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In the Bible which prominent figure is the chid of Saint Anne and Saint Joachim?	Sts. Joachim and Anne - Saints & Angels - Catholic Online Sts. Joachim and Anne Author and Publisher - Catholic Online Facts Take the Saints Trivia Quiz now! Saints Joaquin (sometimes spelled "Joachim," pronounced "wal-keem") and Anne, are the parents of the Virgin Mary. There are no mentions of them in the Bible or Gospels, what we know comes from Catholic legend and the Gospel of James, which is an unsanctioned, apocryphal writing form the second century AD. We do know from scholarship that the Gospel of James was not written by James, the Brother of Jesus, despite its claim to be so authored. Even the early Church fathers expressed skepticism about the Gospel of James in their writings. There are about 150 copies of the ancient manuscript which often have different titles, but tell the same story, that Mary was promised to Joaquin and Anne by an angel, was consecrated to God, and she remained a virgin all her life. Naturally, there is plenty of room for scholarly debate about these saints. We have no true primary sources that prove they even existed, but certainly we can agree that Mary had parents. Likewise, we can agree that. Mary had good, faithful parents who raised her with a love and devotion to God like none other except Jesus Christ Himself. Joaquin and Anne serve as role models for parents and both deserve to be honored and emulated for their devotion to God and Our Lady Mary, the Mother of God.	Mary (mother of Jesus)
Which King of England was nicknamed Softsword and Lackland?	Memorial of Saints Joachim and Anne - A Catholic Moment A Catholic Moment Laura Kazlas July 26, 2013 Today is the memorial for saints Joachim and Anne, who were the parents of the blessed Virgin Mary. We couldn’t have any better role model for modern parents than Saint Joachim and Saint Anne, simply because of the holy lives they lived and how they raised the mother of God. However, there is no mention of them in the bible. Not one word is written about them. Their lives may have seemed like nothing spectacular and they went largely unnoticed by the people of their time and it is only in hindsight that the Catholic church recognized them as saints. Their sanctity went quietly unnoticed. Most parents work hard to take care of their children, to love them and raise them the best that they can, and their efforts go largely unnoticed too. Hardly no one tells them what a good job they are doing with their children. It is a rare thing for a parent to be told that they are doing a good job at parenting their children. And parents usually do not feel like they are doing a good job, especially if their child is not the best behaved child in class or has straight A report cards. It’s worth noting that the bible doesn’t mention if Mary was educated or not. She was surely taught a lot by Saint Anne and her father Saint Joachim, but there is no mention of whether or not Mary even had an education. We do know she had faith in God though. That’s what is important. Parents are concerned about so many things with their children. They want them to make good grades, get scholarships for college, get a degree and then a well paying job. They want their children to excel in sports or music or in other talents they have. But, what about their faith in God? Saints Joachim and Anne was mostly concerned with Mary’s faith in God. There are some very good guidelines on how to ground our marriages and families in our faith in God, through today’s scriptures for mass. We’ve heard about the ten commandments all of our lives, but if we take a good hard look at them today, how many of them do we honestly keep? What about the society that we live in? Realistically, we do not obey the ten commandments very well as individuals and as a people. How many of the commandments have we broken? Are there times in our lives that we’ve missed mass on Sunday? Said God’s name in vain? Worked on a job or at home, or caused others to work on a Sunday? Neglected to spend time with our parents? Supported abortion or the death penalty by how we vote? Taken something that wasn’t ours or told a lie to someone? Are we jealous of the material success of others? Do we make an effort to correct ourselves after breaking one of these commandments? If so, we are setting a good example for our children. That is what confession is for and it really does help for children to see parents who admit when they were wrong and correct their own behavior too. That is true for parents of adult children too. We never quit being a parent, even after our children are grown. Today’s readings for mass end with the gospel reading about the parable of the sower and the seed. If parents lovingly raise their children to have faith in God, then their roots have sunk deeply into the good soil. As teenagers and young adults, the scorching heat and drought may come along and try their faith, but the roots are still there. Parents who have grown children that have stopped going to mass should realize that their children’s roots are still in good soil, submerged beneath the surface, and not give up hope in them. Our modern world has so much fools gold that attracts young people, but they eventually figure out that it isn’t lasting and their parents were right after all. Faith in God and love for our family and friends are the true gold that lasts. Prayer to Saint Joachim and Saint Anne Great and glorious patriarch, St Joachim, and good St Anne, what joy is mine when I consider that you were chosen among all God’s holy ones to assist in the fulfillment of the mysteries of God, and to enrich our earth with the great Mother of God, Mary most holy. By this singular privilege, you have become most powerful with both the Mother and her Son, so as to be able to obtain for us the graces that are needful to us. With great confidence I have recourse to your mighty protection, and I commend to you all my needs, both spiritual and temporal, and those of my family. Especially do I entrust to your keeping the particular favor that I desire and look for from your intercession. And since you were a perfect pattern of the interior life, obtain for me the grace to pray earnestly, and never to set m heart on the passing goods of this life. Give me a lively and enduring love for Jesus and Mary. Obtain for me also a sincere devotion and obedience to holy church and the sovereign pontiff who rules over her, in order that I may live and die in faith and hope and perfect charity. Let me ever invoke the holy names of Jesus and Mary. And may I thus be saved. Amen.	i don't know
What is the most southerly capital city on the mainland of South America?	Montevideo Uruguay Travel Guide - Capital City, Hostels, Restaurants, Beaches - South America Uruguay General Information Montevideo is one of the youngest capital in Latin America, founded between 1724 and 1730, and not becoming the capital of the country until 1828. It is also the Southern most capital of the Americas. It is a contemporary metropolis and port city, located on the beautiful beaches of Uruguay. The city is often considered to be a playground for Argentineans and Brazilians on their summer holidays. About half of the population of Uruguay lives in the city of Montevideo, so you can imagine the way it thrives as the center of Uruguayan culture, education, business and tourism. You will be happy to find that it is also one of the safest cities in all of South America, making it a great location to kick back and relax, or enjoy the sights. What to See Beaches: Pocitos, Buceo, Malvin, Playa de los Ingleses, Playa Verde, Punta Gorda and Carrasco. There is a inter-beach road running along the shore connecting Montevideo to Chuy (near the Brazilian border), so if you can't find the perfect spot at one beach, you can always move on to the next. Plaza Cagancha / Plaza Libertad: A good starting point for most tourists. There are people standing around offering different tours of the old city. It is also the location of the main tourist office. Teatro Solís: If you have been to Madrid you might have a case of déjá vu as this building is an exact replica of the María Guerro Theater. The Gaucho Museum is nearby on Avenida 18 de Julio. It has a good mix of paraphernalia from the countryside and about the typical Uruguayan cowboy, the Gaucho. Palacio Salvo: A unique designed spire rises from this building which still dominates the skyline and nicely contrasts some of the newer construction around it. At the time of its construction it was the tallest building in South America, although today it has been surpassed several times over. The original intention was for it to be a grand hotel, with a few posh permanent apartments, but this never worked and now it serves as an office building. It is located on Plaza Independencia. Plaza Independencia is the gateway to old city (Ciudad Vieja). Here you can still see part of the old city wall that once protected Montevideo from invasions. Located in the old city is the Plaza Constitución where you can see Montevideo's oldest building, the Cathedral. The cathedral has been restored, but still retains its colonial charm and external structure. The plaza is also home to the town hall. Here you can visit the Museo de Historia that while not the most interesting or glamorous of museums, it does have some insight into the city's history. La Bolsa: The stock exchange of Montevideo is located just north of Plaza Constitución. Mercado del Puerto: This open air fish market is similar to others you will find throughout South America, although there is something shabby sheik about this one. It is also one of the best places to have a lunch of fresh seafood prepared before your eyes. Try walking around and picking at all the smaller dishes on offer from each of the different booths. There are also several restaurants that offer steak. Mmmm! Estadio Centenario: Sports enthusiasts most stop off here, where the original 1930 World Cup final was played, the winners of course being the host country, Uruguay. Interesting Facts: Another fun stop is South America's first monument on the subject of promoting sexual diversity. (I can't imagine where the next one will be). It demonstrates the liberal thinking held by some Uruguayans. It is located on Policia Vieja St., between Plaza de la Constitución and Plaza Independencia. Avenida 18 de Julio which is a major street in the city is named for the day in which Uruguay gained complete independence from the two dominating countries, Brazil and Argentina. It is a major point of personal pride for many Uruguayans. Did you know that the first naval battle of World War 2 took place just outside of Montevideo and is known as the Battle of the River Plate. It took place between the German ship Graf Spee and two British cruisers (Exeter and Ajax) and a New Zealand ship (Achilles). Where to Stay Pocitos Hostel Avenida Sarmiento 2641, Corner of Fco. Aguilar, Pocitos, Montevideo 3 minutes from the beach, 5 minutes from the bus station and 10 minutes to the city center... what more do you need? Red Hostel Montevideo San Jose 1406, (on the corner of Santiago de Chile), Montevideo It has a nice rooftop for hanging out and getting to know other travelers. The building was recently renovated, although it still has its beautiful classic French architecture. This is mostly known as a party hostel, so we don't recommend it if you are looking for a good long nights sleep. El Viajero - Ciudad Vieja Hostel Ituzaingo 1436, Montevideo While the rooms are definitely on the small side, the roof top terrace and bars seem to make up for all that. It is located near a lot bars for fun nightlife, although a little bit further from some of the museums. They offer WIFI, two kitchens, a piano bar, a large collection of DVDs and special barbecue, pizza, or movie nights. Bring your own towels, or else you will need to pay extra to use theirs. Where to Eat Lobizón: It sometimes offers live music at night. The lunch special is hearty, but not healthy. (Zelmar Michelini 1325) Bolero: Trendy and a bit uppity for a set lunch. They also serve breakfast. (Plaza Independencia 848) Where to Drink Mitre street is full of different pubs and bars for your drinking delight. Try Maharajah, only a block from Plaza Independencia where young crowds party until late. Where to Shop The Montevideo Leather Factory: If you are looking for a custom made jacket in a hurry check out this place which guarantees one to your specifications in 24 hours. (Plaza Independencia 832) How to Get Around You might want to try blending in with the locals and renting a bike or scooter so you can hop all around town. Most Uruguayans are unable to afford new cars due to the high import taxes, so it is often preferable to hop on a bike if you are only staying in city. When to Go During the Month of October there is Tango week, a great celebration for the whole city. You will notice that all of the holidays have different names. Uruguay has a strong secular government so Holidays like Christmas have been renamed to Family Day, or Holy Week to Tourism Week. Try going when it is warm so you can bask in the sun in the sand, but avoid the peak of summer in February when everything is more expensive and the beaches are over crowded. How to get to and from Montevideo BY PLANE: From within South America there are direct flights from Buenos Aires , Santiago , Lima , Asunción , Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro . There are also a few flights from United States and Europe. The main airport of Montevideo is Carrasco International Airport which is only 18km (11 miles) from downtown. BY BOAT: There are frequent ferries (via Buquebus ) that link Buenos Aires and Montevideo. BY BUS: The "Terminal Tres Cruces" is the main bus terminal in Montevideo (and the largest in the country). You can see destinations and departure times here: www.trescruces.com.uy (unfortunately there isn't a version in English for now). Outside of the City Punta de Este: This beach resort if located only 2 hours outside of the city, in a prime location on the point between the Atlantic Ocean and the bay to Rio de la Plata. This is by far the most famous beach in the area and is where the most fashionable jet set Uruguayans go to lay out in the sun. If you go in high season you will have difficulty finding a spot in the sand that isn't already covered with someone else's towel. Try coming in autumn when you can find a bit more elbow room, but stay on the bay side where there is less cool wind. If you do come in summer rent a car and continue North up the coast until you can find a more remote white sandy beach all to yourself. Be sure while in Punta del Este that you check out the amazing house of painter Paez Villaró. The white building without any straight lines looks more like a giant child's sandcastle with spires and playful details. If you found this guide about Montevideo, Uruguay interesting or useful, let others know about it: Typical Food of Uruguay Typical dishes and cuisine from Uruguay. We have the name of the food in Spanish and an explanation of what that dish is in English.	Montevideo
How is Jordan Belfort described in the tittle of a 2013 film biopic of his turbulent life?	South America – Travel guide at Wikivoyage Cities[ edit ] São Paulo skyline Bogotá — a city of contrasts with a hectic balance between the new and the old; the most cultural-minded of South American capitals Buenos Aires — the city of tango, the most cosmopolitan city of Argentina Caracas — one of the most cosmopolitan and modern cities in South America, there are lots of theaters, malls, museums, art galleries, parks, well-conserved colonial architecture and even gastronomic restaurants La Paz — the highest seat of national government of the world that is built in a canyon Lima — the sprawling, Pacific coast capital of Peru is a center of South American cuisine Montevideo — the pleasant capital city of Uruguay, situated on the east bank of the Rio de la Plata Rio de Janeiro — famous for its breathtaking landscape, its laidback beach culture and its annual carnival Santiago de Chile — capital of Chile with many museums, events, theaters, restaurants, bars and other entertainment and cultural opportunities São Paulo — a beehive of activity that offers a jovial nightlife and a diverse cultural experience See also: Indigenous cultures of South America Before the arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century, the continent was home to different native American peoples, the most prominent being the Incas, whose empire stretched across much of the Andes, along the Inca Trails that are popular with trekkers today. Warfare and new diseases the colonizers brought with them had a negative impact on the native population. Eventually the entire continent was conquered by Spain and Portugal, with some other countries establishing colonies in the northeast, one of which - French Guiana still belongs to a European nation. The last indigenous polity to hold out where the Mapuche in what is now Southern Chile, who were only conquered after Chilean Independence. As a legacy of this, virtually all of the continent is today either Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking, nevertheless, native culture and language is still alive in Bolivia and Peru and the Guarani language is spoken today by many Paraguayans without any indigenous heritage whatsoever. The continent is also pretty diverse, with almost any ethnicity you can think of having a presence, including Jews, Afro-Latinos, people of Japanese descent (mostly in Peru) and various combinations of European, African and Indigenous. Following a series of wars in the early 19th century, the colonies became independent and countries emerged largely in the form we know them today. The history of the continent has however not been without trouble, with (civil) wars, coups and periods of dictatorship occurring until the end of the 20th century. Nevertheless, as with North America and Oceania, South America was and to some extent still is a popular destination for immigrants, first from Europe and later on also from other parts of the world. Geography and climate[ edit ] Two prominent geographical features of South America are the Amazon rainforest and the Andes. South of the Tropic of Capricorn the landscape is savanna on the east coast and as a rule of thumb, it gets dryer the further west one goes. West of the Andes you can find the driest place in the world — the Atacama desert. Patagonia, covering much of the southernmost 2/3 of Argentina and Chile is cool and dry with steppe and some forest, somewhat reminiscent of Central Asia or the North American prairie. Much of the continent is situated in the tropics and in these places the climate is defined by wet and dry seasons and constantly warm or hot temperatures (except for high-altitude locations in the Andes). The further south one goes, the more temperate the climate becomes and in Ushuaia (the southernmost city in the world) weather conditions are even reminiscent of coastal northern Scandinavia. Culture[ edit ] Football (soccer) is popular all over the continent, and it is often said that football is not just a sport but a religion. It is common to see children in rural areas and slums playing football in the street, and top level football matches often attract sold-out crowds. By far the most famous rivalry on the continent is that between the two giants of Brazil and Argentina . Linguistically and religiously, the continent is rather homogenous with Romance languages and Catholicism being the "norm" in almost all countries. Peru and Bolivia are probably the best places to experience pre-Columbian culture with traditional dishes, clothing, handicraft and language still around together with attractions like Machu Picchu or Tiwanaku. Topics in South America By plane[ edit ] Santiago de Chile Airport is one of the major points of entry to South America. Getting to South America has gotten much easier in recent years due to massive increases in flights to the continent by major global airlines. Although some particular places are still quite hard to reach (i.e. Paraguay , Suriname , northern Brazil ), the places that you most likely want to go, such as Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro , are more accessible than ever before. From Africa: the only (reliable) options worth considering would be the South African Airways service linking Johannesburg with São Paulo and Buenos Aires ; or the Ethiopian Airlines service from Addis Ababa to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo . There are also connections between Luanda and Rio de Janeiro, Salvador de Bahia and Recife with Taag Angola Airlines. Do realize that demand between Africa and South America is very limited, so even the aforementioned services are infrequent and fares may be quite high. From Asia: Be prepared for a very long journey, especially if your itinerary includes connecting flights to travel to/beyond the major Asian and South American hubs. São Paulo is the only destination with flights from the Far East. The Korean Air route between Seoul -Incheon and São Paulo involves a stop in the United States ( LAX ) therefore it will require all passengers, including those in transit, to pass through U.S. customs and immigration . Air China flies to São Paulo from Beijing via Madrid and Singapore Airlines from Singapore via Barcelona . From the Middle East there are some more alternatives; Emirates ( Dubai ), Ethiad ( Abu Dhabi ) and Qatar Airways ( Doha ) all fly nonstop to São Paulo. Of these Qatar Airways continues down to Buenos Aires and Emirates has another line to South America — via Rio de Janeiro to Buenos Aires. From Australia, New Zealand, and the South Pacific: A somewhat surprising number of options exist. LAN Airlines serve Auckland and Sydney from their hub at Santiago . Qantas introduced a non-stop service between Sydney and Santiago in March 2012, and Air New Zealand flies direct from Auckland to Buenos Aires . LAN also operates one of the world's most obscure flights of all - a service linking Santiago - Easter Island - Tahiti . From Perth Emirates provides affordable flights to Buenos Aires with a stopover in Dubai, around 30 hours total flying time. From Europe: The entire South American continent once lived under European colonial rule, and the resultant political, social, and economic ties between former colonies and colonizers remain quite strong even today. Portuguese flag carrier TAP Airlines is by far the leading foreign carrier to Brazil, serving a slew of destinations in North and East Brazil as well as the Brazilian capital Brasilia which otherwise have only limited or absolutely no other international connections. Spanish flag carrier Iberia flies to most of the former Spanish colonies, although neither Bolivia nor Paraguay are served. KLM flies between Amsterdam and Suriname and Air France links Paris with French Guiana . Of course, such services are not exclusive - KLM also flies to Lima , TAP to Caracas , Air France to Rio de Janeiro and Lima , etc. Other leading European airlines such as British Airways, Lufthansa, Swiss Airlines, and Alitalia also serve key South American gateways from their respective hubs, while South American airlines also operate into several major European cities as well. Air Europa also flies to many South American cities via their Madrid hub and connecting flights mainly across Western Europe. From North America: Until very recently, it was virtually inconceivable to reach South America from anywhere other than Miami . Today, however, rapidly developing hubs at Atlanta , Dallas / Fort Worth , Fort Lauderdale , Houston , Mexico City , New York , Newark , Orlando , Toronto , and Washington -Dulles offer viable alternatives. Indeed, airlines such as Air Canada, United and Delta Airlines have successfully begun to challenge the virtual monopoly once enjoyed by American Airlines to several key markets. American discount carriers such as Spirit Airlines and JetBlue have recently fought hard for and won several route authorities to serve the likes of Colombia , Brazil and Peru , bringing low fares to these markets for the first time. Given the U.S. airlines' cutbacks in service, frequency, and cities served over the years, consider high quality Latin American carriers such as Avianca (to Colombia with daily non-stop flights to Bogotá, Medellín , Cali and Cartagena), and the fastest growing and probably best Hub to South America is by Copa Airlines (Panama's national airline thru its hub in Panamá City), also LAN Airlines (Chilean carrier serving Chile direct and via several other countries), or TAM (to Brazil). By car[ edit ] Although it looks like there is a land connection with the Pan-American Highway , there are actually no roads connecting Panama with Colombia through the infamous Darien Gap and hence it is not possible to drive from Central America. People overcome this problem by shipping their cars from Colon (Atlantic side in Panama) to Cartagena or Barranquilla (Colombia), or from Panama City (Pacific side of the Panama canal) to Buenaventura (Colombia) or Guayaquil (Ecuador). Chile, Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil have good roads. Night time driving is generally dangerous on this continent. By train[ edit ] There are no railroads between Panama and Colombia. So you can't enter the country by train. This is unlikely to change anytime soon as there is no way to cross from Panama to Colombia overland for all but the most adventurous travelers, as there is no road of any kind and the "gap in the road" is made up of jungle that has for a long time been an operating area for organized violent groups. Within Latin America trains while existent are not often the best option or even an option, as most lines have been neglected for most of the last decades. Some lines do however offer value if not necessarily in terms of transportation, as they cross amazing sceneries. For more on that see below. By boat[ edit ] As mentioned above, there are a couple of ferries linking Panama and Colombia. As this is the only way to get a car from Central to South America, they are rather popular. Some cruise liners cover the towns in the lower Caribbean (Cartagena, Santa Marta, Margarita Island). Royal Caribbean , Holland America , Princess Cruises . Visas[ edit ] The Union of South American Nations gives visa-free access and a customs union between all countries in South America. With the exception of Suriname , visitors from industrialized countries generally do not need visas anywhere in South America, aside from U.S., Canadian and Australian citizens, who in some countries are subject to visa restrictions or entry fees. By plane[ edit ] For longer distances, consider flying. In South America international flights are usually from capital to capital with domestic flights from the capital (the exceptions to this are Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro with flights to all over the continent). Some airlines, like Aerolineas Argentinas have remarkable discounts on domestic connections if arriving on their intercontinental flights. The oneworld alliance offers an flight pass which might be a smart choice if you plan a longer South American tour. By train[ edit ] There are no cross-country train services in South America, and with the exception of Argentina and Chile , domestic networks are quite limited. Unfortunately for most of the second half of the 20th century networks have been cut and service has been reduced. There has been a renaissance of sorts in recent years, but in most cases it has thus far (2015) resulted in more talks than actual construction. There are a number of very scenic " tourist trains " though, including the 445-km Quito - Guayaquil route in Ecuador . The spectacular "tren a las nubes" (train to the clouds) running on a route that formerly connected Argentina and Chile, but only on a portion within Argentina, is the highest train in South America. By bus[ edit ] Bus in the desert of Bolivia, between Potosí and Uyuni Buses are the main form of land transportation for much of the continent, they represent an economical but slower alternative to flying. Beyond very cheap chicken buses, long distance buses fall under 3 general comfort levels: Semicama, Cama, Cama Suite. These names tend to shift from country to country. Be aware that although most of the violence of the Cold war era is over some parts of some countries are still not entirely safe and crossing them by bus might not be a smart idea. For more on that issue read the stay safe sections of the respective country, region or city articles. South America bus classes By boat[ edit ] You can go from Montevideo to Valparaiso by cruise, touching Falkland Islands, Ushuaia and Puerto Montt. Or with an extension to the Antarctica. Also along the South American coast from Buenos Aires up to Brazil. You can do all the Amazon River by boat, starting in Peru, through all Brazil. Between Argentina and Uruguay you can cross Rio de la Plata by ferry. Talk[ edit ] If you've studied " Spanish " Spanish, be prepared for some confusion Spanish is the official language in all countries except Brazil, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, and is widely spoken even in the countries that are not historically Spanish speaking. The dialect varies between countries although all are noticeably different from the 'Castilian Spanish' standard found in Spain. Portuguese is the official language in Brazil , which comprises about half the population and land area of the continent. Note that the dialect is very different to that of Portuguese spoken in Portugal. Spanish and Portuguese are closely related and knowing one will provide you some basic communication ability in the other In the border area between Uruguay and Brazil some people are near fluent in an ad hoc mishmash of Portuguese and Spanish known as portuñol and it is certainly viable for crude communication if you don't speak the other language, though Portuguese speakers tend to have an easier time understanding Spanish than vice versa. Much like the English language, expressions and slang terms can change dramatically from country to country or even city to city. As words that have a totally innocuous meaning in one place, can have a vulgar or "dirty" meaning elsewhere it is good to do some research before using words like "coger" (meaning "take" in Spain, and "fuck" in most of Latin America) in the wrong context and possibly offending people. There are also many indigenous peoples living in South America who speak their own languages, and if you are really going off the beaten track, you might have to learn them too. The most notable indigenous American languages in South America are Quechua (Bolivia and Peru) and Guarani (80% of the population of Paraguay). In Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, the official languages are English, Dutch and French respectively. Lake Titicaca and traditional handicraft A sizable number of the world's largest, longest or highest natural wonders are located in South America. Perhaps the first thing you will notice when looking on a map of the continent is the world's largest rainforest, Amazonas covering much of Brazil. Moreover it also features the world's largest wetlands, Pantanal , Angel Falls , the world's highest waterfall as well as the better known Iguaçu Falls . Other bodies of water worth mentioning include the Amazon river (by some measures the world's longest river and the one with the largest drainage basin), the world's highest commercially navigable body of water Lake Titicaca , and the wide Rio de la Plata (between Uruguay and Argentina ) which is more like a bay of the Atlantic Ocean. In the west lies the "backbone" of the continent — the Andes . This mountain chain, which is the longest in the world, contains Aconcagua which at a height of almost 7000m is the highest mountain outside Asia. As the Earth is at its thickest at the Equator, the peak of Chimborazo (6268m) is the point in the world furthest away from the center of the Earth. Right next to these mighty mountains lays the Atacama desert which is the driest and possibly oldest in the world. The white spot in it that can be seen on satellite footage is the Salar de Uyuni . Located at 3,656m above the sea level it is — you guessed it — the world's largest salt flat. The world's largest rodent species, capybara, is endemic to South America The Galapagos Islands 1000km off the coast feature an unique and fearless fauna. There are several iconic and unique animals on the mainland too, including llamas and other camelids, jaguars, capybaras, opossums and monkeys and on the other hand less pleasant creatures that are poisonous or spread tropical diseases . Another, equally famous island in the Pacific is Easter Island . While most people would think of South America as rainforest or desert, this is mostly but not entirely true — Los Glaciares National Park in southwestern Argentina will prove otherwise. Overall the climate and landscape of the far south actually recalls Norway or parts of Canada. Here you can find Ushuaia , the world's southernmost city and a gateway to Antarctica . South America also holds the record for the world's highest national capital La Paz and the small mining town of La Rinconada in southeastern Peru which at 5100m above the sea level is the highest permanent settlement in the world. Finally, at Chacaltaya you will find the world's highest located ski resort. The Pelican, one of the mystical figures in Nazca It's certainly not only in the modern times that people have lived and worked in the Andes even at altitudes where you are likely to contract altitude sickness . Particularly in Peru and Bolivia, you will find many beautiful and famous archaeological sites from the age before the Europeans, connected by traditional Inca Trails if you want to get around the traditional way. Among them the most famous is undoubtedly Machu Picchu , but also places like Chan Chan and Tiwanaku are deservedly inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List . Peru also features the Nazca lines, constructed 1500 years ago for an unknown purpose and only visible from air. The European heritage includes mining towns in the mountains, unsurprisingly a lot of churches and missions and other colonial architecture along the coasts. Of course, in places like São Paulo , Buenos Aires and Santiago de Chile you can also see skyscrapers archetypical to any metropolis in the world. And let's not forget about Rio de Janeiro with its world-famous beaches Copacabana and Ipanema with the Sugarloaf mountain, Pão de Açúcar, in the background. The carnival in Rio is the largest and probably most famous in the world South America offers a variety of cultural experiences. In the Andes, native traditions and languages still live strong. The east and south of the continent is more of a blend of cultures that immigrants from Europe, Africa and other parts of the world have brought with them; probably the best example of this is the Brazilian carnival. Buy[ edit ] There are a variety of currencies in use in this area, including Euros (in French Guiana), US Dollars (in Ecuador) and Pound Sterling (de facto in the Falkland Islands). Countries with national currencies vary in their external value as well as the possibility of easily exchanging it. While the Venezuelan currency, the Bolivar fuerte is worth much less than its official value and you basically have to use the black market if you don't want your stay to become very expensive, other currencies have been remarkably stable in recent years. US dollars are often used parallel to local currencies, and prices of goods worth over a few hundred dollars may actually be quoted in US dollars. Eat[ edit ] Peruvian ceviche — raw spicy seafood served with vegetables South American cuisine is as diverse and colourful as its people. The continent's wide range of terrains brings forward a broad selection of food products and its many people all have their own ways of cultivating and preparing the land's goods. After the discovery of the Americas, European settlers and their workers from other parts of the world all brought their own food traditions with them, adapting them to include local ingredients and cooking techniques. They also introduced a new set of meats, crops and spices to the culinary blend. The result is a most interesting mix of flavours. World famous dishes include feijoada, ceviche, empanadas and of course Argentina's barbecued steaks. Widely used ingredients include corn, potatoes, chile peppers and lima beans. Less well-known in the rest of the world but much used by the indiginous people of South America are grains like quinoa and kiwicha, queso fresco (a fresh cow’s milk cheese) and yuca (also known as cassava). For a taste of traditional Andean meats, try alpaca or guinea pig. To top it all off, enjoy one of the many very sweet desserts, often combined with delicious tropical fruits that grow here. Drink[ edit ] South America offers a wide variety of drinks, some of which you can only legally consume in their country of origin (that would be Coca -tea, made from the leave of the Coca plant, supposedly a good way to combat the problems high altitude brings with it.). Other drinks include yerba mate and Inca Cola (an alternative to the soft drink from Atlanta ). Sleep[ edit ] The types of lodging available are the same as in North America and Europe. For the backpackers the best option is hostel or camping. However, hotel rooms (like most other non-imported goods and services) are with a few exceptions rather affordable compared to North America and Western Europe. Pests are a risk if you are sleeping outdoors, especially in the tropical parts of the continent. Stay safe[ edit ] South America has some reputation for crime, with Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela being noted as the most dangerous. Read up beforehand about the individual destinations you're planning to visit. As with anywhere else in the world, the right travel planning can mitigate any dangers. Wearing or carrying items which may identify you as an affluent tourist can be a mistake. You shouldn't pack anything that you would be upset to lose. Leave expensive jewelry, watches and other items of value at home and only carry what you need. That goes for credit cards and other documents as well; if you have no need for them leave them behind in the hotel safe, only take what money you are likely to spend with you. While tropical storms are rare, flash floods do occur in various parts of South America. Earthquakes and to some extent volcanic eruptions are a risk in the Andean countries, especially Chile. Stay healthy[ edit ] Tap water in many countries is not drinkable, it's wise to purify your own or buy bottled water. Malaria , dengue and yellow fever can be a risk as well on the continent, check with a travel clinic or your doctor before heading out to see if you'll be in a high-risk area, and receive any vaccinations and medication required. Connect[ edit ] This continent travel guide to South America is an outline and may need more content. It has a template , but there is not enough information present. If there are Cities , Countries and Other destinations listed, they may not all be at usable status. Please plunge forward and help it grow !	i don't know
The Tarantella is a form of folk music and a ballroom dance originating from which country?	Sounds of Italy: folk music & traditional dances Sounds of Italy: folk music & traditional dances Post Next '; Today we will embark on a journey through the beats, harmonies and melodies of Italy. Regional music and local dances are a reflection of the country’s deep and complex history. In fact, the Italian national unification came quite late compared to other European countries, and so many of the separate cultures scattered around the boot remained heterogeneous until quite recently. If we try to group Italy’s musical map according to geography, the following generalization applies: There are Celtic and Slavic influences on the choral and group singing in northern Italy This contrasts with the strident monody in the South, reminiscent of Greek, Arabic and African styles These influences are somewhat mixed in central Italy, where locals also enjoy the styles of narrative and ballad singing And there’s the unique case of Sardinia Northern Italy In north-western Italy, the music in some parts of Piedmont and Liguria preserves the influence of Occitania, an ancient region of southern Europe, which in turn retains characteristics of the ancient Celtic influence with flutes and bagpipes. In Trentino Alto Adige, particularly in the province of Trento, folk choirs are the most common form of music making. Here, the heritage of the German-speaking neighbors is quite obvious when you witness a Schuhplattler performance, during which the dancers stomp, clap and strike the soles of their shoes (Schuhe), thighs and knees with their hands held flat (platt). In the north-east, the music of Friuli Venezia Giulia shares much more in common with Austria and Slovenia. In the video below, you can enjoy a joyous local folk dance, the Furlana. This lively dance became popular around the mid 1780’s but some documents trace it back to 1609… and today, it’s still contagious! [Featured image above by Gruppo Folcloristico Pasian di Prato ] Central Italy Things are decidedly more calm in Emilia Romagna, homeland of the ballo liscio – literally, smooth dance. Couples love this ballroom dance, which originated towards the end of the 19th century by mixing elements of waltz, mazurka and polka. But in other parts of central Italy, the tempo gets groovy again, in a way that sends you back to Medieval times! Saltarello, named after the Italian verb “saltare” (jump), is a joyous dance that is popular in Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Marche and Umbria. The first mention of the saltarello is in a fourteenth-century manuscript probably of Tuscan origin, and the dance enjoyed great popularity in the courts of medieval Europe. It is quite difficult to resist the temptation to hop to the beat and harmony of the “tamburello” tambourine and the “zampogna” bagpipe or the “organetto”, a type of diatonic button accordion. Southern Italy In southern Italy, the most characteristic dances are represented by the tarantella and its fast upbeat tempo. The music is most commonly played with a mandolin, a guitar, an accordion and tambourines. Flute, fiddle, trumpet and clarinet are also used. The name of the dance changes from region to region. For example, it is called tammuriata in Campania, pizzica in Apulia’s Salento region, and Sonu a ballu in Calabria. The dance spread mainly during the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. According to the original legend, the name was inspired by the tarantula: if someone was bitten by the poisonous spider, he or she had to dance to a cheerful tempo to sweat the venom out. The same story is behind the Apulian variant, pizzica (sting). Although local versions of tarantella differ slightly from region to region, you will find that they all have something in common: a hypnotic effect that will involve your body, mind and soul! Distinctive melodies come from Campania, where the Canzone napoletana is a traditional form of music sung in the Neapolitan language. It is usually performed by a male voice singing solo, and expressed in the form of a serenade or a livelier rhythm. Among the most famous songs of this genre, are ‘O Sole mio and Funiculì, Funiculà. Sardinia, unique in its own right Sardinia features its own inimitable style, the Su cantu a tenòre, or a style of polyphonic folk singing that was included in the Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2005. Although it is difficult to establish precisely the origins of tenores singing because of the entangled history of Sardinia, some historians date it to around 3,000 years ago! The traditional singing is related to shepherd life, to their loneliness, only in touch with nature. The Tenores singing is often accompanied by the evocative traditional dances and costumes. Special Occasions between Music and Dance Do you love music and dance? Are you looking for ways to bond with your loved ones and enjoy an experiential journey or special occasion in Italy? Join authentic lessons with local teachers: you, your family and friends can learn how to play typical instruments, sing in ancient dialects, and learn some new dance moves and choreographies! It’s a great, fun and creative way to spend quality family time together. Contact Italian Special Occasions DMC for bespoke events in the Bel Paese.	Italy
The straits of Johor separate which island from the Malay Peninsula?	Sounds of Italy: folk music & traditional dances Sounds of Italy: folk music & traditional dances Post Next '; Today we will embark on a journey through the beats, harmonies and melodies of Italy. Regional music and local dances are a reflection of the country’s deep and complex history. In fact, the Italian national unification came quite late compared to other European countries, and so many of the separate cultures scattered around the boot remained heterogeneous until quite recently. If we try to group Italy’s musical map according to geography, the following generalization applies: There are Celtic and Slavic influences on the choral and group singing in northern Italy This contrasts with the strident monody in the South, reminiscent of Greek, Arabic and African styles These influences are somewhat mixed in central Italy, where locals also enjoy the styles of narrative and ballad singing And there’s the unique case of Sardinia Northern Italy In north-western Italy, the music in some parts of Piedmont and Liguria preserves the influence of Occitania, an ancient region of southern Europe, which in turn retains characteristics of the ancient Celtic influence with flutes and bagpipes. In Trentino Alto Adige, particularly in the province of Trento, folk choirs are the most common form of music making. Here, the heritage of the German-speaking neighbors is quite obvious when you witness a Schuhplattler performance, during which the dancers stomp, clap and strike the soles of their shoes (Schuhe), thighs and knees with their hands held flat (platt). In the north-east, the music of Friuli Venezia Giulia shares much more in common with Austria and Slovenia. In the video below, you can enjoy a joyous local folk dance, the Furlana. This lively dance became popular around the mid 1780’s but some documents trace it back to 1609… and today, it’s still contagious! [Featured image above by Gruppo Folcloristico Pasian di Prato ] Central Italy Things are decidedly more calm in Emilia Romagna, homeland of the ballo liscio – literally, smooth dance. Couples love this ballroom dance, which originated towards the end of the 19th century by mixing elements of waltz, mazurka and polka. But in other parts of central Italy, the tempo gets groovy again, in a way that sends you back to Medieval times! Saltarello, named after the Italian verb “saltare” (jump), is a joyous dance that is popular in Lazio, Abruzzo, Molise, Marche and Umbria. The first mention of the saltarello is in a fourteenth-century manuscript probably of Tuscan origin, and the dance enjoyed great popularity in the courts of medieval Europe. It is quite difficult to resist the temptation to hop to the beat and harmony of the “tamburello” tambourine and the “zampogna” bagpipe or the “organetto”, a type of diatonic button accordion. Southern Italy In southern Italy, the most characteristic dances are represented by the tarantella and its fast upbeat tempo. The music is most commonly played with a mandolin, a guitar, an accordion and tambourines. Flute, fiddle, trumpet and clarinet are also used. The name of the dance changes from region to region. For example, it is called tammuriata in Campania, pizzica in Apulia’s Salento region, and Sonu a ballu in Calabria. The dance spread mainly during the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. According to the original legend, the name was inspired by the tarantula: if someone was bitten by the poisonous spider, he or she had to dance to a cheerful tempo to sweat the venom out. The same story is behind the Apulian variant, pizzica (sting). Although local versions of tarantella differ slightly from region to region, you will find that they all have something in common: a hypnotic effect that will involve your body, mind and soul! Distinctive melodies come from Campania, where the Canzone napoletana is a traditional form of music sung in the Neapolitan language. It is usually performed by a male voice singing solo, and expressed in the form of a serenade or a livelier rhythm. Among the most famous songs of this genre, are ‘O Sole mio and Funiculì, Funiculà. Sardinia, unique in its own right Sardinia features its own inimitable style, the Su cantu a tenòre, or a style of polyphonic folk singing that was included in the Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2005. Although it is difficult to establish precisely the origins of tenores singing because of the entangled history of Sardinia, some historians date it to around 3,000 years ago! The traditional singing is related to shepherd life, to their loneliness, only in touch with nature. The Tenores singing is often accompanied by the evocative traditional dances and costumes. Special Occasions between Music and Dance Do you love music and dance? Are you looking for ways to bond with your loved ones and enjoy an experiential journey or special occasion in Italy? Join authentic lessons with local teachers: you, your family and friends can learn how to play typical instruments, sing in ancient dialects, and learn some new dance moves and choreographies! It’s a great, fun and creative way to spend quality family time together. Contact Italian Special Occasions DMC for bespoke events in the Bel Paese.	i don't know
The Riau Islands are a province of which country?	Riau Islands travel guide - Wikitravel Understand[ edit ] Map of the Riau Islands in Indonesia The Riau Islands Province came into existence in July, 2004, when it was separated from neighboring Riau Province on the island of Sumatra . It includes the islands of Karimun, Batam, Bintan, Singkep-Lingga, and the Anambas and Natuna island groups in the South China Sea. Though Kepri is a new addition to the political map of Indonesia, the far-flung islands of this archipelago make up one of the most important historical regions in the country. An archipelago of over 3,000 islands, the region has benefited greatly from its location: straddling the sea routes between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. For thousands of years traders and pirates alike have taken advantage of its relatively calm and shallow waters, along with its many safe harbors. The earliest Malay kingdoms may have arisen in Sumatra but their prosperity relied on trade through these islands, while their navies were supported by the Orang Laut (literally "sea peoples") who lived in the archipelago. After the destruction of the Malacca Sultanate at the hands of the Portuguese in 1511, the Riau Islands and neighboring Johor (in Malaysia) became the center of a powerful successor sultanate. The Riau-Johor Sultanate, with its chief port near present-day Tanjung Pinang , reached the height of its power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, though it eventually succumbed to internal disputes, slave raiding by the Sulu Sultanate, and a war with the Dutch East India Company in 1784. By the early 1800s trade had moved elsewhere and the islands were split by a succession dispute between two sons of the recently deceased Sultan Mahmud. In 1819 an agent of the British East India Company promised to support one of the sons' (Sultan Hussain's) claim to the thrown in exchange for allowing him to set up a settlement that would become Singapore . An Anglo-Dutch treaty in 1824 divided the archipelago into two spheres of influence, splitting the former sultanate between Singapore and Johor on the British side and the Riau Islands on the Dutch side. Strung between Singapore and Batavia (present-day Jakarta ), the Riau Islands declined in economic and political importance in the 19th and 20th centuries. However, the area remained a center of Malay culture and Islamic learning in Southeast Asia and many historic buildings, especially on Penyengat Island near Tanjung Pinang , remain from this period. The province still lies on some of the most important shipping routes in the world and, for better or worse, it is firmly embedded in the greater Singaporean economy. Some of the Riau Islands are within eyesight of downtown Singapore, while others are hundreds of kilometers away from anything. Because of this, the province offers many different experiences to a traveller. The luxury resorts on the north coast of Bintan and the much seedier towns of Batam are a short ferry ride from Singapore. Historic and ethnically-diverse Tanjung Pinang , the capital and largest town on Bintan, is further away but still easy to reach. Lingga and Singkep islands are much further afield and have become a favorite destination for cycling enthusiasts from Singapore. At the furthest extreme, the Anambas and Natuna Islands are the realm for divers and adventurous backpackers. Islands[ edit ] Map of central Riau: Batam and Bintan Bintan - the largest island, home to the provincial capital Tanjung Pinang and to a large resort area Batam - an island with a fast-growing city, industrial zones, resort area and an international airport Karimun - an island west of Batam popular for its granite mine. The island also has a few beautiful beaches. Talk[ edit ] Bahasa Indonesia is modeled on the version of Malay which originates from the Riau Islands. In fact, Riau Malay is regarded as the purest form of the Malay language and visitors from Malaysia will find the Malay spoken here very similar to Bahasa Malaysia, which is the version of Malay spoken back home. Many of the islands, especially Batam, Bintan , Karimun and Kundur , have huge Chinese populations who speak Hokkien and Teochew as well as Mandarin . Get in[ edit ] The Riau Islands are a major gateway into Indonesia because of good ferry links to nearby Singapore and Malaysia . For detailed visa information, please see the Indonesia page. Many of the seaports in the Riau Islands and the main airport on Batam are visa-free and visa-on-arrival points of entry. Please see the pages for the individual islands or cities on the visa status for a particular port. By plane[ edit ] Batam 's Hang Nadim Airport (BTH) is the main airport in the province and fields flights from various Indonesian cities. It has connections with cities in the Sumatra "mainland" such as Banda Aceh , Pekanbaru , Bengkulu , Palembang , Jambi , and Pangkal Pinang , Medan , and other part of Indonesia such as Jakarta , Surabaya , Yogyakarta , Semarang , Pontianak , Bandung , and Balikpapan . See the Batam and individual city pages for details on connections. As for international connections, Malindo Air operates flight from Batam to Subang-Kuala Lumpur. Bintan has airport called Raja Ali Haji Fisabilillah Airport at Kijang near Tanjungpinang with flights From Jakarta By Garuda Indonesia or Lion Air From Jakarta and Xpress Air from Pekanbaru By ferry[ edit ] Ferries are the main way to get to the Riau Islands. Check the individual island or city pages for details. From Singapore: Frequent ferries connect Singapore with Batam and Bintan . See pages of the two islands for details of ports served by the ferries. Ferries also link Singapore with Tanjung Balai on Karimun Island. Note that ferry service from Singapore to Tanjung Batu on Kundur Island have been terminated. (Tanjung Batu is not listed as a visa-free or visa-on-arrival point of entry, although visa-free nationalities seem to not have any problems entering via this port.) From Malaysia: Frequent ferries link Johor Bahru with Batam and Bintan . Ferries also run between Kukup in the south western part of Johor state, and Tanjung Balai on Karimun Island. As of mid 2007, a ferry service has been planned for Batu Pahat in Johor and Tanjung Balai on Karimun but has not taken off yet. From other parts of Indonesia: Numerous ferries link Sumatra mainland cities such as Pekanbaru , Dumai , Palembang , Kuala Tungkal in Jambi and other smaller ports with Batam , Bintan , Karimun and other islands. Ships belonging to Indonesia's passenger shipping company Pelni call at Bintan's Kijang port, Batam's Sekupang domestic ferry terminal and the Natuna Islands, linking them with Jakarta , Medan , Pontianak and other major ports. By boat[ edit ] Boats are the only practical means of traveling through the archipelago. There are very frequent ferries between Batam and Bintan . Frequent ferry links the two islands with other islands in the province like Karimun , Singkep and Lingga. The remote Natuna and Anambas islands are linked by infrequent ferries and Pelni boats from Bintan . For more details, please see the pages for the individual islands. By air[ edit ] There are airports on Batam , Bintan and the remote Natuna Islands, where there are airstrips on Natuna and Matak. The main airline linking the various Riau islands is Riau Airlines . It also offers flights south to Singkep Island (Dabo) from Batam and that is a viable option rather than spending 3-6 hours on a ferry. Local transport[ edit ] In terms of land transport, local transport in the form of taxis, buses, vans (angkut, bemo), and motorcycle taxis (ojek) are available on most islands. It cost a dollar or two, it depends how long the trip is. However, to enjoy the island even more try to rent your own motor bike ("rental moto") It starts at 50'000 Rupias (3.2 €uro)/day when there are space to bargain, but on smaller islands they know they can charge more, up to 100'000 Rupias/day. See[ edit ][ add listing ] In the capital of the Riau province Tanjung Pinang will you find many historical attractions. The famous Buddhist Temple and Penyengat Island. With the famous Mesjid Raya Mosque made by egg. Include the unique building, it's much a spiritual island.To be there you smell the glorious history of Indonesia, yoe can find the parts of the kings palace. Several mausoleum of royalties and a spirit of old religion. The mysterious of Indonesia, this is maybe the place. Good/evil, black/light, animism. The old ruler's palace and royal tombs, among them the grave of the respected Sultan Haji, who also was creator and author of the first Malay Language grammar book, are among the legacies left by the Riau sultanate. Still in use is the old vice-royal mosque, the Mesjid Raya. Beach resort at Trikora , Bintan Riau has many fantastic beaches. The cultural center for stage performances of Malay music and dances is located in Tanjung Pinang . The center organize regulary festivals and other cultural performances, such as music and dance. Under construction, just off Batam is an Eco resort going is named Funtasy Island. They claim that they will preserve 70% of all the mangroves and trees etc. Building 450 villas. Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ] Hotels of various budgets are available in the main towns such as Tanjung Pinang on Bintan , Nagoya on Batam , Tanjung Balai on Karimun and Tanjung Batu on Kundur , although those at the lower end are often sleazy and unpleasant. Five-star beach and golf resorts, catering mostly to Singaporeans, are also popular in this part of Indonesia, mostly located in the Bintan Resorts area on the northern part of the island. There are also resorts on the other islands, eg. Nongsa on Batam . See the individual city/island pages for listings. Bear in mind that the economic boom has made accommodation in the Riau Islands more expensive than in other parts of Indonesia. Stay safe[ edit ] Riau province is a safe place, with a very low crime rate. There is no terrorism in the province. Get out[ edit ] Riau doesn't have night life as the western world, but people hang out in the street in the night. So just go out and see how the locals enjoy their evening. The island of Batam is home to many clubs and bars, catering to the large Western expat population working at the engineering companies, and the younger locals. Be aware of prices, which are quite high in the hotel bars and clubs, and of illegal drugs, which are widely available but dangerous.	Indonesia
Which Disney film features the Greek god Bacchus and his little pet donkey Jacchus?	Suspected Uighur militants detected in Riau Islands province: Minister Luhut, SE Asia News & Top Stories - The Straits Times The Straits Times ePaper Suspected Uighur militants detected in Riau Islands province: Minister Luhut Indonesia's Chief Security Minister Luhut Pandjaitan speaks during a morning briefing with journalists at his office in Jakarta, Indonesia, on July 20.PHOTO: REUTERS Published Jul 20, 2016, 1:31 pm SGT Updated [email protected] JAKARTA - Indonesian intelligence has been alerted to Uighurs in Riau Islands, said Coordinating Minister for Political, Legal and Security Affairs Luhut Pandjaitan on Wednesday (July 20). "Uighurs have entered that area, we are monitoring," said the minister, when asked if authorities have detected the presence of a terror cell in the Indonesian province. He declined to elaborate further but militants from the Turkic-Muslim ethnic group in China's far western region of Xinjiang have been known to link up with Islamic extremists in Indonesia. Previous reports had indicated that up to eight Uighurs may have made their way to Indonesia with some having successfully joined groups such as the East Indonesia Mujahideen (MIT) which was led by Santoso, Indonesia's most wanted terrorist. A few unidentified Uighur militants have also appeared with MIT fighters in photographs circulated online, purportedly taken in a forested area somewhere in Poso, Central Sulawesi, where the MIT has been hiding out in recent years. The latest development revealed by Mr Luhut comes just two days after Santoso was shot dead by army troops during a firefight outside a village in Poso on Monday. It also follows a bomb threat from a little-known local Islamic militant group called Kelompok Islam Insaf that was mailed earlier this month to ferry operators in Singapore that ply the sea routes between the Republic and Batam. In at least two letters sent by local mail to the Singapore offices of ferry operators Horizon Fast Ferry and Batam Fast on July 4, the Kelompok Islam Insaf threatened to strike popular tourist destinations such as Tanjung Pinang and the Nagoya Hill Shopping Mall in Batam, as well as key ports in Batam and Bintan in July. Riau Islands is the closest Indonesian province to Singapore, where visitors from both countries commute to and fro mainly by ferry. The provincial police in Riau Islands later lowered the terror alert levels in the area after it was satisfied that the bomb threat no longer posed any immediate danger to residents and visitors. Police investigations did not uncover any evidence to support the threat issued by the Kelompok Islam Insaf, Riau Islands police chief Sam Budigusdian said last week. However, more than 1,600 security personnel were deployed to places with crowds and a high concentration of foreigners, as well as seaports and the Hang Nadim International Airport in Batam. News of the bomb threat in Riau Islands broke within days of a suicide bombing attack on a police station in the city of Solo in Central Java on the eve of Aidilfitri. A policeman was wounded when he successfully intercepted the suicide bomber, who died at the scene. Correction note: In an earlier version of the story, we referred to Riau Islands police chief as Sambudi Gusdian. His name should be Sam Budigusdian. We are sorry for the error. Topics:	i don't know
