea trials and steamed at one full knot over the expected speed.
Interior and design
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View of the First Class Dining Saloon
Although Aquitania lacked the lean, yacht-like appearance of running mates Mauretania and Lusitania, the greater length and wider beam allowed for grander and more spacious public rooms. Her public spaces were designed by the British architect Arthur Joseph Davis of the interior decorating firm Mewès and Davis. This firm had overseen the construction and decoration of the Ritz Hotel in London and Davis himself had designed several banks in that city. His partner in the firm, Charles Mewès , had designed the interiors of the Paris Ritz, and had been commissioned by Albert Ballin, head of Germany's Hamburg-Amerika Line (HAPAG), to decorate the interiors of the company's new liner Amerika in 1905.
In the years prior to the First World War, Mewès was charged with the decoration of HAPAG's trio of giant new ships, the Imperator , Vaterland , and Bismarck , while Davis was awarded the contract for Aquitania. In a curious arrangement between the rival Cunard and Hamburg-Amerika Lines, Mewès and Davis worked apart—in Germany and England respectively and exclusively—with neither partner being able to disclose details of his work to the other. Although this arrangement was almost certainly violated,[ citation needed ] Aquitania's interiors were largely the work of Davis. The Louis XVI dining saloon owed much to Mewès' work on the HAPAG liners, but it is likely that having worked so closely together for many years the two designers' work had become almost interchangeable. Indeed, Davis must be given credit for the Carolean smoking room and the Palladian lounge; a faithful interpretation of the style of architect John Webb .
Early career and World War I
Aquitania as a troop ship in dazzle paint scheme
Aquitania's maiden voyage was under the command of Captain William Turner on 30 May 1914. [1] This event was overshadowed by the sinking of the RMS Empress of Ireland in Quebec the previous day with over a thousand drowned. The following month Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated, and the world was plunged into World War I, interrupting Aquitania's civilian career. After only three round trips she was taken over for military use. At first "Aquitania" was converted into an armed merchant cruiser, for which provision had been made in her design. The Admiralty found that large liners were too profligate in their use of fuel to act as cruisers, so Aquitania did not serve long in that role. [3] After being idle for a time, in the spring of 1915 the Cunarder was converted into a trooper, and made voyages to the Dardanelles, sometimes running alongside Britannic or Mauretania. Aquitania then was converted into a hospital ship , and acted in that role in during the Dardanelles campaign . [1] In 1916, the year that White Star's third ship, Britannic, was sunk, Aquitania was returned to the trooping front, and then in 1917 was again laid up. [1] In 1918, the ship was back on the high seas in troopship service, conveying North American troops to Britain. Many of these departures were from the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia where the ships spectacular dazzle paint scheme was captured by artists and photographers, including Antonio Jacobsen . On one occasion "Aquitania" transported over 8,000 men.
After the end of hostilities, in June 1919, "Aquitania" ran a Cunard "austerity service" between Southampton and New York. In December of that year Aquitania was docked at the Armstrong Whitworth yards in Newcastle to be refitted for post-war service. The ship was converted from coal burner to oil-fired, which greatly reduced the number of engine room crew required. [1] The original fittings and art pieces, removed when refitted for military use, were brought out of storage and re-installed. At some point around this time during the ship's history, the wheelhouse was moved up one deck as the officers had complained about the visibility over the ships bow. The second wheelhouse can be seen in later pictures of the era and the old wheelhouse area below has had the windows plated in.
During the 1920s Aquitania became one of the most popular liners on the North Atlantic route and operated in service with the Cunarders Mauretania and Berengaria in a trio known as "The Big Three." [3] As times grew better, Aquitania became one of the most profitable ocean liners ever. The American restriction on immigration in the early Twenties ended the age of mass emigration from Europe, but as ocean travel was the only means of transportation between the continents, the express liners survived and even surpassed old records. Some of the big money now came in from movie stars and royalty, other aristocracy and politicians. Aquitania became their favourite, as the 1920s became one of the most profitable ages in ocean travel history.
This ended following the stock market crash of 1929, and many ships were affected by the economic downturn and reduced traffic. Aquitania found herself in a tough position. Only a few could afford expensive passage on her now, so Cunard sent Aquitania on cheap cruises to the Mediterranean. These were successful, especially for Americans who went on "booze cruises," tired of their country's prohibition. On 10 April 1935 Aquitania went hard aground near Thorne Knoll on the River Test outside Southampton, England, but with the aid of ten tugboats and the next high tide the ship was freed. [1]
World War II service
File:Aquitania in her twilight years.jpg
As time went on Aquitania grew older and was scheduled to be replaced by RMS Queen Elizabeth in 1940. This plan was shattered with the coming of World War II. In 1940 Aquitania was in New York awaiting further orders. For a time she was tied up alongside RMS Queen Mary , the Queen Elizabeth, and the Normandie and the four ships made an impressive sight amongst large liners. Shortly after Aquitania sailed for Sydney, Australia, in her Cunard colours, to become a troop transport. Aquitania served valiantly as a troop transport, just as she had in World War I. Later in 1940 Aquitania, Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, SS Ile de France and other ships sailed in a magnificent convoy out of Sydney, Australia. [1] In November 1941 Aquitania was in Singapore (then still a British colony) now repainted in battleship grey set sail to take part indirectly in the loss of the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney . The Sydney had engaged in battle with the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran . There has been much unsubstantiated speculation that Kormoran was expecting Aquitania, after spies in Singapore had notified Kormoran's crew of the liner's sailing, and planned to ambush her in the Indian Ocean west of Perth but instead encountered Sydney on 19 November. Both ships were lost after a fierce battle and a short time later Aquitania arrived on the scene to pick up survivors of the German ship, the captain going against orders not to stop for survivors of sinkings. [1] There were no survivors from the Sydney. In her eight years of further military work, Aquitania sailed more than 500,000 miles, and carried nearly 400,000 soldiers, [1] to and from places as far afield as New Zealand, Australia, the South Pacific, Greece and the Indian Ocean.
Postwar service and retirement
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Mural of the Aquitania, the "Ship Beautiful."
After completing troopship service, the vessel was handed back to Cunard in 1946, and was used to transport war brides and their children to Canada under charter from the Canadian government. This final service created a special fondness for Aquitania in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the port of disembarkation for these immigration voyages. On completion of that task in December 1949, "Aquitania" was taken out of service when the ship's Board of Trade certificate was not renewed as the condition of the ship had reached a stage where the age and condition was becoming too old to be economical and too expensive to be brought into line with safety standards of the day. By 1949 as mentioned in Cunard commodore Harry Grattidge's autobiography "Captains of the Queens" the ship had deteriorated considerably with age. The decks leaked in foul weather and a piano had fallen through the roof of one of the dining rooms from the deck above during a corporate luncheon being held on the ship. This truly signalled the end of Aquitania's operational life. The vessel was retired and scrapped in 1950 in Scotland, [1] thus ending an illustrious career which included steaming 3 million miles in 450 voyages. Aquitania carried 1.2 million passengers over a career that spanned nearly 36 years, making her the longest-serving Express Liner of the 20th century. "Aquitania" was the only major liner to serve in both World Wars, and was the last four-funnelled passenger ship to be scrapped. The ship's wheel and a detailed scale model of Aquitania may be seen in the Cunard exhibit at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax.
Maritime author C. R. Bonsol writing of Aquitania in 1963: Cunard had recovered possession of their veteran in 1948 but she was not worth reconditioning. In 35 years of service Aquitania had sailed more than 3 million miles and apart from one or two early Allan Line steamers no other ship served for as long in a single ownership.
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