In Greek myth who was goddess of the dawn?	EOS - Greek Goddess of the Dawn (Roman Aurora) Eos Dawn (êôs) Eos goddess of the dawn, Athenian red-figure krater C5th B.C., Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum EOS was the rosy-fingered goddess of the dawn. She and her siblings Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon) were numbered amongst the second-generation Titan gods. Eos rose into the sky from the river Okeanos (Oceanus) at the start of each day, and with her rays of light dispersed the mists of night. She was depicted either driving a chariot drawn by winged horses or borne aloft on her own wings. Eos had an unquenchable desire for handsome young men, some say as the result of a curse laid upon her by the goddess Aphrodite . Her lovers included Orion , Phaethon , Kephalos (Cephalus) and Tithonos (Tithonus), three of which she ravished away to distant lands. The Trojan prince Tithonos became her official consort. When the goddess petitioned Zeus for his immortality, she neglected also to request eternal youth. In time he shrivelled up by old age and transformed into a grasshopper. Eos was closely identified with Hemera , the primordial goddess of day. In some myths--such as the tales of Orion and Kephalos--Eos stood virtually as a non-virginal substitute for Artemis . FAMILY OF EOS [1.1] HYPERION & THEIA (Hesiod Theogony 371, Apollodorus 1.8, Hyginus Pref, Ovid Fasti 5.159) [1.2] HYPERION & EURYPHAESSA (Homeric Hymn 31 to Helios) [2.1] PALLAS (Ovid Fasti 4.373, Valerius Flaccus 2.72) OFFSPRING [1.3] BOREAS , ZEPHYROS , NOTOS , EUROS , EOSPHOROS (by Astraios ) (Nonnus Dionysiaca 6.18 & 37.70 & 47.340) [1.4] HESPEROS (by Kephalos) (Hyginus Astronomica) [2.1] ASTRAIA (by Astraios ) (Hyginus Astronomica) [3.1] MEMNON, EMATHION (by Tithonos) (Hesiod Theogony 984, Apollodorus 3.147) [3.2] MEMNON (by Tithonos) (Aethiopis Frag 1, Quintus Smyrnaeus 2.549, Pindar Nemean 6 str3, Diodorus Siculus 4.75.4, Callistratus Descriptions 9, Ovid Fasti 4.713) [3.3] MEMNON (Philostratus Elder 1.7, Callistratus Descriptions 1) [4.1] PHAETHON -TITHONOS (by Kephalos) (Hesiod Theogony 984, Apollodorus 3.181, Pausanias 1.3.1) ENCYCLOPEDIA EOS (Êôs), in Latin Aurora, the goddess of the morning red, who brings up the light of day from the east. She was a daughter of Hyperion and Theia or Euryphassa, and a sister of Helios and Selene. (Hes. Theog. 371, &c.; Hom. Hymn in Sol. ii.) Ovid (Met. ix. 420, Fast. iv. 373) calls her a daughter of Pallas. At the close of night she rose front the couch of her beloved Tithonus, and on a chariot drawn by the swift horses Lampus and Phaëton she ascended up to heaven from the river Oceanus, to announce the coming light of the sun to the gods as well as to mortals. (Hom. Od. v. 1, &c., xxiii. 244; Virg. Aen. iv. 129, Georg. i. 446; Hom. Hymn in Merc. 185; Theocrit. ii. 148, xiii. 11.) In the Homeric poems Eos not only announces the coming Helios, but accompanies him throughout the day, and her career is not complete till the evening; hence she is sometimes mentioned where one would have expected Helios (Od. v. 390, x. 144); and the tragic writers completely identify her with Hemera, of whom in later times the same myths are related as of Eos. (Paus. i. 3. § 1, iii. 18. § 7.) The later Greek and the Roman poets followed, on the whole, the notions of Eos, which Homer had established, and the splendour of a southern aurora, which lasts much longer than in our climate, is a favourite topic with the ancient poets. Mythology represents her as having carried off several youths distinguished for their beauty. Thus she carried away Orion, but the gods were angry at her for it, until Artemis with a gentle arrow killed him. (Hom. Od. v. 121.) According to Apollodorus (i. 4. § 4) Eos carried Orion to Delos, and was ever stimulated by Aphrodite. Cleitus, the son of Mantius, was carried by Eos to the seats of the immortal gods (Od. xv. 250), and Tithonus, by whom she became the mother of Emathion and Memnon, was obtained in like manner. She begged of Zeus to make him immortal, but forgot to request him to add eternal youth. So long as he was young and beautiful, she lived with him at the end of the earth, on the banks of Oceanus ; and when he grew old, she nursed him, until at length his voice disappeared and his body became quite dry. She then locked the body up in her chamber, or metamorphosed it into a cricket. (Hom. Hymn. in Ven. 218, &c.; Horat. Carm. i. 22. 8, ii. 16. 30; Apollod. iii. 12. § 4; Hes. Theog. 984; Serv. ad Virg. Georg. i. 447, iii. 328, Aen. iv. 585.) When her son Memnon was going to fight against Achilles, she asked Hephaestus to give her arms for him, and when Memnon was killed, her tears fell down in the form of morning dew. (Virg. Aen. viii. 384.) By Astraeus Eos became the mother of Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, Heosphorus, and the other stars. (Hesiod. Theog. 378.) Cephalus was carried away by her from the summit of mount Hymetttus to Syria, and by him she became the mother of Phaëton or Tithonus, the father of Phaëton; but afterwards she restored her beloved to his wife Procris. (Hes. Theog. 984; Apollod. iii. 14. § 3; Paus. i. 3. § 1; Ov. Met. vii. 703, &c.; Hygin. Fab 189.) Eos was represented in the pediment of the kingly stoa at Athens in the act of carrying off Cephalus, and in the same manner she was seen on the throne of the Amyclaean Apollo. (Paus. i. 3. § 1, iii. 18. § 7.) At Olympia she was represented in the act of praying to Zeus for Memnon. (v. 22. 2.) In the works of art still extant, she appears as a winged goddess or in a chariot drawn by four horses. Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ALTERNATE NAME SPELLINGS Nyx, Eos and Helius, Athenian black-figure lekythos C5th B.C., Metropolitan Museum of Art Hesiod, Theogony 371 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And Theia was subject in love to Hyperion and bare great Helios (Helius, Sun) and clear Selene (Moon) and Eos (Dawn) who shine upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven." Homeric Hymn 31 to Helius (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) : "For Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaessa, his own sister, who bare him lovely children, rosy-armed (rhododekhos) Eos (Dawn) and rich-tressed Selene (Moon) and tireless Helios (Sun)." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 8 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "The Titanes (Titans) had children . . . Hyperion and Theia had Eos (Dawn), Helios (Sun), and Selene (Moon)." Pseudo-Hyginus, Preface (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "From Hyperion and Aethra [Clear Blue Sky] : Sol [Helios], Luna [Selene], Aurora [Eos]." Ovid, Fasti 4. 373 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "When Pallantis (Daughter of Pallas) [i.e. Eos, Aurora] next gleams in heaven and stars flee." Ovid, Fasti 5. 159 ff : "Hyperion's daughter [Eos the Dawn] expels the stars." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 2. 72 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "The fires of the maid Pallantis (daughter of Pallas) [i.e. Eos the dawn]." MOTHER OF THE STARS & WINDS Hesiod, Theogony 378 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And Eos (Dawn) bare to Astraios (Astraeus, the Starry) the strong-hearted Anemoi (Winds), brightening Zephyros (Zephyrus, West Wind), and Boreas (North Wind), headlong in his course, and Notos (Notus, South Wind),--a goddess mating in love with a god. And after these Erigenia (the Early-Born) [Eos] bare the star Eosphoros (Dawn-bringer) [the planet Venus], and the gleaming Astra (Stars) with which heaven is crowned." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 9 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Eos (Dawn) and Astraios (Astraeus) were parents of Anemoi (Winds) and Astra (Stars)." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 680 ff : "At their mother's [Eos'] hest all the light Aetai (Winds) [Anemoi] of the Dawn took hands, and slid down one long stream of sighing wind to Priamos' (Priam's) plain [to retrieve the body of their dead brother Memnon.]" Pseudo-Hyginus, Preface (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "From Astraeus and Aurora [Eos] : Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, Favonius [Zephyros]." Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 42 : "Some have said it [Hesperos (Hesperus)] represents the son of Aurora [Eos] and Cephalus, who surpassed many in beauty." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 47. 340 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[Ariadne abandoned on Naxos by Theseus laments :] ‘Who stole the man of Athens [Theseus]? . . . If it is Notos (Notus, the South Wind), if bold Euros (Eurus, the East Wind), I appeal to Eos and reproach the mother of the blustering Anemoi (Winds), lovelorn herself.’" APHRODITE & THE CURSE OF EOS Aphrodite placed a curse upon the goddess Eos causing her to fall in love with a train of mortals--Orion, Tithonos (Tithonus), Kephalos (Cephalus) and Kleitos (Cleitus). Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 27 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Eos, whom Aphrodite tormented with constant passion as punishment for sleeping with Ares." LOVE OF EOS & ORION Eos and Tithonus, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., British Museum Eos loved the giant Orion, a hunter who was transformed into a constellation at death. Homer, Odyssey 5. 118 ff (trans. Shewring) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "[Kalypso (Calypso) complains to Hermes :] ‘You are merciless, you gods, resentful beyond all other beings; you are jealous if without disguise a goddess makes a man her bedfellow, her beloved husband. So it was when Eos of the rosy fingers chose out Orion; you gods who live in such ease yourselves were jealous of her until chaste Artemis in her cloth-of-gold visited him with her gentle shafts and slew him in Ortygia [island of Delos].’" Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 27 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Eos, whom Aphrodite tormented with constant passion as punishment for sleeping with Ares, fell in love with Orion and took him off with her to Delos." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 4. 192 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[The goddess Harmonia laments her love for a mortal man :] ‘I will proclaim how Orion loved Erigeneia [Eos the Dawn], and I will recall the match of Kephalos (Cephalus); if I go to the misty sunset, my comfort is Selene herself who felt the same for Endymion upon Latmos.’” Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5. 516 ff : "Shining Eos carried off Orion for a bridegroom." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 11. 388 ff : "He would have been bridegroom of Eos Fairtress; since he shone lovelier than Kephalos (Cephalus), was handsomer of face than Orion, he alone outdid them with his rosy skin." For MORE information on this giant see ORION LOVE OF EOS & CLEITUS Homer, Odyssey 15. 250 ff (trans. Shewring) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "Mantios (Mantius) [son of the seer Melampos] he begot Polypheides (Polyphides) and Kleitos (Cleitus), but Eos of the golden robe snatched Kleitos away for his beauty's sake to dwell with the Deathless Ones." LOVE OF EOS & CEPHALUS Hesiod, Theogony 984 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And to Kephalos (Cephalus) she [Eos] bare a splendid son, strong Phaethon, a man like the gods, whom, when he was a young boy in the tender flower of glorious youth with childish thoughts, laughter-loving Aphrodite seized and caught up and made a keeper of her shrine by night, a divine spirit." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 86 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Kephalos (Cephalus) [son of Deion] was another whom Eos loved and kidnapped." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 181 : "Kephalos (Cephalus), whom Eos developed a passion for and kidnapped. They had sex in Syria, and she borne him a son Tithonos (Tithonus)." [N.B. Tithonos is usually called the husband, not son, of Eos.] Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 3. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "On the tiling of this portico [the Royal Portico at Athens] are images of baked earthenware . . . Hemera (Day) [Eos] carrying away Kephalos (Cephalus), who they say was very beautiful and was ravished by Hemera, who was in love with him. His son was Phaithon (Phaethon),afterwards ravished by Aphrodite . . . and made a guardian of her temple. Such is the tale told by Hesiod, among others, in his poem on women." Pausanias, Description of Greece 3. 18. 10 - 16 : "[Amongst the scenes depicted on the throne of Apollon at Amyklai (Amyclae) near Sparta :] There is Kephalos (Cephalus), too, carried of by Hemera (Day) [Eos] because of his beauty." Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses 41 (trans. Celoria) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Kephalos (Cephalus) was a handsome and brave youth and he goddess Eos (Dawn) fell in love with him because of his beauty. She kidnapped him, keeping him at home as her lover." Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 270 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Those who were most handsome . . . Cephalus, son of Pandion, whom Aurora [Eos] loved. Tithonus, husband of Aurora." Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 189 : "When Cephalus, who was fond of hunting, had gone to the mountain in the early morning, Aurora [Eos], wife of Tithonus, fell passionately in love with him, and begged for his embrace. He refused, since he had given his promise to Procris. Then Aurora said : ‘I don't want you to break faith, unless she has done so before you.’ And so she changed his form into that of a stranger, and gave him beautiful gifts to give to Procris. When Cephalus had come in his changed form, he gave the gifts to Procris and lay with her. Then Aurora took away his new appearance. When Procris saw Cephalus, she knew she had been deceived by Aurora, and fled to the island of Crete . . . [Procris was eventually reunited with Cephalus] nevertheless out of fear of Aurora she followed him to watch him in the early morning, and hid among the bushes. When Cephalus saw the bushes stir, he hurled the unavoidable javelin, and killed his wife." Eos and Cephalus, Athenian red-figure krater C5th B.C., Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum Ovid, Metamorphoses 7. 700 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Within two months after our [Kephalos (Cephalus) and Prokris' (Procris')] marriage, while I [Kephalos] spread my nets to catch the antlered deer, the saffron Aurora [Eos the Dawn], above Hymettus' ever-flowery peak, saw me at daybreak as the twilight fled, and carried me away against my will. And may the goddess pardon me, if I say what is true : her rosy cheeks are fair, she rules the borderlands of dark and day, she drinks the nectar's honeydew, but I loved Procris, Procris ever in my heart, and Procris on my lips. I spoke of bonds of holy wedlock, of love's fresh delights, my vows so new and my deserted bride, until in rage the goddess cried : ‘Enough of your complaining! Have your Procris! But, if I can see the future, you will rue the day you had her,’ and so sent me back. On my way home the goddess' prophecy began to form, fear that my wife had failed her marriage vows . . . Intent on heartbreak I resolved to test her loyalty with presents. And Aurora [Eos] favoured my fears and changed my form and face (If felt the change) and so I entered Athens unrecognisable and made my way back home . . . [and attempted to seduce his wife in the form of another man. Prokris failed the test and fled him, but the two were eventually reconciled.] I would go hunting when the sun's first beams coloured the hilltops, as a young man will, roving the woods alone . . . and when my hand had had its fill of sport I used to seek the coolness of the shade and of the breeze, the aura breathing from the chilly dales. I sought the gentle aura in the heat, I waited for the aura, for its balm, my labour's rest. ‘Come, aura,’ I would call, how I remember! ‘soothe me, welcome guest, come to my breast, relieve, as is your way, the heat with which I burn.’ And I might add, so my fate led me on, more blandishments. ‘You comfort and refresh me. For your sake I love the lonely places and the woods; your breath I seek for ever on my lips.’ Some fool who overheard my words mistook the double sense and thought that aura (breeze) called so often was the goddess [Aurora, Eos the Dawn], and I in love. This hasty tell-tale hurried off to Procris and told in whispers my supposed offence. Love will believe too soon. In sudden grief she swooned, they told me, then, restored at last, bemoaned her misery, her cruel fate, accused my honour and, imagining a false offence, feared a mere nothing, feared an insubstantial name, poor soul, and grieved as over a true rival paramour. Yet she had doubts and in her wretchedness hoped she was wrong, refusing to accept the tale or, till her eyes had evidence convict her husband of such villainy. Next day the gleam of dawn had banished night and out into the woods I went and found good sport and, lying on the grass, I called ‘Come, aura (breeze), come and soothe my weariness! And suddenly, as I spoke, I seemed to hear a sound of moaning, but I called again ‘Come, best and loveliest!’ A falling leaf made a slight rustle and I thought it was some lurking beast and hurled my [magic never-failing] javelin. It was my wife! Clutching her wounded breast, ‘Ay me! Ay me!’ she cried. I knew her voice, my Procris' voice, and like a madman rushed headlong towards the sound. And there, half-dead, her clothes blood-splattered, plucking from the wound the gift (heaven help me!) she had given me, I found her . . . Exhausted then and dying, these few words she forced herself to murmur : ‘By our vows of wedlock, by the gods of home and heaven, by my deserts, if I have well deserved, by my death's cause, my own still-living love, I beg you, I implore you, not to take Aura [that is, Aurora or Eos] to be your wife in place of my.’ And then at last I learnt of her mistake and told her all. But what did telling help? She slipped away; what little strength was left ebbed with her failing blood; and while her eyes had power still to gaze, she gazed at me, and on my lips her life's last breath was spent; but she looked glad and seemed to die content." [N.B. "aura" was also the Greek word for breeze. Presumably the Greeks also applied it to Eos mother of the winds.] Ovid, Heroides 4. 93 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Renowned in the forest was Cephalus, and many were the wild beasts that had fallen on the sod at the piercing of his stroke; yet he did not ill in yielding himself to Aurora's [Eos'] love. Oft did the goddess sagely go to him, leaving her aged spouse [Tithonos]." Ovid, Heroides 15. 87 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Phaedra speaks of her love, the hunter Hippolytos :] ‘Lest thou steal him in Cephalus' place, I ever feared, Aurora [Eos].’" Nonnus, Dionysiaca 27. 1 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "Eos (the Dawn) had just shaken off the wing of carefree sleep (Hypnos) and opened the gates of sunrise, leaving the lightbringing couch of Kephalos (Cephalus)." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 680 ff : "She had heard that a huntsman Kephalos (Cephalus), from the country of unmothered Athena, was husband of rosecrowned Eos (Dawn)." LOVE OF EOS & TITHONUS Eos and Tithonus, Athenian red-figure neck amphora C5th B.C., Fitzwilliam Museum Homer, Iliad 11. 1 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "Eos (Dawn) rose from her bed, where she lay by haughty Tithonos (Tithonus), to carry her light to men and to immortals." Homer, Odyssey 5. 1 ff (trans. Shewring) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "The goddess Eos (Dawn), who had slept beside Lord Tithonos (Tithonus), was rising now to bring light to immortals and to mortals." Hesiod, Theogony 984 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And Eos bare to Tithonos (Tithonus) brazen-crested Memnon, king of the Aithiopes (Ethiopians), and the Lord Emathion." Homeric Hymn 5 to Aphrodite 218 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) : "So also golden-throned (khrysothronos) Eos rapt away Tithonos (Tithonus) who was of your race and like the deathless gods. And she went to ask the dark-clouded Son of Kronos (Cronus) [Zeus] that he should be deathless and live eternally; and Zeus bowed his head to her prayer and fulfilled her desire. Too simple was Lady (potnia) Eos: she thought not in her heart to ask for youth for him and to strip him of the slough of deadly age. So while he enjoyed the sweet flower of life he lived rapturously with golden-throned Eos, Erigeneia (Early-Born), by the streams of Okeanos (Oceanus), at the ends of the earth; but when the first grey hairs began to ripple from his comely head and noble chin, Lady Eos kept away from his bed, though she cherished him in her house and nourished him with food and ambrosia and gave him rich clothing. But when loathsome old age pressed full upon him, and he could not move nor lift his limbs, this seemed to her in her heart the best counsel: she laid him in a room and put to the shining doors. There he babbles endlessly, and no more has strength at all, such as once he had in his supple limbs." Mimnermus Fragment 4 (from Stobaeus, Anthology) (trans. Gerber, Vol. Greek Elegiac) (Greek elegy C7th B.C.) : "He [Zeus] gave Tithonos (Tithonus) an everlasting evil, old age, which is more terrible than even woeful death." Sappho, Fragment 58 (from Papyrus) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I) (C6th B.C.) : "Not possible to become ageless . . (lacuna) rosy-armed (rhodopakhos) Auos (Eos) .. carrying [Tithonos] to the ends of the earth . . yet age seized him . . immortal wife." Ibycus, Fragment 289 (from Scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C6th B.C.) : "Ibykos (Ibycus) tells also how Eos carried off Tithonos (Tithonus)." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 147 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Now Eos, in love with Tithonos (Tithonus), kidnapped him and too him to Aithiopia (Ethiopia), and there after intercourse with him she gave birth to sons Emathion and Memnon." Callimachus, Aetia Fragment 21 (trans. Trypanis) (Greek poet C3rd B.C.) : "But when Tito [Eos], having slept with the son of Laomedon [i.e. Tithonos], arose to set the chafing yoke on the neck of the ox [that pulled her chariot]." Lycophron, Alexandra 16 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek poet C3rd B.C.) : "Eos was just soaring over the steep crag of Phegion (Phegium) on the swift wings of Pegasos (Pegasus), leaving in his bed by Kerne (Cerne) [a fabled island in the remote East] Tithonos (Tithonus)." Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 75. 4 (trans. Oldfather) (Greek historian C1st B.C.) : "Laomedon who begat Tithonos (TIthonus) and Priamos (Priam); and Tithonos, after making a campaign against those parts of Asia which lay to the east of him and pushing as far as Aithiopia (Ethiopia), begat by Eos, as the myths relate, Memnon, who came to the aid of the Trojans and was slain by Akhilleus (Achilles)." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 115 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) : "[Memnon greets King Priamos (Priam) of Troy :] ‘Telling of that strange immortality by Eos (Dawn-goddess) given to his sire [Tithonos], telling of the unending flow and ebb of Tethys, of the sacred flood of Okeanos (Oceanus) fathomless-rolling, of the bounds of Earth that wearieth never of her travail, of where the Sun-steeds leap from orient waves.’" Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 6. 1 ff : "Rose Eos (Dawn) from Okeanos (Oceanus) and Tithonos' (Tithonus') bed, and climbed the steeps of heaven, scattering round flushed flakes of splendour." Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 1. 6c (trans. Gullick) (Greek rhetorician C2nd to C3rd A.D.) : "Tithonos (Tithonus) longed for immortality, but now hangs in his chamber, old age has deprived him of all pleasures." Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 270 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Those who were most handsome . . . Tithonus, husband of Aurora [Eos]." Ovid, Metamorphoses 9. 420 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "A rumbling argument arose in heaven, the gods all grumbling why others should not be allowed to grant such gifts [the rejuvenating power of the goddess Hebe]. Pallantias [Aurora-Eos] grumbled at her husband's [Tithonos'] age." Ovid, Fasti 6. 473 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Phrygian Tithonus, you complain your bride [Aurora-Eos] departs." Ovid, Heroides 16. 199 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Paris addresses Helene :] ‘Do not disdain a Phrygian for your lord . . . A Phrygian was Aurora's [Eos'] mate [Tithonos]; yet he was carried away by the goddess who sets the last bound to the advance of night.’" Ovid, Heroides 18. 111 ff : "Aurora [Eos], the bride of Tithonus, was making ready to chase the night away." Virgil, Georgics 1. 446 ff (trans. Fairclough) (Roman bucolic C1st B.C.) : "When Aurora (the Dawn) [Eos] rises pale, as she leaves Tithonus' saffron couch." Propertius, Elegies 1. 18B (trans. Goold) (Roman elegy C1st B.C.) : "Aurora [Eos] did not scorn Tithonus, old though he was, or suffer him to lie deserted in the halls of the Dawn: she, as she mounted her car, called the gods unkind and performed unwilling service for the world; him, as she dismounted, she oft fondled in her arms and did not first busy herself with washing her unyoked steeds; him when she embraced, resting near the land of India, she lamented that the day returned again too soon. Deeper her joy that old Tithonus lives than heavy her grief when Memnon died." Statius, Silvae 1. 2. 43 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman poetry C1st A.D.) : "A bold shepherd lad [Tithonos] held thy court on Dardan Ida, though warm-hearted Aurora (the Dawn) [Eos] had preferred thee, and snatched thee up and borne thee in her chariot through the air." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 15. 279 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "There are herdsmen that lie in heavenly beds. Rosy Tithonos (Tithonus) was a bridegroom for whom because of his fine figure lightbringer Eos stayed her car, and caught him up." Suidas s.v. Andra Tithonon (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek lexicon C10th A.D.) : "Andra Tithonon sparatton kai taratton kai kukon (Attacking, troubling and vexing Old Man Tithonos): That is, [doing so to] someone exceedingly old. From Tithonos (Tithonus), who grew altogether ancient and was changed into a cicada." EOS, HER SON MEMNON & THE TROJAN WAR Thetis, Eos, Hermes and the scales of fate, Athenian red-figure stamnos C5th B.C., Museum of Fine Arts Boston Homer, Odyssey 4. 190 ff (trans. Shewring) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "The great Antilokhos (Antiochus) whom [Memnon] the son of radiant Eos had slain." Arctinus of Miletus, The Aethiopis Frag 1 (from Proclus, Chrestomathia 2) (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "[In the Trojan War, after the death of Penthesilea :] Then Memnon, the son of Eos, wearing armour made by Hephaistos (Hephaestus), comes to help the Trojans, and Thetis tells her son about Memnon. A battle takes place in which Antilokhos (Antilochus) is slain by Memnon and Memnon by Akhilleus (Achilles). Eos then obtains of Zeus and bestows upon her son immortality." Pindar, Nemean Ode 6. 50 ff (trans. Conway) (Greek lyric C5th B.C.) : "The Aithiopian (Ethiopian) race, when mighty Memnon came not home again . . . when great Akhilleus (Achilles) stepped down from his chariot to the ground, and slew the son of shining Eos (Dawn) with his fell-pointed spear." Aeschylus, Memnon and Psychostasia (lost plays) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) : Aeschylus told the story of Memnon, son of Eos the Dawn), in two plays entitled Memnon and Psychostasia (The Weighing of Souls). Smyth (L.C.L.) summarises the second of these : "In the Psychostasia Zeus was represented as holding aloft the balance, in the scales of which were the souls of Achilles and Memnon, while beneath each stood Thetis and Eos, praying each for the life of her son." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca E5. 3 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Memnon, son of Tithonos (Tithonus) and Eos, brought a large force of Aithiopians (Ethiopians) to Troy . . . He was himself killed by Akhilleus (Achilles)." Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 19. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "[Amongst the scenes depicted on the chest of Kypselos (Cypselus) dedicated at Olympia :] Akhilleus (Achilles) and Memnon are fighting; their mothers [Thetis and Eos] stand by their side." Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 22. 2 : "By the side of what is called the Hippodamium [at Olympia] is a semicircular stone pedestal, and on it are Zeus, Thetis, and Hemera (Day) [i.e. Eos] entreating Zeus on behalf of her children. These are on the middle of the pedestal. There are Akhilleus (Achilles) and Memnon, one at either edge of the pedestal, representing a pair of combatants in position." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 185 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) : "[Memnon arrives at Troy :] The warrior-son [Memnon] of [Eos] she who brings Light to the world, the Child of Mists (Phaesphoros Erigeneia). Now swelled his mighty heart with eagerness to battle with the foe forthright. And Eos (Dawn) with most reluctant feet began to climb Heaven's broad highway." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 289 ff : "[In the Trojan War :] [Phereus and Thrasymedes] vainly essayed to slay him [Memnon], as they hurled the long spears, but the lances glanced aside far from his flesh : Erigeneia (the Dawn-queen) [Eos] turned them thence." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 418 ff : "[Memnon addresses Akhilleus (Achilles) when they meet in battle :] ‘Of birth divine am I, Eos' (the Dawn-queen's) mighty son, nurtured afar by lily-slender Hesperides, beside the River Okeanos (Oceanus). Therefore not from thee nor from grim battle shrink I, knowing well how far my goddess-mother doth transcend a Nereis (Nereid), whose child thou vauntest thee. To Gods and men my mother bringeth light; on her depends the issue of all things, works great and glorious in Olympos wrought whereof comes blessing unto men. But thine--she sits in barren crypts of brine.’" Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 490 ff : "[Akhilleus (Achilles) and Memnon engage in battle :] But when long lengthened out the conflict was of those two champions, and the might of both in that strong tug and strain was equal-matched, then, gazing from Olympos' far-off heights, the Gods joyed, some in the invincible son of Peleus, others in the goodly child of old Tithonos (Tithonus) and Eos (the Queen of Dawn). Thundered the heavens on high from east to west . . . and trembled for her son Erigeneia (the Child of the Mist) as in her chariot through the sky she rode. Marvelled the Daughters of the Sun [Horai, Horae] who stood near her, around that wondrous splendour-ring traced for the race-course of the tireless sun by Zeus, the limit of all Nature's life and death, the dally round that maketh up the eternal circuit of the rolling years. And now amongst the Blessed bitter feud had broken out; but by behest of Zeus the twin Keres (Fates) suddenly stood beside these twain, one dark--her shadow fell on Memnon's heart; one bright--her radiance haloed Peleus' son [Akhilleus]. And with a great cry the Immortals saw, and filled with sorrow they of the one part were, they of the other with triumphant joy." Achilles, Eos and the body of Memnon, Athenian black-figure neck amphora C6th B.C., Metropolitan Museum of Art Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 549- 815 : "[Akhilleus (Achilles) slays Memnon with his sword :] Then groaned Eos (Dawn), and palled herself in clouds, and earth was darkened. At their mother's hest all the light Aetai (Winds) [Anemoi] took hands, and slid down one long stream of sighing wind to Priamos' (Priam's) plain, and floated round the dead, and softly, swiftly caught they up, and bare through silver mists Eos' (the Dawn's) son, with hearts sore aching for their brother's fall, while moaned around them all the air. As on they passed, fell many blood-gouts from those pierced limbs down to the earth, and these were made a sign to generations yet to be. The Gods gathered them up from many lands, and made thereof a far-resounding river, named of all that dwell beneath long Ida's flanks Paphlagoneion. As its waters flow twixt fertile acres, once a year they turn to blood, when comes the woeful day whereon died Memnon. Thence a sick and choking reek steams : thou wouldst say that from a wound unhealed corrupting humours breathed an evil stench. Ay, so the Gods ordained : but now flew on bearing Eos' mighty son the rushing Aetai (Winds) skimming earth's face and palled about with night. Nor were his Aithiopian (Ethiopian) comrades left to wander of their King forlorn : a God [Eos] suddenly winged those eager souls with speed such as should soon be theirs for ever, changed to flying fowl, the children of the air. Wailing their King in the winds' track they sped . . . so they left far behind that stricken field of blood, and fast they followed after those swift Aetai (Winds) with multitudinous moaning, veiled in mist unearthly. Trojans over all the plain and Danaans marvelled, seeing that great host vanishing with their King. All hearts stood still in dumb amazement. But the tireless Aetai (Winds) sighing set hero Memnon's giant corpse down by the deep flow of Aisepos' (Aesepus') stream, where is a fair grove of the bright-haired Nymphai (Nymphs), the which round his long barrow afterward Aisepos' daughters planted, screening it with many and manifold trees: and long and loud wailed those Immortals, chanting his renown, the son of Erigeneia (the Dawn-goddess) splendour-throned. Now sank the sun: Eos (the Lady of the Morn) wailing her dear child from the heavens came down. Twelve maidens [the twelve Horai, Hours] shining-tressed attended her, the warders of the high paths of the sun for ever circling, warders of the night and dawn . . . These came down from heaven, for Memnon wailing wild and high; and mourned with these the Pleiades [star-nymphs]. Echoed round far-stretching mountains, and Aisepos' stream. Ceaseless uprose the keen, and in their midst, fallen on her son and clasping, wailed Eos; ‘Dead art thou, dear, dear child, and thou hast clad thy mother with a pall of grief. Oh, I, now thou art slain, will not endure to light the Immortal Heavenly Ones! No, I will plunge down to the dread depths of the underworld, where thy lone spirit flitteth to and fro, and will to blind night leave earth, sky, and sea, till Khaeos (Chaos) and formless darkness brood o'er all, that Kronos' (Cronus') son [Zeus] may also learn what means anguish of heart. For not less worship-worthy than Nereos' (Nereus') Child, by Zeus's ordinance, am I, who look on all things, I, who bring all to their consummation. Recklessly my light Zeus now despiseth! Therefore I will pass into the darkness. Let him bring up to Olympos Thetis from the sea to hold for him light forth to Gods and men! My sad soul loveth darkness more than day, lest I pour light upon thy slayer's head.’ Thus as she cried, the tears ran down her face immortal, like a river brimming aye : drenched was the dark earth round the corse. Nyx (the Night) grieved in her daughter's anguish, and the heaven drew over all his stars a veil of mist and cloud, of love unto Erigeneia (the Lady of Light). All night in groans and sighs most pitiful Eos (the Dawn-queen) lay: a sea of darkness moaned around her. Of the dayspring nought she recked: she loathed Olympos' spaces. At her side fretted and whinnied still her fleetfoot steeds, trampling the strange earth, gazing at their Queen grief-stricken, yearning for the fiery course. Suddenly crashed the thunder of the wrath of Zeus; rocked round her all the shuddering earth, and on immortal Eos trembling came. Swiftly the dark-skinned Aethiopes (Ethiopians) from her sight buried their lord lamenting. As they wailed unceasingly, Erigeneia (the Dawn-queen) lovely-eyed changed them to birds sweeping through air around the barrow of the mighty dead. And these still do the tribes of men ‘The Memnones’ call; and still with wailing cries they dart and wheel above their king's tomb, and they scatter dust down on his grave, still shrill the battle-cry, in memory of Memnon, each to each. But he in Haides' mansions, or perchance amid the Blessed on the Elysian Plain, laugheth. Divine Eos comforteth her heart beholding them : but theirs is toil of strife unending, till the weary victors strike the vanquished dead, or one and all fill up the measure of their doom around his grave. So by command of Erigeneia (Lady of Light) the swift birds dree their weird. But Eos (Dawn) divine now heavenward soared with the all-fostering Horai (Hours), who drew her to Zeus' threshold, sorely loth, yet conquered by their gentle pleadings, such as salve the bitterest grief of broken hearts. Nor Eos (the Dawn-queen) forgat her daily course, but quailed before the unbending threat of Zeus, of whom are all things, even all comprised within the encircling sweep of Okeanos' (Oceanus') stream, Earth and the palace-dome of burning stars. Before her went her Pleiades-harbingers, then she herself flung wide the ethereal gates, and, scattering spray of splendour, flashed there-through." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 3. 665 ff : "[On the morn following the death of Akhilleus (Achilles), the hero who had slain Memnon :] With a triumphant laugh Eos (the Dawn) soared up the sky, and her most radiant light shed over all the Trojans and their king, then, sorrowing sorely for Akhilleus (Achilles) still, the Danaans [Greeks] woke to weep." Aelian, On Animals 5. 1 (trans. Scholfield) (Greek natural history C2nd A.D.) : "The people who still inhabit the Troad assert that there is a tomb there dedicated to Memnon the son of Eos (Dawn); and since the actual dad body was borne through the air by his mother from the midst of the carnage to Susa (celebrated for this reason as Memnonian), where it was awarded a becoming burial, the monument in the Troad is called after him to no purpose." Eos and the body of Memnon, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., Musée du Louvre Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 1. 7 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd A.D.) : "[Ostensibly a description of an ancient Greek painting at Neapolis (Naples) :] This is the army of Memnon; their arms have been laid aside, and they are laying out the body of their chief for mourning; he has been struck in the breast, I think, by the ashen spear . . . it is Memnon, the son of Eos (the Dawn), who is being mourned. When he came to the defence of Troy, [Akhilleus (Achilles)] the son of Peleus, they say, slew him, mighty though he was and likely to be no whit inferior to his opponent. Notice to what huge length he lies on the ground, and how long is the crop of curls . . . You would not say that Memnon's skin is really black, for the black of it shows a trace of ruddiness. As for the deities of the sky (daimones meteôroi), Eos (the Dawn) mourning over her son causes Helios (the Sun) to be downcast and begs Nyx (Night) to come prematurely and check the hostile army, that she may be able to steal away her son, no doubt with the consent of Zeus. And look! Memnon has been stolen away and is at the edge of the painting. Where is he? In what part of the earth? No tomb of Memnon is anywhere to be seen but in Aithiopia (Ethiopia) he himself has been transformed into a statue of black marble [i.e. a colossal statue on the upper Nile, still extant]. The attitude is that of a seated person, but he figure is that of Memnon yonder, if I mistake not, and the ray of Helios (the Sun) falls on the statue. For Helios (the Sun), striking the lips of Memnon as a plectrum strikes the lyre, seems to summon a voice from them, and by this speech-producing artifice consoles Hemera (the Day) [i.e. Eos]." Callistratus, Descriptions 1 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C4th A.D.) : "When we saw this statue we could well believe that the Aithiopian (Ethiopian) stone statue of Memnon also became vocal, the Memnon, who when Hemera (Day) [i.e. Eos] came was filled with joy by her presence, and overcome by distress when she departed, groaned with grief--the only stone figure that has been moved by the presence of joy and sadness to depart from its natural dumbness, so far overcoming its insensibility as to gain the power of speech." Callistratus, Descriptions 9 : "On the statue of Memnon. I wish to describe to you the miracle of Memnon also; for the art it displayed was truly incredible and beyond the power of human hand. There was in Aithiopia (Ethiopia) an image of Memnon, the son of Tithonos (Tithonus), made of marble . . . but stone though it was it had the power of speech. For at one time it saluted rising Hemera (Day) [i.e. Eos], by its voice giving token of its joy and expressing delight at the arrival of its mother; and again, as day declined to night, it uttered piteous and mournful groans in grief at her departure. Nor yet was the marble at a loss for tears, but they too were at hand to serve its will . . . The statue in question both lulled to rest the sorrows of Hemera (Day) and caused her to abandon her search for her son, as though the art of the Aithiopes (Ethiopians) were compensating her by means of the statue for the Memnon who had been snatched away from her by fate." Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 376 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Aurora [Eos], who had favoured Troy's arms too . . . a closer trouble, a family grief, had wrung her heart, the loss of Memnon. Slaughtered by Achilles' spear, she, his bright golden mother, saw him dead upon the plain of Troy. The rosy blush that dyes the hour of dawn grew pale and clouds hid the bright heavens. But when his limbs were laid on the last flames, she could not bear to look. With hair unbound, just as she was, she knelt (nor did her pride disdain) before the knees of mighty Jove [Zeus] and pleaded through her tears : ‘Least I may be of all the goddesses the golden heavens hold (in all the world my shrines are rarest), yet a deity I am, and I have come not for a gift of fanes or altar-fires or holy days; though should you see how great the services I, but a woman, give when I preserve at each new dawn the boundaries of night, you'd judge some guerdon due. But it's not now Aurora's [Eos'] errand nor her care to claim honours well-earned. I come because my son, Memnon, is lost, who for his uncle's [King Priamos (Priam) of Troy's] sake in vain bore valiant arms and in his first youth (so you willed it) fell to brave Achilles. Grant him, I pray, Ruler of Heaven most high, some honour, solace that he had to die, and soothe a wounded mother's misery!’ Juppiter [Zeus] nodded his assent as Memnon's pyre fell to the leaping flames. Black rolling smoke darkened the daylight, as a stream breathes forth the mist it breeds that lets no sunlight through. Up flew black ashes, and they clustered thick into a single mass, which took a shape and from the fire drew heat and breath of life. Its lightness gave it wings and like a bird at first, and presently a real bird, its great wings whirred and with it sister-birds whirred beyond counting, all from the same source. Three times they circled round the pyre; three times their cries, united, echoed through the air. One the fourth flight the flock split up; then two fierce legions, so divided, fought each other with claws and beaks in full fury, till their wings and battling breasts were weary; then they fell, death-offerings, on the ash whose kin they were, recalling that brave soul from whom they sprang. He who begot them gave those sudden birds their name ‘Memnonides’ ; and when the sun has coursed through the twelve signs, they fight again to die in memory of Memnon slain . . . Aurora intent on her own grief : now still her loving sorrow she renews and with her tears the whole wide world bedews." Virgil, Aeneid 8. 384 ff (trans. Day-Lewis) (Roman epic C1st B.C.) : "[Aphrodite addresses Hephaistos (Hephaestus) :] ‘You were moved by the tears of Thetis once, and the tears of the wife of Tithonus [i.e. Eos, who requested armour for her son Memnon].’" Seneca, Troades 238 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) : "[Akhilleus' (Achilles')] glorious deeds : Hector lies low, slain before his father's eyes, and Memnon before his uncle's, in sorrow for whose death his mother [Eos the Dawn] with wan face ushered in a mournful day, while the victor shuddered at the lesson of his own work, and Achilles learned that even sons of goddesses can die." Tryphiodorus, Taking of Ilias 30 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek poet C5th A.D.) : "For the fate of Memnon Eos (Dawn), his mother, hung aloft a cloud in heaven and stole away the light of shamefast day." EOS GODDESS OF THE DAWN Eos the dawn, Athenian red-figure lebes gamikos C5th B.C., University of Mississippi Museum Homer, Iliad 1. 477 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "When the young Eos (Dawn) showed again with her rosy fingers." Homer, Iliad 2. 48 ff : "The goddess Eos (Dawn) drew close to tall Olympos with her message of light to Zeus and the other immortals." Homer, Iliad 8. 1 & 24. 695 : "Eos (Dawn) the yellow-robed scattered over all the earth." Homer, Iliad 11. 1 ff : "Eos (Dawn) rose from her bed, where she lay by haughty Tithonos (Tithonus), to carry her light to men and to immortals." Homer, Iliad 19. 1 ff : "Eos (Dawn) the yellow-robed arose from the river of Okeanos (Oceanus) to carry her light to men and to immortals." Homer, Odyssey Odyssey 2. 1, et al (trans. Shewring) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "Eos (Dawn) comes early, with rosy fingers." [N.B. This phrase occurs a number of times in the Odyssey.] Homer, Odyssey 5. 1 ff : "The goddess Eos (Dawn), who had slept beside Lord Tithonos (Tithonus), was rising now to bring light to immortals and to mortals." Homer, Odyssey 5. 390 & 10. 144 : "When Eos (Dawn) of the braided tresses had ushered in the third day." Homer, Odyssey 6. 48 ff : "Forthwith came Eos (Dawn) in her flowery garment." Homer, Odyssey 10. 540, et. al. : "Eos (Dawn) appeared in her flowery cloth of gold." Homer, Odyssey 12. 1 ff : "The ship [of Odysseus] in due course left the waters of the river Okeanos (Oceanus) and reached the waves of the spacious sea and the island of Aiaia (Aeaea); it is there [Okeanos] that Eos the early-comer (Erigeneia) has her dwelling place and her dancing grounds, and the sun himself has his risings. We came came in; we beached our vessel upon the sands and disembarked upon the sea-shore; there we fell fast asleep, awaiting ethereal Dawn." Homer, Odyssey 13. 93 ff : "That brightest of stars appeared [Eosphoros the Dawn-Star] that most often heralds the light of early-rising Dawn (Eos Erigineia)." Homer, Odyssey 22. 195 ff : "Eos (Dawn) in her broidered robe as she rises from the streams of Okeanos (Oceanus)." Homer, Odyssey 23. 244 ff : "Rosy-fingered Dawn (Eos) when she appeared might have found them still in melting mood, but Athene (Athena) of the gleaming-eyes turned her thought to another stratagem. She held back the night to linger long at the horizon, checking Eos of the broidered robe at the edge of Okeanos (Oceanus) and bidding her not to yoke as yet the rapid horses that bring men light, Lampos (Lampus) and Phaithon (Phaethon), the young steeds of Eos . . . When it seemed to her [Athene] that Odysseus had has heart's content of both love and sleep, forthwith she roused up Eos (Dawn) of the broidered robe from Okeanos to bring light to mankind again." Hesiod, Theogony 404 (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "The light of all-seeing Eos the Dawn." Homeric Hymn 3 to Hermes 326 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th - 4th B.C.) : "There was an assembly on snowy Olympos (Olympus), and the immortals who perish not were gathering after the hour of gold-throned (khrysothronon) Eos." Mimnermus, Fragment 12 (trans. Gerber, Vol. Greek Elegiac) (Greek elegy C7th B.C.) : "For Helios the Sun's lot is toil . . . from the moment rose-fingered Eos (the Dawn) leaves Okeanos (Oceanus) and goes up into the sky." Sappho, Fragment 6 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric I) (C6th B.C.) : "Lady (potnia) Eos . . . golden-armed (khrysopakhos)." Sappho, Fragment 103 : "Golden-sandaled (khrysopedillos) Auos (Eos)." Sappho, Fragment 104 : "Hesperos (Hesperus, Evening Star), bringing everything that shining Auos (Eos, Dawn) scattered, you bring the sheep, you bring the goat, you bring back the child to its mother." Sappho, Fragment 157 : The Anacreontea, Fragment 35 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C5th B.C.) : "Rosy-fingered Eos." TBA (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (B.C.) : "For the Pleiades, as we carry a plough to Orthria (Goddess of the Morning Twilight) [Eos], rise through the ambrosial night like the star Seirios (Sirius)." Alcman, Fragment 1 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C7th B.C.) : "I long to please Aotis (Eos, Dawn) most of all, for she proved the healer of our sufferings.” Corinna, Fragment 690 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (C6th B.C.) : "Aas (Eos), leaving the waters of Okeanos (Oceanus), drew from the sky the moon's holy light." Ibycus, Fragment 284 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric III) (C5th B.C.) : "When white-cheeked Aos (Eos, Dawn) climbs the heavens, early-born (Erigeneia)." Bacchylides, Fragment 5 (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric IV) (C5th B.C.) : "Gold-armed (khrysopakhos) Aos (Eos, Dawn)." Bacchylides, Fragment 13 : "On a dark-blossoming sea Boreas (the North Wind) rends men's hearts with the billows, coming face to face with them as night rises up, but ceases on the arrival of Aos (Eos, Dawn) who gives light to mortals and a gentle breeze levels the sea, and they belly out their sail before Notos' (Notus the South Wind's) breath." Bacchylides, Fragment 17 : "The lovely light of immortal Aous (Eos, Dawn)." Bacchylides, Fragment 20C : "White-horsed Aos (Eos, Dawn) as she brings light to men looks down." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 35 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "When Ge (Gaea, Earth) learned of this, she sought a drug that would prevent their [the Gigantes] destruction even by mortal hands. But Zeus barred the appearance of Eos (the Dawn), Selene (the Moon), and Helios (the Sun), and chopped up the drug himself before Ge could find it." Helius the sun, Eos the dawn and Eosphorus the dawn-star, Apulian red-figure krater C4th B.C., Staatliche Antikensammlungen Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1. 519 ff (trans. Rieu) (Greek epic C3rd B.C.) : "Radiant Eos (Dawn) with her bright eyes beheld the towering crags of Pelion [ie the mountain was touched by the light of Dawn]." Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1. 1280 ff : "At the hour when bright-eyed Eos (Dawn) comes up to light the eastern sky, and all the paths stand out and the fields glisten with dew." Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3. 1224 ff : "Eos (Dawn) arrived, showing herself betimes above the snows of Kaukasos (Caucasus)." Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4. 1170 ff : "Eos' (Dawn's) celestial beams chased black Nyx (Night) from the sky." Theocritus, Idylls 2. 145 ff (trans. Rist) (Greek bucolic C3rd B.C.) : "Eos' (Dawn's) horses went racing up the sky today, bearing her all rosy from Okeanos' (Oceanus') bed." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 1. 48 ff (trans. Way) (Greek epic C4th A.D.) : "As when descends Eos (Dawn) from Olympos' crest of adamant, Eos, heart-exultant in her radiant steeds amidst the bright-haired Horai (Horae, Hours); and o'er them all, how flawless-fair soever these may be, her splendour of beauty glows pre-eminent." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 115 ff : "[Memnon greets King Priamos (Priam) of Troy :] Telling of that strange immortality by Eos (Dawn-goddess) given to his sire [Tithonos], telling of the unending flow and ebb of Tethys, of the sacred flood of Okeanos (Oceanus) fathomless-rolling, of the bounds of Earth that wearieth never of her travail, of where the Sun-steeds leap from orient waves." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 2. 185 ff : "Phaesphoros Erigeneia (the Early-Born Light-Bringer) [Eos] . . . began to climb Heaven's broad highway." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 5. 395 ff : "From Okeanos (Oceanus) then uprose Eos (Dawn) golden-reined: like a soft wind upfloated Hypnos (Sleep) to heaven." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 6. 1 ff : "Rose Eos (Dawn) from Okeanos (Oceanus) and Tithonos' bed, and climbed the steeps of heaven, scattering round flushed flakes of splendour." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 7. 1 ff : "Heaven hid his stars, and Eos (Dawn) awoke outspraying splendour, and night's darkness fled." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 11. 350 ff : "O'er the streams of Okeanos (Oceanus) Eos (Dawn) drove up her splendour-flashing steeds." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 14. 1 ff : "Then rose from Okeanos (Oceanus) Eos (Dawn) the golden-throned up to the heavens; Nyx (Night) into Khaos (Chaos) sank." Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 14. 228 ff : "To wide heaven Erigeneia (the Child of Mist) [Eos] uprose, scattering night, unveiling earth and air." Orphic Hymn 78 to Eos (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "To Eos, Fumigation from Manna. Hear me, O Goddess, whose emerging ray leads on the broad refulgence of the day; blushing Eos (Dawn), whose celestial light beams on the world with reddening splendours bright. Messenger of Titan [Helios the Sun], whom with constant round thy orient beams recall from night profound: labour of every kind to lead it thine, of mortal life the minister divine. Mankind in thee eternally delight, and none presumes to shun thy beauteous sight. Soon as they splendours break the bands of rest, and eyes unclose, with pleasing sleep oppressed; men, reptiles, birds, and beasts, with general voice, and all the nations of the deep rejoice; for all the culture of our life is thine. Come, blessed power, and to these rites incline: thy holy light increase, and unconfined diffuse its radiance on the mystics' mind." Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 112 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Aurora (Dawn) [Eos], watchful in the reddening dawn, threw wide her crimson doors and rose-filled halls; the Stellae (Stars) [Astra] took flight, in marshalled order set by Lucifer [Eosphoros] who left his station last. Then, when Titan [Helios the Sun] . . . saw the world in crimson sheen [he rose into the sky]." Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 150 ff : "When Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] on saffron wheels leads on another day, we'll start our work again." Ovid, Metamorphoses 4. 627 ff : "Until Lucifer [Eosphoros the Morning Star] hould wake Aurora (Dawn) [Eos], and Aurora call forth the chariot of the day [Helios the Sun]." Ovid, Metamorphoses 5. 446 ff : "Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] rising with dewy hair." Ovid, Metamorphoses 6. 48 ff : "When Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] rises in the dawn, the eastern sky is red and, as the sun climbs, in a little while is pale again." Ovid, Metamorphoses 7. 100 ff : "Now Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] has put the twinkling stars to flight." Ovid, Metamorphoses 7. 207 ff : "[Medea the witch cries out to the sky gods :] ‘Thee too, bright Luna (Moon) [Selene], I banish, though thy throes the clanging bronze assuage; under my spells even my grandsire's [Helios the Sun's] chariot grows pale and Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] pales before my poison's power.’ Ovid, Metamorphoses 13. 576 ff : "[Aurora Eos the dawn speaks :] ‘I, but a woman, preserve at each new dawn the boundaries of night.’" Ovid, Metamorphoses 13. 576 ff : "Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] intent on her own grief [for her dead son Memnon] : now still her loving sorrow she renews and with her tears the whole wide world bedews." Ovid, Metamorphoses 15. 88 ff : "When on his milk-white steed Luciferus [Eosphoros the Morning Star] rides forth, or when, bright harbinger of day, Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] gilds the globe to greet the sun." Ovid, Fasti 3. 403 ff (trans.Boyle) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Tithonus' wife [Aurora-Eos] drops dew from her saffron cheeks and drives the time of the fifth morning." Ovid, Fasti 4. 373 ff : "When Pallantis [Eos the Dawn] next gleams in heaven and stars flee and Luna's [Selene the Moon's] snow-white horses are unhitched." Ovid, Fasti 4. 713 ff : "Memnon's saffron mother [Eos the Dawn] arrives to view the widening earth on rosy horses." Ovid, Fasti 5. 159 ff : "Hyperion's daughter [Eos the Dawn] expels the stars and lifts her rose lamp on the morning's horses, cold Argestes (the North-West wind) will caress the topmost ears of corn." Ovid, Heroides 16. 201 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] . . . the goddess who sets the last bound to the advance of night." Ovid, Heroides 18. 111 ff : "And now Aurora (Dawn) [Eos], the bride of Tithonus, was making ready to chase the night away, and Lucifer [Eosphorus the Dawn Star] had risen, forerunner of the dawn." Virgil, Aeneid 4. 12 ff (trans. Day-Lewis) (Roman epic C1st B.C.) : "Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] had chased from heaven the dewy darkness, was carrying the sun's torch far and wide over the earth." Virgil, Aeneid 4. 585 ff : "And now was Aurora (Dawn) [Eos], leaving the saffron bed of Tithonus, beginning to shower upon earth the light of another day." Eos and Tithonus, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., Museum of Fine Arts Virgil, Georgics 1.246 ff (trans. Fairclough) (Roman bucolic C1st B.C.) : "There [beneath the earth], men say, is either the silence of lifeless night, and gloom ever thickening beneath night's pall; Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] returns from us and brings them back the day, and when on us rising Sol (Sun) [Helios] first breathes with panting steeds, there glowing Vesper [Hesperos the Evening Star] is kindling his evening rays [i.e. when dawn arrives in the upper world, evening comes to netherworld Elysium, and vice versa]." Seneca, Hercules Furens 882 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) : "From the land of Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] [i.e. the far East] to Hesperus (the evening star) [the far West], and where the sun, holding mid-heaven, gives to shapes no shadows." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 1. 310 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "Tithonus' bounteous wife [Auora-Eos the Dawn], ruffling the sea with the new-born sunlight." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 2. 72 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "The fires of the maid Pallantis [Aurora-Eos the Dawn] grow faint in the east, the land lightens." Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 3. 1 ff : "Tithonus' bride [Aurora-Eos the Dawn] dissolved the chill shadows and uncurtained the heavens." Statius, Thebaid 2. 134 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) : "And now Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] rising from her Mygdonian [her husband Tithonos'] resting-place had scattered the cold shadows from the high heaven, and shaking the dew-drops from her hair blushed deep in the sun's pursuing beams; toward her through the clouds rosy Lucifer [Eosphoros the Morning-Star] turns his late fires, and with slow steed leaves an alien world, until the fiery father's [Helios the sun's] orb be full replenished and he forbid his sister to usurp his rays." Statius, Thebaid 6. 25 ff : "The bright consort of Tithonus [Aurora-Eos the Dawn] had shown in heaven her toil-bringing car, and Nox [Nyx, Night] and Somnus [Hypnos, Sleep] with empty [sleep-inducing] horn were fleeing from the pale goddess' wakeful reins." Statius, Thebaid 8. 271 ff : "It was the time when Phoebus' [Helios the Sun's] fiery sister [Aurora-Eos the Dawn], hearing the sound of his yoked steeds and the roar of Oceanus' cavernous abode beneath the gathering dawn, collects her straying beams and with light flick of whip chases the stars away." Statius, Thebaid 12. 1 ff : "Not ye had the wakeful dawn put all the stars to flight from heaven, and Luna (Moon) [Selene] was beholding the approach of day with fading horn, what time Tithonia [Aurora-Eos the Dawn] scatters the clouds in hurrying rout, and prepares the wide firmament for the return of Phoebus [Helios the Sun]." Statius, Silvae 5. 4. 1 (trans. Mozley) (Roman poetry C1st A.D.) : "So oft hath Tithonia [Eos the Dawn] passed by my groans [from lack of sleep], and pitying sprinkled me with her cool whip [the dewy whip with which she chases away the stars]." Apuleius, The Golden Ass 3. 1 ff (trans. Walsh) (Roman novel C2nd A.D.) : "Aurora (Dawn) [Eos] with her crimson trapping brandished her rosy arm and began to driver her chariot across the sky." Tryphiodorus, The Taking of Ilias 670 ff (trans. Mair) (Greek poet C5th A.D.) : "Eos (Dawn) in her car was just speeding back from Okeanos (Oceanus) in the East and marking great space of sky with slowly brightening light, dispelling night." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7. 280 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[Zeus addresses Helios the Sun:] ‘I will hide you and the daughter of the mists [Eos the Dawn] together in my clouds, and when you are covered Nyx (Night) will appear in the daytime.’" Nonnus, Dionysiaca 27. 1 ff : "Eos (the Dawn) had just shaken off the wing of carefree sleep and opened the gates of sunrise, leaving the lightbringing couch of Kephalos (Cephalus)." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 34. 124 ff : "Farshooting Eos (Dawn) with crimson face leapt up sending forth her light." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 37. 70 ff : "The Wind [Euros the East Wind] left the rosy chamber of Eos (Dawn) his mother." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 37. 86 ff : "But when morning, the harbinger of Eos' (Dawn's) dewy car, scored the night with his ruddy gleams, then all awoke." HYMNS TO EOS Orphic Hymn 78 to Eos (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "To Eos, Fumigation from Manna. Hear me, O Goddess, whose emerging ray leads on the broad refulgence of the day; blushing Eos (Dawn), whose celestial light beams on the world with reddening splendours bright. Messenger of Titan [Helios the Sun], whom with constant round thy orient beams recall from night profound: labour of every kind to lead it thine, of mortal life the minister divine. Mankind in thee eternally delight, and none presumes to shun thy beauteous sight. Soon as they splendours break the bands of rest, and eyes unclose, with pleasing sleep oppressed; men, reptiles, birds, and beasts, with general voice, and all the nations of the deep rejoice; for all the culture of our life is thine. Come, blessed power, and to these rites incline: thy holy light increase, and unconfined diffuse its radiance on the mystics' mind." CULT OF EOS Ovid, Metamorphoses 13. 576 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Eos addresses Zeus :] ‘Least I may be of all the goddesses the golden heavens hold--in all the world my shrines are rarest.’" [N.B. Perhaps Ovid had heard of a few rare shrines dedicated to the goddess.] POETIC TITLES & EPITHETS Eos had a number of poetic titles and epithets. Greek Name	Eos
Tiranga is the name given to which country’s national flag?	Eos Eos See More Eos Pictures > Eos was a Titan goddess in Greek mythology, daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia . She was the goddess of the dawn and had two siblings; Helios , god of the sun; and Selene , goddess of the moon. She was married to Astraeus , god of the dusk and together, they had numerous children that represented everything that occurred during the union of the dusk and the dawn, i.e. the twilight. Among her children were the four Anemoi (winds), as well as Eosphorus (the Morning Star) and the Astra Planeta (wandering stars or planets). She was described as having rosy fingers, a light pink gown woven with flowers, wearing a tiara and having large white-feathered wings. According to another source, she was the consort of god Ares , causing the jealousy of Aphrodite , who cursed her with insatiable sexual urge. As a result, Eos abducted various young men, including Cephalus , Tithonus and Orion . She had two sons with Tithonus , Memnon and Emathion. Memnon fought on the side of the Trojan in the Trojan War , where he died. Eos Is also called Aurora.	i don't know
Who composed the opera Lakmé?	Delibes's 'Lakme' : NPR Email May 11, 200712:00 PM ET Composer Leo Delibes wrote his hit opera Lakme in 1883, for a premiere at the Opera-Comique in Paris. hide caption toggle caption Tenor Frederic Antoun and soprano Aline Kutan play the ill-fated, cross-cultural lovers in Leo Delibes's opera Lakme. Photo: Yves Renaud hide caption toggle caption Photo: Yves Renaud BACKGROUND: The story of the Brahmin girl Lakme was based on a novel by Frenchman Pierre Loti, who had traveled in the Orient and brought back stories filled with exoticism. Librettist Edmond Gondinet suggested the story to composer Leo Delibes. Gondinet wanted to write a libretto specifically for a young American soprano named Marie van Zandt who had starred in another French opera, Ambroise Thomas's Mignon, in 1880. Gondinet gave Delibes a copy of Loti's novel, to read on a train ride, and Delibes loved it. He composed the score in a year's time. Lakme brings together many popular themes of opera in the 1880s: an exotic location — already in vogue thanks to Bizet's The Pearl Fishers — mysterious religious rituals, the beautiful flora of the Orient, and the general novelty of Western colonials living in a foreign land. Composers Jules Massenet and Giacomo Meyerbeer wrote operas with similar elements, and those dramas were also popular in Paris. Act One: Lakme is set in British India in the 19th century. Nilakantha, a Brahmin priest, is bent on rebelling against the occupying British, who have forbidden him from practicing his religion. When Nilakantha goes to attend a gathering of the faithful, his daughter Lakme and her servant Millika are left behind. The two go off toward a river to gather flowers and sing the famous "Flower Duet." As they approach the water, Lakme removes her jewelry and leaves it on a bench. Nearby, British officers Gerald and Frederic are on a picnic with two young English girls and their governess. The girls notice Lakme's jewelry and want sketches of the pieces. Gerald agrees to stay behind to make the drawings. Lakme and Mallika return, and Gerald hides. Then Mallika goes off, leaving Lakme alone. When Lakme spots Gerald, she's frightened and cries out. But when people come to help, she sends them away. Lakme's heart is doing flip-flops over this young stranger, and he's taken with her as well. But Lakme knows it's dangerous for them to be seen together, and she tells Gerald to forget he ever saw her. When Nilakantha returns, he's furious at finding Gerald with Lakme and says the officer will pay for his affront to Lakme's honor. Act Two: Nilakantha is in a marketplace, among a crowd of English soldiers and Indians, and he has a plan. He asks Lakme to sing, knowing Gerald will be drawn to her voice. She sings the "Bell Song," an aria famous for its exotic musical colors and spectacular, high coloratura. The song does attract Gerald, but when Lakme sees him, she stops singing and faints. When Gerald rushes to help her, Nilakantha steps out of the crowd and stabs him. Seeing that Gerald is only slightly injured, Nilakantha flees. Lakme and a servant, Hadji, take Gerald to a safe hiding place. Act Three: Gerald is recovering in the forest, with Hadji watching over him, when Lakme arrives. They hear singing far in the distance, and Lakme tells Gerald it's a band of lovers going to drink from a sacred spring whose waters confer the gift of eternal love. Lakme wants to get water from the spring herself, and when she leaves, Gerald's friend Frederic turns up. He reminds Gerald that he's been ordered to a new post, far away. Gerald knows he must fulfill his duty and leave Lakme behind. When Lakme returns from the spring, she senses what's happening. Knowing she's about to lose Gerald, she finds a flower that's known to be poisonous and swallows it. Overwhelmed by her act of devotion, Gerald drinks from the cup of sacred spring water. Doing so is a holy declaration of love — a vow of fidelity that even Nilakantha can't revoke. The poisonous blossom takes effect, and Lakme dies in Gerald's arms as her father looks on.	Léo Delibes
Impatiens walleriana is the Latin name for which flowering houseplant?	IMDb: Most Popular Titles With Soundtracks Matching "flower duet" Most Popular Titles With Soundtracks Matching "flower duet" 1-50 of 61 titles. Flower Duet from Lakme: (uncredited) Performed by Opera Angels Flower Duet: Performed by 'Susan John' 13. Licensed courtesy of EMI Records Limited 14. Performed by The City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra 15. Performed by Mady Mesplé & Danielle Millet 16. Lakmé - Flower Duet: Written by Léo Delibes Courtesy of APM Music Flower Duet Ver. 1: Traditional Arranged by Christopher Todd Lander Courtesy of Opus 1 Music 18. Flower Duet (Sous le dôme épais): from the opera "Lakmé" by Léo Delibes 19. Lakme - Flower Duet: Written by Léo Delibes Performed by Adriana Kohutova and Denisa Slepkovska Flower Duet: from 'Lakme' opera Written by Léo Delibes (as Leo Delibes) (Rose & Raven's separation surgery) The Flower Duet: Written by Léo Delibes 25. End Title Duet Performed by Randy Newman and Susanna Hoffs and Produced by Mitchell Froom Randy Newman appears courtesy of DreamWorks Records 26. Performed by The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra Courtesy of Extreme Music plc 28. Lakme - Flower Duet: Written by Léo Delibes Courtesy of Music Box - a division of olé Swan Lake (Waltz of the Flowers): Written by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Performed by Yuri Botnari (conducting Moscow Philharmonic) Courtesy of RMS Records & Music Supervisor, Inc. 29.	i don't know
Jane Garvey and Jenni Murray present which Radio 4 Programme?	BBC - Jane Garvey and Jenni Murray present Woman's Hour Christmas Day programme. - In the Woman's Hour studio In the Woman's Hour studio In the Woman's Hour studio Guests in the Woman's Hour studio for Christmas Day with Jenni Murray and Jane Garvey. Jane Garvey and Jenni Murray present Woman's Hour Christmas Day programme. Jane Garvey and Jenni Murray present Woman's Hour Christmas Day programme.	Woman's Hour
Which letter of the Greek alphabet comes between Tau and Phi?	Woman's Hour - what time is it on TV? Episode 0 Series 0 cast list and preview. Woman's Hour Woman's Hour not currently available Add this to your watchlist to find out when it is available via broadcast or catch-up. Watchlist ADVERTISEMENT Summary Jenni Murray and Jane Garvey present a Christmas Day edition of the daily discussion show, with guest contributions by Evan Davis, John Humphrys and Sheila Dillon. Nigel Slater offers last-minute tips for a tasty festive dinner, Gyles Brandreth is on hand to entertain listeners with party games, and Victoria Moore provides advice on preparing cocktails. With music by the Puppini Sisters, an interview with the woman in charge of a British Antarctic Survey research base,and a visit to the Rev Canon Katrina Scott at her parish in Coventry. Plus, David Attenborough introduces the call of the robin as the Tweet of the Day. Including at 10.45 the 15 Minute Drama: Part three of The Tales of Beatrix Potter. Cast & Crew	i don't know
Which jazz singer was known as The King of Hi de Ho?	Cab Calloway \| New Music And Songs \| Cab Calloway About Cab Calloway One of the great entertainers, Cab Calloway was a household name by 1932, and never really declined in fame. A talented jazz singer and a superior scatter, Calloway's gyrations and showmanship on-stage at the Cotton Club sometimes overshadowed the quality of his always excellent bands. The younger brother of singer Blanche Calloway (who made some fine records before retiring in the mid-'30s), Cab grew up in Baltimore, attended law school briefly, and then quit to try to make it as a singer and a dancer. For a time, he headed the Alabamians, but the band was not strong enough to make it in New York. The Missourians, an excellent group that had previously recorded heated instrumentals but had fallen upon hard times, worked out much better. Calloway worked in the 1929 revue Hot Chocolates, started recording in 1930, and in 1931 hit it big with both "Minnie the Moocher" and his regular engagement at the Cotton Club. Calloway was soon (along with Bill Robinson, Ethel Waters, Louis Armstrong, and Duke Ellington) the best-known black entertainer of the era. He appeared in quite a few movies (including 1943's Stormy Weather), and "Minnie the Moocher" was followed by such recordings as "Kicking the Gong Around," "Reefer Man," "Minnie the Moocher's Wedding Day," "You Gotta Hi-De-Ho," "The Hi-De-Ho Miracle Man," and even "Mister Paganini, Swing for Minnie." Among Calloway's sidemen through the years (who received among the highest salaries in the business) were Walter "Foots" Thomas, Bennie Payne, Doc Cheatham, Eddie Barefield, Shad Collins, Cozy Cole, Danny Barker, Milt Hinton, Mario Bauza, Chu Berry, Dizzy Gillespie, Jonah Jones, Tyree Glenn, Panama Francis, and Ike Quebec. His 1942 recording of "Blues in the Night" was a big hit. With the end of the big band era, Calloway had to reluctantly break up his orchestra in 1948, although he continued to perform with his Cab Jivers. Since George Gershwin had originally modeled the character Sportin' Life in Porgy and Bess after Calloway, it was fitting that Cab got to play him in a 1950s version. Throughout the rest of his career, Calloway made special appearances for fans who never tired of hearing him sing "Minnie the Moocher." ~ Scott Yanow, Rovi Hear more of	Cab Calloway
Septimus Harding is the title character in which Anthony Trollope novel?	Cab Calloway: Sketches \| About the Documentary \| American Masters \| PBS Cab Calloway: Sketches About the Documentary Premiere date: February 26, 2012 \| 0:00:30 “Hi de hi de hi de ho!” Charismatic music and dance pioneer Cab Calloway (12-25-1907 – 11-18-94) is an exceptional figure in the history of jazz. As a singer, dancer and bandleader, he charmed audiences around the world with his boundless energy, bravado and elegant showmanship. Calloway was also an ambassador for his race, leading one of the most popular African American big bands during the Harlem Renaissance and jazz and swing eras of the 1930s-40s. American Masters celebrates “The Hi De Ho Man’s” career and legacy during Black History Month with the new documentary Cab Calloway: Sketches premiering nationally Monday, February 27 at 10 p.m. (ET) on PBS ( check local listings ). In the New York metro-area the film airs Sunday, February 26 at 8 p.m. on THIRTEEN. Watch a preview: Emmy®-winning filmmaker Gail Levin explores Cab Calloway’s musical beginnings and milestones in the context of the Harlem Renaissance and segregationist America using archival footage, animation based on caricatures by famed illustrator Steve Brodner and French cartoonist Cabu, and interviews. The animated Cab dances alongside Matthew Rushing, choreographer/principal dancer of Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater (Uptown), who explains how modern Calloway’s movements were and his impact on hip-hop. Additional interviewees include Calloway’s daughters Cecelia and Camay; grandson and Cab Calloway Orchestra bandleader Chris “Calloway” Brooks; horn player Gerald Wilson; and The Blues Brothers (1980) director John Landis and band members Steve Cropper, Lou Marini and Donald “Duck” Dunne. The film introduced Cab and his music to a new generation, when he acted and performed as The Blues Brothers’s mentor, Curtis. “I am especially delighted to bring Cab Calloway to younger audiences – and he does become quite alive through the inventive animation in this film,” says Susan Lacy, American Masters series creator and executive producer. “He, and his era, are such a vital part of our musical cultural heritage – and such an energetic one!” “This film is not just another biopic in the sense of interviews and recollections, but a reinvigoration of the whole Calloway presence – a reprise of a timeless virtuoso,” adds Levin. With The Cotton Club – where Blacks could perform but not attend – as his home stage, Cab became a star of New York’s jazz scene, and then a household name with his signature song “Minnie the Moocher.” Despite its tragic, taboo subject matter, the song broke into the mainstream and was even used in Max and Dave Fleischer’s Betty Boop cartoon of the same name, along with Cab’s dance moves. Breaking the color barrier with this “hi de ho” hit, Cab was one of the first Black musicians to tour the segregationist South. He published a Hepster’s Dictionary of his jive slang in 1938, starred in films including Stormy Weather (1943) with Lena Horne and Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, and played Sportin’ Life – a role George Gershwin modeled on him – in a 1952 touring production of Porgy and Bess, making “It Ain’t Necessarily So” an enduring part of his brand. With his zany theatricality – scat singing, jive talking, zoot suit wearing, straight-hair, head-shaking, and backslide dance (a precursor to Michael Jackson’s moonwalk) – Cab transcended racial specificity on his own terms. In 2011, American Masters earned its eighth Emmy® Award for Outstanding Primetime Nonfiction Series in 11 years. Now in its 26th season, the series is a production of THIRTEEN for WNET, the parent company of THIRTEEN and WLIW21, New York’s public television stations, and operator of NJTV. For nearly 50 years, WNET has been producing and broadcasting national and local documentaries and other programs to the New York community. Cab Calloway: Sketches is a co-production of Artline Films, ARTE France, and AVRO, in association with Inscape Productions and THIRTEEN’s American Masters for WNET. Gail Levin is director and executive producer for Inscape Productions. Jean-François Pitet and Gail Levin are co-writers. Olivier Mille is producer for Artline Films. Susan Lacy is the series creator and executive producer of American Masters. This program is made possible in part by the support of CNC, PROCIREP, ANGOA, and SACEM. American Masters is made possible by the support of the National Endowment for the Arts and by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Additional funding for American Masters is provided by Rosalind P. Walter, The Blanche & Irving Laurie Foundation, Rolf and Elizabeth Rosenthal, Cheryl and Philip Milstein Family, Jack Rudin, Vital Projects Fund, The André and Elizabeth Kertész Foundation, Michael & Helen Schaffer Foundation, and public television viewers.	i don't know
What was the name of the Cyclops who captured Odysseus and was blinded by him when he escaped?	Odysseus and the Cyclops After 10 years of fighting against Troy , Odysseus, one of the victorious Greek leaders and known for his cleverness, sailed for home with his men and ships.ï¿½ After many adventures, they came to an island.ï¿½ Unbeknownst to them, the island was inhabited by the Cylops people, a race of giants with only one eye in the middle of their forehead. The Cylops were lawless, without culture, and ate humans when available. The Story: On finding a large cave, Odysseus and his men entered the cave, where they helped themselves to the food and drink they found there, and fell asleep.ï¿½ After a time, a Cyclops, whose name was Polyphemus, returned to the cave.ï¿½ Leading his flock of giant sheep into the cave, he rolled a huge stone against the mouth of the cave to close the entrance.ï¿½ On finding Odysseus and his men in the cave, the Cyclops became enraged, grabbed two of the men, smashed their heads against the rocks, ate them, and fell asleep.ï¿½ Odysseus dared do nothing to the Cyclops, since only the Cyclops was strong enough to move the stone away from the mouth of the cave. The next morning, the Cyclops grabbed two more men, smashed their heads against the rocks, and ate them for his breakfast.ï¿½ He then rolled away the stone, led out his herd of sheep, and rolled the stone back to close the cave.ï¿½ Odysseus devised a plan.ï¿½ He and his men took a large timber, carved the end to a sharp point, and hid it. When the Cyclops returned in the evening, he again led his sheep in, rolled the stone to close the mouth of the cave, and proceeded to bash in the heads of two more men and eat them.ï¿½ This time Odysseus spoke up, and offered the Cyclops some strong wine he had brought with him.ï¿½ Polyphemus, who had never drunk wine before, drank his fill and became very drunk.ï¿½ Thanking Odyssesus, Polyphemus asked him his name.ï¿½ Odysseus told him his name was ï¿½No manï¿½.ï¿½ The Cyclops then fell fast asleep in a drunken sleep. Odysseus and his men then took the timber and heated the sharpened end in the fire until it glowed red.ï¿½ Then, with all their strength, they pushed the red-hot point into the eye of Polyphemus.ï¿½ The Cyclops howled and woke up flailing, but he was now blind.ï¿½ The other Cyclops who lived on the island came running, but when they asked Polyphemus who had done this to him, he replied ï¿½No man!ï¿½ and the other Cyclops all returned home laughing. Early the next morning, Odysseus tied each of his men to the belly of one of the giant sheep. When Polyphemus awoke and led the sheep out of the cave, he felt the back of each sheep to make sure no one was on them.ï¿½ Feeling nothing, Polyphemus allowed each sheep to pass out of the cave, carrying with it one of Odysseusï¿½ crew tied to its belly.ï¿½ Odysseus himself grabbed onto the fleece of the last sheepï¿½s belly, and escaped through the mouth of the cave. Odysseus and his men ran back to their ship and hurriedlyï¿½ pushed out to sea.ï¿½ As they sailed away from the harbor, Odysseus called out to Polyphemus, laughing at him and telling him that it was not "No Man", but he, Odysseus, who had blinded him and fooled him.	Polyphemus
Dr Temperance Brennan and Sealey Boothe are the main characters in which TV crime show?	The Odyssey - Book Nine - Detailed Version Book Nine "I am Odysseus of Ithaca. And here is my tale since setting out from Troy: Our first landfall was Ismarus , in the land of the Cicones . We sacked the town, killed the men and took the women captive. I was for putting out right then, but my men would not hear of it. Carousing on the beach, they feasted and dawdled while survivors of our plundering raised the hinterlands. The main force of the Cicones swept down on us in a black tide. These were fighting men, and it was all we could do to hold the ships until, outnumbered, we cut our losses and put back out to sea. And while we still grieved for our fallen comrades, Zeus sent a storm that knocked us to our knees. We rode it out as best we could. I might even then have rounded the southern cape and made for home had not a new gale driven us across seventeen days of open sea. We found ourselves at last in the land of the Lotus-eaters. These folk are harmless enough, but the plant on which they feast is insidious. Three of my men tasted it and all they wanted was more. They lost all desire for home. I had to force them back to the ships and tie them down while we made our getaway. Next we beached in the land of the Cyclopes . We'd put in at a little island off their coast. And since they don't know the first thing about sailing they'd left it uninhabited, though it teamed with wildlife. We made a pleasant meal of wild goat, then next day I left everyone else behind and took my own crew over to the mainland. The first thing we saw was a big cave overlooking the beach. Inside were milking pens for goats and big cheeses aging on racks. My men were for making off with the cheeses and the lambs that we found in the cave, but I wanted to see what manner of being made this his lair. When the Cyclops -- Polyphemus was his name -- came home that afternoon, he blotted out the light in the doorway. He was as tall and rugged as an alp. One huge eye glared out of the center of his forehead. He didn't see us at first, but went about his business. The first thing he did was drag a huge boulder into the mouth of the cave. Twenty teams of horses couldn't have budged it. Then he milked his ewes, separating out the curds and setting the whey aside to drink with his dinner. It was when he stoked his fire for the meal that he saw us. 'Who are you?' asked a voice like thunder. 'We are Greeks, blown off course on our way home from Troy,' I explained. 'We assume you'll extend hospitality or suffer the wrath of Zeus, protector of guests.' 'Zeus? We Cyclopes are stronger than Zeus. I'll show you hospitality.' With that he snatched up two of my men and bashed their brains out on the floor. Then he ate them raw, picking them apart and poking them in his mouth, bones and guts and all. We cried aloud to Zeus, for all the good it did our comrades. The Cyclops washed them down with great slurps of milk, smacked his lips in satisfaction and went to sleep. My hand was on my sword, eager to stab some vital spot. But I realized that only he could unstopper the mouth of the cave. We passed a miserable night and then watched the Cyclops make breakfast of two more of our companions. When he went out to pasture his flock, he pulled the boulder closed behind him. It was up to me to make a plan. I found a tree trunk that the Cyclops intended for a walking stick. We cut off a six-foot section, skinned it, put a sharp point on one end and hardened it in the fire. Then we hid it under a pile of manure. When the Cyclops came home and made his usual meal, I spoke to him. 'Cyclops, you might as well take some of our liquor to savor with your barbarous feast.' I'd brought along a skin of wine that we'd been given as a gift. It was so strong that we usually diluted it in water twenty to one. The Cyclops tossed it back and then demanded more. 'I like you, Greek,' he said. 'I'm going to do you a favor. What's your name?' 'My name is Nobody,' I told him. It turned out that the favor he intended was to eat me last. But when the wine had knocked him out, I put my plan into effect. Heating the end of the pole until it was glowing red, we ran it toward the Cyclops like a battering ram, aiming it for his eye and driving it deep. The thing sizzled like hot metal dropped in water while I twisted it like an auger. Polyphemus came awake with a roar, tore the spike from his eye and began groping for us in his blindness. His screams of frustration and rage brought the neighboring Cyclopes to the mouth of the cave. 'What is it, brother?' they called inside. 'Is someone harming you?' 'It's Nobody!' bellowed Polyphemus. 'Then for the love of Poseidon pipe down in there!' They went away, and Polyphemus heaved the boulder aside and spent the night by the open door, hoping we'd be stupid enough to try to sneak past him. Getting past him was the problem alright, but by morning I'd worked out a solution. Tying goats together with ropes of willow, I hid a man under each group of three. When it was time to let them out to pasture, the Cyclops ran his hands over their backs but did not notice the men underneath. Myself, I clutched to the underbelly of the biggest ram. 'Why aren't you leading the flock as usual?' asked Polyphemus, detaining this beast at the door and stroking its fleece. 'I wish you could talk, so you could point out those Greeks.' He let the ram go, and we beat it down to the ship as fast as our legs would carry us. When we were a good way out to sea, I could not resist a taunt. I called out, and Polyphemus came to the edge of the seaside cliff. In his fury he tore up a huge boulder and flung it at us. It landed in front of our bow, and the splash almost drove us back onto the beach. This time I waited until my panicked men had rowed a good bit further before I put my hands to my mouth to call out again. The men tried to hush me, but I was aquiver with triumph. 'If someone asks who did this, the name is Odysseus!' That brought another boulder hurtling our way, but this one landed astern and only hastened our departure. The Cyclops was left howling on the cliff, calling out to his father Poseidon for vengeance.	i don't know
"Which actress, born Henriette Kaminker in 1921, won an Oscar in 1960 for the film ""Room at the Top""?"	Simone Signoret - Biography - IMDb Simone Signoret Biography Showing all 52 items Jump to: Overview (4) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (2) \| Trade Mark (3) \| Trivia (33) \| Personal Quotes (9) Overview (4) 5' 6" (1.68 m) Mini Bio (1) The face of Simone Signoret on the Paris Metro movie posters in March 1982 looked even older than her 61 years. She was still a box office draw, but the film, L'étoile du Nord (1982), would be her last theatrical release. She played the landlady. Signoret had a long film apprenticeship during World War II, mostly as an extra and occasionally getting to speak a single line. She was working without an official permit during the Nazi occupation of France, because her father, who had fled to England, was Jewish. Working almost all the time, she made enough as an extra to support her mother and three younger brothers. Her breakthrough to international stardom came at the age of 38 with the British film Room at the Top (1959). Her Alice Aisgill, an unhappily married woman who hopes she has found true love, radiated real warmth in all of her scenes, not just those in bed. She was the same woman as Dedee, a prostitute who finds true love in Dédée d'Anvers (1948), a film directed by Signoret's first husband, Yves Allégret , a decade earlier. Hollywood beckoned throughout the 1950s, but both Signoret and her second husband, Yves Montand , were refused visas to enter the United States; their progressive political activities did not sit well with the ultra-conservative McCarthy-era mentality that gripped the US at the time. They got visas in 1960 so Montand, as a singer, could perform in New York and San Francisco. They were in Los Angeles in March 1960 when Signoret received the Oscar for best actress and stayed on so Montand could play opposite Marilyn Monroe in Let's Make Love (1960). The Signoret film that is shown most often on TV and that got a theatrical re-release in 1995, four decades after it was made is the French thriller Diabolique (1955). The chilly character Signoret plays is proof of her acting ability. More typical of her persona is the countess in Ship of Fools (1965), a film that also starred Vivien Leigh --more than doubling its chances of being in a video store or library film collection. - IMDb Mini Biography By: Dale O'Connor <[email protected]> Spouse (2) Heavy cigarette smoking Trivia (33) Signoret, her mother's maiden name, was chosen for films in the early 1940s to raise fewer questions with the Nazi authorities than her real surname Kaminker. The spring and summer of 1960, Signoret and Montand were neighbors in a three-apartment bungalow at the Beverly Hills Hotel with Marilyn Monroe and Arthur Miller across the hall and Howard Hughes upstairs. Monroe told her dresser, who wrote a biography, that Miller liked to talk to Signoret because she was so intelligent and that after Signoret went back to France to make a film and Miller went to New York to work on a play that Monroe and Montand did indeed have the affair that was speculated about in the press. Born at 2:30am-CET Mother of Catherine Allégret First woman to win an Oscar for "Best Actress in a Leading Role" for a non-American film, Room at the Top (1959). Also the first French actress to win a Best Actress Oscar, the second and last one is Marion Cotillard for La Vie en Rose (2007). Signoret's daughter, Catherine Allégret , appeared in "La Vie en Rose" playing Édith Piaf 's grandmother. Signoret and Cotillard have both played Lady Macbeth. Was able to speak French, German, and English. Author of 'Adieu Volodia', a novel about a group of Jewish immigrants from Ukraine and Russia and their children, working in the theatre/film industry in Paris during the years 1926-1945. Portrayed on a postage stamp issued on 3 October 1998 by the French Post Office. Buried in Père-Lachaise Cemetery in Paris with her husband Yves Montand. The late American singer and composer Nina Simone took her stage name from Signoret. Published her autobiography "La nostalgie n'est plus qu'elle était" ("Nostalgia Isn't What It Used To Be") in 1976. Born to André Kaminker (1888-1961), a Polish linguist, and his French wife Georgette Signoret, she had two younger brothers, Alain and Jean-Pierre. Tutored English and Latin, while working part-time for "Le Nouveau Temps", a newspaper published during the German occupation. Grandmother of Benjamin Castaldi . Original choice to co-star with Elvis Presley in Wild in the Country (1961) but turned down the offer and the role went to Hope Lange . Good friends with Delphine Seyrig . With 3 wins (out of 6 nominations), she's the French actress most recognized by BAFTA. Gave birth to her 1st child at age 24, a son in 1945, with her then-married lover Yves Allégret , who would go on to be her 1st husband. However her son died at 9 days old. Was originally cast as Madame Hortense in Zorba the Greek (1964) but she quit the production before filming began. Lila Kedrova , who went on to win the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance, was cast instead. Gave birth to her 2nd child at age 25, a daughter Catherine Allégret on April 16, 1946. Child's father was her then-married lover [and later 1st husband], Yves Allégret . For her performance in Room at the Top (1959), she become the first French actress to win a BAFTA and a Best Actress Oscar for the same performance. Marion Cotillard is the second French actress to win both awards for her performance in La Vie en Rose (2007). Was the 51st actress to receive an Academy Award; she won the Best Actress Oscar for Room at the Top (1959) at The 32nd Annual Academy Awards (1960) on April 4, 1960. [Actor Philippe Noiret on working with Simone Signoret in a 1983 interview] It was quite an experience because she is a fabulous actress, because she knows absolutely everything about movies, about what an actor can do on the screen. It's a real challenge to have someone like that in front of you. But she is quite hard to work with because she wants to be at the head of everything, and you have to remain very alert because otherwise she can eat you. Alas, it makes things difficult. You have to stay a bit out of her reach because otherwise she might just manage to devour you. Simone Signoret won an Emmy in 1966 under the category of Single Performance by an actress for the TV movie A Small Rebellion. Is one of 3 actresses to have won the Best Actress Oscar for playing a character called Alice. The others are Ellen Burstyn for Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1974) and Julianne Moore for Still Alice (2014). In 1966, she played Lady Macbeth in a British stage production of 'Macbeth' at the Royal Court Thatre opposite Alec Guinness as the title character. She accepted the role on Guinness' wishes, as the actor himself had thought that she could 'convey the sexual magnetism that might hold a husband in thrall'. Having promised him that she would take lessons to improve her English, Signoret was however unable to keep the appointments with her coach. The production turned out to be a disaster and Simone's performance in particular was legendarily catastrophic, with the Guardian calling her 'the worst Lady Macbeth ever' and critic Alan Brien getting in the famous joke 'Simone Signoret: A conical bell-tented matron who moves on wheels like a draped Dalek surmounted by a beautiful Medusa head.'. Was featured on the poster of the 2013 César awards. Was great friends with her look-a-like Romy Schneider and convinced her to do her last film, La passante du Sans-Souci (1982) after the death of her son. Her daughter, Catherine Allégret , starred opposite Schneider in the film Inferno (1964). Great friends with Jane Fonda , who credits her with getting Fonda interested in politics. Her last name is pronounced "Seen-yor-ay". Played by Jordan Mohr in the stage play "Two Simones: de Beauvoir and Signoret in Hollywood.". Personal Quotes (9) There's an odd quirk inside that didn't change with 'success' (after "Dedee d'Anvers") and still hasn't. I think: It worked this time. I put it over on them. I made them believe I could do it. But one of these days they're going to discover the fakery. They're going to find out I'm only an amateur. [ Marilyn Monroe in 1960] She seemed to have no other happy professional memories. None of those moments of uproarious giggles among pals, none of those practical jokes, none of the noisy hugs and kisses after a scene when everyone knows all have acted well together. In Hollywood, in 1964, Vivien Leigh gave elegant dinners in the big house she had rented from London. ...She was no longer Laurence Olivier's wife, but she wanted to remain Lady Olivier...At the end of these evenings the phonograph played the theme from Gone with the Wind (1939). Hordes of young girls never copied my hairdoes or the way I talk or the way I dress. I have, therefore, never had to go through the stress of perpetuating an image that's often the equivalent of one particular song that forever freezes a precise moment of one's youth. In films as well as life, " said Jack Lang, French minister of culture September 30, 1985, "Miss Signoret was an unshakeable militant, in the front rank of all the battles for human rights, under all regimes and on all horizons. It was faith that sustained her, faith in her ideals of liberty and progress. I collect all the reviews of the films I turned down. And when they're bad - I have to smile. I got old the way that women who aren't actresses grow old. [on Jack L. Warner ] He bore no grudge against those he had wronged. [on Ship of Fools (1965)] Parts of the film are intentionally unsubtle as life was unsubtle then - rough, tough, incredible, unbelievable, but true. I have a European attitude toward this picture, I suppose. I think it says more than most, a picture that will be seen twice. See also	Simone Signoret
Which musician and songwriter was a member of the groups Depeche Mode, Yazoo and Erasure?	Simone Signoret - IMDb IMDb Actress The face of Simone Signoret on the Paris Metro movie posters in March 1982 looked even older than her 61 years. She was still a box office draw, but the film, L'étoile du Nord (1982), would be her last theatrical release. She played the landlady. Signoret had a long film apprenticeship during World War II, mostly as an extra and ... See full bio » Born: a list of 40 people created 03 Aug 2011 a list of 25 people created 19 Aug 2014 a list of 41 people created 26 May 2015 a list of 23 people created 31 Dec 2015 a list of 25 images created 4 months ago Do you have a demo reel? Add it to your IMDbPage How much of Simone Signoret's work have you seen? User Polls Won 1 Oscar. Another 12 wins & 9 nominations. See more awards » Known For Casque d'Or Marie 'Casque d'Or' (1952) 1986 Music Hall (TV Movie) Yvonne Pierre 1983 Thérèse Humbert (TV Movie) Thérèse Humbert 1978 Madame le juge (TV Series) Élisabeth Massot / Le juge d'instruction Élisabeth Massot 1970 A Hostage (TV Movie) Meg 1966 A Small Rebellion (TV Movie) Sara Lescaut 1960 General Electric Theater (TV Series) Woman Une employée de la maison de couture (uncredited) Hide 1985 7 sur 7 (TV Series) Herself 1977-1985 La nuit des Césars (TV Series documentary) Herself / Herself - La présidente des Césars 1984 Le cinéma de l'ombre (TV Movie documentary) Herself 1978 Good Morning America (TV Series) Herself - Guest 1973 Septembre chilien (Short documentary) Récitante / Narrator (voice) 1971 V.I.P.-Schaukel (TV Series documentary) Herself 1967 Cinéastes de notre temps (TV Series documentary) Herself 1966 Bibliothèque de poche (TV Series) Herself 1966 Late Show London (TV Series) Herself 1956-1963 Cinépanorama (TV Series documentary) Herself 1961 What's My Line? (TV Series) Herself - Mystery Guest 1961 Here's Hollywood (TV Series) Herself 1960 Face to Face (TV Series) Herself 1959 Small World (TV Series) Herself 2016 Yves Montand, l'ombre au tableau (TV Movie documentary) Herself 2010-2014 Nous nous sommes tant aimés (TV Series documentary) Herself 2013 René Clément, témoin et poète (TV Movie documentary) Herself 2012 Cinéphiles de notre temps (TV Series documentary) Herself 2011 Ivo Livi, dit Yves Montand (TV Movie documentary) Herself 2008-2011 Un jour, un destin (TV Series documentary) Herself / Various roles 2010 Thé ou café (TV Series) Herself 2008 Marilyn, dernières séances (TV Movie documentary) Herself 2007 Cannes, 60 ans d'histoires (TV Movie documentary) Herself 2007 Vivement dimanche (TV Series) Herself 2002 Great Performances (TV Series) Herself 2001 Simone Signoret (TV Movie documentary) Herself 1995 Empire of the Censors (TV Movie documentary) Herself Personal Details Other Works: She acted in William Shakespeare's play, "Macbeth," at the Royal Court Theatre in London, England with Alec Guinness and Gordon Jackson in the cast. William Gaskill was director. Publicity Listings: 4 Print Biographies \| 2 Interviews \| 2 Articles \| 4 Pictorials \| 5 Magazine Cover Photos \| See more » Height: Did You Know? Personal Quote: [ Marilyn Monroe in 1960] She seemed to have no other happy professional memories. None of those moments of uproarious giggles among pals, none of those practical jokes, none of the noisy hugs and kisses after a scene when everyone knows all have acted well together. See more » Trivia: Original choice to co-star with Elvis Presley in Wild in the Country (1961) but turned down the offer and the role went to Hope Lange . See more » Trademark: Often played gold-hearted prostitutes See more » Star Sign:	i don't know
Name the year; Harold Wilson resigns as Prime Minister, Rag Trade wins the Grand National and Concorde enters regular passenger service?	Useful dates in British history First recorded sighting of Halley's comet BC55 Aug 27: Caesar's first British expedition (second in BC54) BC49 Jan 10 (of the Roman calendar): Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war BC46 Caesar institutes the Julian calendar by adding 90 days to the end of this year (came into force in January BC45) BC45 Jan 1: The Julian calendar takes effect for the first time BC44 Mar 15: Caesar assassinated in Rome BC27 Jan 16: The title Augustus bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian BC/AD Since the Romans had no zero, there was no year AD0 (see AD525 ) AD43 Roman Conquest of Britain begun by Emperor Claudius ï¿½ Camulodunum (Colchester) captured and becomes first Roman Base in England AD47 Jun: Great fire of Rome, lasted 9 days (Nero fiddles, etc!) AD69 Year of the four emperors in Rome: Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian AD79 Aug 24: (some say Oct 24) Mount Vesuvius erupts ï¿½ the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae are buried in volcanic ash c80ï¿½85 Campaign of Agricola in southern Scotland c85 Battle of Mons Graupius, massive defeat of Caledonians by Roman forces 115 Roman Empire reaches its greatest extent under Trajan 122 Sep: Building of Hadrian's Wall begins (completed AD126) c140 Antonine Wall built in central Scotland (completed circa AD143) c150 Around this time, the Christian churches decided to express their divergence from the Roman system by starting the year on a different date, 25th March (this being the 'date of conception' of Christ in order for his birth to have been on 25th December) ï¿½ see also 1582 180 Beginning of the 'decline of the Roman Empire' (Gibbon) ï¿½ Defeat of Romans in Caledonia ï¿½ they retreat behind Hadrian's Wall 20711 Campaign of Severus in southern Scotland 247 1,000th anniversary of founding of Rome 304 St Alban first Christian martyr in Britain [Bede implies some date between 303 and 313] 321 Emperor Constantine I decrees a day of rest each week in the Roman Empire and calls it 'Sunday' 325 Council of Nicaea establishes basic Christian dogma c350 St Ninian first to preach Christian religion in Scotland, arrives Solway Firth 367 Invasion of northern England by Picts and Scots 406/412 Probable end of Roman military occupation of Britain 418 'The Romans gathered all the gold-hords there were in Britain; some they hid in the earth so that no man might find them, and some they took with them to Gaul' ï¿½ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles c400 ï¿½ c600 Migration and settlement of Angles, Jutes and Saxons 432 St Patrick begins mission to Ireland 449 Beginning of invasions by Jutes, Angles and Saxons ï¿½ Hengist and Horsa invade 'The Angles were invited here by king Vortigern, and they came to Britain in three longships, landing at Ebbesfleet. [He] gave them territory in the southeast of this land on the condition that they fight the Picts. This they did, and had victory wherever they went. Then they sent to Angel and commanded more aid ï¿½ they soon sent hither a greater host to help the others. Then came the men of three Germanic tribes: Old Saxons, Angles and Jutes. Of the Jutes come the people of Kent and the Isle of Wight; of the Old Saxons come the East-Saxons, South-Saxons and West-Saxons; of the Angles come the East Anglians, Middle Anglians, Mercians and all Northumbrians. Their war-leaders were two brothers, Hengist and Horsa ï¿½ first of all they killed and drove away the king's enemies, then later they turned on the king and the British [mid-450s], destroying through fire and the sword's edge.' ï¿½ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles 467 Chinese observe Halley's comet c490 British check Anglo-Saxon advance at siege of Mount Badon (site unknown) date uncertain: other sources say 520 and/or c.495, or simply 'some time in the decade before or after 500' c500 Irish "Scots" arrived in western Scotland 525 (some say in 526, 532 or 534) 'Dennis the Short' (Dionysius Exiguous) calculates the date of the birth of Christ concept of AD and BC dates begins 536 Beginning of a decade-long cold snap causing turmoil across the globe (some postulate a volcanic eruption plus a significant impact from space around this date) 537 Death of King Arthur (some say 542) [Note: He is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, and some think he never existed as a real person] c541 Anglo-Saxon victory at Deorham marks resumption of their advance in England 597 Death of Columba, later sanctified 597/8 St Augustine lands in Kent ï¿½ converts King Ethelbert ï¿½ introduces Roman Christian Church to England ï¿½ later becomes first Archbishop of Canterbury c.600 and for some centuries (some say from AD 500 to AD 850) The period of the 'Heptarchy': the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia and Kent the 'top king' at any one time was referred to 'Bretwalda' (overlord of the Britons) 601 Pope Gregory calls Ethelbert of Kent 'rex Anglorum' 604 St Paul's Cathedral in London founded Death of St Augustine, and pope Gregory I 616 Feb 24: Death of Ethelbert of Kent ï¿½ succeeded by his son Eadbald, who was not a Christian 617 Edwin becomes king of Northumbria (to 633) ï¿½ possibly founds Edinburgh? ï¿½ [He overcame all Britain save Kent alone ï¿½ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles] 622 Muhammad's flight from Mecca marks the start of the Muslim calendar 642 Aug: Battle of Maserfield: Penda of Mercia defeats Oswald of Northumbria c650 St Aidan dies 655 Nov: Battle of Winwaed (in present-day Yorkshire): Oswiu of Northumbria (brother of Oswald) defeats Penda of Mercia 664 Sep: Synod of Whitby: Divisions within the Northumbrian church led to the Synod of Whitby, where Oswiu agreed to settle the Easter controversy by adopting the Roman dating ï¿½ Roman Christianity triumphs over Celtic Plague hit England, according to Bede (writing c.730): "A sudden pestilence raging far and wide with fierce destruction.' 673 Birth of the Venerable Bede, first English historian (d. 735) First synod of clergy in England (at Hertford) ï¿½ Roman and Celtic churches came to an agreement on the date to celebrate Easter 6857 Cuthbert served as Bishop of Lindisfarne c698 Norsemen plunder Iona 827 Egbert King of Wessex and Mercia effectively first king of England (d. 839), but see 937 see also general list of dates for Monarchs of England 838 Norse establish permanent base at Dublin 844 Kenneth I MacAlpin, king of Scots, becomes King of Picts ï¿½ start of Scottish kingdom 865874 Danish army conquers north-eastern third of England 871 Jan 4: Battle of Reading ï¿½ Ethelred of Wessex defeated by a Danish invasion army Apr: Alfred (the Great) succeeds Ethelred; crowned king of Wessex 872 Curfew (couvre feu) introduced at Oxford by King Alfred to reduce fire risks (why a French term this early in English history?) 878 Battle of Chippenham: Alfred defeated by Danes (shortly after Christmas 877) but escapes and 'burns the cakes'; Battle of Egbert's Stone (Eddington?) in May: Alfred (56,000 troops) defeats Danes, who retreat and are besieged in Chippenham Danes/Vikings fail in attempt to conquer Wessex leader Guthram baptised as Athelstan and accepted by Alfred as his Godson 880 Treaty of Wedmore: England divided between Alfred the Great of Wessex (the south and west) and the 'Danelaw' under Guthram (the north and east) Start of concept of 'Englishness' and growth of 'burghs' in England from this time 889 Donald II, first King of Picts & Scots (d. in battle 900) 891 Beginning of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle marks revival of learning in England 899 Oct 26: Death of King Alfred the Great (some say 901); succeeded by Edward (the Elder) 917921 Edward of Wessex conquers southern half of Danelaw with the help of his sister, Aethelflaed of Mercia 937 Athelstan of Wessex defeats Scots, north Welsh and Norse at Brunanburgh regarded by some as 'first king of all England' (but see 827 ) 939 Oct 27: Edmund I succeeds Athelstan as King of England c960 Edinburgh held by King of Alba 971 Jul 15: St Swithun's body moved from his outdoor grave to an indoor shrine in the the Old Minster in Winchester against his expressed wishes legend says this was accompanied by bad weather, from which the popular British weather lore proverb comes, that if it rains on Saint Swithun's day, 15 July, it will rain for 40 days and 40 nights 973 Edgar introduces a new coinage the royal portrait becomes a regular feature on coins 980 Vikings renew assault on England 987 Hugh Capet crowned King of France, first of the Capetian dynasty which ruled till the French Revolution 991 Aug 10: Battle of Maldon English, led by Bryhtnoth, defeated by a band of raiding Vikings near Maldon, Essex celebrated by a poem 1002 Nov 13: St Brice's Day massacre King Aethelred (Ethelred II, the 'Unready') orders killing of all Danes in England 1003 Sveyn I (Sweyn, Swein) of Denmark devastates England: Ethelred pays him 24,000 pounds of silver to stop 1004 Vikings explore the North American coast 1006 Apr 30: The brightest supernova in recorded history appears in the constellation Lupus 1007 King Ethelred pays Sveyn another 36,000 pounds of silver 1010 London Bridge torn down by Vikings with grappling irons ï¿½ (Olaf II Haraldsson, later St Olaf, took part) ï¿½ possibly the origin of "London Bridge is falling Down" 1012 Apr 19: Murder by Danes of Alphege, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Greenwich after refusing to be ransomed (canonised 1078 to St Alphege) King Aethelred pays Sveyn another 48,000 pounds of silver; but next year Sveyn pushes him off the throne 1014 Brian Boru leads the Irish to victory over the Norse at Clontarf 1016 Canute (Knut, son of Sveyn) becomes king of Denmark, Norway and England (d. 1035) 1017 Canute divides England into four Earldoms: Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria and East Anglia 1018 Battle of Carham: Malcolm defeats the Northumbrians adding Lothian to Scotland c1030 Guido of Arezzo introduces first practical form of musical notation, enabling melodies to be sung on sight 1034 Strathclyde annexed by King of Scots becomes part of Scottish Kingdom 1035 Death of Canute: the Danish empire splits up 1040 Aug 15: Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findlï¿½ich) murders Duncan (Donnchad Mac Crï¿½nï¿½in) and takes the throne of Scotland (d. 1057) Lady Godiva, wife of earl of Mercia, rides naked through Coventry as a protest against taxes [Now why couldn't Shakespeare have written about that instead?] 1042 Edward the Confessor King of England (d. 1066) First recorded use of moveable type, in China 10451050 Building of Westminster Abbey consecrated 28 Dec 1065, only a week before Edward the Confessor's death and subsequent funeral (rebuilt 12451517) 1054 Jul: Supernova observed by Arabian and Chinese astronomers becomes the Crab Nebula The Great Schism, when Christianity divided into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) branches 1066 Jan 6: Edward the Confessor dies ï¿½ Harold II (Godwinson) reigned for 9 months Sep 25: Battle of Stamford Bridge: Harold II defeats Norwegian invasion Sep 28: Invasion of England by Duke William of Normandy Oct 14: Battle of Hastings ï¿½ Harold II dies Dec 25: William crowned King of England at Westminster 1069 Northern earls and a Scandanavian army seize York ï¿½ William replies with the 'Harrowing of the North' ï¿½ "He made no effort to control his fury and he punished the innocent with the guilty. He ordered that crops and herds, tools and food should be burned to ashes. More than 100,000 people perished of hunger" [Orderic Vitalis] King Malcolm Canmore of Scotland marries Margaret (later St Margaret) 1072 King Malcolm III of Scotland submitted to William the Conqueror c1070 Reconstruction of Canterbury Cathedral begins: The Saxon cathedral burned in 1067. Lanfranc, first Norman Archbishop, restored and enlarged its buildings between 1067 and 1077. A new choir was consecrated in 1130 but burned in 1174, four years after Becket's murder. That was rebuilt by 1184, but the nave wasn't finished until 1405. [others say completed 1495] 1071 Norman conquest of England complete 1077 Possible completion of the Bayeux Tapestry 1079 Construction of Winchester Cathedral begins (consecrated in 1093 but not completed until 1404.) 1081 Building of Tower of London starts [others say 1067] 1086 May 9: Lincoln Cathedral consecrated 1095 Nov 27: Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont 1096 First crusade begins (to 1099) 1098 Jun 3: Antioch falls to the Crusaders Expedition of Magnus Barelegs to Scottish coasts 1099 Jun 7: Siege of Jerusalem begins by the Crusaders 12th & 13th centuries Climate: A medieval warm period called the 'Little Optimum' 1100 Aug 2: William II found dead in the New Forest with an arrow through his lung Aug 5: Henry I crowned in Westminster Abbey c1100 First record of football in England 1102 Synod of Westminster under Anselm forbids clergy to marry 1106 Sep 28: Battle of Tinchebray Henry I defeats his older brother Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy England and Normandy remain under a single ruler until 1204 1110 Introduction in England of Pipe Rolls, recording exchequer payments 1119 Military order of the Knights Templar founded 1120 Nov 25: The White Ship sinks in the English Channel, drowning William Adelin, the only legitimate son of Henry I of England his death caused a succession crisis, culminating in 'The Anarchy' or 'The Nineteen Year Winter' during the reign of Stephen (1135ï¿½1154) 1120s First references in Scotland to Burghs and Sheriffs 1124 Apr 27: David I becomes King of Scotland c1130 Great age of abbey building in England: Tintern (1131), Rievaulx (1131), Fountains (1132) 1135 Dec 1: Death of Henry I; Stephen seizes the throne of England amid a confusion of Matildas 1138 Aug 22: 'Battle of The Standard' near Northallerton English forces repelled a Scottish army 1139 Portugal becomes independent from Spain c1140 Transition from Romanesque to Gothic architecture in Europe (freeing walls from load-bearing functions, thus allowing larger windows); Linguistically, also regarded as the start of the Middle English period (until c.1500) 1141 Only year in which Matilda (or Maude, daughter of Henry I) was the undisputed ruler of England 1143 Jul 1: Battle of Wilton in Wiltshire 1144 Normandy comes under Angevin control under Geoffrey of Anjou 1145 Pope Eugene III calls for the Second Crusade (114749) 1148 Jul: Seige of Damascus by the Crusaders fails 1150 Sep 7: Geoffrey of Anjou dies, succeeded by his son Henry Plantagenet, aged 18 1152 May 18: Henry Plantagenet (to become King Henry II) marries Eleanor of Aquitaine 1153 May 27: Malcolm IV becomes King of Scotland Treaty of Wallingford between Stephen and Matilda in which her son Henry Plantagenet would inherit the throne of England on Stephen's death 1154 Oct 25: Death of King Stephen; Henry II becomes King of England he already has Normandy, Anjou and Aquitaine, and is now the most powerful man in Europe Dec 4: Nicholas Breakspear (Adrian IV) becomes only English pope (b. circa 1100 at St Albans, d. 1 Sep 1159 at Anagni and buried in the Vatican) Dec 19: Henry II crowned in Westminster Abbey 1155 Papal bull issued by Adrian IV, the only Englishman to serve as Pope, gives the King of England lordship over Ireland 1157 Jul: Henry II of England invades Wales and is defeated at the Battle of Ewloe by Owain Gwynedd 1158 A new coinage introduced by Henry II (known as the Tealby penny) was struck from 92.5% silver (Sterling) 1159 Sep 7: Cardinals given the right to elect the Pope (prior to this the pope was elected by the clergy and congregation of the church) Pope Alexander III succeeds Pope Adrian IV as the 170th pope 1162 Jun 3: Thomas Becket consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury Henry II thought he would be 'his' man, but things turned out differently (see 1174 ) 1163 Letter of Prester John started spreading throughout Europe 1166 Establishment of trial by jury 1170 Dec 29: Murder of Thomas à Becket in Canterbury Cathedral 1172 Pope decrees that Henry II of England is feudal lord of Ireland 1173 Apr: Revolt begins against Henry II by his wife and sons 1174 Jul 12: Henry II did penance for the death of Thomas à Becket, murdered by his knights 3 years previously and already canonised; the following day in a 'seeming act of divine providence', the last supporters of the revolt against him were surprised and captured at Alnwick 1175 Treaty of Falaise signed ï¿½ William the Lion surrenders Scottish crown to King Henry II of England 1176 London Bridge construction in stone started (from tax on wool) ï¿½ completed 1209, replaced 1831 Dec 25: First Eisteddfod, at Cardigan Castle 1178 The Leaning Tower of Pisa begins to lean as the third level is completed 1187 Oct: Saladin recaptures Jerusalem ï¿½ served as the catalyst for the Third Crusade (1187ï¿½1192) 1188 The original Newgate Prison built in London 'Saladin Tithe' levied in England ï¿½ exemption for those who joined the Crusade 1189 Jul 6: Henry II dies at the castle of Chinon in Anjou; Richard I 'Lionheart' becomes king of England (d. 1199) ï¿½ acknowledges the independence of Scotland Sep 1: Legal Memory dates from accession of Richard I ï¿½ before that is 'Time Immemorial', see 1275 1190 Mar: Jews of York massacred (150 in number) Opening of the Third Crusade 'Early English' Gothic period in English architecture (till about 1280) 1192 Dec 20: Richard I held for ransom on his way back from the Crusade by Leopold V of Austria 1199 Apr 6: Richard I dies having spent most of his reign abroad succeeded by his brother John (to 1216) 1200 King John marries Isabella of Angouleme in Bordeaux Cathedral 1202 Pope Innocent III initiates the Fourth Crusade (1202ï¿½1204) 1204 Angers and Normandy are captured by Philip II of France 1207 Jul 15: King John expels Canterbury monks for supporting Archbishop Stephen Langton 1208 Winchester Pipe Rolls begin the financial accounts of the manors or estates belonging to the Bishopric of Winchester written in medieval Latin until 1599, after that in English see example of translated contents 1212 Jul: One of the early 'great fires of London' Chronicles of the Mayors & Sheriffs of London: "In this year was the Great Fire of Suthwerk; and it burned the Church of Saint Mary, as also the Bridge, with the Chapel there, and the greatest part of the City" ['Altogether it claimed 12,000 lives' Bill Bryson At Home] 1215 Jun 15: Magna Carta sealed at Runnymede by King John Oct 28: First Lord Mayor's Show in London Nov 11: Fourth Lateran Council defined the doctrine of transubstantiation 1217 Nov 6: 'Charter of the Forest' by Henry III established that all freemen owning land within the forest enjoyed the rights of agistment (grazing cattle) and pannage (grazing pigs) Fifth Crusade (12171221) 1220 Start of building current York Minster: Archbishop Walter de Gray started its construction (with the transept) in 1220, working from the design of the Norman cathedral of 1070. Its towers were finally completed in 1472. Salisbury Cathedral: started (replacing the Norman cathedral at Old Sarum) by Bishop Poore in 1220, consecrated in 1258, and its great spire finished in 1334 1222 Introduction of a poll tax in England King Alexander II of Scotland conquers Argyll 1228 First recorded mention of the Royal Mint Sixth Crusade (12281229) Cambridge University organised and granted Royal Charter 1235 Statute of Merton considered to be the first English statute authorised manorial lords to enclose portions of commons and wastes provided that sufficient pasture remained for his tenants 1237 Treaty of York signed by Henry III of England and Alexander II of Scotland set the border between England and Scotland, which remains to this day except round Berwick 1247 Foundation of Bedlam (Bethlehem Hospital), London, by Simon Fitzmary 1248 Charter granted to Oxford University by Henry III Aug 15: Foundation stone of Cologne cathedral laid ï¿½ building not completed until 1880 Seventh Crusade (12481254) Royal Proclamations by Henry III are first government documents issued in English 1256 Decreed in England that in leap years, the leap day and the day before are to be reckoned as one day for the purpose of calculating when a full year has passed 1258 'A strange time for weather globally' ï¿½ incessant rains, terrible floods, severe cold and disasterous harvests that led to famine ï¿½ now attributed to the eruption in the previous year of the volvano Samalas in what is now Indonesia. 1259 Dec 4: Treaty of Paris between Henry III and Louis IX of France Henry agreed to renounce control of Normandy (except for the Channel Islands), Maine, Anjou and Poitou, which had been lost under the reign of King John. He was able to keep Gascony and parts of Aquitaine but only as a vassal to Louis. In exchange, Louis withdrew his support for English rebels. Said to be one of the indirect causes of the Hundred Years War 1260 Chartres cathedral dedicated 1263 Oct 2: Battle of Largs, Ayrshire ï¿½ King Alexander III said to have defeated Norwegian invaders under King Haakon IV 1264 First recorded reference to Justice of the Peace in England (but see 1285 ) May 12-14: Battle of Lewes: Henry III captured by Simon de Montfort 1265 Jan 20: First elected English parliament (De Montfort's Parliament) conducts its first meeting, in the Palace of Westminster Aug 4: Battle of Evesham: Simon de Montfort killed (death of chivalry? ï¿½ but this also claimed for Crécy, see 1346 ) 1266 Western Isles acquired by Scotland 1270 Ninth (and last) crusade (1271ï¿½72) 1272 Nov 20: Edward I (who was away on the Crusade) declared king of England following the death of his father Henry III on Nov 16 1274 Aug 19: Edward I crowned on his return from the Crusades 1275 Apr 22: First Statute of Westminster passed by the English parliament fixed the reign of Richard I as the time limit for bringing certain types of action ï¿½ see 'Time Immemorial' 1189 (others say there was also the concept of 'before the memory of man' being 113 years) Scottish rule established on the Isle of Man 1277 Edward I embarks on the conquest of Wales 1279 A major re-coinage introduced new denominations. In addition to the penny, the halfpenny and farthing were minted, and also a fourpenny piece called a 'groat' (from the French 'gross') 1280 'Decorated' Gothic period in English architecture (till about 1370) Climate: 1280ï¿½1311 peak of the medieval warm period 1282 Dec 10: Llewellyn, last native Prince of Wales, killed 1283 Annexation of Wales to England by Edward I ï¿½ Statute of Rhuddlan, 3 March 1284, created early counties in Wales (see 1536 ) 1285 Statute of Winchester and Second Statute of Westminster ï¿½ first Justices of the Peace installed in England? (but some say they derive from 1361 , in the reign of Edward III) among other things, authorised manorial lords to enclose commons and wastes where the common rights belonged to tenants from other manors 1290 Oct: Death of the 'maid of Norway,' heiress to the Scottish crown led to the Wars of Scottish Independence 1296ï¿½1328 Jul 18: Jews expelled from England by Edward I Dec: Death of Queen Eleanor, wife of Edward I he had 12 'Eleanor crosses' erected between Lincolnshire (where she died) and London (where she was buried in Westminster Abbey) Statute of 'Quia Emptores' ï¿½ prevented tenants from leasing their lands to others and allowed the sale of freehold Spectacles introduced in Italy 1291-2 Competition for the Scottish Crown between some eleven "Competitors" (including John Baliol, John Comyn and Robert Bruce the elder) all claiming the right to succeed 1292 Nov 17: King Edward I awards Scottish crown to John Baliol ('Toom Tabard', or 'empty coat') 1295 Oct 23: Signing of the "Auld Alliance" in Paris between Scotland and France ï¿½ one of the world's oldest mutual defence treaties 1296 Annexation of Scotland by England ï¿½ Scotland's Coronation Stone the "Stone of Destiny" or "Stone of Scone" was removed to Westminster Abbey by the English King Edward I, temporarily 'returned' to Scotland in 1950, and permanently returned in 1996 Mar 30: Berwick-upon-Tweed sacked by Edward I Apr 27: Battle of Dunbar: Scots defeated Jul 10: John Baliol dethroned by Edward I Beginning of uprising led by William Wallace (the Guardian of Scotland) 1297 Sep 11: Battle of Stirling Bridge, defeat of English Army 1298 Jul 22: Battle of Falkirk, Edward I defeats William Wallace early use of the long bow by the English c1300 Earliest western reference to manufacture of gunpowder 1301 Feb 7: Son of Edward I created first Prince of Wales 1305 Trial of William Wallace in London, execution at Smithfield 1306 Mar 25: Robert the Bruce crowned King Robert I of Scots Jun 19: Battle of Methven ï¿½ a 'fortunate defeat' for Bruce 1307 Jul 7: Edward I dies ï¿½ succeeded by his son, Edward II Nov 18: According to legend, William Tell shoots an apple off of his son's head 1311 Ordinances laid on Edward II by the peerage and clergy of England to restrict his power ï¿½ twenty-one signatories referred to as the Ordainers ï¿½ Thomas of Lancaster their leader was executed in 1322 1312 Knights Templars suppressed in France 1313ï¿½1321 Climate: Sequence of cold and wet summers ï¿½ harvests ruined 1314 Jun 24: Battle of Bannockburn ï¿½ Scots under Robert the Bruce routed the English led by Edward II ï¿½ resulted in Scottish independence Edward II banned football in London (possibly to encourage people to practice their archery instead) Great European famine ï¿½ population of Britain had peaked at around 5 million before declining c1320 Invention of escapement clocks, and first practical guns 1320 Declaration of Arbroath; a statement of Scottish independence 1326 First Scottish Parliament (at Cambuskenneth) 1327 Deposition and regicide of King Edward II of England (in an apparently unfortunate manner): Edward III rules for 50 years till 1377 1328 Jan 24: Edward III marries Philippa of Hainault May 1: Treaty of Northampton, formalised peace between England and Scotland 1329 Jun 7: Death of Robert the Bruce; succeeded by infant David II of Scots 1332 Climatic catastrophe in eastern Asia ï¿½ 7 million people drowned ï¿½ black rats driven west (one theory says that this caused the Black Death in Europe but see note 1349 ) 1338 Edward III asserts his claim to the French throne 'Hundred Years War' begins (to 1453) 1340 Jun 24: Edward III personally commands the English fleet in their victory over the French off Sluys (who were trying to blockade English export of wool to Flanders) 1346 Aug 26: Battle of Crecy (Crécy) ï¿½ military supremacy of the English longbow established, and that of 'peasant' archers over knights on horseback Oct 17: Battle of Neville's Cross; English capture King David II (held until 1357 ) 1348 Jun 24: Order of the Garter founded by King Edward III of England ï¿½ motto 'Honi soit qui mal y pense' 1349 Black Death ('The Pestilence') reaches England (entered Europe in 1346/7; lasted until 1351) ï¿½ this was the first return of plague to Europe for almost 400 years, but it reappeared more than once during the next three centuries some estimate that where it struck, up to a quarter of the population perished theories that it was spread by rat fleas have been questioned, as it seems to have travelled too fast for that to have been the agent, and a bacterial disease possibly from Africa is now suspected ï¿½ for an example of effect of the Black Death on architecture, see Winchester Cathedral 1350 Black Death first appears in Scotland Aug 29: Battle of Winchelsea ï¿½ English naval fleet under King Edward III defeats a Castilian fleet of 40 ships 1351 Statute of Labourers ï¿½ attempt to regulate wages and prices at 1340 levels following labour shortages caused by the Black Death ï¿½ it set a precedent that distinguished between labourers who were "able in body" to work and those who could not work for other reasons 1352 Corpus Christi College, Cambridge founded 1353 Giovanni Boccaccio The Decameron 1355 Feb 10: St Scholastica's Day riot, Oxford ï¿½ armed clashes between locals and students (Town versus Gown) 1356 Sep 19: Battle of Poitiers: Black Prince (son of Edward III) captures the French king, John II (the Good) 1357 Oct: King David II of Scotland released by the English in return for a ransom 1360 May 8: Treaty of Brï¿½tigny marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War (1337ï¿½1453) ï¿½ ratified on Oct 24 at Calais ï¿½ by this treaty Edward III and John II (still in captivity, though with many privileges) make peace, but it only lasted for 9 years The French franc introduced by John II 1361 Edward, the Black Prince, marries his cousin Joan, the 'Fair Maid of Kent' Edward III created the office of Justice of the Peace in every county in England ï¿½ to meet four times a year in Quarter Sessions Second severe outbreak of of the Black Death 1362 English becomes official language in English Parliament and Law Courts Quarter Sessions established by statute William Langland Vision of Piers Ploughman 1364 Charles V (the Wise) becomes King of France 1366 Statues of Kilkenny belatedly forbid intermarriage of English and Irish ï¿½ Gaelic culture unsuccessfully suppressed 1369 Hundred Years War restarts 1370 'Perpendicular' Gothic period in English architecture (till about 1550) great East Window in Gloucester first example 1371 Feb: Accession of Robert II, the first Stewart king of Scots 1372 Naval battle off La Rochelle: Castilians defeat the English fleet tide begins to turn against the English in Aquitaine 1375 Truce in the Hundred Years War England lost most of her possessions in France 1377 Edward III dies, age 65: Richard II rules till deposed in 1399 May 22: Pope Gregory XI issues five papal bulls to denounce the doctrines of John Wycliffe 1378 Start of the Papal Schism (until 1417) when three men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope 1381 Jun 15: Wat Tyler killed at Smithfield, London, during Peasants' Revolt in protest against poll tax of 1380 1382 First translation of the Bible into English, by John Wycliffe Winchester College founded by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester May 21: Great earthquake in Kent [? can't find confirmation of this one] ï¿½ see 1580 1383 Regular series of wills starts in Prerogative Court of Canterbury 1386 Treaty of Windsor between Britain and Portugal "The British have an alliance with Portugal unbroken since the year 1384, and which produced fruitful results at a critical moment in the recent war." Iron Curtain Speech by Winston Churchill, 1946 1387 Chaucer (d. 1400) begins writing The Canterbury Tales 1388 Aug 5: Battle of Otterburn, Northumberland (Chevy Chase) 1389 June 15: Battle of Kosovo; The Ottoman Empire defeats Serbs and Bosnians 1392 Wells Cathedral clock 1397 Apr: Geoffrey Chaucer tells the Canterbury Tales for the first time at the court of Richard II Dick Whittington (d. 1423) first becomes Lord Mayor of London 1399 Sep: Deposition of King Richard II; Henry IV establishes Lancastrian dynasty 1400 Oct 25: Geoffrey Chaucer dies in London Sep 16: Owen Glendower declared Prince of Wales start of rebellion of against Henry IV Average life expectancy had dropped to 38 years (had been 48 years in 1300) c.1400 This is the date at which the 'great vowel shift' (shortening of vowel sounds) in the English language is regarded as starting 1403 Jul 21: Battle of Shrewsbury: Henry IV defeats rebels 1405 Jun 8: Execution of Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York and Thomas Mowbray, Earl of Norfolk for insurrection against Henry IV 1412 Foundation of the University of St Andrews 1413 Mar 21: Henry V to the throne 1415 Oct 25 (St Crispin's Day): Battle of Agincourt 1417 Jun 24: First recorded meeting of theTynwald in the Isle of Man Jul 27: Antipope Benedict XIII deposed, bringing to an end the Great Western Schism Aug 12: Henry V starts using English (rather than French) in his correspondence 1419 Jan 19: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England 1420 Dec 1: Henry V of England enters Paris 1422 Infant Henry VI (9 months old) on throne of England 1424 Winter: Much of Alnwick burnt by a Scottish raiding party (and again in later years) 1429 Feb 12: Battle of the Herrings just north of Orleans 1431 May 30: Death of Joan of Arc Dec 16: Henry VI of England crowned King of France at Notre Dame in Paris 1432ï¿½1438 Climate: Britain snowbound for 6 of these 7 winters 1432 University of Caen founded by John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford 1435 Sep 21: Treaty of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy ends the English-Burgundy alliance 1437 Assassination of King James I of Scots at Perth 1440 Eton College founded by Henry VI 1450 May 8: Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen revolt against Henry VI 1451 End of Hundred Years' War (Battle of Castillon, Jul 17) 1455 Feb 23: Johannes Gutenberg starts printing the bible, using movable type [some say 1450, 1453 or 1454] May 22: Battle of St Albans, first in Wars of the Roses (1455ï¿½87); Richard, Duke of York, defeats and captures Henry VI Fall of the Black Douglases in Scotland 1456 Aug 24: Printing of Gutenberg Bible completed [some say 1454 or 1455] 1457 First recorded mention of golf in Scotland 1460 Aug 3: King James II of Scots killed by an exploding cannon at Kelso 1461 Mar 29 (Palm Sunday): Battle of Towton ï¿½ probably the bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil: Henry VI flees to Scotland; Edward, Duke of York, crowned as Edward IV on 1st Aug ï¿½ see website 1465 Irish living near English settlements made to take English surnames 1468/69 Orkney and Shetland Islands acquired from Norway by Scotland (but Wikepedia says 20th Feb 1472) 1470 Oct 30: Henry VI (Lancastrian) restored to the throne 1471 Apr 14: Yorkists defeat the Lancastrians at Barnet; Edward IV resumes the throne May 4: Battle of Tewkesbury ï¿½ Edward IV defeats a Lancastrian Army and kills Edward, Prince of Wales May 21: Henry VI murdered in the Tower of London 1472 St Andrews made a bishopric 1475 Aug 29: Treaty of Picquigny ends a brief war between France and England 1476 Caxton sets up a printing press in Westminster 1477 Edward IV bans cricket 1478 Feb 18: George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence executed in the Tower of London, by drowning in a butt of Malmsey wine? 1480 Spanish Inquisition begins (did nobody really expect it?) 1483 Murder of the princes (Edward V and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury) in the Tower; their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester becomes king (Richard III) 1484 Introduction of bail for defendants in legal courts English first used for parliamentary statutes 1485 Aug 22: Battle of Bosworth Field; Richard III killed (see 2012 ) ï¿½ end of the War of the Roses and beginning of the Tudor dynasty (Henry VII) Formation of the Yeomen of the Guard 1486 Jan 18: Henry VII marries Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and sister of Edward V Boke of St Albans printed ï¿½ includes collective nouns for animals and people 1487 May 24: Imposter Lambert Simnel crowned as "King Edward VI" at Dublin Jun 16: Battle of Stoke Field ï¿½ Henry VII's final victory in War of the Roses 1489 A pound coin (the 'sovereign') minted for the first time. A shilling coin was minted for the first time a few years later 1492 Nov 9: Peace of Etaples between Henry VII and Charles VIII of France ï¿½ improvement in relations continued until the end of Henry's reign Dec 5: Christopher Columbus becomes the first European to set foot on the island of Hispaniola (West Indies) Papermaking introduced to Britain John Tate opens a paper mill at Stevenage soon after this Moors driven from Grenada 1494 June 7: Treaty of Tordesillas ï¿½ Spain and Portugal divide the world between them (along the great diameter 51°W and 129°E longditude) ï¿½ see 1529 1495 Foundation of the University of Aberdeen (as King's College) 1497 Jun 17: Battle of Deptford Bridge ï¿½ end of the Cornish rebellion against Henry VII Jul 8: Vasco da Gama sets sail on first direct European voyage to India. Parish registers instituted in Spain by Cardinal Ximenes Cabot reaches North America Nov 16: Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne, executed 1503 May 28: Marriage of King James IV of Scots and Margaret Tudor 1503-5 Leonardo da Vinci paints Mona Lisa 1505-6 Royal College of Surgeons founded in Edinburgh 1506 Jan 22: First contingent of 150 Swiss Guards arrives at the Vatican 1507 First printing press in Scotland set up in Edinburgh by Andrew Myllar Apr: Suggestion put forward that the New World be named America in honour of Amerigo Vespucci (on Martin Waldseemï¿½ller's world map) 1509 Naturalisation papers start in England Apr 22: Henry VIII becomes king of England (to 1547) at 17 years old Jun 11: Henry VIII marries Catherine of Aragon 1512 Admiralty founded in London The "Auld Alliance" treaty with France ï¿½ all Scottish citizens became French and vice versa Nov 1: Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, exhibited to the public for the first time 1513 Aug 16: Battle of the Spurs ï¿½ English troops under Henry VIII defeat a French force at Guinegate Sep 9: Battle of Flodden, defeat of Scottish Army ï¿½ death of King James IV of Scots Machiavelli writes The Prince Recording of Testaments (wills) begins in Scotland 1515 Nov 15: Thomas Wolsley invested as Cardinal 1516 Thomas More writes Utopia 1517 Oct 31: Martin Luther fixes his 95 theses on church door at Wittenburg ï¿½ regarded as start of the Reformation 1518 Treaty of London, a non-aggression pact between the major European nations: France, England, Holy Roman Empire, the Papacy, Spain, Burgundy and the Netherlands ï¿½ sponsored by Cardinal Wolsey 1520 Cortes conquers Mexico Nov: Three ships under the command of Ferdinand Magellan negotiate the Strait of Magellan, becoming the first Europeans to sail from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific 1521 Apr 17: Martin Luther speaks to the assembly at the Diet of Worms, refusing to recant his teachings May 17: Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, executed for treason May 25: Diet of Worms ends when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issues the Edict of Worms, declaring Martin Luther an outlaw 1522 Sep 6: The Victoria, one of the surviving ships of Ferdinand Magellan's expedition, becomes the first ship known to circumnavigate the world 1525 New Testament translated into English by William Tyndale 1527 Bishop Vesey's Grammar School founded in Sutton Coldfield 1528 St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle completed 1529 Apr 22: Treaty of Zaragoza specified the anti-meridian of the Treaty of Tordesillas (see 1494 ) which stated that everything west of 46ï¿½ 37' was given to Spain whereas everything east of 46ï¿½ 37' was given to Portugal Diet of Speyer: origin of the word Protestant 1531 Feb 11: Henry VIII recognised as Supreme Head of the Church of England 1532 Foundation of the Court of Session in Scotland 1533 Jan 25: Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn secretly, wife #2 (she was crowned as Queen on 1st June) Mar 30: Thomas Cranmer becomes Archbishop of Canterbury May 23: Henry VIII's marriage with Catherine of Aragon officially declared annulled Jul 11: Henry VIII excommunicated by Pope Clement VII Sep 17: Anne Boleyn gives birth to a daughter Elizabeth, to become Queen Elizabeth I 1534 Reformation of the Catholic Church in England church (Henry VIII) 1535 1536 Dissolution of monasteries starts in England (to 1540) Wales and England legally united by the Laws in Wales Act of 1535 further Welsh counties established (see 1284 ) May 19: Anne Boleyn executed May 30: Henry VIII marries Jane Seymour, wife #3 (she was crowned as Queen on 29th October) Jul 18: The authority of the Pope is declared void in England 1537 Oct 24: Jane Seymour dies from complications in giving birth to a son, the future Edward VI 1538 English and Welsh parish registers start Henry VIII issues English Bible Dec 17: Henry VIII excommunicated by Pope Paul III 1540 Statute of Wills allows freehold land to be bequeathed Jan 6: Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves, the 'Flanders Mare', wife #4 Feb 9: First recorded horse racing event in Britain, at Chester Jul 9: Henry VIII divorces Anne of Cleves Jul 28: Thomas Cromwell executed; Henry VIII marries Catherine Howard the same day, wife #5 1541 Henry VIII proclaimed king (rather than feudal lord) of Ireland 1542 Feb 13: Catherine Howard executed Nov 24: The Rout of Solway Moss Dec 14: Death of King James V of Scots; his baby daughter Mary "Queen of Scots" succeeds him, just 6 days old 1543 Jul 12: Henry VIII marries Catherine Parr, wife #6, who survives him Sep 9: Mary Stuart, at nine months old, is officially crowned "Queen of Scots" in Stirling (spelling of the royal house changes from Stewart to Stuart) 1544-5 Mary of Guise, Regent of Scotland Henry's VIII's "Rough Wooing" of the Scottish Borders 1545 Jul 20: Mary Rose, flagship of Henry VIII, sinks in the Solent ï¿½ raised in 1982 Dec 13: Start of the Council of Trent (Trento, Italy) ï¿½ convened by the Catholic Church three times, ending 4 Dec 1563, as a response to the Protestant Reformation 1546 Trinity College, Cambridge founded by Henry VIII 1547 Jan 16: Ivan the Terrible crowned Tsar of Russia at age 16 Jan 28: Death of Henry VIII (succeeded by Edward VI, aged 9, to 1553) Feb 20: Coronation of Edward VI in Westminster Abbey English replaced Latin in church services in England and Wales Sep 10: Battle of Pinkie Cleugh, said to be the first 'modern' battle to be fought in the British Isles The injunction to keep parish registers is reiterated Vagrants Act passed (able-bodied tramps can be detained as slaves) 1548 Priests in England allowed to marry (about a third then did so) ï¿½ but see 1554 1549 Jun 9: First Book of Common Prayer sanctioned by English Parliament Wedding ring finger changed from right to left hand First Act of Uniformity in England made Catholic Mass illegal English Parliament declares enclosures legal 1550ï¿½1700 Climate: Referred to as the 'Little Ice Age' ï¿½ severe gales became more frequent 1550 Walloon Protestants arrive as refugees from the Low Countries 1551 Scotland: General Provincial Council orders each parish to keep a register of baptisms and banns of marriage 1552 Mar: An 'Act of Uniformity' imposes the Protestant prayerbook of 1552 in England 1553 Jul 6: Edward VI dies; Lady Jane Grey queen for a few days only Jul 19: Mary Tudor ('Bloody Mary') comes to the throne 1554-1558 Brief Catholic restoration under Queen Mary Tudor married priests forced to separate at least 30 miles from their wives 1554 Feb 12: Lady Jane Grey beheaded 1555 Michel Nostradamus publishes his prophecies 1556 Mar 21: Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer burned at the stake in Oxford 1557 Dec: The First Covenant signed in Scotland (foundation of the Presbyterian Church) Index librorum prohibitum (index of prohibited books) instituted by the Vatican repealed in 1966 1558 Chancery Proceedings Indexes begin Jan 7: French take Calais, last English possession in France Apr 24: Marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots to Franï¿½ois the Dauphin of France in Paris Nov 17: Queen Mary Tudor of England dies and is succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth ï¿½ Protestantism restored in England 1558-1603 1559 Jan 15: Elizabeth crowned in Westminster Abbey by Owen Oglethorpe, the Bishop of Carlisle Apr 29: Acts of Supremacy passed in Parliament, ending papal jurisdiction over England & Wales; established Church of England John Knox returns from Continent ï¿½ strengthens case for Presbyterianism in Scotland Tobacco introduced to Europe 1560 Feb 27: Treaty of Berwick between Duc du Chatelherault (as governor of Scotland) and the English, agreeing to act jointly to expel the French from Scotland Establishment of Protestantism in Scotland ï¿½ commissary courts thrown into confusion ï¿½ some records lost 1561 Spire of St Paul's, highest in England, destroyed by fire The first coins produced by machinery (known as a 'mill') rather than by hand, but it was a slow process and did not replace hand struck coinage until new machinery was introduced in 1663 1562 Mar 1: Over 1,000 Huguenots massacred in Wassy-sur-Blaise ï¿½ start of the First War of Religion in France (and see 1572 ) Earliest English slave-trading expedition, under John Hawkins ï¿½ between Guinea and the West Indies 1563 Jul 28: The English surrender Le Havre to the French after a siege Papal recusants heavily fined for non-attendance at Church The Test Act excludes Roman Catholics from governmental office 1564 Apr 26: Shakespeare baptised ï¿½ he is said to have been born on Apr 23, St George's Day; he certainly died on Apr 23, 1616 1565 Jul 29: Marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots to Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, her first cousin 1566 Mar 9: Murder of David Riccio (or Rizzio) in Holyrood House 1567 Feb 10: Murder of Darnley outside Holyrood House in an explosion May 15: Marriage of Mary Queen of Scots to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell Jul 24: Mary Queen of Scots deposed and replaced by her 1 year old son James VI Earliest date in the French Protestant and Walloon registers 1568 May 13: Battle of Langside ï¿½ Mary's flight to England and her imprisonment by Queen Elizabeth I 1569 Elizabeth I approved Sunday sports Gerardus Mercator produced his world map (Mercator Projection) to aid sailors in their navigation 1570 Feb 25: Pope Pius V issued the papal bull 'Regnans in Excelsis' to excommunicate Elizabeth I and her followers in the Church of England 1571 Beginning of penal legislation against Catholics in England Jan 23: Opening of the Royal Exchange in London, founded by Sir Thomas Gresham ï¿½ this building destroyed in Great Fire of London 1666 Repeal of Act prohibiting lending of money on interest ï¿½ gradual change from 'subsistence economy' to 'cash economy' resulted 1571-1572 Presbyterianism introduced into England by Thomas Cartwright 1572 Aug: Slaughter of Huguenots in Paris (massacre of St Bartholomew, started 24 Aug) Nov: Tycho's Supernova observed in the constellation Cassiopeia, one of about eight supernovae visible to the naked eye in historical records. 1574 Colonial State Papers published ï¿½ continued to 1738 1577 James Burbage opens first theatre in London 1579 Act of Uniformity in matters of religion enforced 1580 Apr 6: The 'Easter earthquake' or Dover Straits earthquake, largest in the recorded history of England, mentioned by Shakespeare [Nurse: "ï¿½Tis since the earthquake now eleven yearsï¿½ (Romeo and Juliet, I.iii, line 22)] ï¿½ dozens of ships sunk and a tsunami hit Calais; several London churches also damaged Colonisation of Ireland Congregational movement founded by Robert Browne about this time 1581 Jan 16: English Parliament outlaws Roman Catholicism Apr 4: Francis Drake knighted by Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind after circumnavigating the world (see 1967 ) English Levant Company founded 1582 Gregorian calendar introduced to replace Julian calendar in some countries: Spain and Portugal, France, Low Countries, part of Italy, Denmark. Pope Gregory suppressed 10 days by altering 5 Oct to 15 Oct, thus making the Spring equinox fall on 21 March 1583. Dates relating to the Julian calendar were then referred to as 'Old Style', and those relating to the Gregorian calendar as 'New Style'. See 1600 and 1751 for its adoption in Britain. Nov 28: In Stratford-upon-Avon, William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway pay a ï¿½40 bond for their marriage licence 1583 Aug: Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempts to establish English authority at St John's, Newfoundland Foundation of Cambridge University Press by Thomas Thomas University of Edinburgh founded 1584 Jun 4: Sir Walter Raleigh establishes first English colony in the New World, on Roanoke Island, Virginia (now in North Carolina) ï¿½ the so-called 'Lost Colony' [but see 1583 ]. 1585 Foundation of Oxford University Press Shakespeare started seriously to write about this time 1586 Camden Britannia, first topographical survey of England 1587 Feb 8: Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, at Fotheringay Castle, near Peterborough Apr 19: Sir Francis Drake sinks the Spanish fleet in Cadiz harbour Aug 11: Raleigh's second expedition to New World lands in North Carolina ï¿½ first child born in the New World of English parents was Virginia Dare (Aug 18) Introduction of potatoes to England 1588 Jul 19: Spanish Armada sighted off the Lizard (had set sail from Lisbon in late May) Jul 29: Defeat of Spanish Armada off Gravelines Invention of shorthand by Dr Timothy Bright 1591 1592 A Congregational (or Independent) Church formed in London Scotland: Presbyterian Church formally established ï¿½ all ministers equal ï¿½ no bishops ï¿½ secular commissaries appointed by the Crown 1593 British statute mile established by law 1594ï¿½1603 Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, leads Irish rebellion against English rule 1597 Poor Law Act for erection of parish workhouses for the Poor ï¿½ Poor Rate collection allowed 1598 Bishop's transcripts of English and Welsh parish registers start ï¿½ parish records were to be kept in 'great decent books of parchment' and copies or 'Bishop's Transcripts' of new entries were to be sent each month to the diocesan centre Edict of Nantes gives Huguenots toleration in France (but see 1685 ) 1600 The early 1600s often known as the period of the 'Rebuilding of England' Memoirs of Officers of the Royal Navy begin Jan 1: Scotland adopts New Year beginning 1st January (previously 25th March) - see 1752 Dec 31: British East India Company founded 1601 Great English Poor Law Act passed First use of fruit juice as a preventative for scurvy by James Lancaster 1602 Mar 20: Dutch East India Company founded Nov 8: Bodleian Library at Oxford University opened to the public 1603 Mar 24: Death of Elizabeth I: union of Scottish and English crowns ï¿½ under King James VI of Scots and I of England (d. 1625) Jul 25: Coronation ï¿½ James VI of Scotland is crowned first king of Great Britain 1604 Robert Cawdrey A Table Alphabeticall first English dictionary Nov 1: Shakespeare: Othello first presented James I repealed all of England's sumptuary restrictions 1605 Plantation of Ulster with English and Scottish colonists Authorised (King James) Version of Bible in Britain May 22: James VI & I created the title of baronet Nov 1: Shakespeare: The Tempest first presented 1613 Jun 29: The Globe Theatre in London burns during a performance of Henry the Eighth (finally pulled down in 1644) A copper farthing was produced, as a silver coin would be too small 1616 Saturday Apr 23 (Gregorian calendar): Death of Miguel de Cervantes (of Don Quixote fame) in Madrid Tuesday Apr 23 (Julian calendar): Death of Shakespeare Ben Jonson becomes first Poet Laureate 1617 Register of Sasines (land leases) established in Scotland ï¿½ record of the transfer of land and property 1618 Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded for allegedly conspiring against James I 1619 Dec 4 (Nov 24 old style): Colonists from Berkeley Parish in England disembark in Virginia and give thanks to God (considered by many to be the first Thanksgiving in the Americas) 1620 Dec 21 (Dec 16 old style): The Mayflower reaches America ï¿½ founds Plymouth, New England (had initially set sail from Southampton on Aug 5) Manufacture of coke (the fuel, not the drink!) patented by Dud Dudley 1621 Chimneys to be made of brick and to be four and a half feet above the roof Shakespeare's First Folio published First English newspaper appeared Weekly News 1624 Edmund Gunter introduces the surveyor's chain ( measurement of length ) 1625 The size of bricks standardised in England around this time Mar 27: Death of King James VI & I 1625-1649 Carolean Age 1628 Mar 1: Writs issued by Charles I that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date 1629 Mar 10: Parliament dissolved by King Charles I ï¿½ did not meet for another 11 years 1630-1750 Jun: Galileo summoned by Inquisition for publishing in favour of Copernican theory 1635 Letter Office of England & Scotland started Flintlock small arms invented around this time (replaces matchlock) L'Academie Française founded in France by Richelieu 1636 Hackney Carriages in use by now in London 1637 'Tulipomania' in Holland, leads to classic market collapse 1638 Charles regarded protests against the prayerbook as treason ï¿½ forced Scots to choose between their church and the King ï¿½ a "Covenant", swearing to resist these changes to the death, was signed in Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh and was accepted by hundreds of thousands of Scots (revival of Presbyterian Church) 1639 Act of Toleration in England established religious toleration Dec 4 (Nov 24 old style): Jeremiah Horrocks makes the first observation of a transit of Venus 1640 Nov 3: Charles I forced to recall Parliament (the 'Long Parliament') due to Scottish invasion 1641 Charles I's policies cause insurrection in Ulster and Civil War in England Oct 23: 50,000 Irish killed in an uprising in Ulster Charles I and the English Parliament acknowledge the Prebyterian Church in Scotland 1642 The Civil War interrupted the keeping of parish registers English theatres closed by Puritans (till 1660) Aug 22: Charles I raises his standard at Nottingham ï¿½ First Civil War in England (to 1649) first engagement at Edgehill (23 Oct) ï¿½ Scottish Covenanters side with the English rebels who take power ï¿½ the Earl of Montrose sided with King Charles, strife spilled into Scotland Nov 13: Battle of Turnham Green ï¿½ Royalist forces withdraw in face of the Parliamentarian army and fail to take London Nov 24: Abel Janszoon Tasman discovers Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) Dec 18: Abel Janszoon Tasman first European to set foot in New Zealand 1643 Dec 13: Battle of Alton ï¿½ victory for Parliamentarians ï¿½ Sir Richard Bolle killed in St Lawrence's church Solemn League and Covenant signed in Scotland 1644 Jun 29: Battle of Cropredy Bridge ï¿½ Royalists beat the Parliamentarian forces Jul 2: Battle of Marston Moor, near York ï¿½ Parliamentarian forces beat the Royalists Earliest Independent (Congregational) registers Montrose's Venture (Montrose executed in 1650) 1645 Jun 14: Battle of Naseby: Parliament's New Model Army crushes the Royalist forces Battle of Philiphaugh in Scotland Inquisitions Post Mortem end Scotland: Each county and burgh ordered to raise and maintain a number of foot soldiers, according to population, to serve as militia ï¿½ population of Scotland estimated at 420,000 Plague made its last appearance in Scotland 1646 May 5: Charles I surrenders to the Scottish Army at Newark Jun 20: Royalists sign articles of surrender at Oxford 1647 Earliest Baptist registers survive from this year 1648 Jan 30: Treaty of Mï¿½nster and Osnabrï¿½ck signed, ending the Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain Society of Friends (Quakers) founded by George Fox First practical thermometers made Jan 6: 'Rump' Parliament votes to put Charles I on trial Jan 30: King Charles I executed (see 1660 for Regicides) May 19: Commonwealth declared Dec 20: Theatres banned by Cromwell Christmas banned by Cromwell King Charles II proclaimed King of Scots and England in Scotland 1649-1660 Commonwealth Period ï¿½ Oliver Cromwell 1650 Term 'Quaker' first used for Society of Friends Coffee brought to England about this time 1651-1652 The second English Civil War Sep 3: Battle of Worcester see Oak-apple Day 1664 Scottish prisoners transported to the British settlements in America 1653 Apr 20: Cromwell dissolves the Rump Parliament Dec 16: Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland Under the Act of Settlement Cromwell's opponents stripped of land (in Ireland?) Isaak Walton The Compleat Angler 1653-1660 Provincial probate courts abolished ï¿½ probates granted only in London 1656 May 30: Formation of the Grenadier Guards, the most senior regiment of the Infantry in the British Army 1657 Post Office established by Act of Parliament [others say 1660] A few Jews permitted to settle in England 1658 Sep 3: Death of Oliver Cromwell Huygens pendulum clock Richard Cromwell (son of Oliver) Lord Protector 1659 Feb 6: date of first known cheque to be drawn (some say 16th Feb) Start of national meteorological Temperature records in the UK 1660s Quaker-Scottish colony was established in East New Jersey 1660ï¿½ 1660 Jan 1: Samuel Pepys starts his diary May 29: Restoration of British monarchy (Charles II) ï¿½ 'Oak Apple Day' ï¿½ theatres reopened Commonwealth registers ended, Parish Registers resumed Provincial Probate Courts re-established Oct 17: Ten Regicides are executed at Charing Cross or Tyburn: Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scrope, John Carew, Thomas Scot and Gregory Clement, who had signed the death warrant; the preacher Hugh Peters; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axter, who commanded the soldiers at the trial and the execution of the king; and John Cook the solicitor who directed the prosecution [Encyclopedia Britannica] Nov 28: Twelve men, including Christopher Wren, Robert Boyle, John Wilkins, and Sir Robert Moray decide to found what is later known as the Royal Society Dec 8: First actress plays in London (Margaret Hughes as Desdemona) Clarendon code restricts Puritans' religious freedom Composition of light discovered by Newton Honourable East India Company founded by British First British in Japan Jan 30: Oliver Cromwell ritually 'executed', having been dead for over two years! Persecution of Non-conformists in England Restoration of Episcopacy in Scotland Board of Trade founded in London Hand-struck postage stamps first used Corporation Act prevents non-Anglicans from holding municipal office 1662 Hearth Tax ï¿½ until 1689 (1690 in Scotland) Poor Relief Act or "Act of Settlement" ï¿½ gave JPs the power to return any wandering poor to the parish of origin (repealed 1834 ) Aug 24: Act of Uniformity ï¿½ Acceptance of Book of Common Prayer required ï¿½ About 2,000 vicars and rectors driven from their parishes as nonconformists (Presbyterians and Independents) ï¿½ Persecution of all non-conformists ï¿½ Presbyterianism dis-established ï¿½ Episcopalian Church of England restored Tea introduced to Britain The year in which highest number (402) of people were accused of witchcraft in Scotland ï¿½ see details 1663 Earliest Roman Catholic registers 1664 May 29: Oak Apple Day the birthday of Charles II and the day when he entered London at the Restoration; commanded by Act of Parliament in 1664 to be observed as a day of thanksgiving. A special service (expunged in 1859) was inserted in the Book of Common Prayer and people wore sprigs of oak with gilded oak-apples on that day. It commemorates Charles II's concealment with Major Careless in the 'Royal Oak' at Boscobel, near Shifnal, Shropshire, after his defeat at Worcester on 3 Sept 1651. Aug 27: Nieuw Amsterdam becomes New York as 300 English soldiers under Col. Mathias Nicolls take the town from the Dutch under orders from Charles II. The town is renamed after the King's brother James, Duke of York 1665 Great Plague of London (July-October) kills over 60,000 Nov 7: The London Gazette first published ï¿½ one of the official journals of record of the United Kingdom government, and the oldest continuously published newspaper in the United Kingdom Five-mile Act restricts non-conformist ministers in Britain 1666 Sep 2-6: Great Fire of London, after a drought beginning 27 June Use of semaphore signalling pioneered by Lord Worcester Act of Parliament ï¿½ burials to be in woollen Newton formulated Laws of Gravity 1666-1689 Considerable religious unrest on Scotland (The Covenanters) ï¿½ Covenanters Rising at St John's Town of Dalry 1667 British East India Company obtains control of Bombay Newton constructs reflecting telescope May 31: Last entry in Pepys's diary (see 1825 for publication) Earliest Lutheran registers survive from this year 1670 Earliest Synagogue registers ï¿½ Bevis Marks Dryden appointed Poet Laureate May 2: Start of Hudson's Bay Company in Canada May 26: King Charles II and King Louis XIV of France sign the Secret Treaty of Dover 1671 May 9: Thomas Blood caught stealing the Crown Jewels 1672 High Court of Justiciary established in Scotland War with Holland (to 1674) ï¿½ British Army increased to 10,000 men 1673 First Test Act deprives British Catholics and Non-conformists of Public Office 1674 Nov 8: John Milton dies in London Nov 10: Treaty of Westminster ï¿½ Netherlands cedes New Netherlands (on the eastern coast of North America) to Britain 1675 Beginning of Whig party under Shaftsbury Mar 4: John Flamsteed appointed first Astronomer Royal of England Aug 10: Building of Royal Greenwich Observatory started Rebuilding of St Paul's started by Wren (completed 1710) 1676 Compton Census, named after its initiator Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was intended to discover the number of Anglican conformists, Roman Catholic recusants and Protestant dissenters in England and Wales from enquiries made in individual parishes 1677 Lee's "Collection of Names of Merchants in London" published 1678 Extension of Test Act to peers 1679 May 27: Habeas Corpus Act becomes law in England ï¿½ (later repealed from time to time) Jun 22: Battle of Bothwell Brig in Scotland ï¿½ Covenanter rebels routed Tories first so named Burial in Woollen more strictly enforced 1680 William Dockwra(y) begins his London Penny Post Dodo becomes extinct in Mauritius through over-hunting 1680-1770 Second Test Act (against non-conformists) passed by Westminster Parliament Oil lighting first used in London streets 1682 Pennsylvania founded by William Penn Library of Advocates founded in Edinburgh ï¿½ later National Library of Scotland Halley observes the comet which bears his name and predicted its return in 1759 1683 Jun 6: Ashmolean Museum opened at Oxford ï¿½ first museum in Britain Climate: Coldest 'Frost fair' in London Wild boar become extinct in Britain 1684 Presbyterian settlement in Stuart's Town in South Carolina Huguenot registers begin in London 1685 Earl of Argyll's Invasion of Scotland James the Second (1685-1689, died 1701) ï¿½ Monmouth rebellion and battle of Sedgemoor ï¿½ British Army raised to 20,000 men Judge Jeffreys and the Bloody Assizes ï¿½ 320 executed, 800 transported Oct 18: Revocation of the Edict of Nantes ï¿½ drove thousands of Protestants (Huguenots) from France ï¿½ many settled in England 1686 Release of all prisoners held for their religious beliefs 1687 Apr 4: James II issues the Declaration of Indulgence, suspending laws against Catholics and non-conformists Jul 5: Newton published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica written in Latin Sep 26: The Parthenon in Athens, used as a gunpowder magazine by the Ottomans, exploded during an attack by the Venetians 1688 Feb: Edward Lloyd's Coffee House opens ï¿½ later became Lloyd's of London Nov: The Glorious Revolution: James II abdicates ï¿½ William of Orange lands at Torbay on 5 Nov ï¿½ William III and Mary II, daughter of James II, jointly take the throne 13 Feb 1689 ï¿½ (only William, however, has regal power) British Army raised to 40,000 Bill of Rights limits the powers of the monarchy over parliament Hearth Tax abolished Mutiny Act 1689 Mar 12: Deposed James VII & II flees to Ireland ï¿½ defeated at the Battle of the Boyne (1 Jul 1690) May 24: Toleration Act passed for Protestant non-conformists Jul 27: Battle of Killiecrankie in Scotland ï¿½ Jacobites defeated Government troops but at high cost Siege of Londonderry (began Dec 1688; ended 28 Jul 1689) Dec 16: Bill of Rights passed by Parliament, ending King's divine right to raise taxes or wage war Earliest Royal Dutch Chapel registers Devonport naval dockyard established Presbyterianism finally established in Scotland May 20: England passes Act of Grace, forgiving Roman Catholic followers of James II Jul 1 (New Style, 12 Jul): Battle of the Boyne ï¿½ Jacobite forces defeated by William Aug 24: Job Charnock established his East India Company headquarters in a location he called Calcutta 1691 Earliest date in known German Lutheran registers 1692 Feb 13: The massacre of Glencoe ï¿½ Clan Campbell sides with King William and murders members of Clan McDonald Land Tax introduced ï¿½ originally designed as an annual tax on personal estate, public offices and land. For practical purposes, however, assessors tended to avoid assessing items of wealth other than landed property so that it became known as the Land Tax. Counties were assessed at a fixed sum and the parish quotas were rarely altered. No systematic revaluation of properties was ever made after 1698 so that assessments tended to reflect the initial late-seventeenth century values. Its records in detail are usually available between 1780 and 1831. French intention to invade England came to naught 1693 Aug 4: Date traditionally ascribed to Dom Pierre Pï¿½rignon 's invention of Champagne Some Thoughts Concerning Education published by John Locke 1693ï¿½1700 Climate: Oat harvest failed repeatedly in Scotland ï¿½ widespread starvation 1694 National Debt came into effect in England Stamp Duties introduced into Britain from Holland Jul 27: Bank of England founded by William Paterson (a Scot) Mary II death leaves William III as sole ruler Triennial Act, new Parliamentary elections every three years 1694-1699 Scotland: Poll Tax imposed on all over sixteen, except the destitute and insane 1695 Freedom of Press in England Bank of Scotland founded Act of Parliament imposes a fine on all who fail to inform the parish minister of the birth of a child (repealed 1706, but see 1783 ) Start of "Dissenters" lists in parish registers ï¿½ children born but not christened in the parish church ï¿½ some were named "Papist" and others "Protestants" Dec 31: Window Tax (replaced Hearth Tax; increased in 1747; abolished 1851 when it was replaced by House Duty) 1696 Act of Parliament establishes Workhouses Education Act passed by Scottish Parliament 1697 Dec 2: Official opening of rebuilt St Paul's Cathedral 1698 Jan 4: Most of the Palace of Whitehall in London destroyed by fire Invention of steam engine by Capt Thomas Savery Darien Expedition: a disastrous attempt to establish a Scots settlement in Panama Duties (taxes) on entries in parish registers ï¿½ repealed after five years Nov 14: Eddystone Lighthouse (Henry Winstanley's) first lit; completed 10 days earlier (but see 1703 ) 1700 Population in England and Scotland approx 7.5 million 1701 Act of Settlement bars Catholics from the British throne May 23: After being convicted of piracy and murdering William Moore, Captain William Kidd hanged in London 1702-1714 Queen Anne Period (Art & Antiques) 1702 Mar 8: Anne Stuart becomes Queen Mar 11: First English daily newspaper The Daily Courant (till 1735) War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713) 1703 Repeal of Duties on entries in Parish Registers Nov 24ï¿½Dec 2: Climate: Most violent storms of the millennium cause vast damage across southern England ï¿½ about a third of Britain's merchant fleet lost, and Eddystone lighthouse destroyed on 27 Nov (see 1755 ); it "produced so deep an impression upon the people of the period that it was familiarly spoken of as 'The Storm' throughout the whole of the eighteenth century"Grant Allen, in his notes to the 1900 edition of Gilbert White's 'Natural History of Selborne' 1704 Aug 4: British take Gibraltar Aug 13: Battle of Blenheim Penal Code enacted ï¿½ Catholics barred from voting, education and the military Newton Optics, his theories of light and colour written in English 1705 First workable steam pumping engine devised by Thomas Newcomen (some say c1710 or 1711) Isaac Newton knighted (for his work at the Royal Mint) 1706 May 23: Battle of Ramillies First evening newspaper The Evening Post issued in London 1707 Jan 16: Union with Scotland ï¿½ Scots agree to send 16 peers and 45 MPs to English Parliament in return for full trading privileges ï¿½ Scottish Parliament meets for the last time in March May 1: English and Scottish Parliaments united by an Act of the English Parliament ï¿½ The Kingdom of Great Britain established largest free-trade area in Europe at the time Last use of veto by a British sovereign 1708 First Jacobite rising in Scotland Earliest Artillery Muster Rolls 1709 Feb 2: Alexander Selkirk rescued from shipwreck on a desert island, inspiring the book Robinson Crusoe (published in 1719 ) by Daniel Defoe Second Eddystone lighthouse completed (see 1755 ) First Copyright Act passed Bad harvests throughout Europe bread riots in Britain 1710 Aug 11: First race meeting at Ascot Incorporation of South Sea Company, in London 1712 Imposition of Soap Tax (abolished 1853) Last trial for witchcraft in England (Jane Wenham) Toleration Act passed ï¿½ first relief to non-Anglicans Patronage Act ï¿½ patronage of ministers restored 1713 Apr 11: Treaty of Utrecht concludes the War of the Spanish Succession Newfoundland and Gibraltar ceded to Britain By this year there are some 3,000 coffee houses in London 1714 Aug 1: Queen Anne Stuart dies ï¿½ George I Hanover becomes king (1714-1727). Chancery Proceedings filed under Six Clerks. Longitude Act: prize of £20,000 offered to the inventor of a workable method of determining a ship's longitude (won by John Harrison in 1773 for his chronometer). Schism Act, prevents Dissenters from being schoolmasters in England. Landholders forced to take the Oath of Allegiance and renounce Roman Catholicism. Quarter Sessions Records from this date often mention Protestant dissenters and Roman Catholic recusants. Handel Water Music Aug 1: Riot Act passed Second Jacobite rebellion in Scotland, under the Old Pretender ('The Fifteen') 1716 The Septennial Act of Britain leads to greater electoral corruption ï¿½ general elections now to be held once every 7 years instead of every 3 (until 1911) Climate: Thames frozen so solid that a spring tide lifted the ice bodily 13ft without interrupting the frost fair 1717 First Masonic Lodge opens in London Value of the golden guinea fixed at 21 shillings 1719 South Sea Bubble, a stock-market crash on Exchange Alley government assumes control of National Debt Manufacturing towns start to increase in population ï¿½ rise of new wealth Wallpaper becomes fashionable in England 1721 Apr 2: Robert Walpole (Whig) becomes first Prime Minister (to 1742) Bailey's Northern Directory 1722 Last trial for witchcraft in Scotland [but Wikipedia gives 1727 as last execution for witchcraft in Scotland] Knatchbull's Act, poor laws 1723 Excise tax levied for coffee, tea, and chocolate The Waltham Black Acts add 50 capital offences to the penal code ï¿½ people could be sentenced to death for theft and poaching ï¿½ repealed in 1827 The Workhouse Act or Test ï¿½ to get relief, a poor person has to enter Workhouse 1724 Rapid growth of gin drinking in England Longman's founded (Britain's oldest publishing house) 1725-1726 Treaty of Hanover: France, Prussia, Britain v. Spain, Austria 1726 First circulating library opened in Edinburgh Invention of the chronometer by John Harrison Swift Gulliver's Travels Board of Manufacturers established in Scotland Jun 11: George I dies ï¿½ George II Hanover becomes king 1729 Methodists begin at Oxford Nov 9: Treaty of Seville signed between Britain, France and Spain ï¿½ Britain maintained control of Port Mahon and Gibraltar Bach St Matthew Passion Invention of seed drill by Jethro Tull [others say 1701] Invention of sextant by John Hadley 1732 Jun 9: James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of Georgia Dec 7: Covent Garden Opera House opens Earliest Cavalry and Infantry Muster Rolls 1733 Feb 12: James Oglethorpe founds Savannah, Georgia Excise crisis: Sir Robert Walpole wanted to add excise tax to tobacco and wine ï¿½ Pulteney and Bolingbroke oppose the excise tax Law forbidding the use of Latin in parish registers generally obeyed ï¿½ some continued in Latin for a few years John Kay invents the flying shuttle, revolutionised the weaving industry 1734 Kent's Directory 1737 Licensing Act restricts the number of London theatres and subjects plays to censorship of the Lord Chamberlain (till 1950s) 1738 May 24: John Wesley has his conversion experience 1739 Apr 7: Dick Turpin, highwayman, hanged at York Oct 23: War of Jenkins' Ear starts: Robert Walpole reluctantly declares war on Spain: "They are ringing their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands" Wesley and Whitefield commence great Methodist revival 1741 Benjamin Ingham founded the Moravian Methodists or Inghamites ï¿½ Earliest Moravian registers Earliest Scotch Church registers Handel The Messiah (first performed in Dublin 13 Apr 1742) 1742 England goes to war with Spain ï¿½ incited by William Pitt the Elder (Earl of Chatham) for the sake of trade 1743 Jun 16 (June 27 in Gregorian calendar): Battle of Dettingen ï¿½ last time a British sovereign (George II) led troops in battle 1744 Church of Scotland split over taking of Burgess' Oath ï¿½ Burghers and Anti-Burghers First Methodist Conference Tune God Save the King makes its appearance 1745 Jacobite rebellion in Scotland ('The Forty-five') Aug 19: Bonnie Prince Charlie (The Young Pretender) lands in the western Highlands ï¿½ raises support among Episcopalian and Catholic clans ï¿½ The Pretender's army invades Perth, Edinburgh, and England as far as Derby 1746 Apr 16: Battle of Culloden ï¿½ last battle fought in Britain ï¿½ 5,000 Highlanders routed by the Duke of Cumberland and 9,000 loyalists Scots ï¿½ Young Pretender Charles flees to Continent, ending Jacobite hopes forever ï¿½ the wearing of the kilt prohibited Glass Tax introduced ï¿½ resulted in smaller windows ï¿½ repealed in 1845 1747 Apr 9: Lord Lovat beheaded on Tower Hill aged 80, the last person to be executed in this manner Abolition of Heritable Jurisdictions in Scotland Act for Pacification of the Highlands 1748-1756 Countess of Huntington's (Calvinistic) Methodist Connexion founded 1749 Apr 27: First performance of Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks (in Green Park, London) ï¿½ to celebrate the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ending the War of the Austrian Succession 1750-1770 Gothic Revival Period (Art & Antiques) 1750-1805 Neo-Classical Period (Art & Antiques) 1750 Feb/Mar: Series of earthquakes in London and the Home Counties cause panic with predictions of an apocalypse Nov 16: Original Westminster Bridge opened (replaced in 1862 due to subsidence) 1751 March: Chesterfield's Calendar Act passed royal assent to the bill was given on 22 May 1751 decision to adopt Gregorian Calendar in 1752: "In and throughout all his Majesty's Dominions and Countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, belonging or subject to the Crown of Great Britain, the said Supputation, according to which the Year of our Lord beginneth on the 25th Day of March, shall not be made use of from and after the last Day of December 1751; and that the first Day of January next following the said last Day of December shall be reckoned, taken, deemed and accounted to be the first Day of the Year of our Lord 1752" i.e. 1752 started on 1 January, so that 1751 was a short year. Gin Act passed 1752 Jan 1: Beginning of the year 1752 [Scotland had adopted January as the start of the year in 1600, and some other countries in Europe had adopted the Gregorian calendar as early as 1582 ] Sep 3: Julian Calendar dropped and Gregorian Calendar adopted in England and Scotland, making this Sep 14 ï¿½ "Give us back our 11 days!" Benjamin Franklin invents a lightning conductor 1753 Earliest Inghamite registers May 1: Publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus, and the formal start date of plant taxonomy Private collection of Sir Hans Sloane forms the basis of the British Museum 1754 Mar 25: Hardwicke Act (1753): Banns to be called, and Printed Marriage Register forms to be used ï¿½ Quakers & Jews exempt In the General Election, the Cow Inn at Haslemere, Surrey caused a national scandal by subdividing the freehold to create eight votes instead of one First British troops not belonging to the East India Company despatched to India First printed Annual Army Lists 1755 Apr 15: Publication of Dictionary of the English Language by Dr Samuel Johnson Period of canal construction began in Britain (till 1827) Nov 1: Earthquake and tsunami destroys Lisbon up to 90,000 dead Dec 2: Second Eddystone Lighthouse destroyed by fire (see 1759 ) 1756 May 15: The Seven Years War with France (Pitt's trade war) begins Jun: Black Hole of Calcutta 146 Britons imprisoned, most die according to British sources 1757 Mar 14: Admiral Byng shot at Portsmouth for failing to relieve Minorca ï¿½ or as the French put it: "Les anglais tuent de temps à temps un amiral pour encourager les autres" India: The Nawab of Bengal tries to expel the British, but is defeated at the battle of Plassey (Palashi, June 23) ï¿½ the East India Company forces are led by Robert Clive The foundation laid for the Empire of India 1758 India stops being merely a commercial venture ï¿½ England begins dominating it politically ï¿½ The East India Company retains its monopoly although it ceased to trade 1759 Jan 15: British Museum opens to the public in London Mar: First predicted return of Halley's comet Sep 13: Gen James Woolfe killed at Quebec (Battle of the Plains of Abraham) Oct 16: Third Eddystone Lighthouse (John Smeaton's) completed (see 1882 ) Wesley builds 356 Methodist chapels Dec 31: Guinness starts being brewed 1760 Oct 25: George II dies ï¿½ George III Hanover, his grandson, becomes king The date conventionally marks the start of the so-called "first Industrial Revolution" Carron Iron Works in operation in Scotland May 5: First use of hangman's drop ï¿½ last nobleman to be executed (Laurence, Earl Ferrers) at Tyburn Beginning of intense Inclosure Acts in England 1761 Jan 16: British capture Pondicherry, India from the French 1762 France surrenders Canada and Florida Cigars introduced into Britain from Cuba Robert Lowth Short Introduction to English Grammar 1763 Treaty of Paris ï¿½ gives back to France everything Pitt fought to obtain ï¿½ (Newfoundland [fishing], Guadaloupe and Martininque [sugar], Dakar [gum]) ï¿½ but English displaces French as the international language 1764 Lloyd's Register of shipping first prepared Practice of numbering houses introduced to London James Hargeaves invents the Spinning Jenny (but destroyed 1768) Mozart produces his first symphony at age eight 1765 Mar 22: Stamp Act passed imposed a tax on publications and legal documents in the American colonies (repealed the following year) The potato becomes the most popular food in Europe 1766 Start of 'composite' national records on rainfall in the UK Dec 5: Christie's auction house founded in London by James Christie 1767 First iron railroads built for mines by John Wilkinson Newcomen's steam pumping engine perfected by James Watt 1768 Jan 9: Philip Astley starts his circus in London Dec 6: The first edition of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" published in Edinburgh by William Smellie (see 2012 ) 1769 Sep 6: David Garrick organises first Shakespeare festival at Stratford-upon-Avon Arkwright invents water frame (textile production) Capt James Cook maps the coast of New Zealand 1770 Apr 28: Capt James Cook lands in Australia (Botany Bay) Aug 21: formally claims Australia for Britain Clyde Trust created to convert the River Clyde, then an insignificant river, into a major thoroughfare for maritime communications 1771 Right to report Parliamentary debates established in England 1772 May 14: Judge Mansfield rules that there is no legal basis for slavery in England First Navy Lists published First Travellers' Cheques issued by the London Credit Exchange Company Morning Post first published (until 1937) 1773-1858 The East India Company governs Hindustan 1773 Government prize for accurate determination of Longitude (first offered in 1714) won by John Harrison for his chronometer Dec 16: Boston Tea Party Waltz becomes fashionable in Vienna 1774 First recorded cricket match (some say 1719, Londoners v Kentish Men Wikipedia disagrees with both!) Sep 13: Cook arrives on Easter Island 1775 Apr 19: Battle of Lexington: first action in American War of Independence (17751783) 1776 Jul 4: American Declaration of Independence Somerset House in London becomes the repository of records of population Watt and Boulton produce their first commercial steam engine (see 1782 ) Sep 7: First attackï¿½on a warship by a submarine David Bushnell's "Turtle" attacked HMS Eagle in New York harbour. The attack was perhaps spectacular (a charge did detonate beneath the ship), but was nevertheless unsuccessful. "Turtle" was a one man affair, man-powered [Les Moore] (see 1864 ) 1777 Samuel Miller of Southampton patents the circular saw. 1779 Feb 14: Capt James Cook killed on Hawaii Crompton's mule invented (textile production) Marc Isambard Brunel opens the first steamdriven sawmill at Chatham Dockyard in Kent First iron bridge built, over the Severn by John Wilkinson First Spinning Mills operational in Scotland Sep 23: Naval engagement between Britain and USA off Flamborough Head 1780 May 4: First Derby run at Epsom (some say 2nd June) Jun 2ï¿½8: The Gordon Riots Parliament passes a Roman Catholic relief measure ï¿½ for days, London is at the mercy of a mob and destruction is widespread Earliest Wesleyan registers Male Servants Tax The English Reform Movement until now, only landowners and tenants (freeholders with 40 shillings per year or more) allowed to vote, and in open poll books Circular saw and Fountain pen invented About this time the word 'Quiz' entered the language, said to have been invented as a wager by Mr Daly, a Dublin theatre manager 1781 Mar 13: Sir William Herschel discovers Uranus Oct 19: Lord Cornwallis's army surrenders to George Washington; ends the American War of Independence 1782 Gilbert's Act establishes outdoor poor relief the way of life of the poor beginning to alter due to industrialisation ï¿½ New factories in rapidly expanding towns required a workforce that would adjust to new work patterns James Watt patents his steam engine 1783 Duty made payable on Parish Register entries (3d per entry) led to a fall in entries! ï¿½ it was repealed 1794 Jun 4: Montgolfier brothers launch first hot-air balloon (unmanned), at Annonay, France Jul: Climate: hottest month on record until 1983; Gilbert White in his 'Natural History of Selborne' says: "The summer of 1783 was an amazing and portenteous one, and full of horrible phenomena; for, besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunder storms that affrighted and distressed the different counties of this kingdom, the peculiar haze or smoky fog that prevailed for many weeks in this island and in every part of Europe, and even beyond its limits, was a most extraordinary appearance unlike anything known within the memory of man"he put it down to volcanic activity. Apparently it was caused by the eruption of Laki in Iceland which continued from 8th Jun 1783 to 7th February 1784 Sep 3: Treaty of Versailles (Britain/US) Nov 3: Last public execution at Tyburn in London (John Austin, a highwayman) Nov 21: First untethered hot-air balloon flight with humans aboard, in Paris Blake Poetical Sketches 1784 Pitt's India Act ï¿½ the Crown (as opposed to officers of the East India Company) has power to guide Indian politics Wesley breaks with the Church of England Aug 2: First mail coaches in England (4pm Bristol / 8am London) First golf club founded at St Andrews Invention of threshing machine by Andrew Meikle 1785 Jan 1: John Walter publishes first edition of The Times (called The Daily Universal Register for 3 years) Jan 7: Blanchard & Jeffries make first balloon crossing of the English Channel, taking about 2ï¿½ hours to travel from England to France Sunday School Society founded to educate poor children (by 1851, enrols more than 2 million) 1786 Aug 8: Mont Blanc climbed for the first time Mozart Marriage of Figaro Earliest known Swedenborgian (Church of the New Jerusalem or Jerusalemite) registers MCC (Marylebone Cricket Club) established at Thomas Lord's ground in London 1788 Jan 26: First convicts (and free settlers) arrive in New South Wales (left Portsmouth 13 May 1787) the 'First Fleet'; eleven ships commanded by Captain Arthur Phillip First steamboat demonstrated in Scotland [but see 1802 ] Law passed requiring that chimney sweepers be a minimum of 8 years old (not enforced) First slave carrying act, the Dolben Act of 1788, regulates the slave trade ï¿½ stipulates more humane conditions on slave ships King George III's mental illness occasions the Regency Crisis ï¿½ Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox attack ministry of William Pitt ï¿½ trying to obtain full regal powers for the Prince of Wales Gibbon completes Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 1789 Apr 28: Mutiny on HMS Bounty ï¿½ Captain William Bligh and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew ends up on Pitcairn Island Jul 14: The French Revolution begins ï¿½ storming of the Bastille Publication of Gilbert White's 'Natural History of Selborne ' 1790 Forth and Clyde Canal opened in Scotland 1791 John Bell, printer, abandons the "long s" (the "s" that looks like an "f") Establishment of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain Dec 4: First publication of The Observer ï¿½ world's oldest Sunday newspaper ` Repression in Britain (restrictions on freedom of the press) ï¿½ Fox gets Libel Act through Parliament, requiring a jury and not a judge to determine libel Boyle's Street Directory published Oct 1: Introduction of Money Orders in Britain Coal-gas lighting invented by William Murdock, an Ayrshire Scot Dec 1: King's Proclamation drawing out the British militia 1793 Feb 11: Britain declares war on France (1793-1802) Execution of Louis XVI Reign of Terror starts in France Apr 15: ï¿½5 notes first issued by the Bank of England Jun 26: Gilbert White, naturalist, dies at Selborne , Hampshire 1794 Abolition of Parish Register duties Mar 14: Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin (in America) Jun 1: Battle of Glorious First of June Oct 6: The prosecutor for Britain, Lord Justice Eyre, charges reformers with High Treason ï¿½ he argued that, since reform of parliament would lead to revolution and revolution to executing the King, the desire for reform endangered the King's life and was therefore treasonous Lindley Murray English Grammar The Famine Year Foundation of the Orange Order Speenhamland Act proclaims that the Parish is responsible for bringing up the labourer's wage to subsistence level ï¿½ towards the end of the eighteenth century, the number of poor and unemployed increased dramatically ï¿½ price increases during the Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815) far outstripped wage rises ï¿½ many small farmers were bankrupted by the move towards enclosures and became landless labourers ï¿½ their wages were often pitifully low Pitt and Grenville introduce "The Gagging Acts" or "Two Bills" (the Seditious Meetings and Treasonable Practices Bills) ï¿½ outlawed the mass meeting and the political lecture Consumption of lime juice made compulsory in Royal Navy France adopts the metric system 1796 May 14: Dr Edward Jenner gave first vaccination for smallpox in England Holden's Triennial Directory published Pitt's "Reign of Terror": More treason trials ï¿½ leading radicals emigrate Legacy Tax on sums over £20 excluding those to wives, children, parents and grandparents 1797 Feb 14: Battle of Cape St Vincent Feb 22: French invade Fishguard, Wales; last time UK invaded; all captured 2 days later England in Crisis, Bank of England suspends cash payments Feb 26: First ï¿½1 (and £2) notes issued by Bank of England Apr-Jun: Mutinies in the British Navy at Spithead and Nore Oct 22: Possibly the first parachute jump (by Andrï¿½-Jacques Garnerin above Paris) Tax on newspapers (including cheap, topical journals) increased to repress radical publications The first copper pennies were produced ('cartwheels') by application of steam power to the coining press 1798 Feb-Oct: The Irish Rebellion; 100,000 peasants revolt; approximately 25,000 die ï¿½ Irish Parliament abolished Aug 1: Battle of the Nile (won by Nelson) First planned human experiment with vaccination, to test theories of Edward Jenner Malthus Essay on Population Jan 9: Pitt brings in 10% income tax, as a wartime financial measure Jul 12: 'Combination Laws' in Britain against political associations and combinations Foundation of Royal Military College Sandhurst by the Duke of York Foundation of the Royal Institution of Great Britain Post Office New Annual Directory Jul 15: Rosetta Stone discovered in Egypt, made possible the deciphering (in 1822 ) of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics Perfect mammoth discovered preserved in ice in Siberia 1800 Jul 2: Parliamentary union of Great Britain and Ireland Malta became a British Dominion Electric light first produced by Sir Humphrey Davy Use of high pressure steam pioneered by Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) Earliest Bible Christian registers Royal College of Surgeons founded Herschel discovers infra-red light Volta makes first electrical battery British trade accounts for about 27% of world trade 1801 Jan 1: Union Jack official British flag ï¿½ The Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain, adding St. Patrick's saltire to the Union Flag Mar 10: First census puts the population of England and Wales at 9,168,000 ï¿½ population of Britain nearly 11 million (75% rural) Grand Union Canal opens in England Surrey iron railway, on which horse-drawn trucks carry coal and farm produce Richard Trevithick built the first self-propelled passenger carrying road loco and ran it on Christmas Eve 1801 Elgin Marbles brought from Athens to London 1802 Mar 25 ("4 Gerninal" on the French Revolutionary calendar): Treaty of Amiens signed by Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands ï¿½ the "Peace of Amiens," as it was known, brought a temporary peace of 14 months during the Napoleonic Wars ï¿½ one of its most important cultural effects was that travel and correspondence across the English Channel became possible again Charlotte Dundas on Clyde, first practical steamship, built by William Symington First British Factory Act William Cobbett begins his weekly Political Register Regular mail service started between England and India 1803 Invention of paper-making machine (Fourdrinier brothers) others say invented by Robert (another Frenchman) in 1798, and developed by the Fourdriniers Apr 30: Louisiana Purchase: Napoleon sells French possessions in America to United States May 12: Peace of Amiens ends ï¿½ resumption of war with France ï¿½ The Napoleonic Wars (1803-18l5) William Cobbett began unofficial publication of Parliamentary reports (taken over by Hansard report in 1811) First publication of Debrett's Peerage by John Debrett Poaching made a Capital offence in England if capture resisted Richard Trevithick built another steam carriage and ran it in London as the first self-propelled vehicle in the capital and the first London bus Jul 26: First public railway opens (Surrey Iron Railway, 9 miles from Wandsworth to Croydon, horse-drawn) Semaphore signalling perfected by Admiral Popham Commissioners for Highland Roads and Bridges created in Scotland; Thomas Telford begins construction 1804 Feb 21: Richard Trevithick runs his railway engine on the Penydarren Railway (9.5 miles from Pen-y-Darren to Abercynon in South Wales) this hauled a train with 10 tons of iron and 70 passengers.ï¿½ It was commemorated by the Royal Mint in 2004 in the form of a ï¿½2.00 coin. (See 1829) Mar 3: John Wedgwood (eldest son of the potter Josiah Wedgwood) founds The Royal Horticultural Society Mar 21: Code Napoleon adopted in France Dec 2: Napoleon declares himself Emperor of the French Dec 12: Spain declares war on Britain Matthew Flinders recommends that the newly discovered country, New Holland, be renamed "Australia" Blake Jerusalem (later set to music by Parry) 1805 Oct 21: Admiral Nelson's victory at Trafalgar Nov 26: Official opening of Thomas Telford's Pontcysyllte Aqueduct Dec 2: Battle of Austerlitz; Napoleon defeats Austrians and Russians London docks opened Napoleon attempts European economic blockade of Britain Dartmoor Prison opened (built by French prisoners) Carbon paper invented by Ralph Wedgwood 1807 Mar 25: Parliament passes Act prohibiting slavery and the importation of slaves from 1808 ï¿½ but does not prohibit colonial slavery Jul 13: 'Hot Wednesday' ï¿½ temperature of 101ï¿½F in the shade recorded in London Gas lighting in London streets 1808 Peninsular War (1808-1814) Fourdrinier brothers set up first paper-making machine in England (at St Neots) Trevithick operated a 'Catch-me-who-Can' demonstration railway with carriages in London for which he charged fares of one shilling Beginning of 'Luddite' troubles in England (see 1811 ) Dec 22: Beethoven premieres his Fifth Symphony, Sixth Symphony, Fourth Piano Concerto and Choral Fantasy together in Vienna 1809 Jan 16: Peninsular War ï¿½ Battle of La Coruï¿½a ï¿½ Sir John Moore killed: "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note " Feb 12: Birth of Charles Darwin Sep 18: Royal Opera House opens in London John Dickinson introduces the Cylinder Machine for making paper boards Gay-Lussac: Law of Volumes of Gases 1810 Bible Christians denomination formed by schism in Wesleyan Methodists John McAdam begins road construction in England, giving his name to the process of road metalling (see 1845 ) 1811 Feb 1: Light first lit on Robert Stephenson's Inchcape (Bell) Rock lighthouse off Scotland Feb 5: Prince of Wales (future George IV) made Regent after George III deemed insane May 27: Second census of England & Wales Nov: Luddite uprisings (machine breaking) in the Midlands against weaving frames started ï¿½ went on until 1815 ï¿½ groups of workmen rebelled against the increased mechanisation of textile production by destroying the new machinery ï¿½ government fears revolutionary conspiracy ï¿½ damaging property or taking Luddite oaths become capital offences Jane Austen Sense and Sensibility 1812 May 11: Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval, assassinated ï¿½ shot as he entered the House of Commons by a bankrupt Liverpool broker, John Bellingham, who was subsequently hanged Jun 18: Start of American "War of 1812" (to 1814) against England and Canada Aug 24: Peninsular War ï¿½ coalition forces including British succeed in lifting the two-and-a-half-year-long Siege of Cï¿½diz Octï¿½Dec: Napoleon retreats from Moscow with catastrophic losses Comet steamship launched in Scotland, operated on the River Clyde 1813 'Policy for the Improvement of the Highlands' approved by British Parliament May: Lawson, Blaxland and Wentworth, lead an expedition westwards from Sydney Ireland: First recorded "12th of July" sectarian riots in Belfast Rose's Act (1812) established a printed format for baptism & burial registers Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice 1814 "Year of the Burning" in Sutherland and Ross Act of Burial in Woollen repealed First Pigot's Commercial Directory printed Jan 1: Invasion of France by Allies Apr 6: Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba Aug 13: Convention of London signed, a treaty between the UK and the Dutch Aug 24: The British burn the White House Nov 29: The Times first printed by a steam-powered 'mechanical apparatus' (at 1,100 sheets per hour) Dec 2: Death of the Marquis de Sade, in an asylum Dec 24: Treaty of Ghent signed ending the 1812 war between Britain and the US Sugar prices reach record heights 1815 Mar 1: Napoleon escapes Elba; arrives in France Jun 18: The Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon defeated and exiled to St. Helena Corn Law passed with enormous benefit to landlords (see 1849 ) Trial by Jury established in Scotland Davy develops the safety lamp for miners Nash Brighton Pavilion Economic depression - rise in wheat prices Income tax abolished Excise tax payable on paper production (start of papermaking Mill numbers) until 1861 For the first time British silver coins were produced with an intrinsic value substantially below their face value the first official 'token' coinage Climate: the 'year without a summer' ï¿½ followed a volcanic explosion of the mountain Tambora in Indonesia the previous year, the biggest volcanic explosion in 10,000 years Cobbett's Register selling 40-60,000 copies per week Large scale emigration to North America Trans-Atlantic packet service begins March of the Manchester Blanketeers; Habeas Corpus suspended Constable Flatford Mill 1818 Manchester cotton spinners' strike Oct 20: 'Convention of 1818' signed between the United States and the United Kingdom which, among other things, settled the US-Canada border on the 49th parallel for most of its length Mary Shelley Frankenstein 1819 Feb 6: Stamford Raffles signs a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor establishing Singapore as a new trading post for the British East India Company May/Jun: Savannah first steamship to cross Atlantic, reaching Liverpool 20 June 1819 (26 days, mostly under sail) Aug 16: Peterloo Massacre at Manchester ï¿½ a large, orderly group of 60,000 meets at St. Peter's Fields, Manchester ï¿½ demand Parliamentary Reform ï¿½ mounted troops charge on the meeting, killing 11 people and and maiming many others Dec: Six Acts passed against radical political Unions ï¿½ prohibits assemblies similar to St. Peter's Fields and imposes press censorship Primitive bicycle, the Dandy Horse, becomes popular (see 1839 ) Britain returns to gold standard Keats Ode on a Grecian Urn 1820 Jan 29: Accession of George IV, previously Prince Regent Cato Street Conspiracy plot to assissinate British cabinet Aug 1: Regent's Canal in London opens Aug 17: Trial of Queen Caroline to prove her infidelities so George IV can divorce her ï¿½ George tries to secure a Bill of Pains and Penalties against her ï¿½ Caroline is virtually acquitted because bill passed by such a small majority of Lords Nov 20: Whaling ship Essex attacked and sunk by a sperm whale in the Pacific, leading to the story of Moby Dick Cobbett's Rural Rides begin to appear in his Political Register (to 1830) Abolition of the Spanish Inquisition 1821 May 5: Napoleon Bonaparte dies on St Helena May 28: Third census of England & Wales Faraday Principles of electro-magnetic rotation Constable The Hay Wain Populations: France 30.4M, German States 26M, Britain 20.8M, Italian States 18M, Austria 12M, the USA 9.6M 1822 Jun 14: Charles Babbage proposes a difference engine in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society Sep 27: Jean-Franï¿½ois Champollion announces he has deciphered the Rosetta stone Caledonian canal opened Carnot Puissance motrice du feu Beethoven Ninth Symphony 1825 Horse-drawn buses in London (but see 1803 and 1829 ) Sep 27: Stockton to Darlington Railway opens ï¿½ world's first service of locomotive-hauled passenger trains Hobhouse makes amendments to Acts to protect Child Labour in cotton factories Publication of Pepys Diary 1826 Jan 30: Telford's Menai Straits Bridge opened considered the world's first modern suspension bridge Feb 11: University College, London established under the name "London University", as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge Scotland's first commercial railway was opened, Edinburgh to Dalkeith White's first Commercial Directory ï¿½ Hull Royal Zoological Society established in London Apr 1: Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine in America? Ampere Electrodynamics Mendelssohn Midsummer Night's Dream, overture 1827 Apr 7: First recorded sale of matches, from the store of John Walker of Stockton-on-Tees under the name 'Sulphurata Hyper-Oxygenata Frict' Hallam Constitutional History of England (one of the first historians to use original documents in his research) Ohm Ohm's Law (physics) 1828 Apr 28: Repeal of Test and Corporation Acts ï¿½ had kept non-Anglicans (Catholics and Dissenters) from holding public office and deprived them of other rights Oct 25: St Katharine Docks in London opened (designed by Thomas Telford) O'Connell barred from the House of Commons as a Roman Catholic Noah Webster American Dictionary of the English Language 1829 Apr 4: Catholic Emancipation Act restores civil liberties to Roman Catholics Earliest Irvingite registers Jul 4: First London omnibuses (pulled by three horses) introduced by George Shillibeer (but see 1825 ) route between Paddington and Bank of England London Metropolitan police force formed, nicknamed Bobbies after Sir Robert Peel Jun 10: First Oxford/Cambridge Boat Race Oct 6: George Stephenson's Rocket wins the Rainhill trials (it was the only one to complete the trial!) was to haul the first 'commercial' passenger train (but see 1804 ) Lucifer matches first manufactured Louis Braille invents his sytem of finger-reading for the blind Rossini William Tell, opera 1830 Jun 26: George IV dies ï¿½ his brother, William IV, accedes to the throne July: Revolution in France, fall of Charles X and the Bourbons Louis Philippe (the Citizen King) on the throne Uprisings and agitation across Europe: the Netherlands are split into Holland and Belgium Sep 15: George Stephenson's Liverpool & Manchester Railway opened by the Duke of Wellington ï¿½ first mail carried by rail, and first death on the railway as William Huskisson, a leading politician, is run over! Nov: Agricultural 'Swing' Riots in southern England, repressed with many transportations Nov 22: Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, becomes Prime Minister Beerhouse Act liberalized regulations on the brewing and sale of beer by individuals ï¿½ By this act it was possible for any householder assessed to the poor rate to sell beer, ale and cider without a licence from local justices; in the six months following its enaction, nearly 25,000 such excise licenses were taken out ï¿½ The 1869 Wine and Beerhouse Act re-introduced stricter controls Royal Geographical Society established in London Hector Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique First Reform Bill introduced by Lord George Russell A list of all parish registers dating prior to 1813 compiled May 30: Fourth census of England & Wales British Association for the Advancement of Science founded Jun 1: James Clark Ross discovers the North Magnetic Pole Aug 1: 'New' London Bridge opens (see 1968 , replaced 1973 ) old bridge (which had existed for over 600 years) then demolished Aug 29: Faraday demonstrates electro-magnetic induction (the dynamo) Dec 27: Darwin sails on HMS Beagle to survey coral formations 1832 Jun 7: Reform Bill passed ï¿½ Representation of the People Act ï¿½ dramatic effects for grossly underrepresented places like Scotland (the number of Scottish people allowed to vote increased from 4,000 to 65,000 out of 2.5 million people) ï¿½ changed voting from an aristocratic privilege to a middle class right, but by later standards not much was accomplished ï¿½ approximately doubled the electorate to about 800,000 voters out of a total population in Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales of around 24 million (1831 census), and increasing by 1 million a year Electoral Registers introduced Electric telegraph invented by Morse Tennyson Lady of Shalott Jan: Britain invades the Falkland Islands Aug 29: Factory Act forbids employment of children below age of 9 Education Grant Act grants to voluntary education societies in Britain Real Property Limitation Act ends the device of using ficticious people in the sale of freehold property 1834 Poor Law amendment, tightening up relief Mar 18: 'Tolpuddle Martyrs' transported (to Australia) for Trades Union activities May 1: Slavery abolished in British possessions Dec 17: Dublin and Kingstown Railway opens in Ireland Dec 23: Hansom Cab patented by Joseph Hansom Babbage invents forerunner of the computer 1835 Christmas becomes a national holiday Earliest Universalist registers Municipal Corporations Act major changes in England and Wales Word 'socialism' first used First surviving photograph taken by William Fox Talbot First railway boom period starts in Britain construction of Great Western Railway Jun 18: William Cobbett dies Dec 1: Hans Christian Andersen publishes his first book of fairy tales Melbourne, Australia founded Darwin studies the Galapagos Islands 1836 First Potato famine in Ireland Economic downturn that lasts until 1842 Tithe Commutation Act ï¿½ tithe maps created as a by-product over the next 15 years or so Newspaper tax reduced from 4 pence to one penny Feb 25: Samuel Colt patented the 'revolver' Mar 6: The Alamo falls to Mexican troops death of Davy Crockett Jul: Inauguration of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris Dec 27: Avalanche in Lewes, Sussex buries 15 people, 8 died 1837 Mar 14: Wheatstone & Cooke send first British telegraph message (some say 25 Jul the electric telegraph was patented in May) Jun 20: William IV dies ï¿½ accession of Queen Victoria (to 1901) Jul 1: Compulsory registration of Births, Marriages & Deaths in England & Wales Registration Districts were formed covering several parishes; initially they had the same boundaries as the Poor Law boundaries set up in 1834 Jul 13: Queen Victoria moves into the first Buckingham Palace Jul 20: Euston Railway station opens ï¿½ first in London Pitman introduces his shorthand system P&O Founded 1838 Jun 28: Coronation of Queen Victoria at Westminster Abbey Chartists in Britain publish People's Charter demanding popular involvement in politics huge demonstrations (estimated 100.000 Glasgow, 200,000 Birmingham, 300,000 West Yorkshire) First ocean steamers to the U.S. SS Great Western 14ï¿½ days; SS Sirius 18 days SS Archimedes launched first successful screw-driven ship Daguerre produces photographs using silver salts 1838-1849 The Chartist Movement a working-class movement for the extension of the franchise 6-point charter: universal suffrage, secret ballot, annual elections, payment of Members, no property qualification for MPs, equal electoral districts 1839 Nov 4: The Newport Rising, to liberate Chartist prisoners the last large-scale armed rebellion against authority in mainland Britain First Opium War between Britain and China (to 1842) Britain captures Hong Kong Scottish blacksmith Kirkpatrick MacMillan refines the primitive bicycle, adding a mechanical crank drive to the rear wheel, thus creating the first true "bicycle" in the modern sense (see 1819 ) Samuel Cunard establishes his Cunard Steamship Co. John Herschel takes the first glass plate photograph Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber Daguerreotype photography process announced in France, developed by Louis Daguerre First: Grand National, Henley Regatta, Royal Agricultural Show 1840 Jan 10: Uniform Penny Postage introduced nationally Rowland Hill also introduces envelopes Feb 6: Treaty of Waitangi signed ï¿½ Maori chiefs in New Zealand recognise British sovereignty in return for tribes being guaranteed possession of their lands Feb 10: Queen Victoria marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Last convicts landed in NSW (some say 1842 or 1849, but these probably landed elsewhere) Chimney Sweeps Act in Britain Population Act relating to taking of censuses in Britain Britain has 24% of steam tonnage, and 24% of world trade 'Can-Can' becomes popular in France 1841 Feb 10: Penny Red replaces Penny Black postage stamp June 6: Fifth census of England & Wales First full census in Britain in which all names were recorded Population: Britain 18.5M, USA 17M, Ireland 8M Whitworth standard screw threads proposed Thomas Cook starts package tours Jul 17: First issue of Punch 1842 Civil Registration in Channel Islands started Second Chartist Petition presented to Parliament Income Tax reintroduced in Britain Government report 'The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population' Depression: 60% of Bolton cotton mill workers and 36% of Bolton ironworkers out of work British Mines Act outlawing women and girls in the mines, and supervising boy labour Copyright Act Mar 30: Ether used as an anaesthetic for the first time (by Dr Crawford Long in America) British massacred in Khyber Pass Aug 29: Treaty of Nanking End of First Opium War Britain gains Hong Kong Illustrated London News published Start of Mudie's Lending Library, charging subscribers one guinea per year for the right to borrow one volume of a novel at a time First chemical fertiliser, superphosphate of lime, manufactured by Bennet Lawes in Deptford, England Tennyson Poems establishes his fame Doppler Effect stated Outdoor Relief Prohibition Order ï¿½ parish relief received only in a workhouse Companies Act in Britain companies must register Bank Charter Act, to regulate money supply in relation to gold in Britain Railways Act Gladstone's concept of the 'Parliamentary Train' brought rail travel to the masses Factories Act 1844 working hours of women and children restricted May 24: First Morse message transmitted in the USA (Baltimore to Washington) Jun 6: YMCA founded in London by Sir George Williams Jun 15: Charles Goodyear receives a patent for the vulcanization of rubber Karl Marx and Engels begin their collaboration Dumas The Three Musketeers 1845 Excise tax on glass production repealed 'The Hungry Forties': Potato famine in Ireland (to 1848) ï¿½ generally accepted that 1 million people died and a further 1 million people had to emigrate during this period, leading to a population decline of around 20 to 25% Temporary repeal of the Corn Laws Mar 17: The rubber band patented by Stephen Perry May 20: Franklin sets sail from London trying to find the Northwest passage Kelly's Directories Tarmac laid for first time (in Nottingham) First voyage of 'Great Britain' ï¿½ to America Royal Naval Biographical Dictionary published 1846 May 17: The saxophone is patented by Adolphe Sax Sep 10: The sewing machine is patented by Elias Howe Edward Lear First Book of Nonsense 1847 Jan: An anaesthetic used for the first time in England (James Simpson used ether to numb the pain of labour) United Succession becomes the United Presbyterian Church Ten Hours Act shortens factory work day to ten hours for women and children European crop failure US Mormons make Salt Lake City their centre Charlotte Brontï¿½ Jane Eyre 1848 Jan 24: Gold found at Sutter's Mill, California ï¿½ starts the California gold rush Jan 29: Greenwich Mean Time adopted in Scotland Jul 11: Waterloo railway station in London opens General revolutionary movement throughout the European Continent ('Year of Revolution') Rotary press first introduced First Public Health Act, establishes the Board of Health Third Chartist Petition: mass arrests and failure of the movement Lord Kelvin determines the temperature of absolute zero First commercial production of chewing gum Marx and Engels The Communist Manifesto JS Mill Principles of Political Economy Macaulay History of England 1849 Jan 31: Corn Laws abolished in UK (introduced by the Importation Act 1815, amended at various times and repealed by the Importation Act 1846) Apr 10: Safety pin patented by American inventor Walter Hunt Civil Registration of Births in Isle of Man started Florin (2 shilling coin) introduced as the first step to decimalisation ï¿½ which finally occurred in 1971 ! Dickens David Copperfield Mar 18: American Express founded by Henry Wells & William Fargo Sep 29: Catholic hierarchy restored on a regular pattern to England and Wales Nov 19: Tennyson succeeds Wordsworth as Poet Laureate (and holds the position until his death in 1892 ) Dec 16: First immigrant ships arrived in New Zealand Telegraph cable Dover to Calais [others say 1851] Britain has 39.5% of world merchant shipping tonnage Bunsen burner designed 1851 Mar 30: Second full British Census ï¿½ improvements in data compared with the first May 1: Great exhibition of the works of industry of all nations ("Crystal Palace" exhibition) opened in Hyde Park Aug 22: First "America's Cup" (round the Isle of Wight) won by the yacht America (after which the trophy was subsequently named) Window Tax replaced by House Duty Photography is popularised by introduction of "wet collodion" process Isaac Singer produces first practical sewing machine (in USA) Gold discovered in Australia Verdi Rigoletto; Herman Melville Moby-Dick 1852 Feb 15: Great Ormond St Hospital for Sick Children, London, admits its first patient May: Victoria and Albert Museum, first known as The Museum of Manufactures, opens at Marlborough House transfers in September to Somerset House, then to South Kensington in 1857 Manchester has its first Free Library Land Survey of Britain completed First voyage of 'Great Britain' to Australia Tasmania ceases to be a convict settlement US Express Co., Wells Fargo established in USA Roget's Thesaurus Gladstone's first budget: wide range of duties abolished, and death duties introduced Vaccination against smallpox made compulsory in Britain Reuters founded Mar 27: Britain declares war on Russia (Crimean War) Jun: First Victoria Cross won during bombardment of Bomarsund in the Aland Islands Sep 14: Allied armies land in Crimea Sep 20: Battle of Alma: British and French troops defeat Russians in the Crimea Oct 25: Battle of Balaklava in Crimea (charge of the Light Brigade) Cigarettes introduced into Britain The Times offers £1,000 for the discovery of an alternative raw material for paper (other than cotton and linen rags) wood not used in paper manufacture until 1880s 1855 Jan 1: Registration of births, marriages & deaths made compulsory in Scotland First London pillar boxes Stamp Duty abolished on newspapers ('tax on knowledge') many regional newspapers founded from this year onwards Daily Telegraph founded, price 2d London sewers modernised after fourth major outbreak of cholera Florence Nightingale introduces hygiene into military hospitals in Crimea Cellulose nitrate, first synthetic plastic material, invented by Alexander Parkes Nov 17: Livingstone finds the Victoria Falls Trollope The Warden Longfellow The Song of Hiawatha 1856 Jan 29: Victoria Cross created by Royal Warrant, backdated to 1854 to recognise acts during the Crimean War (first award ceremony 26 June 1857) Mar 30: Treaty of Paris signed, ending the Crimean War Start of Second Opium War (to 1860) Discovery of Neanderthal skull Bessemer's converter revolutionises steel industry Hughes Tom Brown's Schooldays Transatlantic cable starts to be laid (see 1866 ) Oct 24: Sheffield FC founded claim to be the world's first football team London postal districts introduced European financial crisis also in America Dec 31: Ottawa declared capital of Canada 'Golden age of crinolines' was 1857-1866 'by which point they were largely abandoned' [Bill Bryson At Home] 18578 Indian Mutiny (unrest started March 1857 peace treaty signed 8 July 1858) 1858 Jan: Legally proved Wills start to be entered into an index (Eng & W) ï¿½ taken out of ecclesiastical jurisdiction Jan 31: 'Great Eastern' launched Feb 11: First of 18 apparitions of "a Lady" to Bernadette Soubirous in Lourdes East India Company dissolved Summer: 'The great stink' smell of the River Thames forced Parliament to stop work Royal Opera House opens in Covent Garden, London Offenbach Orpheus in the Underworld 1859 Peaceful picketing legalised in Britain Apr 25: Work started on building the Suez canal (opened 17 Nov 1869 ) May 4: Brunel's Royal Albert Bridge opened at Saltash giving rail link between Devon and Cornwall Jun 30: Blondin crosses Niagara Falls on a tightrope Sep 1: Biggest solar flare ever recorded witnessed by English astronomer Richard Carrington an intense magnetic storm hit the Earth 18 hours later Nov 24: Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species First American oil well drilled (in Titusville, Pennsylvania) Dickens A Tale of Two Cities 1860 Garibaldi's 'Red Shirts' conquer Sicily and Naples Second Maori War in New Zealand (to 1870) Aug 29: First tram service in Europe starts in Birkenhead Sep: Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) visits United States Oct 17: The Open Championship (golf) begins Oct 18: Convention of Peking ends the Second Opium War Linoleum patented in England by Frederick Walton (some say in Dec 1863) Royal Navy adopts ironclads 1861 Feb 21: Spire of Chichester Cathedral collapses ï¿½ rebuilt, a few feet taller, and completed in five years May 25: American Civil War begins Apr 7: Third full British Census Dec 14: Prince Albert dies First horse-drawn trams in London Tax on newsprint abolished Emancipation of serfs in Russia Populations: Russia 76M, USA 32M, Italy 25M , Britain 23M Mrs Beeton Book of Household Management 1862 Jan 30: USS Monitor launched, first ironclad warship commissioned by the United States Navy Mar 9: Battle of Hampton Roads, Virginia; first-ever naval battle between two ironclad warships ï¿½ USS Monitor and CSS Virginia Apr 20: First pasteurisation test completed by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard Nov 4: Richard Gatling patents his machine gun Dec 31: USS Monitor, one of the first ironclad warships, sank under tow in a gale Lincoln issues first legal US paper money (Greenbacks) Bismark becomes first minister in Prussia Foucault measures the speed of light Victor Hugo Les Miserables Jan 10: First section of the London Underground Railway opens, between Paddington and Farringdon Street Opening of state institution for criminally insane at Broadmoor, England Jul 3: Battle of Gettysburg Manufacture (by Wilbrand) of TNT Kingsley The Water Babies Civil Registration in Ireland starts Civil Registration of marriages in Isle of Man starts Mar 11: The Great Sheffield Flood ï¿½ over 250 died when a new dam broke while it was being filled for the first time Aug 22: Red Cross established ï¿½ Twelve nations sign the First Geneva Convention Dec 8: Clifton Suspension Bridge over the River Avon officially opened A man-powered submarine "Hunley" and sank a Federal steam ship, USS Housatonic, at the entrance to Charleston harbour in 1864 ï¿½ the first recorded successful attack by a submarine on a surface ship [Les Moore] 1865 Apr 14: End of American Civil War ï¿½ slavery abolished in USA; Abraham Lincoln assassinated in Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth [do these two events really come together on this day??] May 17: The International Telegraph Union established Rockefeller forms Standard Oil (ESSO) in Ohio (some say 1870) Jul 5: William Booth (1829-1912) founds Salvation Army, in London Jul 14: First ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper and party, four of whom died on the descent Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836-1917) becomes first woman doctor in England [she later became the first woman mayor in England, in Aldeburgh 1908] First concrete roads built in Britain Locomotive Act (the 'Red Flag' Act) ï¿½ required all road locomotives to travel at a maximum of 4 mph in the country and 2 mph in towns and have a crew of three, one of whom should carry a red flag walking 60 yards ahead of each vehicle (repealed 1896 ) Mendel states his law of heredity Lewis Carroll Alice in Wonderland Tolstoy War and Peace 1866 May 11: London bank Overend, Gurney and Company collapses, precipitating a financial crisis Jul 28: Atlantic cable first used five attempts had been made over a nine year period (in 1857, two in 1858, 1865, and 1866) before lasting connections finally achieved by the SS Great Eastern with the 1866 cable and the repaired 1865 cable Oct 16: Girton College founded Marquis of Queensbury rules accepted for boxing Winchester repeating rifle comes into use in USA 1867 Mar 30: USA buys Alaska from Russia ("Seward's Folly") ï¿½ formal transfer on 18 Oct July 1: The British North America Act takes effect, creating the Canadian Confederation Aug 24: Fanny Adams murdered in Alton Nov 25: Alfred Nobel patents dynamite Dec 2: Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the USA (in New York) The Second Reform Bill ï¿½ vote given to town householders Typewriter invented (but not commercially successful until 1873 ) Lister uses carbolic antiseptic Last British election for which Poll Books available Last convicts landed in Australia (Western Australia) Impressionist movement begins to emerge in art 1869 Imprisonment for debt abolished in Britain May 10: Transcontinental railway completed in America Nov 17: Suez Canal opens Nov 23: Cutty Sark launched in Dumbarton HJ Heinz Company founded in USA, with its '57 Varieties' Ballbearings, celluloid, margarine, washing machine all invented 1870 GPO takes over the privately-owned Telegraph Companies (nationalised) Jun 1: Telegraph link to India first open for business Sep: Unification of Italy completed Oct 1: First British postcard ï¿½ halfpenny post Board Schools start attempting to impose consistent spelling (Forster's Act?) Dr Thomas Barnardo opens his first home for destitute children Water closets come into wide use Diamonds discovered in Kimberley, South Africa (some say 1866) Britain possesses 43% of world's merchant steam tonnage 1870-1900 Art & Crafts Period (Art & Antiques) 1871 Mar 27: First Rugby Football international, England v Scotland, played in Edinburgh Mar 29: Opening of Royal Albert Hall Apr 2: Fourth full British census Jun 16: University Tests Act allows students to enter Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities without religious tests Jun 29: Trades Unions legalised in Britain, but picketing made illegal Bank Holidays Act Commissions in British armed forces no longer to be purchased FA Cup introduced Nov 10: Henry Morton Stanley finds Dr David Livingstone in Africa (in Ujiji near Lake Tanganyika) Gilbert and Sullivan begin a 20 year collaboration Verdi Aida Mar 16: First FA Cup Wanderers FC beat Royal Engineers AFC 1-0 at the Oval Jul 18: Secret Ballot introduced in Britain (no further Poll Books produced) Nov 30: First international football match, at Hamilton Crescent, Glasgow between Scotland and England nil-all draw Dec 4: American ship Mary Celeste is found abandoned by the British brig Dei Gratia in the Atlantic Ocean the ship was unmanned but under full sail she was recovered and used again for another 12 years or so Licensing hours introduced Penalties introduced for failing to register births, marriages & deaths (Eng & Wales) Penny-farthing bicycles in general use Over 32,000 friendly societies in England 1873 Mar 1: Remington & Sons start to manufacture the new Scholes and Glidden typewriter (named Remington from 1876) Glidden invents barbed wire Jules Verne Around the World in 80 Days 1874 Disraeli and the Tories come to power in Britain pass 11 major Acts of social reform in next 2 years First Trades Union MP is elected Factory Act introduces 56-hour week Apr 5: Birkenhead Park opened, said to be the first civic public park in the world features of it later copied in Central Park, New York Hardy Far from the Madding Crowd Verdi Requiem 1875 Jan 1: Midland Railway abolishes Second Class passenger facilities, leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies followed during the rest of the year. (Third Class was renamed Second Class in 1956 ) London's main sewage system completed Aug 24: Captain Matthew Webb becomes first person to swim the English Channel (taking 21 hours 45 mins) Artisan's Dwellings Act Universal Postal Union established at Geneva Britain takes 42% share in Suez Canal Bizet Carmen 1876 Feb 14: Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray each file a patent for the telephone Bell awarded the rights Feb 18: Direct telegraph link established between UK and New Zealand Annual centralised list of Scottish Wills from now (and most from 1823 also) Civil Registration of deaths in Isle of Man started Plimsoll Line established for loading of ships Dewey decimal classification for publishers introduced by Melvil Dewey May 1: Victoria proclaimed Empress of India Jun 25: Battle of Little Big Horn Custer's last stand; last major North American Indian victory Tchaikovsky Swan Lake 1877 Mar 15: First cricket Test Match begins (between Australia and England in Melbourne) Australia won by 45 runs First tennis championships at Wimbledon Edison invents microphone and phonograph demonstrated first sound recording on 6th Dec Schiaperelli observes 'canals' on Mars 1878 Feb 11: First weekly weather forecast published by the Meteorological Office Edison & Swan invent electric lamp Red Flag Act in Britain limits mechanical road vehicles to 4mph (see 1896 ) CID established at New Scotland Yard Gilbert and Sullivan HMS Pinafore 1879 Jan 11: Start of Anglo-Zulu war Jan 22: Battle of Rorke's Drift in the Anglo-Zulu Warr Feb 27: Discovery of Saccharin announced (Fahlberg and Remsen) Jun 1: First Tay Bridge completed (Thomas Bouch) Sep 18: Blackpool illuminations switched on for first time Dec 28 (Sunday): Tay Bridge Disaster ï¿½ bridge collapsed in storm taking train with it ï¿½ enquiry revealed corners had been cut during construction to reduce costs ï¿½ replacement bridge constructed in 1887 First telephone exchanges opened in London & Manchester Church of Christ Scientist established at Boston Ibsen Doll's House 1880 Education Act: schooling compulsory for 5-10 year olds The Burial Laws Amendment Act, 1880, Section 13 ï¿½ To be buried under this Act normally means that the person buried was a non-conformist; the burial service was performed by a Non-Conformist minister, but in a Church of England church, as the burial was going to take place in the churchyard. Before that time, non-conformists could not be buried in parish churchyards. Aug 2: Greenwich Mean Time adopted throughout UK Britain possesses half world's merchant steam tonnage Mosquito found to be the carrier of malaria Rodin The Thinker 1881 Apr 3: Fifth full British Census Sep: Godalming in Surrey became the first town in England to have a public electricity supply installed (but in 1884 it reverted to gas lighting until 1904) Postal Orders introduced First Boer War ï¿½ Transvaal independence recognised Flogging abolished in Army and Royal Navy Oct 26: Gunfight at OK Corral 1882 May 6: Phoenix Park murders in Dublin Aug 29: Australia defeat England by seven runs in a Test match at The Oval ï¿½ Institution of 'the Ashes' in cricket Standard Oil Co controls 95% of US oil refining capacity Fourth Eddystone Lighthouse completed TB bacillus discovered by Koch Conan Doyle A Study in Scarlet, first appearance of Sherlock Holmes Tchaikovsky 1812 Overture May 24: Brooklyn Bridge, New York opens (crosses East River) Aug 1: Parcel post starts in Britain Oct 4: Foundation of the Boys' Brigade in Glasgow by William Smith Foundation of the Primrose League, British Conservative organisation, by Lord Randolph Churchill Married Women's Property Act of 1882 becomes law Ekman opens a wood pulp mill in England, for manufacture of paper (he had opened one in Sweden in 1874) Aug 27: Eruption of Krakatoa near Java ï¿½ 30,000 killed by tidal wave Statue of Liberty presented to USA by France Robert Louis Stevenson Treasure Island 1884 Jan 29: Appearance of the first 'fascicle' [from 'A' to 'ant'] ofOxford English Dictionary (full Dictionary not completed until 1928 ) The Third Reform Bill ï¿½ vote given to agricultural workers May 31: John Harvey Kellogg patents corn flakes Sep 22: Herman Hollerith patents his mechanical tabulating machine Oct 13: Standard Meridian Conference ï¿½ Greenwich made prime meridian of the world Oct 14: George Eastman patents the first film in roll form to prove practicable; in 1888 he perfected the Kodak camera Bateman's Great Landowners published (relates to land values in 1882) Fabergé produces the first of his jewelled Easter eggs for the Tsar 1884-1918 Art Noveau Period (Art & Antiques) 1885 Jan 26: Fall of Khartoum, General Gordon killed Mar: First UK cremation in modern times took place at Woking (see 1902 ) Mar 14: First performance of The Mikado Jun 17: The Statue of Liberty arrives in New York Harbour (in 350 pieces on board the French frigate Isï¿½re) Sep 5: The first train runs through the Severn Tunnel Aug 29: Gottlieb Daimler patents the world's first motorcycle Sep 29: First electric tramcar used at Blackpool (some say first in Britain ran March 1882 in East London) Carl Benz builds the 'Motorwagen', a single-cylinder motor car Secretary for Scotland appointed 1886 Gladstone's first Irish Home Rule Bill rejected, despite his famous three-hour speech Crofters Holdings (Scotland) Act created legal definitions of crofting parish and crofter, granted security of tenure to crofters and produced the first Crofters Commission Jan 9: Severn Rail Tunnel opened, but full service only started in December longest mainline railway tunnel within the UK until 2007 Jan 18: The Hockey Association formed in England Jan 20: Mersey railway (under Mersey) opened by Prince of Wales May: Pharmacist John Styth Pemberton invents a carbonated beverage later named "Coca-Cola" May 29: Putney Bridge opens in London Sep 9: Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works finalised Hardy The Mayor of Casterbridge Millais Bubbles May 9: Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show opens in London Jun 8: Herman Hollerith receives a patent for his punch card calculator Jun 21: Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee Jul 13: Second Tay Bridge opened Jul 26: The Unua Libro (First Book) was published describing the international language Esperanto Daimler produces a four-wheeled motor car Kipling Plain Tales Haggard She 1888 Mar 2: Convention of Constantinople guarantees free maritime passage through Suez Canal in war and peace Mar 22: English Football League formed Jack the Ripper active in east London during the latter half of the year County Councils set up in Britain Dunlop invents pneumatic tyre First box camera George Eastman registers the trademark Kodak, and receives a patent for his camera which uses roll film First successful adding machine patented by William Seward Burroughs in the USA Dec 23: Vincent van Gogh cuts off the lower part of his left ear First known recording of classical music ï¿½ Handel's Israel in Egypt on wax cylinder Rimsky-Korsakov Scheherezade Mar 31: Eiffel Tower completed (to mark centenary of French Revolution) May 14: Children's charity NSPCC launched in London Jun 3: Canadian Pacific Railway completed from coast to coast Jul 8: First issue of the Wall Street Journal published Aug 14: London Dock Strike ï¿½ docker's won their "Docker's Tanner", 6 old pennies Sep 28: Length of a metre defined Oct 6: Moulin Rouge cabaret opens in Paris Celluloid film produced Gilbert & Sullivan Gondoliers; Jerome K Jerome Three Men in a Boat 1890 Jan 25: Nellie Bly returns to New York having gone round the world in 72 days using steamships and existing railroad systems Mar 4: Forth railway bridge opens ï¿½ took six years to build Nov 4: City & South London Railway opens ï¿½ London's first deep-level tube railway and first major railway in the world to use electric traction 1891 Mar 18: First telephone link between London & Paris Apr 5: Sixth full British Census Primary education made free and compulsory May 4: Fictional date when Sherlock Holmes throws Moriarty over Reichenbach Falls, then disappears for 3 years! (published in 1893) Ordnance Survey maps Epoch 2 date range 1891-1912 (see 1904 ) Aug 24: Thomas Edison patents the motion picture camera 1892 Jan 1: Ellis Island immigration station opens in New York (closed in 1954 ) Electric oven invented Shop Hours Act ï¿½ limit 74 hours per week for under-18s May 20: Last broad-gauge train leaves Paddington for Plymouth Oct 6: Alfred Lord Tennyson dies, aged 83, at his house Aldworth, near Haslemere Oct 31: Arthur Conan Doyle publishes the first Adventures of Sherlock Holmes Dec 18: First performance of Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker ballet (in St Petersburg) 1893 Keir Hardy founds Independent Labour Party Henry Ford's first car Feb 4: Official opening of Liverpool Overhead Railway by Marquis of Salisbury Jun 7: Gandhi's first act of civil disobedience (in South Africa) Oct 1893ï¿½Jan 1894: First Matabele War Tchaikovsky 6th symphony (Pathï¿½tique), and suicide 1894 Jan 1: Manchester Ship Canal opens Local Government Act passed (start of civil parish councils, etc) Picture postcard introduced in Britain Mar 1: Blackpool Tower opens May 21: Queen Victoria opens Manchester Ship Canal Jun 23: International Olympic Committee founded at the initiative of Baron Pierre de Coubertin Jun 30: Tower Bridge first opens Aug 2: Death duties first introduced in Britain Dec 22: Alfred Dreyfus convicted of treason in France Beatrice and Sidney Webb History of Trade Unionism Kipling Jungle Book Shaw Arms and the Man Debussy L'Apres-midi d'un Faune Jan 12: The National Trust founded in England London School of Economics (LSE) established Mar 22: First public showing of film on screen in Paris by Lumières Gugliemo Marconi invents wireless telegraphy ï¿½ message over a mile Safety razor invented by King C Gillette Jul 12: First recorded motor journey of any length (56 miles) in Britain Oct 17: First people in Britain to be charged with motor offences ï¿½ John Henry Knight and James Pullinger of Farnham, Surrey May 24: Henry Irving becomes the first person from the theatre to be knighted May 28: Oscar Wilde sent to prison Nov: Röntgen discovers X-rays Sir Henry Wood starts Promenade Concerts in London HG Wells The Time Machine Chekov The Seagull Mar 31: Zip fastener patented by Whitcomb L Judson Mar 1896ï¿½Oct 1897: Second Matabele War Apr 6ï¿½15: First modern Olympic Games held in Athens May 4: Daily Mail first published Jun 2: Guglielmo Marconi receives a British patent (later disputed) for the radio Aug: Start of Klondyke Gold Rush in the Yukon Repeal of the 1878 Red Flag Act ï¿½ removed the need for a crew of three, and increased the speed limit to 14 mph (first London to Brighton run on14 Nov in celebration, now an annual event) Dec 14: Opening of the Underground Railway (the "shooglie") in Glasgow ï¿½ remains the only underground in Scotland Term psychoanalysis first comes into use Puccini La Boheme Richard Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra 1897 Flora Thompson leaves 'Candleford Green' Oct: Arthur Conan Doyle and family move into Undershaw at Hindhead ï¿½ it had cost him just over ï¿½6,000 to build ï¿½ they threw a big fancy-dress party at Christmas to celebrate, with 160 guests (including Jean Leckie who later became his second wife) Workmen's Compensation Act: employers liable for insurance of workforce Thomas Edison patents the Kinetoscope, the first movie projector Bram StokerDracula First photograph using artificial light Mar 17: USS Holland launched, the first practical submarine Jun 27: The first solo circumnavigation of the globe completed at Rhode island by Joshua Slocum in Spray (started from Boston, Mass on Apr 24, 1895) Zeppelin builds airship Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company founded The Curies discover Radium Oscar Wilde The Ballad of Reading Gaol Henry James The Turn of the Screw 1899-1902 Oct 11: Start of Second Boer War Nov 15: Winston Churchill captured by Boers Board of Education established in Britain Britain's first 'Garden City' laid out at Letchworth Valdemar Poulsen invents the tape recorder Johann Vaaler designs the paper clip Mar 6: Aspirin first marketed by Bayer Elgar Enigma Variations; Sibelius Finlandia Sigmund Freud The Interpretation of Dreams 1900 Jan 24: Spion Kop reached by British; massive losses by Lancashire Regiment Feb 9: Davis Cup tennis competition established Feb 27: Labour Party formed Feb 28: Relief of Ladysmith after a siege of 118 days May 17: Relief of Mafeking June/July: Boxer rising in Peking School leaving age in Britain raised to 14 years Central Line opens in London: underground is electrified Dec 10: Nobel prizes first awarded Dec 14: Max Planck publishes his book on Quantum Mechanics Escalator shown at Paris exhibition 1901 Commonwealth of Australia founded Jan 22: Queen Victoria dies ï¿½ Edward VII king Feb 2: Queen Victoria's funeral ï¿½ interred beside Prince Albert in the Frogmore Mausoleum at Windsor Great Park. Mar 31: Seventh full British Census (available for inspection Jan 2002 ) June: Denunciation of use of concentration camps by British in Boer War Aug 30: Hubert Cecil Booth patents the vacuum cleaner Oct 2: Britain's first submarine launched Dec 12: First successful radio transmission across the Atlantic, by Marconi Morse code from Cornwall to Newfoundland Ragtime introduced into American jazz Trans-Siberian Railway opens 1902 Balfour's Education Act provides for secondary education Cremation Act cremation can only take place at officially recognised establishments, and with two death certificates issued May 24: Empire Day (later Commonwealth Day) first celebrated May 31: Treaty of Vereeniging ends Second Boer War Aug 9: Coronation of Edward VII, following the end of the Boer War Oct 24: Arthur Conan Doyle reluctantly accepts a knighthood Marie Curie discovers radioactivity USA acquires perpetual control of Panama Canal (not yet completed, see 1913 ) Discovery by physicist Heaviside of atmospheric layer which aids conduction of radio waves Times Literary Supplement appears for first time 1903 Workers' Education Association (WEA) formed in Britain Women's Social and Political Union formed in Britain by Emmeline Pankhurst Jul 19: First Tour de France cycle race finishes Dec 14: First flight of Wilbur & Orville Wright (some say 17th Dec) Henry Ford sets up his motor company Bertrand Russell Principles of Mathematics Shaw Man and Superman Apr 8: France and UK sign the Entente Cordiale May 4: America takes over construction of the Panama Canal from the French (completed 1914 ) Jul 16: 'Bloomsday' in Dublin the day James Joyce uses for his novel Ulysses Dec: Metropolitan Line in London goes electric First successful caterpillar track is made Ordnance Survey maps Epoch 3 date range 1904-1939 (see 1919 ) Barrie Peter Pan (legend says he invented the name Wendy for this, but the name exists in census records as early as 1880) Puccini Madame Butterfly 1905 The title 'Prime Minister' noted in a royal warrant for the first time placed the Prime Minister in order of precedence in Britain immediately after the Archbishop of York Aliens Act in Britain: Home Office controls immigration Germany lays down the first Dreadnought battleship Apr 11: Einstein publishes Special Theory of Relativity (see 1916 ) Nov 28: Irish nationalist Arthur Griffith founds Sinn Fï¿½in Dec 5: Part of the roof of Charing Cross station in London collapsed, killing 5 people the station remained closed until 19 March 1906 Dec 9: French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State Picasso begins his 'Pink Period' in Paris Lehar The Merry Widow Free school meals for poor children Feb 10: Launching of HMS Dreadnought, first turbine-driven battleship Mar 15: Rolls-Royce Ltd registered Apr 18: San Francisco earthquake and fire: Contemporary accounts reported that 498 people lost their lives, though modern estimates put the number in the several thousands. More than half the city's population of 400,000 were left homeless May 26: Vauxhall Bridge opened in London Sep 12: Newport transporter bridge opened Sep 20: Launching of Cunard's RMS Mauretania on the Tyne Dec 15: Opening of the Piccadilly Line in London Freud and Jung begin their association Amundsen traverses the north-west passage HW Fowler The King's English 1907 School medical system begins New Zealand becomes a Dominion Jan 7: Selborne Memorandum, reviewing the situation in favour of a Union in South Africa (see 1910 ) Imperial College, London, is established First airship flies over London Jul: Leo Hendrik Baekeland patents Bakelite, the first plastic invented that held its shape after being heated Aug 1-9: Baden-Powell leads the first Scout camp on Brownsea Island Nov 9: The Cullinan Diamond presented to Edward VII on his birthday Pavlov begins his studies on conditioned reflexes Lumiere develops a process for colour photography Diaghilev begins to popularise ballet First 'Cubist' exhibition in Paris Mahler Symphony No.8 Coal Mines Regulation Act in Britain limits men to an eight hour day Separate courts for juveniles established in Britain Lord Baden-Powell starts the Boy Scout movement Jun 30: The Tunguska event occurs near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Siberia most likely caused by the air burst of a large meteoroid or comet fragment Jul1: SOS became effective as an international signal of distress (see 1909 ) Aug 12: First 'Model T' Ford made Grahame The Wind in the Willows 1909 Jan 1: Old Age Pensions Act came into force Jan 16: Ernest Shackleton's expedition finds the magnetic South Pole Mar 15: Selfridges department store opens in London Jul 25: Bleriot flies across the Channel (36 minutes, Calais to Dover) Aug 11: First SOS signal sent (some say June 10 by Cunard liner Slavonia) Beveridge Report prompts creation of labour Exchanges Peary reaches the north pole First commercial manufacture of Bakelite start of the plastic age 1910 Railway strike and coal strikes in Britain May 6: Edward VII dies ï¿½ George V king May 31: Union of South Africa formed Botha first Prime Minister Dr Crippen caught by radio telegraphy; hanged 23 Nov at Pentonville Madame Curie isolates radium Tango becomes popular in North America and Europe Stravinsky The Fire Bird Parliament Act in Britain reduces the power of the House of Lords British MPs receive a salary Feb 18: First official flight with air mail takes place in Allahabad, British India Apr 2 Census: Pop. E&W 36M, Scot 4.6M, NI 1.25M May 15: Standard Oil in USA broken up into 33 companies Jun 22: Coronation of George V Jul 19: Opening of Royal Liver Building in Liverpool Dec 12: Delhi replaces Calcutta as the capital of India Dec 14: National Insurance in Britain Dec 14: Amundsen reaches the south pole First British Official Secrets Act Rutherford: theory of atomic structures GK Chesterton The Innocence of Father Brown Irving Berlin Alexander's Rag-time Band 1911-1912 Strikes by seamen, dock and transport workers 1912 Irish Home Rule crisis grows in Britain Jan 18: Captain Scott's last expedition he and his team reach the south pole on Jan 18th; all die on the way back, their bodies found in November; news reached London 10 Feb 1913 Mar 1: Albert Berry makes the first parachute jump from a moving airplane (in USA) Apr 14: The 'unsinkable' Titanic sinks on maiden voyage loss of 1,513 lives May 13: Royal Flying Corps (later the RAF) founded in Britain Britain nationalises the telephone system Daily Herald founded lasts until 1964 Discovery of the 'Piltdown Man' hoax, exposed in 1953 1913 Jan 30: Third Irish Home Rule Bill rejected by House of Lords threat of civil war in Ireland formation of Ulster Volunteers to oppose Home Rule Suffragette demonstrations in London Apr 2: Mrs Emmeline Pankhurst sentenced to three years imprisonment May 20: First Chelsea Flower Show held in London Jun 4: Emily Davison, a suffragette, runs out in front of the king's horse, Anmer, at the Epsom Derby and dies Trade Union Act in Britain establishes the right to use Union funds for political purposes Aug: Invention of stainless steel by Harry Brearley of Sheffield Oct 14: 439 miners die in the Senghenydd Colliery Disaster, Britain's worst pit disaster Dec 21: Arthur Wynne's 'word-cross,' the first crossword puzzle, is published in the New York World Geiger invents his counter to measure radioactivity Stravinsky The Rite of Spring DH Lawrence Sons and Lovers Shaw Pygmalion First World War (the "Great War") 1914 Chaplin and De Mille make their first films Burroughs Tarzan of the Apes Vaughan Williams London Symphony Jan 19: First Zeppelin air raid on England, over East Anglia ï¿½ four killed Feb: Submarine blockade of Britain starts Apr-May: Second Battle of Ypres poison gas used for first time Apr 25: Gallipoli campaign starts (declared ANZAC Day in 1916) May 7: RMS Lusitania sunk by German submarine off coast of Ireland ï¿½ 1,198 died May 16: First meeting of a British WI (Women's Institute) took place in Llanfairpwll (aka Llanfair PG), Anglesey Junkers construct first fighter aeroplane Coalition Government formed in Britain under Asquith First automatic telephone exchange in Britain Buchan The Thirty-nine Steps 1916 Feb-Dec: Battle of Verdun appalling losses on both sides, stalemate continues Apr 24: Easter Rising in Ireland ï¿½ after the leaders are executed, public opinion backs independence May 21: First use of Daylight Saving Time in UK (although Sir Ernest Shackleton, on Endurance ice-bound in the Weddell Sea, advanced the expedition's time by one hour on Sunday 26th Sep 1915) May 31-Jun 1: Battle of Jutland only major naval battle between the British and German fleets Jun 5: Sinking of HMS Hampshire and death of Kitchener Sep 15: First use of tanks in battle, but of limited effect (Battle of the Somme 1 July18 Nov: over 1 million casualties) Aug 3: Sir Roger Casement hanged at Pentonville Prison for treason Nov 19: Samuel Goldwyn and Edgar Selwyn establish Goldwyn Pictures Dec 7: Lloyd-George becomes British Prime Minister of the coalition Compulsory military service introduced in Britain Einstein General Theory of Relativity Kafka Metamorphosis February revolution in Russia; Tsar Nicholas abdicates USA declares war on Germany Battle of Cambrai first use of massed tanks, but effect more psychological than actual Apr 16: Lenin returns to Russia after exile Apr 17: USA declares war on Germany May 26: George V changes surname from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor (Royal proclamation on 17 July) Jul-Nov: Battle of Passchendaele little gained by either side Oct 17: Trans-Australian railway line completed Nov 2: Balfour Declaration: Britain will support a Jewish state in Palestine Nov 7: 'October' Revolution in Russia Bolsheviks overthrow provisional government; Lenin becomes Chief Commissar Dec 6: Halifax (Nova Scotia) Explosion, one of the world's largest artificial non-nuclear explosions to date: a ship loaded with wartime explosives blew up after a collision, obliterating buildings and structures within two square kilometres of the explosion Dec 9: British forces capture Jerusalem Ministry of Labour is established in Britain Daniel Jones English Pronouncing Dictionary 1918 Mar 8: Start of world-wide 'flu pandemic Apr 1: Royal Air Force replaces The Royal Flying Corps Jul-Aug: Second Battle of the Marne: last major German offensive Oct 1: Arab forces under Lawrence of Arabia capture Damascus Nov 11: Armistice signed Vote for women over 30, men over 21 (except peers, lunatics and felons) Dec: First woman elected to House of Commons, Countess Markiewicz as a Sinn Fï¿½in member refused to take her seat War of Independence in Ireland 1918-1939 Art Deco Period (Art & Antiques) 1919 Britain adopts a 48-hour working week Irish MPs meet as Dail Eirann Jan 18: Bentley Motors founded Jun 15: Alcock and Brown complete first nonstop flight across the Atlantic Jun 28: Treaty of Versailles signed Nov 28: First woman to sit in House of Commons (Viscountess Astor) Sir Ernest Rutherford became the first person to transmute one element into another when he converted nitrogen into oxygen through nuclear reaction Ordnance Survey maps Epoch 4 date range 1919-1943 (see 1945 ) Keynes The Economic Consequencies of War Sassoon War Poems HL Mencken The American Language 1920 Jan 16: Prohibition starts in USA (lasts until Dec 1933 ) Feb: First roadside petrol filling station in UK opened by the Automobile Association at Aldermaston on the Bath Road Nov 15: First General Assembly of the League of Nations (in Geneva) Regular cross-channel air service starts Oxford University admits women to degrees Marconi opens a radio broadcasting station in Britain Thompson patents his machine gun (Tommy gun) DH Lawrence Women in Love 1921 Jun 19 Census: Pop. E&W 37.9M, Scot 4.9M, NI 1.25M Dec 6: Anglo-Irish Treaty signed in London, leading to the formation of the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland Irish Regiments of British Army disbanded Railway Act in Britain amalgamates companies only four remained Insulin discovery announced Chaplin The Kid, first full-length film Prokofiev The Love for Three Oranges 1922 Law of Property Act the manorial system effectively ended Jun 1: Royal Ulster Constabulary founded Oct: BBC established as a monopoly, and begins transmissions in November (2LO in London on 14 Nov; 5IT in Birmingham and 2ZY in Manchester on 15 Nov) Dec 6: Irish Free State comes into existence Einstein General Theory of Relativity TS Eliot The Waste Land Joyce Ulysses published Feb 2 in Paris 1923 Jan 1: The majority of the railway companies in Great Britain grouped into four main companies, the Big Four: LNER, GWR, SR, LMSR lasted until nationalisation in 1948 Feb 16: Howard Carter unsealed the burial chamber of Tutankhamun Mussolini becomes dictator of Italy Apr 28: First Wembley cup final ( West Ham 0, Bolton 2) ï¿½ "I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles," popular song of the time, became the West Ham anthem Jul 13: The Hollywood Sign is officially dedicated in the hills above Hollywood Sep 28: First publication of Radio Times Nov: Massive inflation in Germany leads to collapse of the currency Roads in Great Britain classified with A and B numbers Hubble shows there are galaxies beyond the Milky Way First American broadcasts heard in Britain Dec 31: Chimes of Big Ben broadcast on radio for the first time Freud The Ego and the Id PG Wodehouse The Inimitable Jeeves Gershwin Rhapsody in Blue Jan 4Nov 4: First Labour government in Britain, headed by Ramsay MacDonald Jan 21: Death of Lenin; succeeded by Stalin Jan 22: Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister Feb 5: Hourly Greenwich Time Signals from the Royal Greenwich Observatory (the 'pips') were first broadcast by the BBC Mar 31: British Imperial Airways begins operations (formed by merger of four British airline companies became BOAC in 1940 ) Forster A Passage to India 1925 Britain returns to gold standard Jul 18: Adolf Hitler publishes Mein Kampf Fitzgerald The Great Gatsby Apr 21: Princess Elizabeth born May 3: General Strike begins, lasted until May 12 (mine workers for 6 months more) Oct 31: Death of Harry Houdini First public demonstration of television (TV) by John Logie Baird Electricity (Supply) Act authorised the creation of the National Grid in the UK (Initial grid completed 1933 , fully established in 1938 ) Adoption of children is legalised in Britain May 9: Richard E Byrd claims to make a flight over north pole, later disputed (see 1929 ) Dec 28: Highest recorded cricket innings (1,107 runs by Victoria v NSW at Melbourne) Kodak produces 16mm movie film Walt Disney arrives in Hollywood HW Fowler Dictionary of Modern English Usage 1927 Jan 7: First transatlantic telephone call New York City to London Jan 22: First live broadcast in the world on radio of a football match (by BBC Arsenal v Sheffield United at Highbury) May 9: Canberra becomes Federal Capital of Australia (Government moved in on this date; construction had begun in 1913) May 1: First cooked meals on a scheduled flight introduced by Imperial Airways from London to Paris May 20-21: Lindbergh makes solo flight across the Atlantic, in 33ï¿½ hours May 31: Last Ford Model T rolls off assembly line Jul 24: The Menin Gate war memorial unveiled at Ypres Parts of the Diocese of Winchester split off to create the two new Diocese of Guildford and Portsmouth Release of the first 'talkie' film (The Jazz Singer) 1928 Women over 21 get vote in Britain ï¿½ same qualification for both sexes Apr 19: The 125th and final fascicle of the Oxford English Dictionary is published (see 1884 ) Apr 26: Madame Tussauds opens in London Teleprinters start to be used Jul 14: First pylon erected for the National Grid Sep 15: Sir Alexander Fleming accidentally discovers penicillin (results published 1929) Nov 1: Turkey adopts Roman alphabet Nov 18: Walt Disney's 'Mickey Mouse' pictures begin Dec 20: First chip shop opened in Guiseley by Harry Ramsden ï¿½ Britain's longest established restaurant chain DH Lawrence Lady Chatterley's Lover Ravel Bolero Brecht and Weill The Threepenny Opera 1929 Abolition of Poor Law system in Britain Minimum age for a marriage in Britain (which had been 14 for a boy and 12 for a girl) now 16 for both sexes, with parental consent (or a licence) needed for anyone under 21 Feb 14: Screen debut of Mickey Mouse same day as St Valentine's Day massacre! Oct 24: Wall Street crash on 'Black Thursday', followed on Oct 29 by 'Black Tuesday, regarded as the start of the Great Depression' ï¿½ the Dow Jones Index didn't recover to its pre-crash level until 1954 BBC begins experimental TV transmissions Nov 29: Richard E Byrd becomes the first person to fly over the South Pole Einstein Unified Field Theory Hemingway A Farewell to Arms 1930 Jan 31: 3M begins marketing Scotch Tape Feb 1: The Times publishes its first crossword puzzle, compiled by Adrian Bell, aged 28 Mar 6: Clarence Birdseye first marketed frozen peas (Springfield, Mass) First Nazis elected to the German Reichstag Jul 30: Uruguay beats Argentina 4-2 to win the first Football World Cup Oct 5: R101 airship disaster British abandons airship construction Youth Hostel Association (YHA) founded in Britain Nov 13: Discovery of dwarf planet Pluto by Tombaugh Film All Quiet on the Western Front 1931 Apr 14: Highway Code first issued Apr 26 Census: Pop. E&W 40M, Scot 4.8M, NI 1.24M (but details destroyed by fire during WW2) May 1: Empire State Building completed in New York Statute of Westminster: British Dominions become independent sovereign states Oct 21: National Government formed to deal with economic crisis Britain comes off gold standard Collapse of the German banking system; 3,000 banks there close Unemployment in Germany reaches 5.66M 1932 Great Hunger March of unemployed to London Moseley founds British Union of Fascists Roosevelt elected President of USA Slump grows worse in USA; 5,000 banks close, unemployment rises Cockroft and Walton accelerate particles to disintegrate an atomic nucleus Mar 19: Sydney Harbour Bridge opened May 20/21: Amelia Earhart first solo nonstop flight across Atlantic by a female pilot Jul 12: Lambeth Bridge in London opens Oct 3: Iraq gains independence from Britain Oct 3: The Times introduces Times New Roman typeface Sir Thomas Beecham established the London Philharmonic Orchestra Huxley Brave New World (see 1963 ) 1933 Jan 30: Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany Roosevelt launches his 'New Deal' Oxford Union: "This House will in no circumstances fight for King and Country" Jul 1: London Transport came into being Sep: Last pylon of the initial National Grid erected Nov 12: First known photos of the 'Loch Ness Monster' taken Dec 5: Prohibition ends in USA ICI scientists discover polythene Only 6 pennies minted in Britain this year 1934 Hitler becoms Fuehrer of Germany Mao Tse-tung's 'Long March' starts in China Mar 26: Driving tests introduced in UK? (but see 1935 ) Apr 4: 'Cats eyes' first used in the road in UK May 28: The Glyndebourne festival inaugurated Jun 9: Cartoon character Donald Duck first appears Jul 18: King George V opens Mersey Tunnel Sep 26: RMS Queen Mary launched Nov 30: First time a steam locomotive goes at 100 mph ('Flying Scotsman') Graves I, Claudius Flying Down to Rio first Rogers/Astaire film 1935 Feb 28: Nylon first produced by Gerard J. Berchet of Wallace Carothers' research group at DuPont (there is no evidence to the widely-supposed story that the name derives from New York-London) Mar 12: Hore-Belisha introduces pedestrian crossings and speed limits for built-up areas in Britain London adopts a 'Green Belt' scheme Jun 1: Voluntary driving tests introduced in UK (others say Mar 13, but see also 1934 ) Jul 30: Penguin paperbacks launched Sep 3: Land speed record of 301.13 mph by Malcolm Campbell on Bonneville Salt Flats Oct 3: Italy invades Abyssinia Dec 17: First flight of the Douglas DC-3 'Dakota' aircraft Talking books started with the publication of Agatha Christie's The Murder of Roger Ackroyd and Joseph Conrad's Typhoon TS Eliot Murder in the Cathedral 1936 Jan 20: George V dies; Edward VIII king May 5: First flight of a Spitfire Jet engine first tested May 27: RMS Queen Mary makes maiden voyage Jesse Owens wins 4 gold medals at Berlin Olympic Games Jul 18: Spanish Civil War starts Jul 24: 'Speaking clock' service starts in UK Oct: Jarrow march to London Nov 2: British Broadcasting Corporation initiates the BBC Television Service, world's first public TV transmission Nov 30: Crystal Palace destroyed by fire Dec 5: Edward VIII abdicates (announced Dec 10) ï¿½ popular carol that Christmas: "Hark the Herald Angels sing, Mrs Simpson's got our King" Duke of York becomes George VI Chaplin film Modern Times Prokofiev Peter and the Wolf 1937 Apr 12: Frank Whittle ground-tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft Apr 26: German planes bomb Guernica in Spain Apr 27: Golden Gate Bridge opens in San Francisco May 6: Zeppelin Hindenburg destroyed by fire in USA after lightning struck it at the landing tower May 12: Coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth May 28: The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco officially opened May 28: Neville Chamberlain becomes Prime Minister policy of appeasement towards Hitler Jun 3: Duke of Windsor marries Wallis Simpson Jul 5: Spam introduced into the market by Hormel Foods Corporation Jul 7: Japanese forces invade China Dec 4: The Dandy first published Dec 21: Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs opens first feature-length animated cartoon Alan Turing publishes outline of his 'Turing Machine' '999' emergency telephone call facility starts in London Billy Butlin opens his first holiday camp Steinbeck Of Mice and Men; JRR Tolkien The Hobbit Carl Orff Carmina Burana Mar 12: Germany invades and annexes Austria Jul 3: 'Mallard' does 126 mph (203 km/h); still world record for a steam locomotive Sep 27: Largest ocean liner ever built Queen Elizabeth launched on Clydebank Sep 29: Chamberlain visits Hitler in Munich promises 'peace in our time' Oct 30: Orson Welles broadcasts his radio play of HG Wells's The War of the Worlds, causing panic in the USA Principle of paid holidays established in Britain HMS Rodney first ship to be equipped with radar First practical ball-point pen produced by Hungarian journalist, Lajos Biro 1939-45 Second World War (the "Peoples War") 1939 Sep 1: Germany invades Poland Sep 3: Britain and France declare war on Germany at 5pm Sep 6: First air-raid on Britain Sep 11: British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France Oct 14: HMS Royal Oak sunk in Scapa Flow with loss of 810 lives Dec 7: 'First flight' of Canadian troops sail for Britain 7,400 men on 5 ships Dec 17: Admiral Graf Spee scuttled outside Montevideo Start of evacuation of women and children from London Coldest winter in Britain since 1894, though this could not be publicised at the time 1940 Apr 1:BOAC starts operations, replacing Imperial and British Airways Ltd May 11: National Government formed under Churchill May 13: Germany invades France May 15: Nylon stockings go on sale for the first time in the United States May 27-Jun 4: Evacuation of British Army at Dunkirk Jun 25: Fall of France Aug 21: Trotsky assassinated in Mexico on Stalin's orders Sep 7: Germany launches bombing blitz on Britain, the first of 57 consecutive nights of bombing Sep 12: Prehistoric wall paintings found at Lascaux Caves in France Sep 15: Battle of Britain: massive waves of German air attacks decisively repulsed by the RAF Hitler postpones invasion of Britain Nov 7: Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapses in USA four months after its completion (famously filmed) Nov 14: Coventry heavily bombed and the Cathedral almost completely destroyed First successful helicopter flight?? (probably earlier) Films: Fantasia, The Great Dictator Hemingway For Whom the Bell Tolls 1941 No census ï¿½ total British population estimated at 48.2M May 10: Rudolf Hess flies to Scotland (to offer peace?) May 27: 'Bismark' sunk July 1: First Canadian armoured regiments arrive in Britain Sep 27: First Liberty ship (SS Patrick Henry) launched in Baltimore Oct 31: Sculptures (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln) on Mount Rushmore completed ï¿½ started in 1927 Sunday Dec 7: Japan attackes US fleet at Pearl Harbour Dec 8: USA enters the War Dec: Canadian forces given operation role in defending south coast of England Dec 24: Hong Kong falls to the Japanese Manhattan Project of nuclear research begins in America Britain introduces severe rationing First British jet aircraft flies, based on work of Whittle Bailey invents his portable military bridge First use of antibiotics May 30: Over 1,000 bombers raid Cologne Jun 4: Battle of Midway Aug 19: Abortive raid on Dieppe, largely by Canadian troops Oct 3: First successful launch of V2 rocket in Germany first man-made object to reach space Oct 3: The world was blessed with me ! Oct 23-Nov 4: Battle of El Alamein Montgomery defeats Rommel Nov 19: Battle of Stalingrad ï¿½ in Operation Uranus, Soviet Union forces turn the tide of the German invasion of the USSR Dec 2: Manhattan Project a team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction Invention of world's first programmable computer by Alan Turing in co-operation with Max Neumann ï¿½ used to crack German codes Beveridge Report Social Security and National Insurance Gilbert Murray founds Oxfam May 16: 'Dam Buster' raids on Ruhr dams by RAF Allies invade Italy Benito Mussolini resigns as Italian Dictator, 24 July Round-the-clock bombing of Germany begins Nov 30: Tehran Conference Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin meet Antibiotic Streptomycin isolated by Waksman 1944 Apr 6: PAYE income tax begins Jun 4: Allies enter Rome Jun 6: D-Day invasion of Normandy Jun 12: First V1 flying bombs hit London Sep 8: First V2 rocket bombs hit London Sep 11: Allies enter Germany Dec 16: Battle of the Bulge: German counter-offensive Butler Education Act: Britain to provide secondary education for all children 1945 Feb 4: Yalta Conference between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin Mar 29: Last V1 flying bomb attack Apr 25: Berlin surrounded by Russian troops Apr 30: Hitler commits suicide May 8: VE Day May 9: Channel Islands liberated Jun 26: UN Charter signed, in San Francisco Jul 16: First ever atomic bomb exploded in a test in New Mexico (although there were other forms of atomic device before that, such as the Pile at Stagg Field, first critical on 2nd Dec 1942) Jul 26: Labour win UK General Election Churchill out of office Jul 29: BBC Light Programme starts Aug 6: Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima Aug 9: Atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki Aug 15: VJ Day Sep 2: Japanese surrender was signed aboard USS Missouri Oct 24: United Nations Organisation comes into existence (charter ratified by the five permanent members of the Security Council Republic of China, France, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States and by a majority of the other 46 signatories) Nov 4: UNESCO founded Nov 29: The Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia is declared Dec 5: Loss of 'Flight 19' on a training exercise starts the Bermuda Triangle legend Dec 27: World Bank established Ordnance Survey maps Epoch 5 dates range from 1945 Orwell Animal Farm Flora Thompson Lark Rise to Candleford 1946 Jan 1: First civil flight from Heathrow Airport Mar 1: Bank of England nationalised Mar 5: Churchill uses the term 'Iron Curtain' in a speech in Missouri Transition to National Health Service starts in Britain (came into being 5th July 1948) Jul 25: US starts nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll hence the name adopted for the garment which 'reveals the most potent forces of nature'! Sep: First Cannes Film Festival held Oct 7: Start of Dick Barton, Special Agent on BBC radio until March 1951 Oct 23: First session of new United Nations Organisation held, in Flushing Meadow, New York Alistair Cooke starts his regularLetter from America on BBC radio until 2004 Russell History of Western Philosophy O'Neill The Iceman Cometh 1947 Most severe winter in Britain for 53 years at start of the year heavy snow and much flooding later Jan 1: Coal Mines nationalised Feb 7: First Dead Sea Scrolls found (discovered between 1947 and 1956 in eleven caves) Feb 23: International Organization for Standardization (ISO) founded Mar 1: International Monetary Fund begins financial operations Apr 1: School leaving age raised to 15 in Britain Aug 14/15: India gains independence: sub-continent partitioned to form India (Secular, Hindu majority) and Pakistan (Islamic) First British nuclear reactor developed Oct 14: Chuck Yeager first to break the sound barrier Oct 26: British military occupation ends in Iraq Nov 20: Marriage of Princess Elizabeth (later Elizabeth II) and Philip Mountbatten in Westminster Abbey Tennessee Williams A Streetcar Named Desire 1948 Jan 1: British Railways nationalised UN sanctions the creation of the State of Israel first Israel/Arab war Jan 30: Gandhi assassinated in Delhi Apr 3: Marshall Plan signed by President Truman for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe (aid had started in 1947 and ended in 1951) Policy of apartheid starts in South Africa Jul 1: Berlin airlift starts (to 30 Sep 1949) Jul 5: National Health Service (NHS) begins in Britain Jul 29: London Olympics begin Oct 12: First Morris Minor produced British Citizenship Act : all Commonwealth citizens qualify for British passports Transistor radio invented Long-playing record (LP) invented by Goldmark Kinsey Report in USA Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male World Health Organisation (WHO) established as part of UN 200 inch reflecting telescope completed at Mount Palomar, California (construction started in 1936) 'Steady State' theory of the Universe proposed by Bondi and Gold Mailer The Naked and the Dead 1949 Mar 15: Clothes rationing ends in Britain Apr 4: Twelve nations sign The North Atlantic Treaty creating NATO Apr 20: First Badminton Horse Trials held May 12: Russians lift the Berlin blockade Aug 29: Russians explode their first atomic bomb Sep 30: Berlin airlift ends De Haviland produces the Comet first jet airliner (see 1952 ) Maiden flight of the Bristol Brabazon (broken up in 1953 for scrap) Orwell 1984, (written in 1948, for which the title in an anagram) Arthur Miller Death of a Salesman Film The Third Man Mar 8: McCarthy begins Inquiry into Un-American Activities (Tydings Committee) May 19: Points rationing ends in Britain May 26: Petrol rationing ends in Britain Jun 25: Korean War starts (to 27 Jul 1953) Jun 28: England beaten 1-0 at soccer by the USA in the World Cup Jul 11: Andy Pandy first seen on BBC TV Sep 9: Soap rationing ends in Britain Oct 7: China invades Tibet Dec 28: The Peak District becomes the Britain's first National Park UN Building completed in New York (opened 9 Jan 1951) 1951 Census: Pop. E&W 43.7M, Scot 5M. NI 1.37M Jan 1: First episode of The Archers broadcast May 3: Festival of Britain and Royal Festival Hall open on South Bank, London May 28: First Goon Show broadcast Oct 31: Zebra crossings introduced into law in Britain Dec 20: Electricity first produced by nuclear power, from Experimental Breeder Reactor I in Idaho (see 1962 ) Salinger Catcher in the Rye Britten Billy Budd Feb 1: First TV detector van commissioned in Britain Feb 6: George VI dies; Elizabeth II queen, returns from Kenya Feb 21: Identity Cards abolished in Britain Mar 17: Utility furniture and clothing scheme ends Apr: Kingsway tram tunnel in London closes May 2: First commercial jet airliner service launched, by BOAC Comet between London and Johannesburg Jul 5: Last tram runs in London (Woolwich to New Cross) Aug 16: Lynmouth flood disaster Sep 6: DH110 crashes at Farnborough Air Show, 26 killed Sep 29: John Cobb killed in attempt on world water speed record on Loch Ness Oct 5: End of tea rationing in Britain Oct 3: Britain explodes her first atomic bomb, in Monte Bello Islands, Australia Oct 8: Harrow & Wealdstone rail crash, 112 killed Nov 1: The first H-bomb ever ('Mike') was exploded by the USA ï¿½ the mushroom cloud was 8 miles across and 27 miles high. The canopy was 100 miles wide. Radioactive mud fell out of the sky followed by heavy rain. 80 million tons of earth was vaporised. Nov 5: Eisenhower sweeps to power as US President Nov 14: First regular UK singles chart published by the New Musical Express Nov 25: Agatha Christie's The Mousetrap opens in London Dec 4: Great smog hits London Dec 18: Flower Pot Men first broadcast on TV Contraceptive pill invented (see 1961 ) Radioactive carbon used for dating prehistoric objects Bonn Convention: Britain, France and USA end their occupation of West Germany Becket Waiting for Godot Hemingway The Old Man and the Sea Steinbeck East of Eden 1953 Jan 31/Feb 2: Said to be the biggest civil catastrophe in Britain in the 20th century ï¿½ severe storm and high tides caused the loss of hundreds of lives ï¿½- effects travelled from the west coast of Scotland round to the south-east coast of England [The Netherlands were even worse affected with over a thousand deaths] Feb 5: Sweet rationing ends in Britain Mar 5: Death of Stalin Mar 26: Jonas Salk announces his polio vaccine Apr 13: Casino Royale published ï¿½ first James Bond book by Ian Fleming Apr 24: Winston Churchill knighted Apr 25: Francis Crick and James D Watson publish the double helix structure of DNA (see 1962 ) May 29: Everest conquered by Hillary and Tensing Jun 2: Coronation of Elizabeth II Jul 27: End of the Korean War Aug 12: USSR explodes Hydrogen Bomb Sep 26: Sugar rationing ends in Britain (after nearly 14 years) Nov 21: Piltdown Man skull declared a hoax by the Natural History Museum Nov 25: Hungary becomes the first football team outside the British Isles to beat England at home, winning 6-3 at Wembley Stadium Dec 1: Playboy magazine first published ï¿½ Marilyn Monroe as centrefold Dec 10: Pilkington Brothers patent the float glass process The Quatermass Experiment on TV Arthur Miller The Crucible 1954 Apr 11: 'The most boring day in history' since 1900? ï¿½ according to a survey by by True Knowledge, apparently nothing happened worthy of report! May 6: First sub 4 minute mile (Roger Bannister, 3 mins 59.4 secs) May 10: Bill Haley and the Comets release Rock Around the Clock May 29: First sub 5 minute mile by a woman (Diane Leather, 4 mins 59.6 secs) Jul 3: Food rationing officially ends in Britain Jul 5: BBC broadcasts its first television news bulletin Sep 30: First atomic powered sumbmarine USS Nautilus commissioned First comprehensive school opens in London (Kidbrooke School in the London Borough of Greenwich) Routemaster bus starts operating in London [or was it 1956?] (see also 2005 ) Nov: First transistor radios sold Dylan Thomas Under Milk Wood Golding Lord of the Flies Tennessee Williams Cat on a Hot Tin Roof British Top 20 begins first No.1 was Hold My Hand by Don Cornell 1955 Royal Commission on Common Land started ï¿½ led to 1965 Common Land Registration Act Jan 16: The Sooty Show first on TV Apr 7: Anthony Eden becomes Prime Minister Apr 12: Anti-polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk declared safe and effective to use (available to public 1 May 1956) Jul 27: Allied occupation of Austria (after WW2) ends Sep 22: Commercial TV starts in Britain first advert was for Gibbs SR toothpaste BBC Radio kills off Grace Archer in retaliation Sep 30: James Dean killed in a car crash Dec 12: Christopher Cockerell patents the hovercraft 'Mole' self-grip wrench patented by Thomas Coughtrie of Mole & Sons Nabokov Lolita Pop music: Bill Haley Rock Around the Clock 1956 Mar 1: Radiotelephony spelling alphabet introduced (Alpha, Bravo, etc) Apr 17: Premium Bonds first launched ï¿½ first prizes drawn on 1 Jun 1957 Apr 18: Grace Kelly marries Prince Rainier of Monaco May 24: The first Eurovision Song Contest is held in Lugano, Switzerland ï¿½ won by the host nation Jun 3: 3rd class travel abolished on British Railways (renamed 'Third Class' as 'Second Class', which had been abolished in 1875 leaving just First and Third Class) Sep 25: Submarine telephone cable under the Atlantic becomes operational Oct 23: Hungarians protest against Soviet occupation (protest crushed on 4 Nov) Oct 31: Britain and France invade Suez Nov 16: Suez canal blocked for a few months (see also 1957 & 1967 ) Britain constructs world's first large-scale nuclear power station in Cumberland Emergence of the Angry Young Men in English literature Pop music: Elvis Presley Heartbreak Hotel 1957 Jan 11: Harold Macmillan becomes Prime Minister Feb 16: BBC TV started to broadcast Six-Five Special, breaking the 'Toddlers' Truce' of no broadcasting 6-7pm Mar 8: Suez canal reopened by the Egyptians (see 1956 ) Mar 25: Treaty of Rome to create European Economic Community (EEC) of six countries: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg became operational Jan 1958 Apr 26: First Sky at Night broadcast by BBC ï¿½ presented by Patrick Moore May 14: Post-Suez petrol rationing ends May 15: Britain explodes her first hydrogen bomb, at Christmas Island Jun 1: Premium Bonds first prizes drawn June: Frisbee named Sep 26: West Side Story opens in New York Jodrell Bank radio telescope became operational just in time for Oct 4: Sputnik I launched by Soviet Union ï¿½ first artificial satellite Nov 3: Sputnik 2 launched by Soviet Union ï¿½ carried a dog ('Laika') Dec 4: Lewisham rail disaster 90 killed as two trains collide in thick fog and a viaduct collapses on top of them Queen's first Christmas TV broadcast Helvetica typeface developed (in Switzerland) Which? magazine published in UK Pop music: Elvis Presley All Shook Up 1958 Jan 31: Launch of Explorer 1 first American satellite Van Allen radiation belt round the earth confirmed by Explorer 1 Feb 6: Munich air disaster Manchester United team members killed Feb 25: CND launched Mar 17: USA launches its first satellite (Vanguard 1) space race with the USSR begins Easter: First anti-nuclear protest march to Aldermaston (emergence of CND) May 13: Velcro trade mark registered Jul 10: Britain's first parking meters installed, Mayfair, London Jul 26: Charles created Prince of Wales First life peerages awarded Race riots in Britain, at Notting Hill and in Nottingham Aug 3: USS Nautilus travels under the polar ice cap USA begins to produce Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) Electronic computers begin to be used in research, industry and commerce Stereophonic records come into use Oct 4: First jet-powered trans-Atlantic service starts (BOAC Comet 4) Oct 5: Charles de Gaulle establishes Fifth Republic in France and is elected President on 21 Dec Oct 13: Michael Bond publishes the first Paddington Bear story Oct 16: Blue Peter first broadcast on TV Oct 26: First commercial flight of Boeing 707 (NY to Paris) Dec 5: Inauguration of Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) in Britain (completed in 1979) Dec 5: Preston by-pass opens UK's first stretch of motorway The Beatles pop group formed Radio: Beyond Our Ken starts Beckett Krapp's Last Tape Pasternak Dr Zhivago Pop music: Jerry Lee Lewis Great Balls of Fire; Everly Brothers All I Have to do is Dream 1959 Jan 3: Alaska became the 49th state of the USA Feb 3: 'The Day The Music Died' plane crash kills Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and The Big Bopper Feb 17: Vanguard 2 satellite launched first to measure cloud-cover distribution Apr 25: St Lawrence Seaway opens May 24: Empire Day becomes Commonwealth Day Aug: BMC Mini car launched Aug 21: Hawaii becomes 50th State of the USA Sep 14: USSR crash-lands unmanned Lunik on the moon Oct 3: Postcodes introduced in Britain Nov 1: First section of M1 motorway opened Charles de Gaulle becomes French President European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established as an alternative to the EEC Leakey discovers 600,000 year-old human remains in Tanganyika Films Some Like it Hot and La Dolce Vita Anouilh Becket Pop music: Buddy Holly It Doesn't Matter Any More; Cliff Richard Living Doll; Adam Faith What Do You Want 'The Year that changed Jazz': Miles Davis Kind of Blue; Charles Mingus Mingus Ah Um; Dave Brubeck Time Out; Ornette Coleman The Shape of Jazz to Come 1960 Feb 3: Macmillan 'wind of change' speech in South Africa Seventeen African colonies become independent this year Sharpeville Massacre in South Africa Mar 17: New ï¿½1 notes issued by Bank of England Mar 18: Last steam locomotive of British Railways named Jul 21: Francis Chichester arrives in New York aboard Gypsy Moth II (took 40 days), winning the first single-handed transatlantic yacht race which he co-founded (see 1967 ) Aug 12: Echo I, the first (passive) communications satellite, launched Aug: Russian Sputnik 5 orbits carrying two dogs, 40 mice, 2 rats and a variety of plants on board all returned safely Sep 12: MoT tests on motor vehicles introduced Sep 29: Nikita Khrushchev disrupts the United Nations General Assembly with a number of angry outbursts Oct 1: HMS Dreadnought nuclear submarine launched Nov 2: Penguin Books found not guilty of obscenity in the Lady Chatterley's Lover case Nov 19: First vertical flight of a Harrier jump-jet, at Dunsfold Dec 9: First episode of Coronation Street broadcast on 17 Sept 2010 became the world's longest-running TV soap opera currently in production Dec 31: National Service ended First lasers demonstrated International Agreement to reserve Antarctica for scientific research (came into force 23 June 1961) Pinter The Caretaker Film: Hitchcock Psycho Pop music: Eddie Cochran Three Steps to Heaven; Shadows Apache; Beatles first album Please Please Me 1961 Jan 1: Farthing ceases to be legal tender in UK Jan 20: John F Kennedy becomes US President Mar 8: First US Polaris submarines arrive at Holy Loch Mar 13: Black & White ï¿½5 notes cease to be legal tender Mar 14: New English Bible (New Testament) published Apr 12: Yuri Gagarin first man in space followed shortly afterwards by Alan Shepard on 5th May Apr 23: Census: Pop. E&W 46M, Scot 5.1M, NI 1.4M May 1: Betting shops legal in Britain May 25: John F Kennedy announces his goal to put a "man on the moon" before the end of the decade Aug 13: Berlin Wall construction starts (wall existed until Nov 1989 ) Oct 10: Volcanic eruption on Tristan da Cunha ï¿½ whole population evacuated to Britain Oral contraceptive launched Private Eye first published in UK Joseph Heller Catch-22 Pop music: Helen Shapiro Walking Back to Happiness 1962 Feb 20: John Glenn first American in orbit (3 circuits in Friendship 7) Apr 26: US Ranger 4 crashes on the far side of the Moon without returning any scientific data May 25: Consecration of new Coventry Cathedral (old destroyed in WW2 blitz) Britten War Requiem Jun 15: First nuclear generated electricity to supplied National Grid (from Berkeley, Glos) Jul 10: First TV transmission between US and Europe (Telstar) first live broadcast on 23 Jul Jul 20: First passenger-carrying hovercraft enters service, along the North Wales Coast from Moreton to Rhyl ï¿½ but ends Sep 14. Aug 5: Marilyn Monroe found dead Aug 5: Nelson Mandela jailed Aug 6: Jamaica gains full independence from the United Kingdom Oct 5: First James Bond film Dr No released in UK Oct 24: Cuba missile crisis ï¿½ brink of nuclear war Nov 24: That Was The Week That Was first broadcast on BBC TV Nov 28: Britain and France agree to construct Concorde (see 1969 ) Dec 22: No frost-free nights in Britain till 5 Mar 1963 Britain passes Commonwealth Immigrants Act to control immigration Nobel Prize awarded to Watson, Crick, and Wilkins for discovery of molecular structure of DNA (see 1953 ) Thalidomide withdrawn after it causes deformities in babies Film Jules et Jim Solzhenitsyn A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich Pop music: Beatles Love Me Do 1963 Jan: Cold weather forces cancellation of most football matches (only 4 English First Division matches in the month) the first 'pools panel' created Mar 27: Beeching Report on British Railways (the 'Beeching Axe') Jun 5: Secretary of State for War John Profumo resigns in a sex scandal Jun 16: Valentina Tereshkova first woman in space Jun 20: The "red telephone" link established between Soviet Union and United States following the Cuban Missile Crisis Aug 1: Minimum prison age raised to 17 Aug 8: 'Great Train Robbery' on Glasgow to London mail train Aug 28: Martin Luther King gives his I have a dream speech Sep 17: Fylingdales (Yorks) early warning system operational Sep 25: Denning Report on Profumo affair Nov 18: Dartford Tunnel opens Nov 22: President Kennedy assassinated in Dallas, Texas; Aldous Huxley died the same day Nov 23: First episode of Dr Who on BBC TV France vetoes Britain's entry into EEC Pop music: Beatles achieve international fame release of Please Please Me, From Me to You, She Loves You, I Want to Hold Your Hand Rachel Carson Silent Spring, on the effects of chemical pesticides on the environment Film The Birds Jan 1: First 'Top of the Pops' on BBC TV Feb 7: The Beatles arrive on their first visit to the United States Feb 25: Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali) beats Sonny Liston Mar 28: Pirate radio ship Radio Caroline starts broadcasting Apr 9: First Greater London Council (GLC) election Apr 21: BBC2 TV starts Jul 31: US Ranger 7 sends back 4,000 photos from the moon before impact Aug 22: Match of the Day starts on BBC2 Sep 4: Forth road bridge opens Sep 15: The Sun newspaper founded in Britain, replacing the Daily Herald Oct 16: Harold Wilson becomes Prime Minister Oct 16: China explodes an atomic bomb CP Snow Corridors of Power Films Dr Strangelove and A Fistful of Dollars Pop music: Beatles Can't Buy Me Love, A Hard Day's Night, I Feel Fine; Rolling Stones It's All Over Now, Little Red Rooster; Animals House of the Rising Sun; Chuck Berry No Particular Place to Go 1965 Jan 24: Winston Churchill dies age 90 Feb 7: First US raids against North Vietnam Feb 25: I'll Never Find Another You by The Seekers No.1 in UK Mar 18: Cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov becomes the first man to 'walk' in space Apr 6: Launch of Early Bird commercial communications satellite Jul 16: Mont Blanc road tunnel opens (begun in 1957 ) Aug 1: TV ban on cigarette advertising in Britain Aug 5: Common Land Registration Act ï¿½ people who thought they still held common rights had to register them Aug 15: The Beatles play at Shea Stadium in New York City Sep 21: Oil strike by BP in North Sea (or natural gas?) Oct 8: Post Office Tower operational in London Oct 28: Death penalty for murder suspended in Britain for five-year trial period, then abolished 18 Dec 1969 Nov 11: Declaration of UDI in Rhodesia Dec 22: 70mph speed limit on British roads Britain enacts first Race Relations Act Pop music: Beatles Ticket to Ride, Help!, Day Tripper; Rolling Stones The Last Time; Kinks Tired of Waiting for You; Byrds Mr Tambourine Man; Bob Dylan Like a Rolling Stone 1966 Feb 3: Soft landing on moon by unmanned Luna 9 followed by Surveyor 1 Feb 14: Australia converts from £ to $ Mar 23: Archbishop of Canterbury meets Pope in Rome May 3: The Times begins to print news on its front page in place of classified advertisements May 16: Seamen's strike begins (ended 1 Jul) Jul 30: World Cup won by England at Wembley (4-2 in extra time v West Germany) Sep 8: First Severn road bridge opens Oct 21: Aberfan disaster ï¿½ slag heap slip kills 144, incl. 116 children Dec 1: First Christmas stamps issued in Britain Eighteen new universities were created in Britain between 1961ï¿½1966 Pop music: Sinatra Strangers in the Night; Beach Boys Good Vibrations 1967 Jan 4: Donald Campbell dies attempting to break his world water speed record on Conniston Water his body and Bluebird recovered in 2002 Jan 27: Three US astronauts killed in fire during Apollo launch pad test Mar 18: Torrey Canyon oil tanker runs aground off Lands End ï¿½ first major oil spill May 25: Celtic become the first British team to win the European Cup May 28: Francis Chichester arrives in Plymouth after solo circumnavigation in Gipsy Moth IV (he was knighted 7th July at Greenwich by the queen using the sword with which Elizabeth I had knighted Sir Francis Drake four centuries earlier see 1581 ) Jun 5-10: Six Day War in Middle East closes Suez Canal for 8 years (until 1975 ) Jun 27: First withdrawal from a cash dispenser (ATM) in Britain at Enfield branch of Barclays Jul 1: First colour TV in Britain Jul 13: Public Record Act ï¿½ records now closed for only 30 years (but the census is still closed for 100 years) Jul 18: Withdrawal from East of Suez by mid-70s announced Aug 14: Offshore pirate radio stations declared illegal by the UK Sep 3: Sweden changes rule of road to drive on right Sep 20: QE2 launched on Clydebank Sep 27: Queen Mary arrives Southampton at end of her last transatlantic voyage Sep 30: BBC Radios 1, 2, 3 & 4 open ï¿½ first record played on Radio 1 was the controversial Flowers in the Rain by 'The Move' Oct 5: Introduction of majority verdicts in English courts Oct 9: Che Guevara killed in Bolivia becomes a cult hero Oct 18: Russian spacecraft Venus IV became first successful probe to perform in-place analysis of the environment of another planet Dec 3: First human heart transplant (in South Africa by Christiaan Barnard) Richard Leakey discovers ancient human fossil remains in the Omo River valley in Ethiopia McLuhan The Medium is the Message Film The Graduate Stoppard Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead Pop music: Monkees I'm a Believer; Beatles All You Need is Love, Sgt Pepper; Procul Harem A Whiter Shade of Pale 1968 Jan 30: Tet Offensive begins in Vietnam Feb 18: British Standard Time introduced Summer Time became permanent [which I remember thinking was a great idea!], but contrary arguments prevailed and we reverted to GMT in October 1971 :( Apr 18: London Bridge sold (and eventually moved to Arizona) modern London Bridge, built around it as it was demolished, was opened in Mar 1973 Apr 20: Enoch Powell 'Rivers of Blood' speech on immigration Apr 23: Issue of 5p and 10p decimal coins in Britain May 10: Student riots in Paris May 29: Manchester United first English club to win the European Cup Jun 5: Robert F Kennedy shot dies next day Jul 29: Pope encyclical condemns all artificial forms of birth control Aug 11: Last steam passenger train service ran in Britain (CarlisleLiverpool) Aug: Soviets crush freedom movement in Czechoslovakia Sep 15: Severe flooding in England Sep 16: Two-tier postal rate starts in Britain Sep 27: Hair opens in London Oct 5: Beginning of disturbances in N Ireland Commenwealth Immigration Act further restricts immigrants Martin Luther King (Apr 4) and Robert Kennedy (Jun 6) both assassinated in USA Christmas: Apollo 8 orbits the moon with a crew of 3 and returns to Earth safely The term Pulsar first used for radio stars emitting regular pulses of energy Film 2001 Pop music: Rolling Stones Jumping Jack Flash; Beatles Hey Jude; Status Quo Pictures of Matchstick Men 1969 Jan 30: The Beatles' last public performance, on the roof of Apple Records in London Mar 2: Maiden flight of Concorde, at Toulouse Mar 7: Victoria Line tube opens in London Mar: B&Q (first DIY superstore) founded in Southampton by Richard Block and David Quayle Apr 17: Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 May 2: Maiden voyage of liner Queen Elizabeth 2 (QE2) Jul 1: Investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle Jul 20/21: Apollo 11 First men land on the moon (Neil Armstrong & Buzz Aldrin) Jul 31: Halfpenny ceases to be legal tender in Britain Aug 8: Iconic photograph taken of The Beatles crossing the zebra crossing on Abbey Road, London Aug 14: Civil disturbances in Ulster Britain sends troops to support civil authorities Aug 15-18: Woodstock Music Festival in NY State attracts 300,000 fans Sep 7: First episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus recorded Oct 14: 50p coin introduced in Britain (reduced in size 1998) Nov 19: Apollo 12 second manned landing on the moon (Charles Conrad & Alan Bean) Dec 18: Death penalty for murder abolished in Britain (had already been suspended since Oct 1965) Open University established in Britain, teaching via radio and TV (first students started Jan 1971) Labour Government issues White Paper In Place of Strife attempts to reform the Trades Union movement Roth Portnoy's Complaint Films Easy Rider and Midnight Cowboy Pop music: Marvin Gaye I Heard it on the Grapevine; Beatles Abbey Road 1970 Mar 16: Publication of complete New English Bible Apr 11: Apollo 13 launched oxygen tank explosion aborted the moon landing mission two days later successfully returned to Earth on 17 Apr Jun 17: Decimal postage stamps first issued for sale in Britain Jun 19: Edward Heath becomes Prime Minister Jul 30: Damages awarded to Thalidomide victims Sep 19: First Glastonbury Festival held Nov 20: Ten shilling note (50p after decimalisation) goes out of circulation in Britain Boeing 747 (Jumbo jet) goes into service Film MASH Pop music: Simon & Garfunkel Bridge Over Troubled Water 1971 Jan 1: Divorce Reform Act (1969) comes into force Jan 3: Open University starts Feb 15: Decimalisation of coinage in UK and Republic of Ireland Aug 9: Internment without trial introduced in N Ireland Aug 10: First of the 'Mr Men' books by Roger Hargreaves published Oct 28: Parliament votes to join Common Market (joined 1973) Oct 28: UK launches its first (and for many years only) satellite, Prospero Nov 13: Mariner 9, becomes the first spacecraft to orbit another planet (Mars) Banking and Financial Dealings Act replaced the Bank Holidays Act of 1871 Sunday becomes the seventh day in the week as UK adopts decision of the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) to call Monday the first day 'Greenpeace' founded Pop music: Led Zeppelin Stairway to Heaven recorded in Headley Grange 1972 Jan 30: 'Bloody Sunday' in Derry, Northern Ireland Feb 9: Power workers crisis Mar 2: Pioneer 10 launches, carrying a plaque featuring the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft May 22: Ceylon changes its name to Sri Lanka May 28: Duke of Windsor (ex-King Edward VIII) dies in Paris Oct 5: United Reformed Church founded out of Congregational and Presbyterian Churches in E&W Oct 10: John Betjeman becomes Poet Laureate Dec 7: Last manned moon mission, Apollo 17, launched crew take the ' Blue marble ' photograph of earth Britain imposes direct rule in Northern Ireland Strict anti-hijack measures introduced internationally, especially at airports 1973 Jan 1: Britain enters EEC Common Market (with Ireland and Denmark) Jan 27: Vietnam ceasefire agreement signed Mar 17: Modern London Bridge opened by the Queen Apr 1: VAT introduced in Britain Apr 3: First call made (in New York) on a portable cellular phone May 14: Skylab launched Sep 26: Concorde makes its first non-stop crossing of the Atlantic in record-breaking time Oct 6: Yom Kippur War precipitates world oil crisis Oct 22: Sydney Opera House opens Oct 14: Marriage of Princess Anne and Captain Mark Phillips in Westminster Abbey Dec 31: Miners strike and oil crisis precipitate 'three-day week' (till 9 Mar 1974) to conserve power Pop music: Pink Floyd Dark Side of the Moon 1974 Jun1: Flixborough disaster: explosion at chemical plant kills 28 people Jun 26: First scanning of a barcoded product (a 10-pack of Wrigley's Juicy Fruit gum at Marsh's Supermarket in Troy, Ohio) Aug 8: President Nixon resigns over Watergate scandal Nov 7: Lord Lucan disappears Nov 21: Birmingham pub bombings by the IRA Dec 5: Last episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus broadcast on BBC Several new 'counties' formed in Britain US Mariner satellite transmits detailed pictures of Venus and Mercury India becomes the sixth nation to explode a nuclear device 1975 Jan: First personal computer (Altair 8800) introduced (others say the Apple II in 1977) [see 1981 ] Feb 11: Margaret Thatcher becomes leader of Conservative party (in opposition) Feb 28: Moorgate tube crash in London over 43 deaths, greatest loss of life on the Underground in peacetime. The cause of the incident was never conclusively determined Mar 4: Charlie Chaplin knighted Apr 30: End of Vietnam war Jun 5: Suez canal reopens (after 8 years closure) Jun 5: UK votes in a referendum to stay in the European Community Jul 5: Arthur Ashe wins Wimbledon singles title Jul 17: American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft dock in orbit Oct 29: 'Yorkshire Ripper' commits his first murder Nov 3: First North Sea oil comes ashore Nov 20: General Franco dies in Spain; Juan Carlos declared King Nov 29: The name 'Micro-soft' coined by Bill Gates (Microsoft' became a Trademark the following year) Dec 27: Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act come into force Unemployment in Britain rises above 1M for first time since before WW2 Dutch Elm disease devastates trees across UK Domestic video cassette recorders introduced West Indies win the first cricket World Cup Film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Pop music: Pink Floyd Wish You Were Here; Queen Night at the Opera 1976 Jan 21: Concorde enters supersonic passenger service [see 2000 ] Jan 31: Mamma Mia by Abba No.1 in UK Aug 6: Drought Act 1976 comes into force the long, hot summer 'Cod War' between Britain and Iceland Deaths exceeded live births in E&W for first time since records began in 1837 James Callaghan becomes Prime Minister Death of Mao Tse-tung Apr 1: Apple Computer formed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak Viking 1 & Viking 2 landed on Mars National Theatre opens in London 1977 Apr 2: Red Rum wins a third Grand National May 25: George Lucas' film Star Wars released Jun 1: Road speed limits: 70mph dual roads; 60mph single Jun 5: Apple II, the first practical personal computer, goes on sale Jun 7: Queen's Silver Jubilee celebrations in London Jun 30: Virginia Wade wins the Ladies Singles title at Wimbledon Aug 16: Elvis Presley dies Astronomers observe rings round Uranus Oct 26: Eradication of smallpox world-wide declared by WHO (certified in 1979) Nov 22: Regular supersonic Concorde service betweeen London and NY inaugurated Pop music: Wings Mull of Kintyre; rise of Punk bands such as 'The Sex Pistols' 1978 Apr 8: Regular broadcast of proceedings in Parliament starts May 1: First May Day holiday in Britain Jul 25: World's first 'test tube' baby, Louise Browne born in Oldham Oct 15: Pope John Paul II elected a Pole, and first non-Italian for 450 years died 2 Apr 2005 Nov 30: Publication of The Times suspended ï¿½ industrial relations problems (until 13 Nov 1979) Film The Deer Hunter Pop music: Fleetwood Mac Rumours 1979 Jan 6: YMCA by Village People reached No.1 in UK Feb 1: Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran Mar 1: 32.5% of Scots vote in favour of devolution (40% needed) ï¿½ Welsh vote overwhelmingly against Mar 30: Airey Neave killed by a car bomb at Westminster Mar 31: Withdrawal of Royal Navy from Malta Apr 30: Jubilee Line opens on London Underground system May 4: Margaret Thatcher becomes first woman UK Prime Minister Jul 1: Sony introduces the Walkman Aug 27: Lord Mountbatten and 3 others killed in bomb blast off coast of Sligo, Ireland Sep 18: ILEA votes to abolish corporal punishment in its schools Oct: VisiCalc spreadsheet released in USA Nov 13: The Times returns to circulation Dec 1: Lancaster House agreement to give Southern Rhodesia independence (became Zimbabwe on 18 Apr 1980) Dec 18: Sound barrier exceeded on land for first time 1980 May 4: Death of President Tito of Yugoslavia May 5: SAS storm Iranian Embassy in London to free hostages Dec 8: John Lennon assassinated in New York 'Solidarity' formed by unions in Poland 'Stealth' bomber developed by USA Film The Elephant Man Jan 10: Imagine by John Lennon No.1 in UK Jan 25: Launch of SDP by 'Gang of Four' in Britain Mar 29: First London marathon run Apr 5: Census day in Britain Apr 11: Brixton riots in South London 30 other British cities also experience riots Apr 12: First US Space Shuttle (Columbia) launched see 2011 for last Space Shuttle flight Apr 25: Worst April blizzards this century in Britain Apr 27: First use of computer mouse (by Xerox PARC system) June: First cases of AIDS recognised in California Jul 17: Queen opens the Humber Estuary Bridge Jul 29: Wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer (divorced 28 Aug 1996 ) Aug 12: IBM launches its PC starts the general use of personal computers Film Chariots of Fire Jan 26: Unemployment reached 3 million in Britain (1 in 8 of working population) Feb 5: Laker Airways collapses Feb 19: DeLorean Car factory in Belfast goes into receivership Mar 18: Argentinians raised flag in South Georgia Apr 2: Argentina invades Falkland (Malvinas) Islands Apr 5: Royal Navy fleet sails from Portsmouth for Falklands May 2: British nuclear submarine HMS Conqueror sinks Argentine cruiser General Belgrano May 28: First land battle in Falklands (Goose Green) May 29: Archbishop of Canterbury and the Pope pray together in Canterbury Cathedral Jun 14: Ceasefire in Falklands Jun 21: Birth of Prince William of Wales Jul 20: IRA bombings in London (Hyde Park and Regents Park) Sep 19: Smiley emoticon :-) said to have been used for the first time Oct 11: Mary Rose raised in the Solent (sank in 1545 ) Oct 31: Thames Barrier raised for first time (some say first public demonstration Nov 7) Nov 2: Channel 4 TV station launched first programme 'Countdown' Nov 4: Lorries up to 38 tonnes allowed on Britain's roads Dec 12: Women's peace protest at Greenham Common (Cruise missiles arrived 14 Nov 1983) First permanent artificial heart fitted in Salt Lake City Film ET Jan 17: Start of breakfast TV in Britain Jan 25: Spreadsheet Lotus 1-2-3 released Jan 31: Seat belt law comes into force Apr 21: ï¿½1 coin into circulation in Britain Oct 7: Plans to abolish GLC announced Nov 26: Brinks Mat robbery: 6,800 gold bars worth nearly ï¿½26 million are stolen from a vault at Heathrow Airport First female Lord Mayor of London elected (Dame Mary Donaldson) Pop music: Michael Jackson Thriller 1984 Jan 9: FTSE index exceeded 800 Jan 24: Apple Macintosh computer introduced in USA Mar 6: Miners strike begins Apr 17: Police Constable Yvonne Fletcher killed by gunfire from the Libyan Embassy in London Jun 22: Inaugural flight of Virgin Atlantic Jul 9: York Minster struck by lightning ï¿½ the resulting fire damaged much of the building but the "Rose Window" not affected Oct 12: IRA bomb explodes at Tory conference hotel in Brighton ï¿½ 4 killed Oct 24: Miners' strike High Court orders sequestration of NUM assets Oct 31: Indira Gandhi assassinated Dec 3: British Telecom privatised ï¿½ shares make massive gains on first day's trading Dec 3: Bhopal disaster in India Dec 15: Pop Music: Band Aid Do they know it's Christmas? reaches No.1 Dec 20: Summit Tunnel Fire near Todmorton George Orwell got it wrong? (in his book '1984', written in 1948) 1985 Mar 3: Miners agree to call off strike Mar 11: Al Fayed buys Harrods Mar 18: First episode of Neighbours in Australia May 29: Heysel Stadium disaster in Brussels Jun 14: Schengen Agreement on abolition of border controls agreed between Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands ï¿½ not implemented until 26 Mar 1995 when it also included Spain & Portugal ï¿½ by 2007 there are 30 states included Jul 13: Live Aid pop concert raises over ï¿½50M for famine relief Sep 1: Wreck of Titanic found (sank 1912) 1986 Mar 31: GLC and 6 metropolitan councils abolished Apr 26: Chernobyl nuclear accident ï¿½ radiation reached Britain on 2 May May 7: Mannie Shinwell, veteran politician, dies aged 101 May 26: The European Community adopts the European flag Jul 23: Prince Andrew, Duke of York marries Sarah Ferguson at Westminster Abbey Oct 27: 'Big Bang' (deregulation) of the London Stock Market Oct 29: M25 ring round London completed with the section between J22 and J23 (London Colney and South Mimms) Dec 23: Safe landing of first aircraft to fly around the world without stopping or refueling (took 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 seconds) 1987 Feb 2: Terry Waite kidnapped in Beirut (released 17 Nov 1991) Mar 6: Car ferry Herald of Free Enterprise capsizes off Zeebrugge ï¿½ 188 die Jul 1: Excavation begins on the Channel Tunnel (see 1990 & 1994 ) Aug 19: Hungerford Massacre ï¿½ Michael Ryan kills sixteen people with a rifle Oct 16: The 'Hurricane' sweeps southern England Oct 19: 'Black Monday' in the City of London ï¿½ Stock Market crash Nov 8: Enniskillen bombing at a Remembrance Day ceremony Nov 18: King's Cross fire in London ï¿½ 31 people die World population crossed the 5 billion mark 1988 Feb 5: First 'Red Nose Day' in UK, raising money for charity Mar 11: Bank of England £1 notes cease to be legal tender Jul 6: Piper Alpha disaster ï¿½ North Sea oil platform destroyed by explosion and fire killing 167 men Nov 15: Copyright, Designs and Patents Act ï¿½ reformulated the statutory basis of copyright law (including performing rights) in the UK Dec 12: Clapham Junction rail crash kills 35 and injures hundreds after two collisions of three commuter trains Dec 21: Lockerbie disaster ï¿½ Pan Am flight 103 explodes over Scotland Order of the Garter opened to women 1989 Jan 8: Kegworth air disaster ï¿½ a British Midland flight crashes into the M1 motorway Feb 14: Fatwa issued against Salman Rushdie for The Satanic Verses Feb 14: The first of 24 satellites of the Global Positioning System is placed into orbit Mar 2: EU decision to ban production of all chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by the end of the century Poll Tax implemented in Scotland Jun 5: Tanks stopped in Tiananmen Square, Peking by unknown protester Nov 9: Berlin Wall torn down Nov 21: Proceedings of House of Commons first televised live Second edition of Oxford English Dictionary published 1990 Feb 11: Nelson Mandela released in South Africa Mar 31: Riots in London against Poll Tax which had been implemented in England & Wales Apr 25: Hubble space telescope launched Aug 2: Iraq invades Kuwait Oct 3: German reunification Nov 22: Margaret Thatcher resigns as Conservative party leader (and Prime Minister) John Major elected Dec 1: Channel Tunnel excavation teams meet in the middle 1991 Poll Tax replaced (by Council Tax) May 18: Helen Sharman is first British Astronaut in Space Aug: Collapse of the Soviet Union Sep 6: Leningrad renamed St Petersburg Nov 5: Robert Maxwell drowns at sea Internet begins Feb 7: European Union formed by The Maastricht Treaty [see 1993 ] Apr 22: Betty Boothroyd elected as first female Speaker of the House of Commons Aug 15: Football Premier League kicks off in England Sep 16: 'Black Wednesday' as Pound leaves the ERM Nov 20: Fire breaks out in Windsor Castle causing over ï¿½50 million worth of damage Nov 24: The Queen describes this year as an Annus Horribilis 1993 Jul: Ratification of Maastricht Treaty, established the European Union (EU) Betty Boothroyd first woman Speaker of the House of Commons (to 2000) Elizabeth II becomes first British Monarch to pay Income Tax 1994 Mar 12: Church of England ordains its first female priests May 6: Channel Tunnel open to traffic Nov 19: National Lottery starts 15 million people connected to the Internet by now 1995 Feb 26: Nick Leeson brings down Barings Jul 15: First item sold on Amazon.com Nov 16: The Queen Mother has a hip replacement operation at 95 years old Nov 22: Toy Story released first feature-length film created completely using computer-generated imagery Dec 7: Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter (launched from shuttle 18 Oct 1989) 1996 Feb 9: IRA bomb explodes in London Docklands ends 17 month ceasefire Mar 13: Dunblane massacre Jun 15: IRA bomb explodes in Manchester Jul 5: Scientists in Scotland clone a sheep (Dolly) Aug 28: Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales are divorced BSE beef scare in UK 1997 Mar 30: Channel 5 TV begins in UK (launched by the Spice Girls) Apr 1: Hale-Bopp comet at its brightest May 1: 'New' Labour landslide victory in Britain (Tony Blair replaces John Major as Prime Minister) May 6: Announcement that Bank of England to be made independent of Government control May 11: First time a computer beats a master at chess (IBM's Deep Blue v Garry Kasparov) Jun 30: Publication of first Harry Potter novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone Jul 1: Hong Kong returned to China Jul 4: Landing by American 'Pathfinder Rover' on Mars Jul 19: IRA declares a ceasefire Aug 31: Diana, Princess of Wales killed in car crash in Paris Sep 25: Land speed record breaks sound barrier for first time Wing Commander Andy Green in Thrust SSC at Black Rock Desert, USA 1998 Apr 10: Good Friday peace agreement in Northern Ireland ï¿½ effectively implemented in May 2007 Aug 14: Car bomb explodes in Omagh killing 29 people Sep 27: Google search engine founded Nov 20: First module of the International Space Station launched Dec 19: US President Bill Clinton is impeached over Monica Lewinsky scandal Film Titanic wins 11 Oscars 1999 Jan 1: European Monetary Union begins ï¿½ UK opts out ï¿½ by the end of the year the Euro has approximately the same value as the US Dollar Mar: First circumnavigation of the earth in a hot-air balloon (Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones) Jul 1: The Scottish Parliament is officially opened by Queen Elizabeth ï¿½ powers are officially transferred from the Scottish Office in London to the new devolved Scottish Executive in Edinburgh Aug 11: Total eclipse of the sun visible in Devon and Cornwall Nov 11: Hereditary Peers no longer have right to sit in House of Lords Dec: Separate parliaments created for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (but not for England) World population reaches 6 billion (estimate) 2000 Jan 1: Millennium celebrations postponed due to widespread computer failures! ï¿½ only joking!! ï¿½ The year in Britain started with a 'flu bug rather than a millennium bug Millennium Dome at Greenwich got off to a bad start when Press and celebratories were left queuing for tickets in the rain, and they never forgave it the project was dogged by problems all year and became the butt of jokes Mar: London Eye opens, late but popular Apr 22: The Big Number Change takes place in the UK ï¿½ new telephone dialling codes assigned to Cardiff, Coventry, London, Northern Ireland, Portsmouth and Southampton May 4: Ken Livingstone elected first Mayor of London (not to be confused with Lord Mayor of London!) Jun 10: Millennium footbridge over the Thames opens, but wobbles and is quickly declared dangerous and closed finally reopened Feb 2002 Jul 25: A chartered Air France Concorde crashes on take-off at Paris with loss of all lives debris on the runway blamed for causing fuel to escape and catch fire, and all Concordes grounded until 7 November 2001 Sep: 'People Power' emerged suddenly as protestors against high Road Fuel Tax used mobile phones and the Internet to co-ordinate blockades on fuel depots resulted in nationwide panic buying of fuel and service stations running out across the country Oct 17: Derailment at speed on the main London-North eastern line at Hatfield caused by a broken rail Railtrack put restrictions on the rest of the network while all other suspect locations were checked Oct/Nov/Dec: Heavy rains cause worst flooding since records began (1850s) in many parts of Britain Nov 2: First crew arrive at the International Space Station. Nov 14: New Prayer Book introduced in Anglican Church the way this year's going, we need it! Dec: US Presidential election goes to a penalty shoot out! World population crossed the 6 billion mark 2001 Jan 1: Real millennium celebrations begin!! ;-) Jan 15: Wikipedia goes on-line Feb: Outbreak of Foot & Mouth disease in UK lasted until October caused postponement of local and general elections from May to June Feb 15: First draft of the complete human genome published in Nature Mar 23: Mir space station successfully ditched in the Pacific Apr 29: UK Census Day May 12: FA Cup Final played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff first time away from Wembley since 1922 June 7: General Election Labour returned again with a large majority, the first time they had succeeded in gaining a second term but turnout lowest since 1918 Sep 1: New-style number plates on road vehicles in UK [eg. AB 51 ABC] Sep 11: Terrorist attack on the United States commercial planes hi-jacked and crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Centre (destroying it) and one section of the Pentagon Oct 23: iPod launched by Apple Nov 7: Concorde flights resume after modifications to tyres and fuel tanks (see 2003 ) Nov: I publish my first book by 'Print on Demand' method - see tips on self-publishing Dec 15: The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years, still leaning UK Christmas stamps self-adhesive for the first time (self-adhesive 1st & 2nd class definitives already on sale) 2002 Jan 1: Twelve major countries in Europe (Austria, Belgium, Holland, Irish Republic, Italy, Luxembourg, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Spain, Portugal) and their dependents start using the Euro instead of their old national currencies; the UK stays out the Euro worth 62ï¿½p at this time Jan 2: UK 1901 census details available Feb 22: Millennium Bridge over the Thames in London finally opens Mar 30: The Queen Mother dies, aged 101 years Jun 3&4: Two Bank Holidays declared in UK to celebrate the Queen's Golden Jubilee Jul 2: Steve Fossett becomes the first person to fly solo around the world nonstop in a balloon 2003 Feb 1: Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrates during re-entry, killing all seven astronauts aboard Feb 17: Start of Congestion Charge for traffic entering central London Aug 10: Temperatures reach record high of 101 F (38.3 C) in Kent Oct 24: Last commercial flight of Concorde Nov 22: England wins Rugby World Cup in nail-biting final in Australia first northern hemisphere team to do this Dec 13: Saddam Hussein captured near his home town of Tikrit (executed 30 Dec 2006 ) Dec 26: Queen Mary 2 arrives in Southampton from the builder's yard in France 2004 Mar 29: Alistair Cooke dies at the age of 95 until four weeks previously, and since 1946 , he had broadcast his regular 'Letter from America' on BBC radio Mar 29: Ireland becomes first country in the world to ban smoking in public places May 1: Enlargement of the European Union to include 25 members by the entry of 10 new states: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Malta, Cyprus. 2005 Feb 16: Kyoto Protocol on climate change came into force Feb 18: Ban on hunting with dogs came into force in England & Wales (had already been a similar law for about two years in Scotland) Apr 2: Death of Pope John Paul II, first non-Italian Pope for 450 years when elected in 1978 Apr 19: Pope Benedict XVI elected first German Pope for about 1,000 years Jul 6: London chosen as venue for the 2012 Olympic Games Jul 7: Suicide bombers attack London for the first time Jul 28: IRA declare an end to their 'armed struggle' Sep 12: England regain the 'Ashes' after a gripping Test series (but are whitewashed 5-0 in the return series in Australia 2007) Nov 22: Angela Merkel becomes first female Chancellor of Germany Nov 30: John Sentamu becomes Archbishop of York; the first black archbishop in the Church of England Dec 9: Last Routemaster bus runs on regular service in London (see 1954 ) Dec 11: Explosions at the Buncefield Oil Depot in Hemel Hempstead Dec 21: Same-sex civil partnerships begin famously, on this day, between Elton John and David Furnish 2006 Mar 1: Welsh Assembly Building opened by the Queen Mar 26: Prohibition of smoking in enclosed public places in Scotland Apr 21: 80th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II Aug 21: UK postage rates start to be measured by size as well as by weight Aug 24: Redefinition of the word 'planet' excludes Pluto Dec 30: Saddam Hussein executed 2007 Jan 1: Further enlargement of the European Union to include Bulgaria and Romania Feb 19: Extension of Congestion Charge zone for London, westwards May 8: A Northern Ireland Executive formed under the leadership of Ian Paisley (DUP) and Martin McGuinness (Sinn Fein) Jun 27: Tony Blair resigns as Prime Minister after 10 years replaced by Gordon Brown Jul 1: Prohibition of smoking in enclosed public places in England (thus completing cover of the entire UK) Jul 21: Seventh and final Harry Potter book released Oct 25: First commercial flight of Airbus A380 (Singapore to Sydney) Nov 14: First rail service direct from St Pancras to France (replacing that from Waterloo) 2008 Jan 21: Stock markets around the world plunge fueled by the 2007 subprime mortgage crisis Feb 22: Northern Rock the first bank in Europe to be taken into state control Apr 22: Surgeons at London's Moorfields Eye Hospital perform the first operations using bionic eyes, implanting them into two blind patients Sep 19: Large Hadron Collider operations halted after 8 days due to a serious fault between two superconducting bending magnets Nov 4: Barack Obama elected the 44th President of the United States Nov 11: RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 departs on her last voyage from Southampton to Dubai to become a floating hotel Dec 10: Sark holds its first fully democratic elections Dec: Woolworths close all their UK stores 2009 Jan 12: UK 1911 census details released early with one column of information hidden from view. The full data was not released until 2012 Feb 2: During this week the heaviest snowfall in 18 years disrupts air and road traffic and closes schools across much of the UK Mar 5: Bank of England reduces interest rate to a record low of 0.5% (but see 2016 ) Jul 21: England beat Australia in a cricket Test Match at Lord's for the first time in 75 years Oct 1: Supreme Court replaces the Law Lords in Parliament as the last court of appeal in UK in all matters other than criminal cases in Scotland Dec 13: Circle Line on the London Underground system to include the spur to Hammersmith; regular 'Javelin' high speed train service starts between St Pancras and Ashford, Kent Dec 19: Eurostar rail service through the Channel tunnel disrupted for some days due to the wrong sort of snow in France! 2010 Apr 15: Eyjafjallajï¿½kull eruption in Iceland closes airspace over north-western Europe for 6 days it was very peaceful! May 11: Coalition Government formed in UK (Conservative & Lib-Dem) Oct 13: In a blaze of publicity 33 miners successfully rescued from a deep copper mine in Chile 2011 Jan 4: Start of the 'Arab spring' riots Jan 7: England win the Ashes in Australia Jan 18: Last roll of Kodachrome processed Mar 11: Tsunami hits Japan causing an emergency at the Fukushima nuclear power station Mar 27: UK Census Day Apr 29: The wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Kate Middleton takes place in London May 2: Osama bin Laden killed in Pakistan by American forces Jul 10: Last edition of the News of the World (No. 8,674) printed paper closed down due to 'phone hacking' scandal (see 1843 ) Jul 21: Last Space Shuttle mission touches down 2012 Mar 13: After 244 years since its first publication, the Encyclopaedia Britannica discontinues its print edition (see 1768 ) Jun 4&5: Two Bank Holidays declared in UK to celebrate the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Jul 4: Discovery of the Higgs boson confirmed at the Large Hadron Collider Jul 27-Aug 12: London hosts the Olympic Games Aug 6: Curiosity rover successfully lands on Mars Aug 29-Sep 9: London hosts the Paralympic Games Sep 12: Skeleton found under a car park in Leicester declared to be that of of King Richard III (1452- 1485 ) Oct 14: Felix Baumgartner becomes the first person to break the sound barrier without any machine assistance during a space dive from a balloon 24 miles high Nov 29: Findings of the Leveson Inquiry into the British media announced Despite beginning with drought in some areas, 2012 was the second wettest year on record in the UK and the wettest ever in England 2013 Feb 15: A meteor explodes over the Russian city of Chelyabinsk, injuring 1,491 people and damaging over 4,300 buildings. It is the most powerful meteor observed to strike Earth's atmosphere in over a century Feb 28: Pope Benedict XVI resigns, becoming the first pope to do so since Gregory XII in 1415, and the first to do so voluntarily since Celestine V in 1294 Dec 14: Chinese spacecraft Chang'e 3, carrying the Yutu rover, becomes the first spacecraft to soft-land on the Moon since 1976 2014 Feb 26: Russia annexes Crimea from Ukraine Mar 8: Malaysian Airlines flight MH370 disappears with 239 people on board ï¿½ presumed to have crashed into the Indian Ocean Jul 17: Malaysian Airlines flight MH17 crashes in Ukraine, after being shot down by a missile, killing 298 people Nov 12: Philae lands on comet 67P/Churyumovï¿½Gerasimenko 2015 Mar 6: Spacecraft Dawn put into orbit round Ceres Mar 26: Richard III reburied in Leicester Cathedral over 500 years after his death Jul 14: Fly-by of Pluto by New Horizons 2016 May 2: Leicester City FC win the English Premier League ï¿½ 5,000-1 outsiders at the start of the season Jun 23: UK Referendum results in a small majority in favour of leaving the European Union Jun 27: England knocked out of the Euro 2016 football competition by Iceland, who play no domestic professional football Aug 5: Bank of England reduces interest rate to another record low of 0.25% (see 2009 ) Sep: Bank of England introduces the plastic £5 note Sep 30: The Rosetta probe makes its final landing on comet 67P/Churyumovï¿½Gerasimenko	one thousand nine hundred and seventy six
Which team won The Superbowl in 2016?	A timeline of Britain A time-line of Britain 43 AD: Roman emperor Claudius invades Britain 50 AD: the Romans found Londinium in Britain 80 AD: the Romans invade Caledonia (Scotland) 122: Hadrian's Wall is built along the northern frontier to protect from the Barbarians 314 AD: British bishops are summoned to the council of Arles 350: the missionary Ninian establishes the church Candida Casa at Whithorn in Galloway, Scotland 410 AD: the Romans withdraw from Britain, and Britain disintegrates in clans of Celts (Britons, Angles, Picts, Scots) as well as Germanic people (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, etc) 450: Saxons invade England, while the rest is split among Welsh kingdoms of Rheged, Gododdin and Strathclyde 450: the Saxon invasion prompts Roman-British inhabitants of Britain to migrate to northern France (Brittany) 455: the Saxon leader Hengist takes over the kingdom of Kent and founds their capital at Canterbury 476: the Saxon leader Aelle founds the kingdom of Sussex (South Saxons) 503: most Scots leave Ireland and build the kingdom of Dalriada in Argyll on the west coast of Scotland 532: the Saxon Cerdic founds the kingdom of Wessex (West Saxons) 540: the monk Gildas writes the "De Excidio Britanniae" 544: Ciaran founds the monastery of Clonmacnoise in Ireland 550: the Saxon kingdoms of East Saxons (Essex) and Middle Saxons (Middlesex) are established 563: the Irish monk Columbanus founds the monastery of Iona off the coast of Scotland, soon to become the main center of the Columban school 590: England is divided among several kingdoms (Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, etc) 597: Pope Gregory I dispatches Augustine to England with forty monks See the timeline of Christianity 600: Taliesin and Aneirin write poems in old Welsh in Strathclyde 601: Augustine converts king Ethelbert of Kent and establishes the see of Canterbury with himself as its first archbishop 601: king Aethelbert of Kent promulgates the first English code of law 627: Pope Gregory I sends the Italian monk Paulinus to found the see of York and convert king Edwin of Northumbria 633: during the reign of the Saxon king Oswald conversion of Northumbria is completed 635: Cynegils, king of Wessex, converts to Christianity 635: Iona bishop Aidan founds a monastic community in the island of Lindisfarne off the coast of Scotland 664: the synod of Whitby brings the Celtic (English) church into conformity with Rome 664: Iona monk Wilfrid is appointed bishop of York 668: the monk Theodore of Tarsus is appointed archbishop of Canterbury 670: the Anglosaxons convert to Christianity 674: Benedict Biscop founds the monastery of Wearmouth in Northumbria 681: Benedict Biscop, a native Anglosaxon, founds the monastery of Jarrow in Northumbria 685: king Ine of Wessex conquers Sussex, Devon and Cornwall 685: the defeat of king Ecgfrid ends the domination of Northumbria over England 687: the Vikings (Danes) destroy the monastery of Whitbey in England 690: English missionary Willibrord evangelizes in Holland and Denmark 731: Bede of Jarrow (Northumbria) writes the "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" 757: the kingdom of Mercia dominates England under king Offa 793: Vikings (Danes) raid the monastery of Lindisfarne and destroy the monastery of Jarrow 825: the Saxon king Egbert III of Wessex conquers Kent and Mercia, thus reigning over all of England 830: "Historia Brittonum" by Nennius 831: Vikings (Norse) invade Ireland and found Dublin 834: Vikings (Danes) raid England 843: Kenneth MacAlpin unites the Scots and Picts in Scotland 865: the Vikings (Danes) invade East Anglia 867: the Vikings (Danes) under Ivarr the Boneless establish a kingdom in York, Northumbria 871: Alfred becomes king of Wessex 878: Wessex king Alfred defeats the Vikings (Danes) at the battle of Edington 891: The Franks defeat the Danes in Belgium 896: Alfred occupies London and pushes the Danes outside Wessex and Mercia to the north of England 899: Alfred's son Edward becomes king of Wessex 90#: The "Beowulf" is written 902: The Irish expel the Danes 910: Alfred's son Edward defeats the Danes and annexes to Wessex every town south of the river Humber 911: The Franks grant Viking king Rollo a territory in Normandy (the origin of the Duchy of Normandy) 914: The Danes led by Sihtric reconquer Dublin 921: Dane king Sihtric of Dublin inherits York from his brother 924: Edward's son Aethelstan becomes king of Wessex 927: Wessex king Aethelstan conquers most of England, except the five boroughs of Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby and Stamford 937: Aethelstan defeats the Danes at the battle of Brunanburgh and establishes the kindgom of England 954: The Danish kingdom of Dublin and York splits in two 959: Edgar the Peaceful becomes the first king of a united England 968: Brian Boru expels the Vikings from Ireland 1000: 7 million people live in France, 7 million in Iberia, 5 million in Italy, 4 million in Germany, 2 million in Britain 1005: Malcolm II kills Kenneth III and becomes King of Scotlant 1013: the Danish chieftain Svend Forkbeard (Svend I) invades England 1016: the Danish king Canute (Knut/ Cnut) II defeats the Wessex king Edmund at the battle of Alney and annexes Mercia 1017: Edmund of Wessex dies and Canute annexes Wessex 1017: Canute converts to christianity 1028: Canute, already king of England and Denmark, conquers Norway 1034: king Duncan of Strathclyde conquers most of Scotland 1035: Canute dies, leaving Denmark and England to Hardacnut and Norway to Swein 1040: MacBeth kills Duncan and becomes King of Scotlant 1042: Hardacnut dies suddenly and Edward the Confessor, heir to both Wessex and Mercia, regains the throne of England to the Anglosaxons 1065: Westminster Abbey is inaugurated TM, ®, Copyright © 2005 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1066: Edward the Confessor dies, leaving no Saxon heir, the Norwigian Harald III Harraade invades northern England and is defeated and killed at the battle of Stamford Bridge by Harold Godwinson of England, who is in turn defeated at the battle of Hastings by William of Normandy (the Conqueror), who thus ends the Anglo-Saxon rule of England and unites England and Normandy 1070: Lanfranc, an Italian lawyer, becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, establishing the primacy of the see of Canterbury over York 1072: William I the Conqueror invades Scotland 1078: William I orders the construction of the Tower of London 1086: the "Domesday Book" is compiled for taxation purposes 1087: William I the Conqueror dies and is succeeded as king of England by his son William II Rufus, while his other son Robert becomes duke of Normandy 1100: William Rufus is assassinated and is succeeded by Henry I, son of William the Conqueror, who fights with Pope Pasquale II on the issue of lay investiture (the king elects the bishops) 1107: the Concordat of London finds a compromise between Henry I and Pope Pasquale II on the issue of lay investiture (the king elects the bishops) 1106: Henry I defeats and captures his brother Robert, duke of Normandy 1113: the order of St John is founded 1114: Matilda (Maud), daughter of king Henry I of England, marries emperor Heinrich V 1124: David becomes King of Scotland and extends his reign 1129: emperor Heinrich V dies and empress Matilda marries Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of Anjou 1130: Geoffrey of Monmouth creates the myth of Arthur 1139: Matilda claims the throne of England 1141: Matilda is briefly queen of England before being usurped of the throne 1153: Henry of Anjou, son of Matilda and husband of Eleanor of Aquitaine, invades England, 1154: Henry II Plantagenet is crowned king of England, establishing the Plantagenet dynasty over England, Burgundy and Aquitaine 1154: an Englishman is elected Pope Adrian IV 1164: Henry II's constitution of Clarendon limits the authority of the Pope over English matters 1176: Henry II establishes the "common law" of England 1189: Richard I "Coeur de Lion", son of Henry II, becomes king of England and continues the rule of the Plantagenets 1189: the third Crusade is led by king Richard of England, king Philippe Auguste II of France, and emperor Friedrich Barbarossa 1194: King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, taken prisoner upon the return from the Crusades, ackowledges hiself king Philippe Auguste II's vassal, thus losing all French possessions of the Plantagenets 1199: John Lackland, son of Henry II, becomes king of England 1200: the Jews are expelled from England 1203: Philippe Auguste II of France conquers Normandy and expels the English 1209: Cambridge University is founded 1214: pope Innocent III, the claimant Friedrich II and French king Philippe Auguste defeat German emperor Otto IV and English king John at the battle of Bouvines, and Friedrich II ascends to the throne of Germany 1215: English king John I Lackland is forced by the English barons at Runnymede to sign the "Magna Carta", a constitution that grants rights to the nobility, the clergy and the townspeople (the "First Barons' War") 1216: Louis VIII of France invades southern England, but he is expelled and Henry III becomes king of England 1217: Henry III issues the Charter of the Forest, which privatizes a large portion of the king's land and grants peasants the right to hunt and log in royal forests 1265: Simon de Montfort, leader of the barons, summons popular representatives to Parliament 1272: Edward I becomes king of England 1283: the first mechanical clock in the world is installed in an English monastery (Dunstable) 1284: Edward I annexes Wales 1290: Edward I expells all Jews from England 1295: Edward I inaugurates the first representative parliament, the "Model Parliament", which features bishops, abbots, peers, knights and town representatives 1296: Edward I of England annexes Scotland 1306: Scottish king Robert Bruce rebels to the English 1307: Edward II becomes king of England 1314: Robert Bruce defeats Edward II at the battle of Bannockburn and regains Scotland's independence 1322: Roger Mortimer is imprisoned 1323: Roger Mortimer escape from prison and takes shelter in France 1325: Edward II's wife Isabella of France, daughter of daughter of Philippe IV of France, falls in love with Roger Mortimer 1326: Isabella of France invades England with a mercenary army and 1327: Edward II is deposed by the parliament and replaced with his son Edward III 1328: Charles IV, the last Capetian king of France dies, his daughter Jeanne is disqualified from occupying the French throne, and Edward III of England claims the French throne, whereas the French nobility chooses Philip of Valois 1333: Edward III invades Scotland 1334: the first gunpowder is manufactured in England 1337: Philippe VI of France and Edward III of England go to war over France ("Hundred Years' War") 1340: English knights and burgesses join in the House of Commons 1346: superior weaponry and strategy allows Edward III's much smaller English army of 16,000 to defeat Philip VI's larger French army of 80,000 at the Battle of Crecy in northern France during the "Hundred Years' War", thus accelerating the shift from knights on horseback to fire power 1348: the plague ("Black Death") reaches England (1.5 people will die, out of a population of 4 million) 1356: England captures the French king and one third of France at the battle of Poitiers 1364: Charles V liberates France from England 1371: Robert II, grandson of Robert Bruce, establishes the Stuart line on the Scottish throne 1381: the Oxford theologian John Wyclif denies that the substance of bread and wine are miraculously changed during the Eucharist 1381: Popular riots erupt against a new tax (the "Great Revolt") 1394: Richard II invades Ireland 1399: Henry Bollingbroke, the son of the richest man (John of Gaunt), overthrows Richard II and becomes king Henry IV 1401: Henry IV issues a statute legalizing the persecution of "heretics" (mainly Lollards) 1413: Henry V succeeds his father to the throne of England 1415: Henry V of England allies with Burgundy, defeats the French at the battle of Agincourt, takes prisoner the duke of Orleans and proceeds to reconquer Normandy from France 1420: England seizes northern France 1422: Henry VI becomes king of England 1429: the French army, led by Jeanne d'Arc, triumphs at Orleans 1431: the English burn Jeanne d'Arc at the stakes 1431: Henry VI of England is crowned king of France in Paris 1450: Jack Cade's popular rebellion of peasants and workers against taxes and oppression 1452: Henry VI of England goes mad 1453: France expels the English (end of the "Hundred Years' War" with English defeat) 1455: The royal houses of York and Lancaster fight a civil war ("War of the Roses") to succeed the mad Henry VI 1461: Edward IV of York deposes Henry VI Lancaster and lets Richard Neville run the country on his behalf 1471: Edward IV defeats Margaret of Anjou while both the renegade Richard Neville and Henry VI are murdered by his men 1483: Edward IV dies and his brother Richard becomes regent for the infant princes, but then crowns himself as Richard III and murdering both of Edward IV's children 1485: Henry VII Tudor of Lancaster, supported by Charles VIII of France, defeats and kills Richard III of York, ending the Yorkist dynasty and inaugurating the Tudor dynasty on the throne of England 1486: Henry VII marries Elizabeth of York, thus uniting houses of York and Lancaster 1496: the Italian explorer John Cabot sails from England to Canada (thinking he has reached Asia) on behalf of the king of England 1497: John Cabot discovers Newfoundland 1497: Henry VII defeats the last pretender to the throne and restores peace to the kingdom 1509: Henry VIII becomes king of England 1518: Thomas More publishes "Utopia" 1529: Henry VIII accepts the Protestant Reformation 1533: Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn and is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII 1534: Henry VIII declares himself supreme head of the Church of England 1535: Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for refusing to submit to Henry VIII 1536: Henry VIII directs the dissolution of the English monasteries under the direction of Thomas Cromwell 1540: Thomas Cromwell is executed 1544: Henry VIII and emperor Karl V invade France 1553: Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, becomes queen of England and returns England to Catholicism, while hundreds of Protestants are burned at the stakes 1558: Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, becomes queen of England and England becomes Protestant again and Catholics are persecuted 1563: The Anglican Church is officially founded (on predestination and thr redeeming power of faith alone) 1567: Mary Stuart of Scotland is deposed and her son James VI becomes king of Scotland 1576: the first British theater opens in London 1580: Francis Drake sails around the world 1586: Francis Drake sails to the West Indies 1587: England executes Mary Stuart, former queen of Scotland and heir to the English throne, the for conspiring against queen Elizabeth I 1587: Francis Drake destroys the Spanish fleet at Cadiz 1588: Philip II of Spain declares war against Elizabeth I of England to protect Spanish possessions in America from English buccaneers, but the Spanish Armada is defeated by the English fleet of Francis Drake 1592: the British Parliament defines the statute mile as 8 furlongs, 80 chains, 320 rods, 1760 yards or 5280 feet 1599: the East India Company is established 1601: James Lancaster leads the first British cargo to the East Indies (the trip takes 14 months one way) and establishes a British factory at Bantam 1603: James VI of Scotland becomes king James I of England 1607: John Smith founds the colony of Virginia 1609: England conquers the Bermudas in America 1614: the Scottish mathematician John Napier coins the word "logarithm" and publishes the first logarithmic table 1618: after the "Defenestration of Prague", England enters the "Thirty Years' War" against the Habsburg empire 1620: English pilgrims aboard the "Mayflower" land at Plymouth Rock on Cape Cod, Massachusetts 1620: Francis Bacon publishes the "Novum Organon" to argue that truth should be found via empirical observation 1621: Thomas Archer publishes the first periodical pamphlet (predecessor of the newspaper) 1625: Charles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money 1628: John Felton assassinates George Villiers, the duke of Buckingham 1630: England signs peace treaties with France and Spain and abandons the "Thirty Years' War" 1642: a civil war opposes king Charles I and the Parliament 1645: Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army defeats king Charles I 1648: the "Peace of Westphalia" ends the Thirty Years' War 1649: Cromwell crushes a Catholic uprising in Ireland 1649: the Diggers promulgate a vision of a society free from private property and commerce 1649: Charles I is executed and Cromwell declares the Commonwealth (the monarchy is suspended) 1651: Cromwell defeats Scotland 1651: Thomas Hobbes publishes the "Leviathan" 1653: When the parliament fails to approve reforms by one vote, Cromwell aboliushes parliament and has himself nominated Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland 1655: Britain conquers Jamaica from Spain 1658: Oliver Cromwell dies TM, ®, Copyright © 2005 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1659: England and France defeat Spain 1660: Charles II resumes the monarchy (end of the Commonwealth) 1662: Founding of the Royal Society of Science 1662: 75% of people born in London die before they reach the age of 26 1664: England seizes New Amsterdam from the Dutch and changes its name to New York 1665: the plague reaches London 1666: the fire of London burns the oldest part of the city, including St Paul's cathedral 1666: Isaac Newton develops calculus 1668: England, Netherlands and Sweden form the "Triple Alliance" against France 1670: Hudson's Bay Company is founded 1675: the Royal Observatory opens at Greenwich 1677: William III, king of the Netherlands, marries Mary, heir to the English throne 1679: petitioners ("Whigs") call for a new Parliament while royalists ("Tories") side with king Charles II 1685: Charles II dies and his Catholic brother James II becomes king of England and of Scotland 1687: James II issues the "Declaration of Liberty of Conscience" but favors Catholicism and insists on the divine rights of the royalty 1687: Isaac Newton publishes the "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" 1688: England (mainly the Protestants) rise up against James II the Catholic king and drive him into exile ("English revolution"), while William III of Orange is invited to replace him with a constitutional monarchy and the king subject to the laws of the Parliament ("Glorious Revolution") 1689: The Parliament issues the "Bill of Rights", thus establishing a constitutional monarchy under William III 1689: France invades Germany's League of Augsburg and starts the Eight-year War (England, Netherlands, Austria, Spain and Savoy ally with Germany), the beginning of a century of war between France and Britain 1690: the philosopher John Locke publishes "Two Treatises of Government" and founds "liberalism" (people have rights, government has the duty to protect their rights, three branches of government for "checks and balances", separation of church and state, rule of the majority) 1690: the British found Calcutta in India 1690: Scotland chooses Presbyterianism as its state religion 1691: The Society for the Reformation of Manners is founded in London 1692: France tries to invade England but is defeated at La Hougue by a combined British and Dutch fleet 1694: the Bank of England is founded 1695: the "LIberty of Unlicensed Printing" removes government control from the press (freedom of the press) 1697: the treaty of Ryswick ends the Eight-year war (no winner) 1701: The Act of Settlement grants the succession of the English throne to the Protestant house of Hanover 1702: king William III forms an alliance between England, the Netherlands and Austria against Spain and France ("War of the Spanish Succession") to defend the archduke Karl of Austria's claim of the Spanish throne against king Philip II of Spain 1702: William III dies and is succeeded by his sister-in-law Anne Stuart 1704: England captures Gibraltar from Spain 1705: The first bankruptcy law is enacted so that debtors don't have to go to jail anymore 1707: the kingdoms of England and Scotland are formally united in Great Britain, and queen Anne Stuart becomes the first ruler of Great Britain 1709: the Copyright Act shifts ownership from printers to authors 1710: The Tory Anglican Henry Sacheverell is tried for anti-Whig sermons and his followers riot against Presbyterian meeting-houses ("Sacheverell riots") 1711: Joseph Addison and Richard Steele found the "Spectator", the first magazine 1712: Thomas Newcomen invents the steam engine 1713: Britain and France sign a peace treaty ("Treaty of Utrecht") that hands most of Canada to Britain and leaves Britain as the dominant in force in north America, while Spain surrenders the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) and southern Italy to Austria and Gibraltar to Britain 1714: Queen Anne, the last Stuart monarch, dies and is succeeded by George I, first king of the Hanover house while riots erupt all over England ("Coronation riots") Sep 1715: James Francis Edward Stuart tries to regain the throne of England but is defeated ("Jacobite rising") 1721: Robert Walpole is Britain's first prime minister 1737: an English carpenter, John Harrison, invents the marine chronometer to measure longitude and latitude 1738: John and Charles Wesley found the Methodist movement 1739: Britain and Spain go to war, but Britain fails to occupy Panama, Chile and Colombia 1741: Lewis Paul opens the first cotton mill 1751: by capturing the town of Arcot from the French, Britain becomes the leading colonial power in India 1752: Britain adopts the Gregorian calendar 1756: Britain and Prussia declare war against France, Austria and Russia ("Seven Years' War") 1757: at the battle of Plassey the East India company defeats France and gains access to Bengal 1758: Britain attacks French Canada, its first large-scale war of conquest outside Europe 1759: Britain seizes Quebec from France 1759: the British Museum is inaugurated 1763: The treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years' War, with Britain annexing the French possessions of Canada and India (but Britain offered the whole of Canada for Guadaloupe) 1763: Britain bans colonial settlements in North America west of the Appalachians 1766: James Christie opens his London auction house, the world's first fine art auctioneer 1768: Philip Astley founds a traveling show of acrobats and jugglers, and launches the revival of the circus 1770: James Cook lands in Australia and claims it for Britain 1770: the Encyclopedia Britannica is published in Edinburgh 1773: American colonists stage an uprising against British rule ("Boston Tea Party") 1773: Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal (India), establishes a monopoly on the sale of opium 1773: The Tea Act grants the East India Company the right to directly ship its tea to North America 1774: Britain assigns Ohio to Quebec/Canada and recognizes Catholicism as the religion of Quebec/Canada 1774: The Society of Lloyd's is founded at the Royal Exchange 1776: the American colonies ratifies the Declaration of Independence 1776: Adam Smith publishes "The Wealth of the Nations", the manifesto of capitalism 1776: James Watt makes the steam engine practical 1779: John Wilkinson builds the first cast-iron bridge, the first large cast-iron structure 1780: War erupts between Holland and Britain 1780: Anti-Catholic riots in London ("Gordon Riots") 1781: A seventh planet, Uranus, is discovered by William Hershel Oct 1781: Revolutionary troops led by general George Washington and French troops led by Rochambeau defeat the British Army led by Charles Cornwallis at the battle of Yorktown 1781: An English transatlantic ship that ran out of water throws 132 African slaves overboard in order to redeem money from the insurance company for lost goods 1783: Britain recognises the independence of the United States of America 1783: William Pitt becomes the youngest prime minister of England at the age of 24 1784: The treaty of Paris grants Britain the rights to trade in Indonesia 1784: Pitt's India Act moves the East India Company under government control 1785: the "Daily Universal Register" (later "The Times") is founded 1785: Charles Cornwallis is appointed governor of India 1786: William Jones discovers similarities between Sanskrit and Greek and Latin 1787: Robert Peel builds an integrated cotton spinning, weaving and printing factory 1787: The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade is founded in Britain by Quakers 1787: Britain founds Sierra Leone as a colony for freed slaves ("krios") 1788: India's governor Hastings is tried publicly in England for corruption 1790: at the height of the British slave trade, one slave vessel leaves England for Africa every other day 1791: Thomas Paine publishes "Rights of Man" 1791: Tom Paine's "Rights of Man" is banned in Britain 1792: Mary Wollstonecraft publishes "Vindication of the Rights of Women" 1792: William Murdoch invents gas lighting 1792: Prime minister William Pitt calls for the end of the slave trade 1793: the first British settlers arrive in Australia 1796: After France invades Holland, Holland surrenders Melaka/Malacca, Sri Lanka and the Cape of Good Hope to Britain 1796: Edward Jenner discovers the principle of vaccination and produces a smallpox vaccine 1798: Malthus publishes the "Essay on Population" 1798: admiral Horatio Nelson defeats the French navy at Aboukir Bay in Egypt 1798: Peasants revolt in Ireland 1800: Ireland is formally annexes to England 1800: Australia has a white population of 10,000 1801: Britain's population is 10.7 million and London's population is 959,000 1801: Thomas Young proves the wave nature of light 1802: a steam-powered coach built by Richard Trevithick successfully completes the journey from Cornwall to London 1802: Britain and France sign the peace of Amiens, recognizing Britain's conquest of French, Dutch and Spanish colonies 1803: Britain declares war on Napoleon 1803: English chemist John Dalton proposes that matter is composed of atoms 1804: Richard Trevithick builds the first locomotive (it rode a track of 16kms in 4 hours, at the speed of 4 km/h) 1805: Horace Nelson is killed in combat but destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar 1805: Horace Nelson is the first commoner in the history of Britain to be given a state funeral 1807: Britain outlaws the slave trade throughout the empire (but not slavery itself) 1807: Gas lighting is introduced in the streets of London 1811: The "Luddite" workers destroy textile machinery that makes workers useless 1812: The London and Westminster Chartered Gas-Light and Coke Company is established 1812: the USA declares war on Britain 1813: American ships defeat British ships 1814: British troops storm Washington and burn the Capitol and the White House 1814: George Stephenson builds his first locomotive engine 1814: Britain purchases the Cape Colony in South Africa from Holland and rules over the Boers (descendants of the Dutch colonists) 1815: Andrew Jackson, helped by the French pirate Jean Lafitte, defeats the British army at the battle of New Orleans 1815: Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo 1815: Ceylon is occupied by the British, who ferry Tamil workers from India 1816: Nepal becomes a British protectorate 1816: Francis Ronalds invents the telegraph 1819: The "Savannah" completes the first transatlantic crossing by a steamboat 1818: The Peterloo massacre 1819: Stamford Raffles buys an island from the sultan of Johore and founds the British settlement of Singapore 1820: Britain dispatches 5,000 settlers to the Cape 1821: Sierra Leone, Gambia and the Gold Coast are combined to form British West Africa 1821: Britain adopts the gold standard 1821: Giovanni Belzoni organizes a display of Egyptian antiquities in London 1822: The first dinosaur fossil is found by Gideon Mantell, the Iguanodon 1823: rugby is invented at Rugby school 1824: Pierce Egan starts the first sporting journal 1824: British poet Byron dies fighting for Greek independence 1824: William Buckland provides the first description of a dinosaur, the Megalosaurus 1825: Britain inaugurates the first public railway in the world (Stockton-Darlington railway) 1826: Malacca, Penang and Singapore join in a British colony 1827: France, Britain and Russia help the Greek uprising against the Ottomans, the fleet of the Ottomans and of Mehemet Ali is sunk at Navarino, and the expansion of Ali's Egyptian empire is halted 1829: George Stephenson builds the first steam locomotive train 1829: The London police force is created 1830: the railway Liverpool - Manchester opens using Stephenson's locomotive "Locomotion" 1830: the Whigs come to power 1831: Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction and invents the transformer Dec 1831: The ship "Beagle" begins a five-year trip to chart the waters of South America carrying biologist Charles Darwin as a guest 1832: The Great Reform Bill grants voting rights to the middle class (but only 1.8% of the adult population is allowed to vote) 1832: To stem the illegal trade in corpses, Britain enacts the Anatomy Act that facilitates the use by scientists of corpses that are donated by relatives or unclaimed after death 1834: Britain abolishes slavery throughout the empire 1835: Manchester, the most industrial city in the world, has a population of 300,000 and 100,000 people are workers 1836: South Australia becomes a province of the British Empire 1837: Victoria becomes queen of England 1838: The Boers leave the Cape colony, defeat the Zulus at the battle of Blood River and found the Natal colony (the "Great Trek") 1838: Isambard Kingdom Brunel's Great Western Railway opens and the ticket is introduced to ride trains 1838: British troops are defeated in Afghanistan 1839: A Chinese attempt at suppressing the illicit British trade in opium causes the Opium war 1839: The port of Aden in Arabia is occupied by the British 1839: Scottish blacksmith Kirkpatrick Macmillan invents the bicycle 1840: The first postal stamp is introduced (the "Penny Black"), possibly designed by Henry Cole 1840: The last convicts are deported to New South Wales, Australia 1840: The divided Maori tribes of New Zealand accept to be annexed by Britain 1841: Russia, Britain, France, Austria and Prussia at the Straits Convention agree to ban all warships from the Ottoman straits, thus confining the southern Russian fleet to the Black Sea 1842: under the Treaty of Nanjing, China cedes the island of Hong Kong to Britain and grants commercial privileges in five ports including Shanghai and Guangzhou/Canton 1842: Richard Owen coins the word "dinosaur" (meaning "fearful lizard" in Greek) 1843: The Nelson Column 1843: Britain annexes the Natal colony of the Boers in South Africa, and the Boers move again founding the Orange Free State in the interior and the Transvaal in the north 1843: British general Charles Napier invades and annexes Sind 1843: Henry Cole invents the Christmas card TM, ®, Copyright © 2003 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1845: Youstol Dispage Fromscaruffi dies 1845: British policies cause a famine in Ireland that will kill a million people in six years and send 1.5 million abroad 1845: an eight planet, Neptune, is discovered mathematically by John Adams 1846: Britain repeals the Corn Laws that protect its agriculture from imports 1846: Robert Peel splits from the Conservative Party and forms his own faction (the "Peelites") 1849: Britain annexes the Sikh kingdom of Punjab and seizes the Koh-i-noor 1851: Gold is discovered in Australia TM, ®, Copyright © 2005 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1851: Henry Cole organizes the first Universal Exhibition, held in London at the Crystal Palace 1851: London's population is 2,363,000 1851: 50% of the British population lives in the countryside 1851: Edward Hargraves discovers gold near Bathurst, Australia 1852: 370,000 immigrants arrive in Australia in the first year of the Gold Rush 1852: the Royal Observatory introduces a uniform time standard for the whole of Britain 1853: In the Crimean war Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire fight Russia 1855: Joshua Stoddard introduces a steam-powered organ called the "calliope" 1855: Henry Bessemer invents the Bessemer converter for mass-producing steel 1856: David Livingstone travels from Angola to Mozambique (1856) 1856: Britain defeats Iran at Herat in Afghanistan 1856: William Perkin, still a teenager, invents the first synthetic dye, mauve 1857: Persia surrenders to Britain all rights over Afghanistan 1858: Power on the Indian colony is transferred to the British government 1858: Richard Burton and John Speke discover Lake Tanganyika 1858: a telegraph wire is laid at the bottom of the ocean between Ireland and Canada 1859: Charles Darwin publishes "The Origin Of Species" 1859: The Radicals, the Whigs and Peelites form the Liberal Party 1860: The population of the USA (31 million) passes the population of Britain (29 million) 1860: British and French troops loot Beijing 1861: Charles Halle performs all of Beethoven's sonatas 1862: Bahadur Shah II dies, the Mogul dynasty ends and India becomes a British colony 1863: the Salvation Army is founded 1863: the sport of football is inaugurated 1863: The London subway opens (initially powered by steam) 1864: James Clerk Maxwell unifies electricity and magnetism in his equations of the electromagnetic field 1864: all the major power agree at the Geneva convention on rules for the treatment of prisoners of war 1864: Samuel Baker discovers Lake Albert 1865: William Booth founds the East London Christian Mission (later renamed "Salvation Army") 1866: Robert Whitehead invents the torpedo 1867: British North America becomes the Dominion of Canada, a federation of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 1867: Industrial workers are entitled to vote 1868: The liberal William Gladstone becomes prime minister of Britain Apr 1868: British general Robert Napier defeats Ethiopia at Magdala and the Ethiopian emperor Theodore commits suicide 1868: The last convicts are deported to Western Australia 1868: Basutoland/Lesotho becomes a British colony 1870: Britain produces almost a third of the world's manufactured goods 1871: Arthur Sullivan and William Gilbert produce their first operetta 1871: Following the Gold Rush, the population of Australia is 1.7 million up from 430,000 in 1851 1872: the Ariel, the first high-wheel bicycle (or "ordinary"), is manufactured in Britian 1873: Great Depression 1874: The Fiji islands become a British colony 1874: Benjamin Disraeli (a Jew converted to Christianity) becomes prime minister of Britain 1874: The Gold Coast becomes a British protectorate 1874: Henry Stanley explores the Congo River for three years 1875: The British government purchases Egypt's shares in the Suez Canal, borrowing money from the Rothschilds 1876: Queen Victoria proclaims herself empress of India and takes the Koh-i-noor 1877: Britain occupies South Africa 1877: A tennis tournament is held at Wimbledon for the first time 1877: Transvaal becomes a British colony 1878: Russia defeats the Ottomans, but is stopped by Britain to protect its route to Indiaand to prevent uprisings by Indian Muslims, and the Congress of Berlin hands Cyprus to Britain and Bosnia to Austria, grants Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania independence and creates an autonomous Christian principality of Bulgaria within the Ottoman Empire Jan 1879: Zulu warriors armed with spears massacre the British army at the battle of Isandhlwana Jul 1879: Britain defeats the Zulus at Ulundi in South Africa, imprisons their ruler Cetewayo and disintegrates their empire 1879: Ahmed Orabi/Arabi founds the Egyptian Nationalist party and leads a revolt against the Ottomans and European interference in Egypt 1880: Borneo becomes a British protectorate Dec 1880: Britain fights the first war against Paul Kruger's Boers in South Africa Mar 1881: Britain signs a peace treaty with Paul Kruger's Boers acknowledging their independence in Transvaal Sep 1882: British troops invade Egypt to restore order, exile Orabi/Arabi and appoint Evelyn Baring at consul general, so that the ruler of Egypt is theoretically a subject of the Ottomans but de facto a subject of the British May 1882: The Irish National Invincibles assassinate Frederick Cavendish and Thomas Henry Burke chief secretary for Ireland, his undersecretary, in Dublin ("Phoenix Park murders") 1884: an international "meridian" conference decides to divide the Earth in 24 time zones, starting with Greenwich's meridian 1884: under a new reform 12.1% of the adult population is allowed to vote 1884: agricultural laborers are entitled to vote 1885: Britain captures Mandalay, terminates the Alaungpaya dynasty, burns the royal treasury and unites Burma with British Burma 1885: the Canadian Pacific railway is completed 1885: Robert Salisbury becomes prime minister of Britain 1890: For the first time the majority of Australians are Australian-born 1890: London inaugurates the world's first underground electrical railway line, part of the London subway 1891: 28% of the British population lives in the countryside 1892: Britain tonnage and seatrade exceeds the rest of the world together 1892: William Gladstone becomes prime minister of Britain for the fourth time 1893: New Zealand is the first country to grant women the right to vote 1893: Afghanistan and British India agree on a border splitting the Pashtun territories between them (the "Durand Line") 1894: Uganda becomes a protectorate 1895: Lord Kelvin declares that "heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible" 1895: Britain controls two thirds of Chinese foreign trade 1895: "The Empire of India Exhibition" opens in London 1896: the electron is discovered 1897: Joseph-John Thompson discovers that electricity is due to the flow of invisible negatively charged particles called electrons 1897: China cedes Kokang to Britain's Burma 1897: Marcus Samuel founds the Shell Transport and Trading Company 1898: British general Herbert Kitchener conquers Sudan from the Mahdists at the Battle of Omdurman and massacres thousands of Sudanese tribesmen 1899: Britain invades the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in South Africa, founded by the Boers (the "Boer war") 1899: general Kitchener creates "concentration camps" in South Africa for the families of the Boer rebels (26,000 prisoners die), while the Boers engage in guerrilla warfare, and defend trenches with long-distance rifles 1900: Arthur Evans discovers the ruins of Knossos, Crete 1900: The population of Britain is 44.3 million 1900: Britain authorizes the Commonwealth of Australia uniting the separate colonies on the continent under one federal government with capital at Melbourne 1901: Queen Victoria dies 1901: Frederick Kipping discovers silicones 1901: Britain's population is 37.1 million 1901: the British colonies of Australia become the Federated Commonwealth of Australia 1901: Nigeria becomes a British protectorate 1902: Japan signs the London treaty with Britain that recognizes Japan's rights in Korea and Britain's rights in China May 1902: Boers and British sign a peace treaty granting autonomy to South Africa and creating segregation for blacks Mar 1902: Richard Pearse in New Zealand flies his home-made airplane for 91 meters Jul 1902: the conservative Arthur Balfour becomes prime minister of Britain 1903: the suffragette movement (Women's Social and Political Union) is founded 1904: British troops occupy Tibet Apr 1904: France and Britain agree to spheres of influence of their respective empires 1904: The outdoor theater "the Mall" is inaugurated in London 1905: Britain apologizes to the Boers of South Africa for the war and grants independence to the Transvaal and the Orange Free State 1906: the Liberal party, representing financiers and entrepreneurs, comes into power 1906: Britain debuts the Dreadnought battleship 1907: New Zealand becomes a self-governing dominion of the British empire 1907: Britain and Russia sign a treaty (Convetion of St Petersburg) dividing Iran, Tibet, Central Asia and Afghanistan into respective spheres of influence 1908: Britain and Germany engage in a "naval race" 1908: Margaret Murray performs autopsy on an Egyptian mummy 1908: Britain enacts pensions for the elderly 1909: Lloyd George's reforms tax land to pay for sickness, invalidity and unemployment insurance 1909: Norman Angell publishes "The Great Illusion" in which he claims that war has become pointless because the real competition is economic 1910: Transvaal, Orage Free State, Natal and Cape unite in the Union of South Africa 1910: A report by Roger Casement reveals atrocities in Peru, Colombia and Brazil committed by the London-based Amazon Company 1911: the New Zealand scientist Ernest Rutherford discovers that the atom is made of a nucleus and orbiting electrons 1911: Britains holds a conference on imperial defense 1911: Universal health care is introduced 1911: A Parliament Act weakens the House of Lords 1911: The number of strikes increases dramatically 1912: a minimum wage is introduced 1912: The "Titanic" sinks in the Atlantic ocean 1912: Britain and France sign a naval treaty to fend off the threat of the German navy 1913: The newly built city of Canberra becomes the capital of Australia See the timeline for World War I 1914: World War I breaks out in the Balkans, pitting Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Serbia, USA and Japan against Austria, Germany and Turkey, and both Gandhi and Tilak pledge alliance to Britain 1914: The British government purchases part of Anglo-Persian Oil, only the second time the British government has purchased a private company 1914: Cyprus is annexed by Britain after four centuries of Ottoman rule 1914: end of the British gold standard 1914: Egypt becomes and British protectorate 1914: Britain occupies the German colonies of West Africa Apr 1915: British and French troops land in Gallipoli, Turkey 1916: The Lucknow Pact unites the Congress and the League in their fight for independence from Britain May 1915: German submarines sink the British passenger ship "Lusitania", killing almost 2000 people Jan 1916: Ottoman troops led by Mustafa Kemal defeat the British at Gallipoli/ Canakkale 1916: Britain introduces daylight saving time to save energy 1916: Britain and France agree to partition the Middle East Nov 1917: the "Balfour Declaration" by the British government promises a Jewish homeland in Palestine Dec 1917: British troops conquer Jerusalem, the first Christian soldiers to do so since the Crusades 1917: Edwin-Samuel Montagu is appointed secretary of state for India and champions India's independence 1917: Britain conquers Iraq 1918: Civil war erupts between the Red Army of the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks (helped by Britain and the USA) Dec 1918: Nancy Astor becomes the first woman to be elected to Parliament 1918: universal male suffrage 1918: Britain conquers Syria and Palestine from the Ottomans 1918: the first world war ends: 2 million Russians, 1.8 million Germans, 1.3 million French, 1.1 million Austro-Hungarians, 0.9 million Britons, 0.6 million Turks and 0.5 million Italians are dead. 1918: At the end of the war the British army has 8.5 people, of which 5.7 are from Britain, 1.4 from India, 630,000 from Canada, 420,000 from Australia, 136,000 from South Africa and 129,000 from New Zealand plus about 300,000 Egyptian, black African and Chinese laborers Nov 1918: Istanbul is occupied and divided by British, French and Italian troops 1919: the IRA is formed in Ireland to fight British rule 1919: An Anglo-Iranian treaty turns Iran into a de-facto protectorate of Britain 1919: Britain bans opium 1919: Race riots in Liverpool and Cardiff 1919: British troops massacre 379 peaceful demonstrators in Amritsar (Punjab), the beginning of large-scale riots in India Nov 1919: Ross Smith flies from England to Australia via Egypt, India and Singapore 1919: Afghanistan gains independence from Britain 1920: Palestine becomes a British protectorate Nov 1920: The British evacuate the Crimea and 150 thousand Russian refugees flee to British-controlled Istanbul 1920: The airline Qantas is founded to link the settlements of Australia 1920: European countries control almost 90% of the Earth's surface 1920: Arthur Eddington suggests that nuclear fusion fuels the sun 1921: Abdullah, son of Sharif Hussein, establishes the principality of Transjordan under British protectorate 1921: Unemployment reaches 17% in Britain 1921: The indenture system is abolished 1921: 156,000 British citizens rule over 306 million Indian subjects 1921: Ireland becomes independent except for northern Ireland that remains British Nov 1921: The USA, Britain and Japan agree to reduce their navies at the Washington Conference 1922: Gandhi is imprisoned following terrorist acts against the British Feb 1922: Britain, the USA, France, Japan and Italy sign the Washington Naval Treaty to limit the size of their navies 1922: the "British Broadcasting Company" (BBC) begins broadcasting under the direction of John Reith 1922: Egypt declares its independence 1922: Faysal, son of Sharif Hussein, establishes the kingdom of Iraq under British protectorate 1923: Britain recognises Nepal's independence 1923: Unemployment skyrockets in Britain in the coal-mining, textile and shipbuilding industries 1924: first Labour government Apr 1924: The British Empire Exhibition is held at Wembley 1925: Edwin Hubble discovers the first galaxy outside the Milky Way (Andromeda), 2 million years away from the Earth Oct 1925: Britain promotes the revision of German borders at the Locarno Treaty 1926: Balfour declares that Britain and its dominions are "equal in status" and "freely associated" in a Commonwealth of Nations 1926: John Maynard Keynes' "Britain's Industrial Future" that advocates government spending 1926: Following a general strike, the government imposes restrictions on trade unions 1927: oil fields are discovered near Karkuk in Iraq and king Faysal grants oil rights to the British 1928: universal female suffrage 1928: Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic 1929: the world's stock markets crash May 1929: The Labour Party wins the national elections although the Conservative Party got more votes and Ramsay MacDonald becomes prime minister 1929: Britain raises the age of consent to 16 for both girls and boys (from 12 and 14) 1929: Edwin Hubble discovers that galaxies recede from one another and that the universe is expanding in all directions 1930: Gandhi unleashes "civil disobedience" against the British 1930: Britain, Japan, France, Italy and the USA sign the London Naval Treaty, an agreement to reduce naval warfare 1931: South Africa becomes independent 1931: Canada declares its independence 1931: EMI opens the largest recording studio in the world at Abbey Road in London Sep 1931: Britain leaves the gold standard to let the sterling pound depreciate Oct 1931: The Conservatives win national elections in Britain but MacDonald remains prime minister of a right-wing cabinet 1932: Iraq becomes independent under the rule of King Faisal 1932: A regular flight is inaugurated between London and Cape Town (with five stops en route) Sep 1932: Poor unemployed people from the British countryside set out on the National Hunger March 1933: King George V broadcasts a speech on the radio to the entire British Empire 1934: whites introduce "apartheid" in South Africa 1935: Robert Watson-Watt builds the first radar 1935: the Penguin publishing company begins publishing classics in paperback books to be sold in general stores 1936: the "Queen Mary" transatlantic linear travels from Southampton to New York in four days Dec 1936: Edward VIII abdicates in order to marry a divorced woman 1938: the IRA carries out the first bombings in Britain 1938: Britain debuts the "Empire Flying Boat", a plane that can carry 18 passengers 1938: British unemployment is 9.3% compared with Germany's 2.1% 1939: England declares war to Hitler's Germany See the timeline for World War II 1941: During World War II, Britain and the Soviet Union invade Iran and Reza is forced to abdicate in favor of his son Reza Pahlavi II Jan 1944: the world's monetary system is anchored to the dollar and the dollar to gold, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are created ("Bretton Woods agreement") 1945: Germany surrenders 1945: At the Yalta conference the Soviet Union, Britain and the USA partition Europe in spheres of influence 1946: Jewish terrorists, led by Menachem Begin, bomb and destroy the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, the British military and civilian headquarters 1946: The new Labour Party removes restrictions on trade unions 1946: Churchill delivers in the USA the "Iron Curtain" speech, virtually opening the "Cold War" against the Soviet Union 1946: Transjordan becomes independent 1946: Britain and the Soviet Union withdraw from Iran 1947: India and Pakistan become indepedent 1947: New Zealand becomes an independent country TM, ®, Copyright © 2005 Piero Scaruffi All rights reserved. 1947: Dennis Gabor invents the hologram 1948: The Federation of Malaysia is born under British rule 1948: Ceylon becomes independent Dec 1948: British troops massacre 24 ethnic Chinese at Batang Kali in Malaysia 1949: Newfoundaland and Labrador join the confederation of Canada 1950: the first World Championship for drivers ("Formula One") is held, the first race being the British grand prix on the Silverstone circuit 1951: The conservatives win the elections and Winston Churchill is returned to power 1952: Elizabeth II becomes queen of Britain 1952: A British newspaper publishes pictures of atrocities committed by British troops in Malaysia against ethnic Chinese rebels Oct 1952: Britain explodes its first atomic bomb (Trimouille Island) 1953: Francis Crick and James Watson discover the double helix of the DNA 1953: New Zealand's Edmund Hillary and Nepal's Tenzing Norgay are the first explorers to reach the summit of Mount Everest 1954: Anglo-Persian Oil changes name in British Petroleum 1955: Greek Cypriots (EOKA) start fighting for unification with Greece 1955: Britain signs the anti-Soviet Baghdad Pact with Iran, Iraq, Pakistan and Turkey 1956: Britain grants Sudan full independence Nov 1956: Britain, France and Israel attack Egypt, and the English pound collapses Dec 1956: Britain leaves the Suez Canal 1957: Malaysia becomes independent 1959: the British Motor Corporation introduces the "Mini" 1960: Cyprus becomes independent under president Makarios 1960: Nigeria becomes independent 1961: Kuwait becomes independent under the protection of Britain 1961: Amnesty International is founded by British lawyer Peter Benenson to promote human rights worldwide 1962: the Beatles debut 1963: The British government is rocked by the Profumo scandal 1964: Zambia becomes independent 1964: Peter Higgs speculates that a particle (Higgs Boson) creates the mass of all the other particles 1965: Rhodesia declares its independence 1965: Mary Quant launches the mini-skirt 1966: Botswana becomes independent 1967: Britain withdraws from Aden 1967: Homosexuality and abortion are legalized 1967: The first "automatic teller machines" is deployed by Barclays Bank 1966: the British withdraw from Aden and marxists take over (South Yemen) 1968: the British withdraw from the Gulf and the United Arab Emirates are created 1969: the IRA begins a campaign of terrorism in Northern Ireland that will kill more than 2.000 people 1969: The "Monty Python's Flying Circus" comedy show debuts on tv 1969: Britain abolishes the death penalty 1971: the first Hard Rock Cafe` opens in London 1971: serial killer Harold Shipman begins a killing spree that will kill hundreds of people 1972: The first video-cassette recorder (VCR) is introduced by Phillips 1973: Britain joins the European Union 1975: the first oil is piped ashore from the North Sea 1975: Six economic powers meet in Paris (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Britain and Italy) forming the G6 1976: punk-rock 1976: the supersonic airplane Concorde, built by France and Britain, begins service Jul 1978: Louise Brown is the first baby born through human in vitro fertilization, a technique invented by Robert Edwards 1979: Margaret Thatcher of the Conservative Party becomes Britain's prime minister and begins a program of privatization 1981: Racial riots at Brixton, London 1981: Lady Diana Spencer marries Prince Charles, heir to the throne 1982: Britain defends the Falkland Islands from an Argentinian invasion 1984: Alec Jeffreys invents the DNA fingerprint that can identify an individual 1985: 39 Italian football fans are killed by British hooligans at the Liverpool stadium 1987: the Montreal Protocol limits the use of substances that damage the ozone layer 1988: Colin Pitchfork becomes the first man to be convicted of murder on the basis of DNA fingerprint evidence 1989: 96 football fans die at the Hillsborough stadium during a football match 1990: Margaret Thatcher resigns 1990: Mary Robinson is elected the first female President of Ireland 1990: Tim Berners-Lee of CERN invents the Internet protocol HTTP and the hypertext language HTML (i.e., the World Wide Web) 1991: Britain fights alongside the USA against Iraq 1994: the "Chunnel" between Britain and France opens 1996: the "mad cow disease" spreads in Britain and millions of cows have to be slaughtered Apr 1996: Martin Bryant kills 35 people in Port Arthur, Australia, and Australia decides to confiscate 650,000 guns to reduce gun violence 1997: Britain cedes Hong Kong back to China 1997: Tony Blair of the Labour Party is elected prime minister, the youngest prime minister since Lord Liverpool in 1812 1997: Joanne Kathleen Rowling publishes the first Harry Potter book, destined to become a world-wide phenomenon 1997: British biologist Ian Wilmut clones a sheep, Dolly. 1997: Lady Diana dies in a mysterious car accident 1998: Britain and northern Ireland agree on a solution for autonomy Aug 1998: Kevin Warwick, a Cybernetic scientist, becomes the first human to be implanted a microchip 1999: Scotland inaugurates its own Parliament 1999: NATO bombs Serbia to stop repression against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo 2000: the serial killer Harold Shipman, a doctor, is sentenced to life in prison for murdering 15 patients while working at a hospital, but is suspected to have killed between 215 and 260 people over a 23-year period, mainly elderly women, by lethal injection. 2000: Youstol Dispage Fromscaruffi dies 2000: Eva Morris dies at 115, the oldest British person of all times 2000: British and American biologists decipher the entire human DNA 2001: Britain fights alongside the USA against Afghanistan 2003: British Airways retires the supersonic jet Concorde 2003: Tony Blair and George W Bush order the invasion of Iraq to depose Saddam Hussein 2003: Tony Blair admits that Saddam Hussein had no weapons of mass destruction (which was the reason to invade Iraq) 2004: manufacturing accounts for only 18% of the British economy 2004: There are 1.8 million Muslims in Britain 2004: the unemployment rate plunges to 4.7%, the lowest in 30 years 2004: The USA and Australia sign a free-trade treaty 2005: the price of oil reaches an all-time record 2005: Tony Blair is reelected and becomes the first Labour politician to be prime minister for three terms 2005: Four Pakistani suicide bombers kill 55 people in London 2005: the IRA (Irish Republican Army) gives up its armed struggle for a united Ireland 2006: Royal Dutch Shell posts the largest profit of any company in British history 2007: explosives-rigged cars are found in London Jan 2007: Australian hacker Julian Assange launches the website WikiLeaks 2007: Joanne Kathleen Rowling's "Harry Potter" books have sold over 300 million copies worldwide 2007: crash of the stock markets worldwide, triggered by the crisis of USA sub-prime mortgage lenders 2005: Tony Blair resigns and is succeeded by Gordon Brown 2007: Britain has plutonium for 17,000 nuclear bombs 2008: Indian car manufacturer Tata buys Jaguar 2008: The British economy goes into a recession after 16 years of growth sep 2008: Crash of the stock markets worldwide, triggered by the collapse of USA banks oct 2008: The British economy shrinks for the first time in 16 years and the pound has its biggest one-day drop against the dollar since 1971 on Oct 24 december 2008: The London stock market loses 31% in 2008, the worst loss in 24 years december 2008: The population of Britain is 61.4 million, the biggest increase in population in almost 50 years september 2009: The British stock market posts the best three months in 25 years 2009: For the first time Britain has more people who have no religion than people who are Christian may 2010: The Conservatives win elections, ending 13 years of Labour rule, and David Cameron becomes Britain's new prime minister, the youngest since 1812 jun 2010: A gunman kills 12 people in England nov 2010: Unable to pay its debt, Ireland applies for a loan from the European Union jul 2011: Rupert Murdoch's media empire is rocked by a scandal about phone hacking by a tabloid 2011: The USA has 413 billionaires, China has 115 billionaires, Russia 101, India 55, Germany 52, Britain 32, Brazil 30, and Japan 26 Aug 2011: Bloody riots erupt in London's Afro-Caribbean neighborhood of Tottenham following the government's decision to cut welfare programs Oct 2011: Protests against the financial world spread from the USA to Sydney, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Athens, Berlin, Rome and London 2011: Australia holds about 40% of the world's uranium Dec 2011: 26 countries of the European Union, led by Germany, agree on a treaty to enforce fiscal and financial discipline on countries that adopt the euro, leaving Britain out Oct 2013: Britain approves construction of the first new nuclear power plant in a generation (the Hinkley Point C plant in Somerset) 2013: Kevin Rudd becomes Australia's prime minister for the second time, while Australia enjoys its 22nd year of consecutive economic growth 2014: Same-sex marriage is legalized in England and Wales Sep 2014: A referendum on Scotland's independence from England Oct 2014: The USA and Britain withdraw from Afghanistan after the USA has lost more than 2,000 soldiers and Britain more than 400 2015: Net migration to Britain rises to 333,000 in 2015, the second-highest since records began in 1975 Jan 2016: A British investigation concludes that Alexander Litvinenko was killed by the Russian secret services May 2016: Sadiq Khan is the first Muslim elected mayor of London Jun 2016: The majority of British people (mostly in England) vote in a referendum to leave the European Union, stock markets plunge worldwide losing more than 2 trillion dollars in value and the British pound falls to its lowest level in 30 years, Cameron resigns and Theresa May of the same party replaces him British Monarchs	i don't know
"In which Shakespeare play does Feste the clown say ""Many a good hanging prevents a bad marriage""?"	Twelfth Night 1.5 - Maria is mad at Feste Explanatory Notes for Act 1, Scene 5 From Twelfth Night Or What You Will. Ed. Kenneth Deighton. London: Macmillan. 1. either tell ... or I, we should now say, "either tell me ... or you will not find me open my lips," or "tell me ... or I will not," etc; that is, we should not use "either ... or" unless the conjunction in both cases referred to the same subject. 1-3. I will not ... excuse, the construction is "I will not open my lips by way of your excuse (i.e. in the way of making excuses for you) so wide as that a bristle may enter between them." 4, 5. he that is ... colours. A proverbial saying derived, as Maria explains, from the wars, and meaning to fear no enemy's colours, standards, and so no enemy. The first part of the sentence, he that ... world, looks as though the Clown had intended to refer to such a person's expectations in the next world. 6. Make that good. Prove that. 8. A ... answer, a fine meagre answer; lenten fare, i.e. the meagre fare of strict Catholics during the feast of Lent, is a common expression, and in Haml. ii. 2. 329 we have, "To think, my lord, if you delight not in man, what lenten entertainment the players shall receive from you," i.e. what a scanty welcome, poor treatment, etc. 9. of, "is used to connect words or phrases in apposition, the saying here being 'I fear no colours.' So in Cor. ii. 1. 32, 'a very little thief of occasion,' where occasion is the thief" (Wright). 11, 2. and that ... foolery: and that you may venture to say when you are exercising your privilege of free jesting; said ironically, as in such a statement there would be nothing to excite the anger which the jester's witticisms often provoked. 13, 4. Well, ... talents. The Clown's inversion of Well, God give them wisdom that have none; and those that are wise, let them use their talents. There seems here to be a profane allusion to the parable of the talents, Matthew xxv., in which the man to whom the one talent was entrusted, and who laid it up without obtaining any interest for it, has this one talent taken away from him and given to him who had doubled the five talents entrusted to him, Christ rebuking him for his sloth, and saying, "For unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance; but from him that hath not, shall be taken even that which he hath." 16, 7. or, to ... you, or, as to being turned away, is not that in your case equivalent to hanging; for the indefinite to be, see Abb. � 356. 18. Many ... marriage; men are often saved from a miserable life by being hanged before they can marry. 18, 9. and for ... out, and as for being turned away, let summer make such a fate bearable, i.e. such a fate would be bearable so long as it did not fall upon me in winter; for bear it out, cp. 0th. ii. 1. 19, "It is impossible they bear it out," 'bear it out' being used indefinitely in both instances, though in the one it means 'make endurable,' in the other 'endure.' 21. Not so, neither, not even that; a colloquialism more common in "not so, either." 22, 3. That if ... fall. Maria puns on the word points in the sense of tags used for keeping up the breeches; cp. i. H, IV. ii. 4. 238, "Fal. Their points being broken, � (i.e. their sword points) Poins. Down fell their hose." gaskins, called also 'galligaskins,' a loose kind of breeches. Skeat says that the longer form is a corruption of Garguesques, Greguesques, and that the notion of some of the weavers of galligaskins that they were so called because they originally came from Gascony is a mistaken one. 24. Apt, a fitting, smart, quibble: Well, go thy way, said as Maria prepares to leave them. 24-6. if Sir Toby ... Illyria, if Sir Toby would only give up drinking, he could not do better than marry such a witty person as yourself. This of course is implied, not expressed. 27. Peace, ... that. Hold your tongue; I will have no more allusions to that subject. 28. you were best, for this ungrammatical remnant of ancient usage, see Abb. � 230. 29. Wit ... fooling! Addressing his own wit, the Clown adjures it to prompt him to a clever display of his art so that he may be able to turn away the anger of his mistress from whom he expects a scolding for his long absence. 30, 1. Those wits ... fools; those intelligences who fancy that they are endowed with wit, those self-styled wits. 32. Quinapalus the name of a philosopher invented by the Clown as an authority to quote in support of his own aphorism, just as in ii. 3. 23-5 he is represented as inventing Pigrogromitus, a geographer, the Vapians, a people, and Queubus, a country. 36. Take ... lady, i.e. she has ordered you to take away the fool, she is the fool, therefore take her away; one of the "simple syllogisms" of which the Clown boasts just below, though the premisses are inferred, not stated. 37. a dry fool, a fool whose wit has run dry, is exhausted; cp. T. C. i 3. 329, "were his brain as barren As banks of Libya, though, Apollo knows 'Tis dry enough." 38. you grow dishonest, i.e. by absenting yourself from your duties, as Maria has already accused him of doing. 39. madonna, Italian for 'my lady.' 40. dry fool, taking Olivia's expression in the sense of thirsty. 42. let the ... him, let him be sent to the mender of old clothes, shoes, etc., to patch him up. To 'botch,' = to patch, is "borrowed directly from the O. Low German. Oudemans gives botsen ... to strike; with its variant butsen, meaning both (1) to strike or beat, and (2) to repair. The notion of repairing in a rough manner follows at once from that of fastening by beating. The root is the same as that of beat" (Skeat, Ety. Dict.). 46. will serve, will do, is good enough for the purpose; so, well and good. 49. Misprision, a mistake. In using the words in the highest degree, the Clown probably has in his mind the phrase "misprision of treason." Skeat points out that the definition of that offence, viz. "a neglect or light account made of treason" is due to the word 'misprision' having been derived from the F. mespris, contempt, instead of from the O. F. mesprison, error, offence, with the same sense, and from the same source, as the Mod. F. meprise, a mistake. 49, 50. cucullus ... monachum, the cowl, or hood, does not make the monk. 50, 1. that's ... brain, which is equivalent to saying that though I wear the party-coloured dress of a fool, I am not a fool in point of intellect. motley, "of different colours ... So called because spotted; originally applied to curdled milk, etc. � O. F. mattele, 'clotted, knotted, curdled, or curd-like,' Cotgrave" (Skeat. Ety. Dict.). 54. Dexteriously, probably only an affectation of the Clown's, though Wright points out that the word is used in Bacon's Adv. of Lear. ii. 22. 15, and in Naunton's Fragmenta Regalia. 56. for it, in order to establish my proof: my mouse of virtue, my dear and virtuous lady; mouse was formerly a term of endearment. 58. for want ... idleness, as I have not just now any other frivolous way of spending my time: I'll bide your proof, I will submit myself to this proof of my folly which you undertake to furnish; for bide, in this sense, cp. i. H. IV, iv. 4. 10, "Wherein the fortune of ten thousand men Must bide the touch"; R. J. i. 1. 229, "Nor bide the encounter of assailing eyes." 64, 5. for your ... heaven, for the fact of, etc. 67. mend, improve in the matter of wit. 69, 70. infirmity ... fool, the weakness attendant upon old age which impairs the wisdom of the wise, only makes the fool more worthy of his title. For decays, used transitively, cp. Cymb. i. 5. 56, "And every day that comes comes to decay A day's work in him." 71, 2. God ... folly! God grant that you may quickly become old and infirm so that your folly (which you think wisdom) may increase and improve in quality; for the preceding a verbal that is followed by an obj., see Abb. � 93. 72, 3. will be ... fox, will readily swear that I am no very cunning fellow. 73. will not ... two pence, will not wager twopence. 75. How say ... Malvolio? What have you to say in answer to that? 76. such ... rascal, a fellow of such barren, scanty, wit; cp. T. C. i. 3. 329, quoted above on 1. 37. 77, 8. I saw him ... fool, I saw him worsted by a common fool, one who did not profess the art of jesting: for with, = by, see Abb. � 193. 79. he's out ... already, for out of his guard we should now say "off his guard," i.e. not in a position to defend himself, not prepared to continue the combat. Cp., for a similar metaphor, L. L. L. V. 1. 62, "Now by the salt wave of the Mediterranean, a sweet touch, a quick venue of wit! snip, snap, quick and home," 'venue' being a technical term in fencing for a thrust, hit. 79, 80. unless ... gagged, unless you encourage him by laughing at his wit, and give him some opportunity, some provocative, he is quite dumb, has not a word to say; for minister occasion, cp. Temp. ii. 1. 73, "and did to minister occasion to these gentlemen." 80-2. I protest ... zanies. I declare that I look upon these men who have the reputation of being wise, but who laugh so heartily at professed buffoons like this one, as being no better than poor imitations, shadows, of buffoons; for crow, cp. A. Y. L. ii. 7. 30, "when I did hear The motley fool thus moral on the time, My lungs began to crow like chanticleer ... And I did laugh sans intermission An hour by this dial": kind, must be regarded as a noun of multitude. On zany, a writer in the Edin. Review, for July, 1869, remarks, "The zany in Shakespeare's day was not so much a buffoon and a mimic as the obsequious follower of a buffoon, and the attenuated mime of a mimic. He was the vice, servant, or attendant of the professional clown or fool, who, dressed like his master, accompanied him on the stage or in the ring, following his movements, attempting to imitate his tricks and adding to the general merriment by his ludicrous failures and comic imbecility. It is this characteristic not merely of mimicry, but of weak and abortive mimicry, that gives its distinctive meaning to the word, and colours it with a special tinge of contempt" .... Middleton also uses the word for an 'attendant' simply. From "It. Zane, 'the name of John, or a sillie John, a gull, a noddie'... Florio. Mod. Ital. Zanni, Zane, and Zanni are familiar forms of Giovanni, John" ... (Skeat, Ety. Dict.). In the same sense we use a 'Jack-pudding.' 83. sick of self-love, i.e. out of, from, self-love: and taste ... appetite, and regard everything with a diseased judgment, see things with a jaundiced eye. 84-6. To be ... bullets. They who are of a generous nature, conscious of no evil in themselves, and unsuspicious of others, regard those things as mere harmless sport which to you seem serious offences: bird-bolts, were short, thick arrows, with broad blunt, ends: we speak of the 'bullets' (using a diminutive) of a rifle or gun, but of cannon-balls. 86-8. there is no ... reprove. In the jests of one who is a professional fool there is nothing malicious, even though he does nothing but rail at one; just as a man of known discretion cannot be said to rail, however much he may reprove. 89, 90. Now ... fools! Johnson explains this, "May Mercury teach thee to lie, since thou liest in favour of fools." Mercury was the divinity of commerce and gain, his name being connected with merx, profit, and mercari to barter, and hence of unjust gain, cheating, falsehood. Leasing is the A.S. leasing, from A.S. leas, false, originally, empty. 91. much desires, sc. who much, etc. For the omission of the relative, see Abb. � 244. 94. 'tis a ... man, cp. H. V. iii. 6. 70, "Why 'tis a gull, a fool, a rogue"; A. C. iii. 2. 6, "'tis a noble Lepidus": and well attended, who has several attendants with him. 96. hold ... delay, hold him in check and so delay his coming to me. 98. Fetch him off, get him out of the way: he speaks ... madman, he talks nothing but what is utter folly; cp. K. J. ii. 1. 462, "He speaks plain cannon fire, and smoke and bounce": M. A. ii. 1. 255, "She speaks poniards"; Oth, ii. 3. 281, "Drunk? and speak parrot?" 99, 100. if it be a suit, if his object in coming is to plead for the Count: I am ... home, i.e. say that I, etc. 101. to dismiss it, in order to get rid of the solicitations of the Count. 101, 2. Now you ... it, you see, from what Malvolio says, that your jesting appears to be in its dotage, and people no longer appreciate it. 103. for us, sc. the fraternity, or guild, of fools. 104. should be, was likely to be. 104, 5. for, � here he ... mater, this is the reading of the Camb. Edd. for "for here he comes one of thy kin," etc: i.e. for, � here he comes of whom I speak, � one of your kin, etc.; pia mater, the thin inner membrane which immediately envelopes the brain: weak, liable to give way at the least exertion. 106. What is he? who is he? with a notion of indefiniteness. 110, 1. a plague ... herring, curses on these pickled herrings which, by driving me to drink so much, cause me to hiccough in this way; referring to his words being broken off after here by his catching his breath. Herrings pickled in brine are a dish Sir Toby would be likely to eat of plenteously as a provocative to drinking, and so would be subject to indigestion, resulting in a hiccough. Dyce prints pickle-herring, the apostrophe indicating the plural; Rolfe considers the word a true plural, like trout, salmon, and compares Lear, iii. 6. 33, "two white herring." 111. How now, sot? Though 'sot' is generally used by Shakespeare for 'dolt,' 'fool,' Knight thinks that the humour here consists in the drunken Sir Toby addressing the Clown as drunkard. 113, 4. how have ... lethargy? how is it that you are in this half-sleepy state so early in the morning? come by, acquired. 115. Lechery! To Sir Toby this word would be familiar, but 'lethargy' is above his understanding. 118, 9. give me ... I, what I delight in is good faith, trust: Well ... one, well, it does not matter: the drunkard's carelessness of consequences. 121, 2. one ... heat, one glass more than is enough to warm the blood: mads, maddens. 124. the crowner, the coroner, lit. an officer appointed by the crown, and then specially one who holds the inquest into the cause of a man's death; for the form of the word, cp. Haml. V. 1, 24, "crowner's quest law." Shakespeare also uses crownet for 'coronet,' A. C. iv. 12. 27, v. 2. 91: sit o' my coz, hold an inquest upon my cousin; coz, a common contraction of 'cousin.' 125. for he's ... drink, according to the Clown's classification of degrees. 127. but mad yet, so far only in the second stage; though in his original statement the Clown puts the climax, 'drowned,' first: shall look to, shall take care of. 130, 1. he takes ... you, he professes to be, assumes the responsibility of being, aware of that, and therefore he says (though one might have expected this knowledge to deter him) he comes, etc. 132, 3. he seems ... you, he appears to have known this before he was told of it, and therefore (not in spite of it, as one would have expected him to say), he comes, etc. 137. Has, for the omission of the nominative, see Abb. � 400. 138. a sheriff's post, it is commonly stated that these posts were used for fixing royal and civic proclamations upon them; Knight doubts this, and is inclined to believe that they were only a token of authority, to denote the residence of a magistrate. He gives a pictorial illustration of such posts, to which it would not have been easy to affix proclamations of any kind: the supporter to a bench, i.e. as firmly fixed, as stationary, as the legs which support a bench to sit upon. 139. but he'll you, rather than not speak to you: see Abb. � 121. 141. of mankind, one of the human race; a piece of Malvolio's wit. 143. Of ... manner, Olivia having used 'manner' in the sense of 'kind,' Malvolio again displays his wit by using the word in a different sense = manners, behaviour: will you or no, whether you are willing or not. 145. personage, personal appearance; cp. M. N. D. iii. 2. 292, "And with her personage, her tall personage." 147. as a squash ... peascod, he is to a man what a squash is to a peascod; a squash is a peascod, or peaspod in its earlier stage before the pea is formed in the pod, when it is soft and easily squeezed, squashed: a codling, here an unripe apple, though in though in present use as a particular kind of apple. Formed from cod = husk, "by the help of the diminutive�ling; cp. codlings in the sense of 'green peas' (Halliwell) with the word pease-cod, showing that codlings are properly the young pods" (Skeat, Ety. Dict.). 148. e'en standing water, neither at the flow nor at the ebb; cp. Temp. ii. 1. 221-4, "Seb. Well, I am standing water. Ant. I'll teach you how to flow. Seb. Do so: to ebb Hereditary sloth instructs me": e'en for 'in' is Steevens' correction; if 'in' is retained, it must mean 'in the condition of,' as Wright explains. 149. He is ... shrewlshly, he is comely in appearance, and (yet) he speaks very sharply, tartly. 150, 1. one would ... him, from his appearance one would think that it was not so very long since he was weaned (and therefore one might expect gentler language from him). For the subject in the subordinate sentence, see Abb. � 368. 152. call in, summon to be present with me during the interview. 157. I shall ... her, I will make answer for her. Your will? What is your desire? 158-60. I pray you ... her: Viola interrupts herself for fear she should be casting away, wasting, her speech on some one else than Olivia. 162. to con it, to learn it by heart; to 'con,' "a secondary verb, formed from A. S. cunnan, to know; it signifies accordingly 'to try to know'; and may be regarded as the desiderative of to know" (Skeat, Ety. Dict.): let me ... no scorn; do not subject me to any disdain while delivering the message entrusted to me: for sustain, in this sense, cp. Cymb. i. 4. 125, H. VIII. ii. 2. 5. 162, 3. I am very ... usage, I am very sensitive, susceptible, to, very easily disconcerted by, the least unkindness. 166-8. give me ... speech, give me such assurance that you are the lady of the house as will enable one as timid as myself to go on with my speech. 169. Are ... comedian? sc. that you speak of studying a part. 170. my profound heart, my most wise lady; heart, as a term of affectionate or familiar address, is used by Shakespeare sometimes unqualified, sometimes qualified by such adjectives as 'dear,' 'good,; 'noble,' 'sweet.' Here the words my profound heart are merely a continuation of the euphuistic style in which Viola had begun her address, "Most radiant, exquisite," etc. 170, 1. by the very ... play, this seems to mean, I invoke upon myself the bitterest things that can be said of me if I lie in declaring that my character is an assumed one, and so far I am a comedian. For fangs, used in a figurative sense, cp. A. Y. L. ii 1. 6, "the icy fang And churlish chiding of the winter's wind." 173. If I ... myself, if I do not claim a title which does not belong to me. 174. you do ... yourself; you do in regard to yourself claim as a right that which is no right of yours. 176. to reserve, to keep wholly to yourself: i.e. it is your duty to marry and give the house a lord and master. 176. from my commission: beyond, out of, what was committed to me to deliver; for from, see Abb. � 158. 176, 7. I will on ... message, I will go on with my speech in praise of you, which I began and broke off in (and which is merely an ornamental preface), and will then come to what is the pith and essence of the message entrusted to me. 178, 9. I forgive ... praise, I remit that as a tribute you need not pay. 181. It is ... feigned, if it is poetical, it is all the more likely to be untrue, counterfeit; cp. M. N. D. i. 1. 30, 1, "Thou hast by moonlight at her window sung With feigning voice verses of feigning love"; A. Y. L. iii. 3. 22, "the truest poetry is the most feigning." 181, 2. keep it in, restrain it, do not deliver it. 182, 3. and allowed ... you, and allowed you to be admitted not so much in order to listen to what you had to say as to indulge my wonder at one who had so impudently demanded entrance. 183, 4. If you he ... brief; I have followed Mason in omitting 'not' of the folios before mad. Olivia had said that she admitted Viola chiefly because she was so astonished at her saucy behaviour, and she goes on, if, as that behaviour seem to indicate, you are not in your right mind, you had better take yourself off; if, however, you are in your senses, you had better say as briefly as you can what the object of your visit is. Knight, retaining 'not,' thinks that Shakespeare "means Olivia to say, If you are not quite without reason, begone; if you have some reason, be brief, that you may soon be gone; giving the effect of an antithetical construction without actually being so." 184, 5. 'tis not ... dialogue, I am not now under the influence of the moon, in a state of lunacy, so that I should be inclined to take part in so flighty a dialogue; for skipping, cp. M. V. ii. 2. 196, "Pray thee, take pain to allay with some cold drops of modesty thy skipping spirit." 186. hoist sail, put up sail and be off. 187. swabber, one who swabs, sweeps with a brush called a swab, the decks of a ship. I am ... longer, I am to beat about here, etc. To 'hull,' is to drive hither and thither when masts and sails have gone, or when the sails are all taken in during a calm, and the 'hull' or body of the vessel is almost all that is seen above the water. For the word used in a metaphorical sense, cp. H. VIII. ii. 4. 199, "Thus hulling in The wild sea of my conscience"; and Marston, Sophonisba, i. 2. 193, "since the billow (sc. of war) Is risen so high we may not hull." In swabber and hull, Viola is merely carrying on Maria's metaphor. 188. Some ... giant, I beg you to pacify this formidable attendant of yours; ironically referring to the diminutive size of Maria (who is called by Sir Toby, iii. 2. 70, below, "the youngest wren of nine"), and also with an allusion to the giants who, in old romances, are represented as being kept by ladies of rank for their protection. 189. Tell me your mind. Tell me what you wish to say; to which Viola replies, I have not to deliver my mind, I come as a messenger to deliver what has been entrusted to me. Warburton first arranged the text as it stands; the folios give the words tell me your mind as a part of Viola's speech. 191, 2. Sure ... fearful, evidently the message you bring must be a terrible one, seeing that in your courtesy you show yourself so afraid to deliver it for fear of the effect it might have upon me. 192. your office, that which you were commissioned to deliver: cp. iii. 4. 299, "do thy office." 193. It ... ear: alone belongs to ear, not to it. 193, 4. no overture of war, no disclosure, announcement, of terms of war; overt, lit. means 'open.' 194. no taxation of homage, no demand of homage due as a tribute; I am not come to tax you in the matter of homage. the olive the emblem of peace. 195. as full ... matter, as peaceful as they are material, important. 199. from my entertainment, from the treatment I received at the hands of your servants; if they had not treated me rudely, I should not have shown any rudeness myself; for entertainment, cp. Temp, i. 2. 465, "I will resist such entertainment till mine enemy has more power." 200, 1. to your ... profanation, what I am, and what I desire, are matters which if delivered to your ears are as something holy, but which it would be profanation to deliver to other ears. 202. Give us ... alone, leave us alone. this divinity, this message which Viola speaks of as something holy. 203, 4. your text, that text or subject on which your discourse is to enlarge. 206. A comfortable doctrine, this doctrine which you preach (in using the words "Most sweet lady") is of a character comforting to the soul; "a comfortable doctrine" is a phrase used in religious or theological language. much ... it, is one that affords much scope for enlargement upon it. 207. Where ... text? In what scriptures is this text to be found? 209. In what chapter, in what part; as we say, "give me chapter and verse for your statement," i.e. tell me exactly where you got it from, what authority you have for it. 210. by the method, in accordance with the mode of your speech: in the first of his heart, i.e. it is the very beginning and most essential part of what is written in his heart. 211. it is heresy, it is false doctrine, not the truth; cp. Cymb. iii. 4. 83, 4, where Imogen is speaking of the letters of Posthumus, which she has in her bosom, "What is here? The scriptures of the loyal Leonatus All turned to heresy." In text, comfortable doctrine, chapter, first of his heart, heresy, Olivia is merely carrying on the idea suggested by Viola's use of divinity and profanation. 215. You are ... text; you have now exceeded the text of your instructions. 216. draw the curtain, here = undraw; Shakespeare uses the phrase both for covering and uncovering. 218. if God did all, if you are what nature made you and owe nothing to art. 219. in grain, of a fast colour; grain in this phrase is cochineal, a dye obtained from the dried bodies of insects of the species Coccus cacti, but supposed by the ancients to be made from a berry, the meaning of the Lat. coccus; cp. C. E, iii. 2. 108. "Ant. S. That's a fault that water will mend. Dro. S. No, sir, 'tis in grain; Noah's flood could not do it," i.e. wash it out: 't will ... weather, it will not lose its colour from wind or rain. 220. 'Tis beauty ... blent, it is beauty the colours of which are honestly mixed, not due to art, but laid on by the sweet and skilful pencil of nature. 222. she, lady, woman; as frequently in Shakespeare. 223, 4. If you ... copy. If instead of allowing such beauty to be led to the altar, and so, by marriage, leaving a copy of that original, you should take it to the grave, leaving no copy behind you; cp. W. T. i. 2. 122, ii. 3. 99. In Sonn. xi. 14, copy is used in a similar metaphor, though there the meaning is the original form from which a similar form is created, "She [Nature] carv'd thee for her seal, and meant thereby Thou should'st print more, nor let that copy die." 225-7. I will ... will; carrying on her affectation of legal phraseology, Olivia says that, so far from leaving no copy behind, she will cause to be published various bills setting forth the particulars of her beauty; she will have an inventory made of every particular and article of it, and this inventory shall be affixed to her will, like a list of goods and chattels; a schedule is lit. a small leaf of paper, and label, a small flap or lappet, then a small slip of paper. 227. item, "a separate article or particular ... The mod. use of item as a subs. is due to the old use of it in enumerating particulars. Properly it is an adv. meaning 'also' or 'likewise' ... from Lat. item, in like manner, likewise, also" ... (Skeat, Ety. Dict.). 228. indifferent, fairly, tolerably; see note on i. 3. 118, above. 230. to praise, probably, as most edd. take it, for 'appraise'; cp. T. C. iii. 2. 97, "praise us as we are tasted, allow us as we prove." 233-5. O, such love ... beauty? Beautiful as you are, such love as his would not be more than compensated by the return of your love, even if you had been crowned by general consent as peerless in beauty. 235. nonpareil, one without an equal; cp. Cymb, ii. 5. 8, "my mother seemed The Dian of that time; so doth my wife The nonpareil of this." 236. With adorations, with the utterance of vows of love: fertile tears, tears so abundant as to fertilize the soil on which they fall. With was inserted by Pope before fertile, and seems clearly needed not merely for the metre, but for the balance of sentences. 239. suppose him virtuous, assume, though I have no absolute knowledge, that he is of a virtuous disposition. 241. In voices well divulged. This is generally taken by itself as = well spoken of by the world, of good reputation. It seems to me to be connected with the rest of the line, i.e. well spoken of by the world as being free (gracious), learned, and valiant. Having first referred to what she can only assume regarding the Duke, ac. his virtue, Olivia goes on to mention wnat she knows as facts, viz. that he is of noble birth and fortune, that his youth has been blamelessly spent, that he is spoken of as gracious, learned, and valiant, that his personal appearance is handsome. His being free, learned, and valiant would be a matter of opinion, his being considered so would be a matter of fact within her knowledge. 242, 3. And in ... person, and in the stature and shape given him by nature, a good-looking person; for gracious, cp. K. J. iii. 4. 81, "For since the birth of Cain, the first male child ... There was not such a gracious creature born." 244. He might ... ago. He might long ago have accepted the fact that I would not marry him; for took, see Abb. � 343. 245. in my ... flame, with such a burning passion as my master feels for you. 246. With such ... life, with such a painful and fatal vitality of love; deadly life, for the sake of the antithesis; cp. H. V. iv. 2. 64, 5, "To demonstrate the life of such a battle In life so lifeless as it shows itself." 247. would ... sense, would see no meaning. 248. what would you, sc. do. 249. a willow cabin, a hut of osier twigs woven together. The willow was an emblem of unhappy love... 250. my soul, i.e. her, Olivia, who would be the very life and soul of Viola if she loved as her master did. 251. loyal cantons, songs of ever faithful love; canton, anbther form of 'canto' used in Shakespeare's day. 252. loud, loudly. 253. reverberate hills, hills that would re-echo them, reverberant; the passive adj. used actively. Steevens quotes Ben Jonson, The Masque of Blackness, "which skill Pythagoras First taught to man by a reverberate glass." 254, 5. And make ... 'Olivia!' And cause the air, which tattles about everything like an old gossip, to cry out 'Olivia!' In Per. i. 2. 87, we have "the listening air," i.e. ready to catch up anything uttered in it. 255-7. O, you ... me! You should find no rest anywhere between earth and sky unless you showed pity to me; for but, see Abb. � 121. 257. You might do much, sc. towards winning my love. 259. Above ... well. My parentage is above my position as a page, though I have nothing to complain of in my present circumstances. 263. To tell ... it, to tell me how (i.e. with anger or with resignation) he receives my refusal. 265. I am ... post, I am not a messenger who requires to be paid for his trouble; post = messenger, is frequent in Shakespeare, e.g. K. J. i. 1. 219, M. V. ii. 9. 100. 266. My master ... recompense. It is my master, not I, who needs reward, the reward of your love for his constancy. 267. Love ... love; may the god of love (Cupid) make the heart of him with whom you fall in love as hard as a flint! 268, 9. And let ... contempt! And may your ardour, like my master's, find no other reception than that of contempt; cp. M. V. ii. 6. 57, "And therefore, like herself, wise, fair and true, Shall she be placed in my constant soul." 269. fair cruelty, fair but cruel one; abstr. for concr., cp. K. J. iii. 4. 36, "O fair affliction, peace!" Temp. v. 1. 241, "Bravely, my diligence" etc., i.e. my diligent servant. 274. Do give ... blazon; do each of them proclaim you a gentleman: blazon, from "F. blason, 'a coat of arms; in the eleventh century a buckler, shield; then a shield with the coat of arms of a knight painted on it; lastly, towards the fifteenth century, the coats of arms themselves' (Brachet)"... (Skeat, Ety. Dict.). Hence the description or portraiture of other things besides a coat of arms. 274, 5. not too ... man. I must not allow my regard for him to run on too fast; I must check myself; this will not do, unless the master and the servant could change places, and the latter loved me as dearly as the former does; the master, equivalent to 'he who loves me so.' 275. How now! not a question, but a rebuke to herself for her sudden love. 276. the plague, i.e. of love 279. To creep ... eyes. Cp. M. V. iii. 2. 67, "Tell me where is fancy (i.e. love) bred ... It is engender'd in the eyes. With gazing fed"; for to after feel, see Abb. � 349. let it be, never mind, let things take their course; as she says just after, "What is decreed must be, and this be so." 280. at your service, I am here to wait upon you. 281. peevish, wilful, obstinate. The word is used by Shakespeare in various senses, silly, thoughtless, wayward, capricious, etc. 282. The county's man, the count's man-servant; county, another form of 'count,' several times used by Shakespeare; originally meaning a companion, i.e. of some great leader, the modern 'county,' = shire, being the portion of territory of which the 'count' had the government. 283. Would I or not, whether I liked it or not. I'll none of it, I will have nothing to do with it. 284. to flatter ... lord, to encourage him with hopes; for flatter with, cp. T. G. iv. 4. 193, "Unless I flatter with myself too much." 285. hold him ... hopes, give him the support of hope: I am ... him, he need not hope to win me for his wife. 286. If that, for the conjunctional affix, see Abb. � 287. 287. for't, for my refusal: hie thee, haste thee; for 'thee' used instead of 'thou,' see Abb. � 212. 289, 90. and fear ... mind. "She fears that her eyes had formed so flattering an idea of Cesario that she should not have strength of mind sufficient to resist the impression. She had just before said, 'Methinks, I feel this youth's perfections, With an invisible and subtle stealth To creep in at mine eyes'" (M. Mason). 291. force, power: owe, own, possess, are masters of; the -n of owen, to possess, which was dropped in Elizabethan Eng., has now been restored. ________ How to cite the explanatory notes: Shakespeare, William. Twelfth Night Or What You Will. Ed. Kenneth Deighton. London: Macmillan, 1889. Shakespeare Online. 20 Dec. 2010. < http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/twn_1_5.html > ________ The Comic Relief of Sir Toby Belch and Sir Andrew Aguecheek _____ Did You Know? ... Ale (beer made with a top fermenting yeast) was the drink of choice in Shakespeare's day. Everyone from the poorest farmer to the Queen herself drank the brew made from malt, and a mini brewery was an essential part of every household. Shakespeare's own father was an official ale taster in Stratford � an important and respected job which involved monitoring the ingredients used by professional brewers and ensuring they sold their ale at Crown regulated prices. Beer, however, eventually became more popular than ale. Read on... _____	Twelfth Night
Which intelligence agency was founded in 1951 by Isser Harel who served as its director until 1963?	Twelfth Night Important Quotes Twelfth Night Important Quotes link Link Context: The ruler of Illyria, Duke Orsino, is in love with Olivia, a young, beautiful, and very wealthy countess who is in mourning for a dead brother. The duke's affection is not requited by the countess, who will not admit his emissary or hear his protestations of love and pleads mourning for her brother as the reason she may not. At the beginning of the play, Duke Orsino is listening to melancholy music as he waits for his messenger to Olivia, Valentine, to return with news from her. (Over 150 years later, in 1775, another English dramatist, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, paraphrased, in The Rivals, this famous quotation thus: "Is not music the food of love?") (In modern times, the phrase "a dying fall" is used by T. S. Eliot in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, l. 52.) DUKEIf music be the food of love, play on,Give me excess of it; that, surfeiting,The appetite may sicken, and so die.That strain again–it had a dying fall.O, it came o'er my ear, like the sweet soundThat breathes upon a bank of violets,Stealing, and giving odour.. . . More Content: Quotes in Context (hide) link Link Context: Sir Toby Belch, uncle to Olivia, and Sir Andrew Aguecheek are at Olivia's house when Feste, her servant and jester, enters. Sir Toby and Andrew have been talking nonsense, and with Feste's entrance all three continue in the same vein. The older men ask Feste for a song, and he asks if they would like a love song or one of "good life." Toby chooses a love song, and Andrew assents because he does not care for good life. Feste then sings one of Shakespeare's loveliest songs, both stanzas of which follow: FESTEO mistress mine, where are you roaming?O stay and hear, your true love's coming,That can sing both high and low.Trip no further pretty sweeting;Journeys end in lover's meeting,Every wise man's son doth know.. . .What is love? 'Tis not hereafter;Present mirth hath present laughter,What's to come is still unsure.In delay there lies no plenty,Then come kiss me sweet and twenty.Youth's a stuff will not endure. link Link Context: Malvolio, a pompous, self-loving, and sour steward in Countess Olivia's household, harbors ridiculous aspirations for his mistress' affections. He is disliked by Sir Toby Belch, Olivia's bibulous uncle, and Maria, Olivia's waiting woman. Seeking revenge on Malvolio for his officious interference with their drinking late one night, they obtain their goal by preparing a love note in Olivia's hand and style and dropping it in Malvolio's path. He believes it to be from Olivia and obeys its instructions to appear before her cross-gartered, in yellow stockings, smiling, and kissing his hand–affectations which she abhors. As he approaches, Maria fetches Sir Toby and Fabian, a servant who also dislikes Malvolio, with these words: MARIAIf you desire the spleen, and will laugh yourselves into stitches, follow me. Yond gull Malvolio is turned heathen, a very renegado; for there is no Christian that means to be saved by believing rightly, can ever believe such impossible passages of grossness. He's in yellow stockings.SIR TOBYAnd cross-gartered?MARIAMost villainously. . . . link Link Context: Viola, on a sea voyage with her twin brother, Sebastian, is shipwrecked on the seacoast of Illyria. Convinced that her brother has been drowned, she determines to serve temporarily the ruler of Illyria, Duke Orsino, in the guise of a eunuch and under the name of Cesario. The duke employs her thus to press his suit for the hand of the Countess Olivia, who does not love him and who has put him off by pleading mourning for a dead brother. Viola-Cesario, with an entourage, calls at Olivia's home, gains admittance, and attempts to persuade Olivia of the duke's devotion. Olivia rejects the duke but realizes that she has fallen in love with the messenger, believing Viola to be a man. Now, on Viola-Cesario's second visit, Olivia confesses her love, and in an attempt to persuade an angry and perplexed Viola she argues: OLIVIA. . .Cesario, by the roses of the spring,By maidhood, honour, truth, and every thing,I love thee so, that, maugre all thy pride,Nor wit, nor reason, can my passion hide.Do not extort thy reasons from this clause,For that I woo, thou therefore hast no cause.But rather reason thus with reason fetter;Love sought is good, but given unsought is better. link Link Context: Maria, Countess Olivia's waiting woman, is quarreling with Feste, the Clown, another of Olivia's servants, and he returns her some saucy answers: MARIANay, either tell me where thou hast been, or I will not open my lips so wide as a bristle may enter, in way of thy excuse. My lady will hang thee for thy absence.FESTELet her hang me. He that is well hanged in this world needs to fear no colours.MARIAMake that good.FESTEHe shall see none to fear.. . .MARIAYet you will be hanged for being so long absent, or, to be turned away. Is not that as good as a hanging to you?FESTEMany a good hanging prevents a bad marriage; . . . link Link Context: A self-loving steward, Malvolio, nurses ridiculous aspirations for the affections of his mistress, Countess Olivia. He is greatly disliked by Sir Toby Belch, Olivia's bibulous uncle, and Maria, the countess' waiting woman. They, together with Sir Andrew Aguecheek, a ridiculous and hopeless suitor to Olivia and tool of Sir Toby, seek revenge on Malvolio because he has interfered in their affairs. They accomplish their aim by dropping a love note for him to discover in the garden. He finds it and, completely duped into believing it to be from Olivia and meant for him, obeys its injunctions to appear before her in yellow stockings, cross-gartered, smiling idiotically and kissing his hand. Olivia, in mourning for a dead brother, is amazed by the sober and civil steward's appearance and behavior, and thinks he is mad. MALVOLIORemember who commended thy yellow stockings–OLIVIAThy yellow stockings?MALVOLIOAnd wished to see thee cross-gartered.OLIVIACross-gartered?MALVOLIOGo to, thou art made, if thou desirest to be so–. . . If not, let me see thee a servant still.OLIVIAWhy this is very midsummer madness. . . . Good Maria, let this fellow be looked to. . . . Let some of my people have a special care of him, . . . link Link Context: It is after midnight at the home of the wealthy countess Olivia. Sir Toby Belch, her riotous uncle and house guest, and his friend Sir Andrew Aguecheek are joined in their drinking and jesting by Feste, a clownish servant of Olivia. When Feste is prevailed upon to sing, the group becomes so noisy that Maria, Olivia's waiting-woman, warns them that Olivia will surely dispatch her ill-tempered steward, Malvolio, to put an end to the din. Malvolio appears and upbraids the rioters for lack of "wit, manners, and honesty," but Sir Toby and Feste respond by singing contemptuous responses and finally saying to Malvolio: SIR TOBYOut o' tune sir, ye lie. Art any more than a steward? Dost thou think because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale?FESTEYes by Saint Anne, and ginger shall be hot i' th' mouth too.SIR TOBYTh'art i' th' right. Go sir, rub your chain with crumbs. A stoup of wine, Maria. link Link Context: In Illyria, Viola, a shipwrecked gentlewoman, is disguised as a page, "Cesario," in the service of Duke Orsino, whom she secretly loves. Orsino, professing overpowering sentiment for the wealthy Countess Olivia, sends "Cesario" with messages of love to Olivia, who in turn falls in love with "Cesario." Viola, still in disguise, while arguing with Orsino about the ability of a man to love versus the ability of a woman to love, relates the story of her father's daughter, herself of course, who harbored a deep secret passion: VIOLA. . .My father had a daughter loved a man,As it might be perhaps, were I a woman,I should your lordship.DUKEAnd what's her history?VIOLAA blank my lord. She never told her love,But let concealment like a worm i' th' budFeed on her damask cheek. She pined in thought,And with a green and yellow melancholyShe sat like Patience on a monument,Smiling at grief. Was not this love indeed?We men may say more, swear more, but indeedOur shows are more than will; for still we proveMuch in our vows, but little in our love. link Link Context: Malvolio is a self-loving, pompous steward in Countess Olivia's household. He nurses ridiculous aspirations for Olivia's affections, and is disliked by Sir Toby Belch, Olivia's bibulous uncle, and Maria, Olivia's waiting woman. They, together with Sir Andrew Aguecheek, Sir Toby's friend and hopeless suitor for the countess' hand, seek revenge on Malvolio because he has officiously interfered with their drinking and merrymaking late one night. Maria prepares, in imitation of Olivia's handwriting and style, a love note to drop in Malvolio's way. He, walking in the garden, finds the note, recognizes the handwriting, breaks the seal, reads the contents and becomes convinced that the epistle is from Olivia and is meant for him. Thus he is completely gulled, and the revenge of the tricksters is well in train. The letter proper begins: MALVOLIO [reads]If this falls into thy hand, revolve. In my stars I am above thee, but be not afraid of greatness. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon 'em. Thy fates open their hands, . . . link Link Context: The hand of the young, beautiful, and wealthy Countess Olivia is sought by a foolish knight, Sir Andrew Aguecheek. Sir Toby Belch, Olivia's uncle, encourages, for his own bibulous and financial ends, Sir Andrew's quite hopeless suit. Sir Andrew, recently persuaded to remain in attendance on Olivia for another month, is drinking and carousing with Sir Toby late at night. They are joined by Feste, Olivia's jester, who is prevailed upon by the two tipsters to sing a love song. This is the second stanza: FESTEWhat is love? 'Tis not hereafter;Present mirth hath present laughter,What's to come is still unsure.In delay there lies no plenty,Then come kiss me sweet and twenty.Youth's a stuff will not endure.	i don't know
"Which supermarket has the loyalty card ""Match and More""?"	Morrisons More card - Morrisons Morrisons Contact Us Store Finder Say hello to the new Morrisons More card New 25 Morrisons More Points for every £1 you spend on Gift Cards in store. Find out more Earn 10 Morrisons More Points per litre when you buy fuel at Morrisons Earn 5 Morrisons More Points for every £1 you spend at Morrisons Café Earn 5 Morrisons More Points for every £1 you spend in store and online * Earn More Points on promotions in store and online Get a £5 More voucher for every 5,000 points you earn Start earning Morrisons More Points today Register Online Create an online account to check your Morrisons More Points balance, and choose how to receive your £5 vouchers. You can use an existing card number to register if you have one. Log in to Your Account Getting More for your money is easy at Morrisons Once you've earned 5,000 More Points we'll give you a Morrisons Fiver to save, or spend in store or online. The more Morrisons More Points you earn, the more Morrisons Fivers you'll receive. Have you downloaded the Morrisons More App? See your Morrisons More Points balance on the go Get our latest discounts direct to your phone Find out about our latest promotions Earn Morrisons More Points every time you shop online Once you’ve registered above, you'll earn Morrisons More Points when you do an online shop with us. You’ll also find exclusive offers, and enjoy a unique, friendly home delivery service that makes life easier all round. Shop from any device Browse Morrisons More Points promotions Take advantage of 7-day delivery Pick one-hour slots from only £1 Get a doorstep 'Fresh Check' If we're late, there's no delivery charge	Morrisons
In which US state is the Lake Ponchartrain Causeway, the longest bridge in America?	Loyalty cards boosting: Nectar, Tesco, Boots - MSE How to complain about a retailer When loyalty pays Loyalty is a consumer disease. Retailers utilise every tactic possible to keep us shopping in their stores without checking out the competition, rewarding new customers over existing ones. Their prime weapon is loyalty cards. They allow you to collect points in specific shops when you spend � usually requiring you to return there to redeem them. While credit or store card reward schemes work in a similar way, loyalty cards don't allow you to pay with them (except when redeeming points). When to use loyalty schemes Never feel the shop's giving you something for nothing, as schemes are incorporated into pricing policies. To evaluate the overall cost, consider loyalty points gained like a discount. The difficulty is that their value is often deliberately misted, so use the LoyaltyChecker to reveal the real value of each point. This story should help... Irma Rightone loves the Boots Advantage card scheme, believing it's very generous as it gives four points, each worth a penny, per pound spent. So in she pops to buy her favourite matt foundation for �6, then shines in the glow of her 24 points. Ivor Secret loves the same foundation, and while his wife's not looking, sneaks out to buy it. He's seen it at the local supermarket for �5.50. He realises Boots points are an effective 4% discount, and calculates its real cost in Boots at �5.76, so buys it in the supermarket instead. Yet of course it's not practical to weigh up every single product's overall price, therefore the golden rule is... Never choose where you shop due to loyalty schemes, yet always use it if you shop somewhere with one. Don't think "points are better than cash" � you can't spend them in nearly as many places. Watch for the vicious circle of loyalty Many in-store promotions give discounts as extra points rather than money off. This is very clever, because while �1 of points may feel like a �1 discount, of course it only costs the store what it paid its suppliers, not the full retail price. Add to that the fact it ensures you must return to that store to spend the points. When you do, it's likely you'll spend again, earning more points, requiring you to return yet again to redeem them; earning more points, requiring you to return again... Loyalty credit cards... beware the marketing spin Most of the big loyalty schemes have a credit card too. Here you don't just accumulate points on spending in a specific chain, but on all spending. This can be a boon, provided you repay in full each month, so you don't pay any interest. Yet always check the actual gain from using the credit card rather than just a loyalty card, then compare this to what you could earn on the Top Cashback Credit Card or other Credit Card Reward Schemes . Watch the multi-earn argument You need to be careful here, as promotional leaflets for many credit card schemes use a neat double-counting trick. Take the Tesco Clubcard Credit Card for example, which gives you one Clubcard point for every �8 you spend everywhere outside Tesco. While the marketing hints using this card in Tesco is a hefty boost, its normal loyalty card pays one point per �1 anyway. So the credit card only adds one extra point. Put another way, you gain a quarter of a point per pound spent. It's this amount you should compare to Top Cashback Cards . Boost your loyalty points Every loyalty scheme has its quirks and can be manipulated. There are two obvious routes: first, try to earn more points for the same spending; next, try to beat the average point's value on whatever you redeem. To help, here are scheme-by-scheme point-maximising tips. Tesco Clubcard points boosting You accumulate Tesco Clubcard points* at a rate of one per pound spent. You earn them in store at Tesco, or via partners such as E.on. Each point is worth a penny if used for in-store shopping, and they're sent out in vouchers (if you've at least 150 points on your account) every three months. It's possible to get back lost or unclaimed Clubcard vouchers if they're less than two years old. Follow the steps in our Reclaim Tesco Vouchers guide to see if you've got any hiding from you. Triple or quadruple your points when redeeming with Boost Partners This is the powerhouse of the Tesco points boosting method. Trade in normal vouchers for Tesco's special Clubcard Boost* tokens, and each �10 voucher becomes worth up to �40 in exchange and rewards with Boost partners. Clubcard Boost includes offers for train tickets, days out, magazine subscriptions, travel, including holidays, gifts, hotel rooms and more. Among the options are an �18 RAC membership (see Breakdown Rewards ), an adult cinema ticket for �4.50 in points, or a year's Merlin theme parks pass for �50. See our top 10 deals under the Boost scheme for more info. The list price of goods in the brochure is sometimes higher than the market price, so you may not always get 3x or 4x value. Yet if you're exchanging to buy something you would've bought anyway, it is a great deal. Earn Tesco points when paying your energy bill with E.on Customers can earn up to 1,500 E.on reward points each year which can be exchanged for an equivalent number of Clubcard points (or you can turn your E.on rewards into vouchers for high street retailers). It equates to only �15 off Tesco shopping but can be worth up to �60 in Clubcard Boost Rewards. Choose to take your E.on rewards as Clubcard points and register your Clubcard with E.on. It's NOT worth switching to E.on purely for this, see Cheap Gas & Elec for how to find the cheapest provider. Get an extra point per �4 spend with Tesco Credit Card The amount of points you collect while using your Tesco credit card depends on where you're doing your spending. You get: Five points per �4 spent at Tesco. One point per �8 you spend anywhere outside Tesco If redeemed in store at Tesco this is a rather paltry 0.25% return on spending but trade them in for Clubcard Boost tokens and it becomes a more respectable 0.75% or 1%. Ordinarily, you should repay IN FULL every month to avoid interest. However, Tesco offers up to 28 months' 0% on new spending. This means you could do ALL normal spending on it to rack up the points, stashing away the cash you'd normally spend, then pay it off in full within 28 months. More info in the 0% Cards and Stoozing guides. Compared with the top cashback card, which pays up to 5% cashback initially (see Top Cashback Cards ), this is weak. Following the 0% period, if you don't pay the Tesco card off in full, you'll pay 18.9% representative APR. Earn Clubcard points on all spending with the Tesco Bank current account Similar to the Tesco credit card, Tesco Bank Current Account customers can earn Clubcard points for spending on their debit card (though of course this month Tesco was hacked ). You earn: One Clubcard point for every �4 spent in store or on fuel with Tesco (min �4 spend) One point per �8 you spend anywhere outside Tesco (min �8 spend) As with the credit card, rather than use reward points to cut the cost of the weekly shop customers should convert points to Clubcard Boost tokens to get best value. Get extra Clubcard points with Tesco Bank mortgage repayments Customers who have a mortgage with Tesco Bank collect one point for every �4 of regular payments and overpayments, but not from any charges or fees related to the mortgage. Check our Mortgage Best Buy table first to compare though. Earn bonus points with your Tesco mobile Tesco Mobile* customers can collect one Clubcard point for every �1 spent on pay as you go top-ups and monthly bills. You'll need to register your Clubcard with Tesco Mobile to start receiving points. You can do this through your online account or by calling 282 free from your phone. You'll need to top up online , using a Tesco store or by calling Tesco Mobile's top-up phoneline on 4444 to get the points. Note, you won't get points if you top up from a cash machine or shop that isn't Tesco. You could even get paid to shop with in-store promotions Look out for any Tesco promotions offering extra Clubcard points. These can open up loopholes where it's worth buying the goods even if you don't want them. The best examples are the famous Johnson's Baby Powder and beef-in-gravy loopholes which originated on this site and ended up in all the papers. They worked like this: When you bought any two Johnson's products, you got 100 extra points. The cheapest item was baby powder, at 76p. This meant you could spend �1.52 to get 101 points, worth �4.04 of Clubcard deals vouchers, making more than �2.50 PROFIT. With the similar beef-in-gravy episode, one MoneySaver bought a few hundred pounds' worth, donated it to a homeless shelter and used the points for a return trip for two to New Zealand. Be careful with these loopholes, as Tesco reserves the right to block people for fair usage breaches. All major loopholes will go in the free weekly email . Even if you can't make a profit, the bonuses can lead to serious discounts. For instance, Tesco once sold iPod Shuffles for �49 � a good price � adding 999 bonus points on top of the usual points. These were worth �42 of Clubcard Deals, so the iPod effectively cost �7. FAQs \| Unsubscribe \| Past Emails \| Privacy Nectar points boosting Use a Nectar card when spending at Sainsbury's, BP, British Gas, eBay, Expedia and others (see full list ) to grab points. The amount you get varies � at Sainsbury's right now you'll usually earn one point for every �1 spent. One point is usually worth 0.5p, as 500 points are worth �2.50, though it's possible to boost their value. Redeem them online or by phone for a range of days out, gifts or shopping discounts at member stores. Nectar double-up at Sainsbury's - next one expected spring 2017 Nectar double-up promos usually happen quarterly - with the latest one having just finished. A new one is expected in spring next year, and the promotion usually includes about seven categories in which you double the value of your Nectar points. Register for 'extra points' coupons at Sainsbury's Register your Nectar card with Sainsbury's My Coupons* site and choose up to five coupons to add to your 'My Coupons Wallet', each of which offers you between about 50 bonus points on products you usually buy � anything from grapes to washing powder. You can also sometimes get double or triple points coupons valid on your whole shop. You don't need to print anything off (although you can, if you want to remember what to pick up in store) � the points are added to your account when you buy the product in store or online. If you don't use a coupon, after a few days it'll expire and you can pick another. Remember, this is a way to get extra points on items that you're going to buy anyway � never buy an item just for the extra boost. Former MSE Megan C does this and quickly amassed �50 worth of points: In four months I've collected an extra 9,967 points, worth �49.83. You're able to use it alongside other in-store promotions too, so sometimes I've managed to bag double triple points. You can't bank on a bonus as the coupons change weekly, but it's really easy and only takes a couple of days for points to be added after the shop. - MSE Megan C Boost Nectar points' value Usually when spent in store at Sainsbury's, each Nectar point is worth 0.5p (so 500 points equals �2.50 off shopping). Yet if you redeem points through the Nectar website you can sometimes get 2x or even 3x the value. Here are some of the current deals: 2x value. Use points to buy tickets for Merlin Attractions , including Madame Tussauds, Legoland, Alton Towers and Chessington. With 500 points you can get �5 off. Remember you can often get 2for1 offers elsewhere though. 1.5x value. With 500 points you can get �3.75 off at Pizza Express � you can exchange points for e-vouchers to spend at your nearest restaurant. Choose vouchers for either �3.75, �7.50, �15 and �30. The redemption process varies by retailer � eg, you can just use your card at Madame Tussauds London to spend points, while you'll need to get an e-voucher to spend in Pizza Express. See the Nectar website for more info. Answer online survey questions for Nectar points You can earn extra Nectar points for completing surveys � up to 120 points a pop. Register with Nectar Canvass and you'll get an email when there's a new survey to complete. Once you've registered and done the welcome survey, you'll be entered into a competition for a chance to win 10,000 Nectar points. Plus, every time you attempt a survey, you'll get an entry to Sainsbury's quarterly �5,000 prize draw. Earn 200+ bonus points searching online There are points to be had simply for using the internet. For instance, once you register with the Nectar card website , you can collect 100 Nectar points just by downloading its toolbar . You get a further one point for every two internet searches using the toolbar, up to a max of 200 points per month. Nectar also has free Apple and Android apps for smartphones, tablets and laptops, which offer users bonus points offers exclusive to the app. Virgin Trains customer? Collect points on advance tickets You can earn two points per �1 spent on advance tickets (standard and first class). You must book through the Virgin Trains East Coast website for an east coast line journey or Virgin Trains for a west coast line journey. To be eligible for the points at least part of your journey must be on one of the lines. British Gas or Sainsbury's Energy customer? Register your Nectar card If you receive your gas and electricity through British Gas or Sainsbury's Energy , you can register your Nectar card to be sent offers with Nectar partners. In the past you used to be able to get Nectar points for things such as submitting your meter reading, but this has now been scrapped. Donate goods to Oxfam and earn points when your items are sold Oxfam's Tag Your Bag scheme rewards you for donating items to the charity. You'll receive 100 Nectar points just for signing up and registering your card. Then, if you donate any items with your personal tag attached, they'll be tracked and you'll receive two points per �1 when the item is sold. Oxfam may recycle or reuse the item if it doesn't sell. You won't get any points if this happens, but you'll still have done your bit for charity. The Nectar credit card � earn wherever you spend If you're an avid Nectar collector, you can earn more points by using the Nectar American Express* credit card, but always pay it off in full each month or you'll be charged 25% representative APR interest, which dwarfs any points gain. In non-Nectar stores it gives two points (worth 1p) per �1 spent. With some Nectar partners (eg, Sainsbury's) you can earn up to four points per �1. Plus spend �2,000+ in the first three months and you get an additional 20,000 bonus points (worth �100). The �25 annual fee is waived for the first year. Overall this makes it a decent alternative to the top-paying cashback card , provided there's something you want from the Nectar catalogue. FAQs \| Unsubscribe \| Past Emails \| Privacy Morrisons Match & More points boosting The Morrisons Match & More* card allows you to collect points on shopping and fuel. It was introduced in 2014, but in November last year Morrisons scrapped the automatic price match part of the scheme and changed some other terms, see the Morrisons shoppers dealt blow MSE news story for more. Get five Match & More for every �1 qualifying spend Shoppers can collect the points at all Morrisons stores, petrol stations on items other than fuel (you get more for fuel, see below) and at Morrisons.com. Spending at Morrisons' flower shops and garden centres are also included. Morrisons also plans to run promotions to allow you to collect extra points on some products. Get extra points when you fill up on fuel Boost your money-off vouchers when you buy fuel at Morrisons petrol stations. For every litre of fuel you buy you'll get 10 Match & More points. Get �5 off every time you reach 5,000 points You automatically get your money-off vouchers at the till in stores or petrol stations once you've accumulated 5,000 points. Vouchers are valid until the date printed on them (56 weeks from the date you reached 5,000 points), so you can hold on to them but our advice is usually to spend them as soon as possible to avoid losing them down the back of the sofa. They can't be used to buy fuel, lottery tickets, prescription medicines, infant formula milk, gift vouchers or cards, mobile phone top-ups, stamps or tobacco. Turning points into prizes? Morrisons previously said it plans to expand the scheme to allow points to be turned into leisure vouchers for travel or eating out, but it has gone very quiet about this. As soon as any details of this are announced, we'll update this guide. Boots Advantage Card points boosting Use the Boots Advantage Card* in store and online (except for infant milk, prescriptions, stamps, gift vouchers and mobile phone top-ups) and you earn four points per pound. Each point is worth 1p and can be redeemed on most things in store. Delay big purchases for Mega Points Weekends. Boots sometimes has Mega Points Weekends or Days, where if you spend �50 either online or in store, you get 1,000 extra points (worth �10). When one hits it's worth collecting together everything you were planning to buy in Boots to grab the excess. Or if you're doing a really big shop, split what you're buying into �50 units, as there's usually no limit on how many extra points bonuses you can get. Where possible, we'll include Mega Points weekends or similar promotions in the free weekly email . Get tailored offer with the Boots App Download the Boots App on your phone and get tailored offers sent directly to you. The app is available for iPhone and Android . It'll allow you to select the best offer available to you while in store so you can get it when you pay at the check-out. A barcode scanner in the app allows Advantage members to access product information and reviews on the go. Check the Advantage Card emails to maximise your points Boots sends out a weekly email to Advantage cardholders with deals to earn extra points and coupons which can help you maximise existing points. For example, it might offer a bonus 500 points for buying a particular product. Join Boots' clubs for extra or double points on specific items Both the Boots Parenting Club and More Treats for Over-60s' club send mailouts giving special offers on relevant goods, allowing you to get discounts and earn more points. The parenting club gives an extra 10 points for every �1 spent on baby products and the over-60s' club offers 10 points per �1 spent in store on Boots-branded items. Select offers for extra points or money off If you've registered your Advantage Card and created a Boots.com* account, the My Offers page will present you with a range of specialised offers tailored to your shopping habits. These offers range from discounts on products to bonus points when you buy certain items or spend more than a specific amount. All you have to do is select the offers you're interested in and they'll be "loaded" onto your Advantage Card, ready to be used the next time you shop in a Boots store. Beware Advantage Card rewards you can often get more in cash Boots' Advantage Card offers a variety of different deals paid in points. Always evaluate the cash value of the points (see the LoyaltyChecker ) to compare that with the cash equivalents that are available. FAQs \| Unsubscribe \| Past Emails \| Privacy Choose the best value redemption For all schemes, the key to maximising value is to choose the best value redemptions. The LoyaltyChecker tool can help you do this for different schemes. Pick the redemptions you're interested in For example, a Blu-Ray copy of a new film could be bought with 2,600 Nectar points, while a DVD of the same film would cost 2,000 points. If customers buy online via Sainsbury's website, they exchange points by getting a Nectar voucher from Nectar.com to use for their purchase. They go to Nectar.com and select the value of the Sainsbury's voucher they require (�1, �5, �10, etc). They then click 'Get it now'. The voucher's then ready to use. Value the points Now use the LoyaltyChecker to see what the value of those points is. Here 2,600 points is worth �13 and 2,000 is worth �10. Check the cost to buy. See how much you'd pay for these items if bought in cash. One way is to use the MegaShopBot . Say in this case, the DVD the film was available for �9.99, while the Blu-Ray could be bought for �12.99. Choose the best value redemption. Pick the one that's the best use of your points. While the DVD was �10 in points and about the same in the shops, the Blu-Ray cost �13. Therefore the DVD was a slightly better use of points. Value your loyalty points Loyalty points are awarded for credit card spending, shopping and much more. But it's deliberately difficult to evaluate most schemes, instead a feel-good factor which doesn't promote their true worth is promoted. The LoyaltyChecker tool gives you a quick assessment of your current stash of over 40 schemes, based on points' average, not boosted value. Loyalty points compared Resolver � free shopping complaints tool* Representative APR Where credit cards or loans use a representative APR, this means that 51% of successful applicants will be given the stated interest rate. Credit Cards With credit cards, the rate for purchases (as opposed to balance transfers or cash withdrawals) is used as the main rate to advertise the card. So if that is described as 19.9% representative APR, then 51% of people accepted will get 19.9% APR, but 49% will get a different rate (likely to be higher). Personal Loans Loans are slightly simpler as they only have one rate. So if a loan is advertised as being 7.5% representative APR, this means 51% of accepted applicants will get 7.5%, and 49% will get a different rate (likely to be higher). Of course, some people will be rejected outright for the card or loan too.	i don't know
Which French Prime Minister signed the Munich Agreement of 1938?	Munich Pact signed - Sep 30, 1938 - HISTORY.com Munich Pact signed Publisher A+E Networks British and French prime ministers Neville Chamberlain and Edouard Daladier sign the Munich Pact with Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. The agreement averted the outbreak of war but gave Czechoslovakia away to German conquest. In the spring of 1938, Hitler began openly to support the demands of German-speakers living in the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia for closer ties with Germany. Hitler had recently annexed Austria into Germany, and the conquest of Czechoslovakia was the next step in his plan of creating a “greater Germany.” The Czechoslovak government hoped that Britain and France would come to its assistance in the event of German invasion, but British Prime Minister Chamberlain was intent on averting war. He made two trips to Germany in September and offered Hitler favorable agreements, but the Fuhrer kept upping his demands. On September 22, Hitler demanded the immediate cession of the Sudetenland to Germany and the evacuation of the Czechoslovak population by the end of the month. The next day, Czechoslovakia ordered troop mobilization. War seemed imminent, and France began a partial mobilization on September 24. Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Daladier, unprepared for the outbreak of hostilities, traveled to Munich, where they gave in to Hitler’s demands on September 30. Daladier abhorred the Munich Pact’s appeasement of the Nazis, but Chamberlain was elated and even stayed behind in Munich to sign a single-page document with Hitler that he believed assured the future of Anglo-German peace. Later that day, Chamberlain flew home to Britain, where he addressed a jubilant crowd in London and praised the Munich Pact for bringing “peace with honor” and “peace in our time.” The next day, Germany annexed the Sudetenland, and the Czechoslovak government chose submission over destruction by the German Wehrmacht. In March 1939, Hitler annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia, and the country ceased to exist. On September 1, 1939, 53 German army divisions invaded Poland despite British and French threats to intervene on the nation’s behalf. Two days later, Chamberlain solemnly called for a British declaration of war against Germany, and World War II began. After eight months of ineffectual wartime leadership, Chamberlain was replaced as prime minister by Winston Churchill. Related Videos	Édouard Daladier
In which art gallery would you find The Haywain by Constable, The Stonemasons by Canaletto and The Arnolfini Protrait by Van Eyck?	Munich Agreement Signed. Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, Daladier - British Pathé British Pathé Unused / unissued material - no paperwork - dates unclear or unknown Germany. German leader Adolf Hitler and Italian leader Benito Mussolini ('Il Duce') stand with other German Nazi leaders around a table presumably signing the Munich Agreement - 29/09/1938. Different angle - Mussolini, Hitler, Hermann Goering, Count Galeazzo Ciano (?), Heinrich Himmler and Rudolf Hess. Good shots of Hitler and Mussolini together. Hitler signs the pact. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain signs. Mussolini signs. SV of Mussolini signing. French Prime Minister Edouard Daladier signs. Two shot of Hitler and Mussolini talking. CU of the Munich Pact. Various shots of the Four leaders with aides. Goering is also wandering around. Sound track unusable - Some spacing between shots. Copy of UN 50 V and UN 111 G. Alternative spelling for search purposes - Chamberlin. Tags	i don't know
What type of creature is a Hanuman?	Hanuman - Wikiquote Hanuman Jump to: navigation , search Hanuman is a Hindu god , an ardent devotee of Rama . He is a central character in the Indian epic Ramayana and its various versions. He also finds mention in several other texts, including Mahabharata , the various Puranas and some Jain texts. A vanara (one who lives in forest i.e. 'vana'), Hanuman participated in Rama's war against the demon king Ravana . Several texts also present him as an incarnation of Lord Shiva . He is the son of Vayu , who according to several stories, played a role in his birth. Quotes[ edit ] Do you know about Hanuman, sir? He was the faithful servant of the god Rama , and we worship him in our temples because he is a shining example of how to serve your masters with absolute fidelity , love , and devotion ... Hanuman, the well-known monkey god , can be seen in temples throughout the country . In some temples his image is set up alone standing with a mace in the right hand or sitting in a devotional posture before the images of Rama and Sita . He is considered to be the god of power and strength , who remained a celibate through his whole life . He is worshipped as being the greatest of Ram, who loves Hanuman the most. - Suresh Chandra Do you know about Hanuman, sir? He was the faithful servant of the god Rama , and we worship him in our temples because he is a shining example of how to serve your masters with absolute fidelity , love , and devotion . These are the kinds of gods they have foisted on us Mr. Jiabao. Understand, now, how hard it is for a man to win his freedom in India . Aravind Adiga in: The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga , ashutoshsrivastava.com. Lord Hanuman escorted me into the inner palace, where I gazed on Lord Rama in human form. Hanuman approached the Lord, on whose left side Lakshmana was present. I saw that Hanuman, while chanting the Lord’s praises, sometimes rotated the royal fly-whisk over him sometimes stood before him and recited spontaneous hymns , sometimes held a white umbrella over him, and sometimes massaged his feet. And sometimes he did all these things at once. From Brihadbhagavatam quoted in: Philip Lutgendorf Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey , Oxford University Press, 13 December 2006, p. 345-46. Hanuman, the well-known monkey god , can be seen in temples throughout the country . In some temples his image is set up alone standing with a mace in the right hand or sitting in a devotional posture before the images of Rama and Sita . He is considered to be the god of power and strength , who remained a celibate through his whole life . He is worshipped as being the greatest of Ram, who loves Hanuman the most. Suresh Chandra in: Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses , Sarup & Sons, 1998, p. 116. Hanuman’s other names are Hanumat and pavana-Sut. He is the son of Vayu , the Lord of winds and Anjana , the female seduced by Vayu. Along with Ram , Hanuman is usually worshipped and he is the most favoured of wrestlers and grapplers . Tuesday is the sacred day on which lacs [hundred thousands] of Hindus worship and pray to him for strength and prosperity . Suresh Chandra in: "Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses", p. 116. This god is described as having a short thick neck , a round red face , sharp white fangs , a mane like Ashoka flowers , a tail like Indra 's banner and ability to expand until he could be as large as a mountain or to contract until he could become as small as a fly. Suresh Chandra in: "Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses", p. 116. Hanuman attends Rama , one of the incarnations of Vishnu , and personifies the ideal and faithful servant. He is the son of Pavana , the god of winds , and is noted for his speed and agility in which context he is often worshipped by young men and athletes . He leads a mythical forest army of monkeys , and is depicted as a monkey with a long tail. He takes a major role in the Ramayana epic searching for, rescuing the goddess Sita who has been captured by the demon Ravana . Suresh Chandra in: "Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses", p. 115. It is said that the sure antidote of Saturn or Shanee's evil effect is the worship of Lord Hanuman. Scriptures say that when Saturn warned Lord Hanuman about his onset of the Seven and Half Years ( w:Sade SatiSaade Saati ) [period of bad times], the Monkey Lord accepted the challenge and allowed Saturn to have his play. When the planet dwelled on his head , the Monkey Lord ‘headed’ heavy rocks so viciously that the planet was almost crushed. Similar agony he faced when he tried to dwell on the Monkey Lord’ body and legs. Then the planet had to bow before the Lord, saying that whosoever worshipped Lord Hanuman shall be beyond the evil effect of the planet. Suresh Chandra in: "Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses", p. 302 A less-common form of Hanuman is the Panchmukhi—that which has five heads or faces . Each head represents an animal . The five animals are the monkey (Vanar), the horse ( Hay-griv ), the lion (Narasimh), the boar ( Varah ) and the eagle . Some of these are incarnations of Vishnu ... - Parvez Dewan . A less-common form of Hanuman is the Panchmukhi—that which has five heads or faces . Each head represents an animal . The five animals are the monkey (Vanar), the horse ( Hay-griv ), the lion (Narasimh), the boar ( Varah ) and the eagle . Some of these are incarnations of Vishnu . There is also an eleven headed Hanuman (ekadash-mukhi) Hanuman. These two forms are the result of the popularity of the tantric cults during the medieval era . The five-headed Hanuman may have as many pairs of arms , or just one pair. The eleven-headed Hanuman normally has ten pairs of arms. Parvez Dewan in: Book Of Hanuman (PB) , Penguin Books India, 20 July 2009, p. 166 ...He was able to fly and is a conspicuous figure in the Ramayana , ...Hanuman leaped from India to Ceylon in one bound; tore trees, carried away the Himalayas , seized the clouds and performed many other wonderful exploits... - John Dowson . HANUMAN, HANUMAT, HANÜMAT. A celebrated monkey chief. He was able to fly and is a conspicuous figure in the Ramayana , ...Hanuman leaped from India to Ceylon in one bound; tore trees, carried away the Himalayas , seized the clouds and performed many other wonderful exploits... Among his other accomplishments, Hanuman was a grammarian ; and the Ramayana says: “The chief of monkeys is perfect; no one equals him in the sastras , in learning, and in ascertaining the sense of the scriptures (or in moving at will). It is well known that Hanuman was the ninth author of grammar . John Dowson in A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology, quoted in: Octavio Paz “The Monkey Grammarian” Hanuman represents the inner life that the confrontation with dukkha opens up. But his job is to help differentiate pure desire from the clinging that tends to obscure it. Hanuman's exploits fill the central part of the Ramayana . For some it is primarily a story of devotion centering on the monkey-god Hanuman, who is something of a trickster but who is completely at the service of Rama, saving his life and rescuing his wife from the evil demons . Mark Epstein in: "Open to Desire: The Truth About What the Buddha Taught", p. 22. Hanuman, the embodiment of devotion , brings Sita 's jewels to Rama and then takes a gold ring back to her as a symbol of Rama's unflagging love , a ring given to him by Sita's father at the time of their marriage. Sita welcomes Hanuman, takes the ring and gives him one more jewel, a pearl mounted on a gold leaf that her father had tied to her hair on the day of the wedding. She refuses Hanuman’s offer to fly back to Rama, insisting he come to free her himself...Rama is able to free Sita only by securing the help of Hanuman. Hanuman, the monkey-god, son of the wind , is the bridge between the two lovers, the vehicle that helps them. Mark Epstein in: "Open to Desire: The Truth About What the Buddha Taught", p. 25 ...After leaping to Lanka Hanuman discovers the captive Sita surrounded by rakshasas in the Ashoka grove , but she insists on being rescued by her husband...Kirsti Evans. Grief-stricken Rama meets a tribe of vanaras whose chief Sugriva and eloquent minister Hanuman become Rama's devoted helpers in the task of rescuing the princess [Sita]. After leaping to Lanka Hanuman discovers the captive Sita surrounded by rakshasas in the Ashoka grove , but she insists on being rescued by her husband. Hanuman reports to Rama who assembles an army of Vanaras and crosses to Lanka where the final battle is fought between the heroes and the rakshasas. Kirsti Evans in: Epic Narratives in the Hoysaḷa Temples: The Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, and Bhāgavata Purāṇa in Haḷebīd, Belūr, and Amṛtapura , BRILL, 1997, p. 37 The divine name Rama was not only on the lips of Hanuman; He was enthroned in his heart . Rama gave Hanuman exhaustless strength ... - Mahatma Gandhi . The divine name Rama was not only on the lips of Hanuman; He was enthroned in his heart . Rama gave Hanuman exhaustless strength . In Rama's strength Hanuman lifted the mountain and crossed the ocean . It is faith that steers us through the stormy seas, faith that moves mountains, and faith that jumps across the ocean. That faith is nothing but a living, wide-awake consciousness of God within. He who has achieved that faith wants nothing. Mahatma Gandhi in: Charles F. Andrews Mahatma Gandhi: His Life , and Ideas , Jaico Publishing House, 2005, p. 38 ...Hanuman is mentioned as an avatar of Shiva or Rudra in the Sanskrit texts and was the son of Anjana , an Apsara cursed to be born as a monkey and Kesari, after the couple performed intense prayers to Shiva to get a child. According to a story, when Anjana, was worshipping Shiva, king Dasharatha of Ayodhya was also performing penances for having children. The prasad (portion of the offerings) he received was to be shared by his three wives. A kite snatched a part of the Prasad and dropped it near Anjana. Vayu , the Hindu deity , caught it before it fell to the ground and delivered into the outstretched hands of Anjana, who consumed it leading to the birth of Hanuman... - Ashok Kumar Jha Son of the wind the epithet refers to Hauman a Hindu deity , who was an ardent devotee of Rama . Hanuman is mentioned as an avatar of Shiva or Rudra in the Sanskrit texts and was the son of Anjana , an Apsara cursed to be born as a monkey and Kesari, after the couple performed intense prayers to Shiva to get a child. According to a story, when Anjana, was worshipping Shiva, king Dasharatha of Ayodhya was also performing penances for having children. The prasad (portion of the offerings) he received was to be shared by his three wives. A kite snatched a part of the Prasad and dropped it near Anjana. Vayu , the Hindu deity , caught it before it fell to the ground and delivered into the outstretched hands of Anjana, who consumed it leading to the birth of Hanuman. So he is also called the son of vayu, while still being considered as an incarnation of Rudra (Shiva). He is a central character in the epic Ramayana and also finds mention in several other texts, including Mahabharata , the various Puranas and some Jain texts . Hanuman is worshipped by villagers as a boundary guardian , by Shaiva ascetics as a yogi , and by wrestler for his strength . Ashok Kumar Jha in: Meghadutam: Translated into English in vers libre , Partridge Publishing Singapore, 8 July 2013, p. 85. Our road lay through the bazaar , close to a little temple of Hanuman, the Monkey god, who is a leading divinity worthy of respect . All gods have good points, just as have all priests . Personally, I attach much importance to Hanuman, and am kind to his people – the great grey apes of the hills. One never knows when one may want a friend . Rudyard Kipling in "Mark of the Beast" quoted in: Joseph Black et al. The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Victorian Era ,Broadview Press, p. 779. Hanuman Monkey-headed Hindu god originally appears in the Ramayana , the earlier of the two great Indian epics, where he is described as a minister of the monkey king Sugriva and a devoted servant of Rama , the god-king who is the epics protagonist . James G. Lochtefeld in: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M , The Rosen Publishing Group, 2002, p. 271 After his birth the infant Hanuman is continuously hungry , and one day he attempts to eat the sun . Indra , the king of gods and ruler of heaven , is incensed at Hanuman’s action and strikes the infant with a thunderbolt , breaking his jaw (hanu)... -James G. Lochtefeld. After his birth the infant Hanuman is continuously hungry , and one day he attempts to eat the sun . Indra , the king of gods and ruler of heaven , is incensed at Hanuman’s action and strikes the infant with a thunderbolt , breaking his jaw (hanu). Vayu become very angry upon learning of his son’s injury and ceases to perform his usual activities. Since in Indian physiology winds are responsible for all internal functions- including digestion , respiration , and elimination – Yavu’s strike means that no one can live a normal life . After a short time the gods realize their predicament and beg Vayu for forgiveness ; he is placated when each of the gods promise to give Hanuman a divine gift . By virtue of these divine gifts, Hanuman gains great powers . He is immensely strong and his image portrays him with bulging muscles. He is also skilled as a healer , both through his skill with herbs and natural medicines , and his magical abilities to protect people from evil supernatural beings . Among his most unusual divine gifts are the power to live as long as he likes and to chose the time of his death . James G. Lochtefeld in: "The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M", p. 271. Hanuman Jayanti is a Hindu holiday that celebrates the birth of Hanuman, the popular deity who appears as a monkey . Actually, he is of the vanara , the race of ape-like humanoids who play a prominent role in the India epic Ramayana . The vanaras were created by the gods to assist the deity Rama.in his battle against the demon Ravana . Hanuman led the vanara in the fight against Ravana. J. Gordon Melton , Martin Baumann in: Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices [6 volumes : A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices], ABC-CLIO, 21 September 2010, p. 1310 Watercolour painting on paper of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meeting Hanumān at Rishyamukha, the residence of Sugriva . Rāma and Laksmana are shown wearing dhoti ’s with animal skins covering their shoulders. They hold bow and arrows in their hands and have their hair tied in a top knot on their heads... - British Museum . Watercolour painting on paper of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meeting Hanumān at Rishyamukha, the residence of Sugriva . Rāma and Laksmana are shown wearing dhoti ’s with animal skins covering their shoulders. They hold bow and arrows in their hands and have their hair tied in a top knot on their heads. They face towards a male figure wearing a pink dhoti with a green shawl. He has a shaven head and raises his hands in anjali mudra . Behind the three figures is a staircase which leads up to a city on top of a mountain, Rishyamukha. On the edges of the staircase kneel monkeys wearing golden hats. In the centre of the city is a large building with a golden roof and a large red flag flying. The painting is surrounded by a black border. British Museum in: Collection online , The British Museum. ... describing his visit to the grove of the palace of Rāvana . He compares its rhetoric to a page of indecipherable calligraphy and thinks: the difference between human writing and divine consists in the fact that the number of signs of the former is limited, whereas that of the latter is infinite ; hence the universe is a meaningless text, one which even the gods find illegible... - Octavio Paz . The Great Monkey closes his eyes, scratches himself again and muses: before the sun has become completely hidden — it is now fleeing amid the tall bamboo trees like an animal pursued by shadows — I shall succeed in reducing this grove of trees to a catalogue. A page of tangled plant calligraphy . A thicket of signs: how to read it, how to clear a path through this denseness? Hanumān smiles with pleasure at the analogy that has just occurred to him: calligraphy and vegetation , a grove of trees and writing , reading and a path. Following a path: reading a stretch of ground, deciphering a fragment of world . Reading considered as a path toward... The path as a reading: an interpretation of the natural world? He closes his eyes once more and sees himself, in another age, writing (on a piece of paper or on a rock, with a pen or with a chisel?) the act in the Mahanātaka describing his visit to the grove of the palace of Rāvana . He compares its rhetoric to a page of indecipherable calligraphy and thinks: the difference between human writing and divine consists in the fact that the number of signs of the former is limited, whereas that of the latter is infinite ; hence the universe is a meaningless text, one which even the gods find illegible. The critique of the universe (and that of the gods) is called grammar ... Disturbed by this strange thought, Hanumān leaps down from the wall, remains for a moment in a squatting position, then stands erect, scrutinizes the four points of the compass, and resolutely makes his way into the thicket. Octavio Paz in: The Monkey Grammarian , English-language translation, Seaver Books, 1981. The gods were my superheroes growing up. Hanuman , the monkey god, lifting an entire mountain to save his friend Lakshman . Ganesha the elephant headed, risking his life to save the honor of his mother Pārvati . "Pi Patel" in Life of Pi (2012), based on the 2001 novel by Yann Martel Vishnu, Rudyard Kipling in The Mark Of The Beast And Other Fantastical Tales , Hachette UK, 11-Nov-2010. Tulsidas wrote 12 books, but, by far, the most important is the Ramacharitamanas (the holy Lakes of the Acts of Ram), a Ramayana written in old Hindi ( Avadhi ) couplets. The book was written under the direction of Hanuman himself. It is read all over North India , and particularly during the time of the Ramlila . It is sung aloud in large groups for devotional purposes. यत्र यत्र रघुनाथकीर्तनं तत्र तत्र कृतमस्तकाञ्जलिम् । बाष्पवारिपरिपूर्णलोचनं मारुतिं नमत राक्षसान्तकम् ॥ yatra yatra raghunāthakīrtanaṃ tatra tatra kṛta mastakāñjalim । bāṣpavāriparipūrṇalocanaṃ mārutiṃ namata rākṣasāntakam ॥ Bow down to Hanumān, who is the slayer of demons, and who is present with head bowed and eyes full of flowing tears wherever the fame of Rāma is sung. Ramaayana in: Satsang e- letter: Issue 19:6th April – Hanuman Jayanti , Swaminarayan.info.org, April 2012. Indeed, I hadn’t dared to think of that, but yes, indeed, when you read the Ramayana you’ll come across the story of Hanuman on which I built my version of that very old myth...I love Friend Monkey. I love the story of Hanuman. For many years, it remained in my very blood because he’s someone who loves too much and can’t help it. I don’t know where I first heard of him, but the story remained with me and I knew it would come out of me somehow or other. But I didn’t know what shape it would take. With the dust of guru’s lotus feet having, I cleanse the mirror of my soul sparkling, Raghuvar ’s spotless glory I be singing, The four fruits of life it ever is giving. Poem from Hanuman Chalisa in Devanagari : ॥दोहा॥ बाल समय रबि भक्षि लियो तब तीनहुँ लोक भयो अँधियारो। ताहि सों त्रास भयो जग को यह संकट काहु सों जात न टारो। देवन आनि करी बिनती तब छाँड़ि दियो रबि कष्ट निवारो। को नहिं जानत है जग में कपि संकटमोचन नाम तिहारो॥१॥ When as a child you lapped the sun , darkness on triple world fell, The worlds so got into trouble and a crisis that none could dispel, Gods then prayed to you to spare the sun and you did so quell, Who doesn’t know in this world your name `Problem Solver’ bells? Tulsidas in: Munindra Misra "Chants of Hindu Gods and Godesses in English Rhyme" Eka-Nishtha or devotion to one ideal is absolutely necessary for the beginner in the practice of religious devotion. He must say with Hanuman in the Râmâyana , though I know that the Lord of Shri and the Lord of Jânaki are both manifestations of the same Supreme Being, yet my all in all is the lotus-eyed Râma. - Swami Vivekananda . There is a story of Hanumân, who was a great worshipper of Râma . Just as the Christians worship Christ as the incarnation of God , so the Hindus worship many incarnations of God. According to them, God came nine times in India and will come once more. When he came as Rama, this Hanuman was his great worshipper. Hanuman lived very long and was a great Yogi . During his lifetime, Rama came again as Krishna ; and Hanuman, being a great Yogi, knew that the same God had come back again as Krishna. He came and served Krishna, but he said to him, "I want to see that Rama form of yours". Krishna said, "Is not this form enough? I am this Krishna; I am this Rama. All these forms are mine". Hanuman said, "I know that, but the Rama form is for me. The Lord of Jânaki (Janaki is a name of Sitâ.) and the Lord of Shri Shri is a name of Laksmi .) are the same. They are both the incarnations of the Supreme Self. Yet the lotus-eyed Rama is my all in all". This is Nishtha — knowing that all these different forms of worship are right, yet sticking to one and rejecting the others. We must not worship the others at all; we must not hate or criticize them, but respect them. Swami Vivekananda in: The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 7/Inspired Talks/Monday, July 1 , Wikisource. As on the one hand Hanuman represent the ideal of service , so on the other hand he represents leonine courage , striking the whole world with awe. He has not the least hesitation in sacrificing his life for the good of Rama . A supreme indifference to everything except the service of Rama, even to the attainment of the status of Brahma and Shiva , the great World - gods ! Only the carrying out of Shri Rama's best is the one vow of this life! Such whole - hearted devotion is wanted. Swami Vivekananda in: The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda by Swami Vivekananda Volume 7, Conversations And Dialogues , Wikisource. Eka-Nishtha or devotion to one ideal is absolutely necessary for the beginner in the practice of religious devotion. He must say with Hanuman in the Râmâyana , though I know that the Lord of Shri and the Lord of Jânaki are both manifestations of the same Supreme Being, yet my all in all is the lotus-eyed Râma. Swami Vivekananda in: The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 4/Lectures and Discourses/The Ramayana , Wikisource. In the course of the article I described the ' god ' worshiped by terrorists as 'a monkey god .' I was wrong and that was offensive. I owe an apology to millions of Hindus who worship Lord Hanuman, an actual Monkey God... Hanuman is worshiped as a symbol of perseverance , strength and devotion . He is known as a destroyer of evil and to inspire and liberate . Those are hardly the traits of whatever the Hell (literally) it is that terrorists worship and worthy of my respect and admiration not ridicule .	Monkey (song)
In the news recently, in which country is the ancient city of Palmyra?	Hanuman Jayanti 2016 - Date, Significance, History Hanuman Jayanti Hanuman Jayanti Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated every year by the people in India to commemorate the birth of Hindu Lord, Hanuman. It is celebrated annually in the Hindi month of Chaitra (Chaitra Pournima) on 15th day of the Shukla Paksha. Hanuman Jayanti 2016 Hanuman Jayanti 2016 will be celebrated by the people all over India on 22nd of April, at Friday. Hanuman Jayanti 2015 Hanuman Jayanti 2015 was celebrated by the people all over India on 4th of April, at Saturday. How and When to Celebrate Hanuman Jayanti Lord Hanuman, a dedicated disciple of the Hindu Lord Rama, is worshipped all over the India by the Hindu people for his deep devotion to the god Rama. At the day of Hanuman Jayanti celebration, all the Hanuman temples become full of crowd as people started puja from early morning after a holy bath. Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated with great enthusiasm by the people of Hindu religion as an important festival of the Hindus. It is a great Hindu ritual celebrated in cultural and traditional way. Hanuman Ji People worship Lord Hanuman as a symbol of devotion, magical powers, strength and energy. People read Hanuman Chalisa as it has ability to conquer the evil spirits and provide peace to the mind. The devotees of Lord Hanuman visit Hanuman temples at this day after a holy in the early morning, apply red tilak (vermillion) to the foreheads of Hanuman idol, read Hanuman Chalisa, offer Prasad of laddoo, do Aarti by chanting mantras and Aarti songs, make round of the temple and so many rituals. As Lord Hanuman was born to the Vanara community having reddish orange color body, that’s why it is seen to all the Hanuman temples having reddish orange colored Hanuman idol. After puja, people apply red Sindur to their own foreheads as a Prasad and distribute laddoo Prasad among people to get blessed with what they have prayed to their God Hanuman. In the Maharashtra, it is commemorated to the Purnima in the Hindu Lunar month of Chaitra. However, according to other Hindu calendar, it falls on 14th day (chaturdashi) of Ashvin month in the dark fortnight. After puja, Prasad is distributed among people to have full blessings. In Tamil Nadu and Kerala, it is celebrated in Margazhi month (between December and January) in the belief that Lord Hanuman was born to the amavasya in the Margazhi month. In Odisha, it is celebrated on 1st day in the month of Baisakha (in April). In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, it is celebrated on 10th day of Vaishaka month in the Krishna Paksha. It is the 41 days long celebration in the Andhra Pradesh which starts from the Chaitra Purnima and ends at 10th days of the Krishna Paksha of Vaishakha month. Significance of Hanuman Jayanti Celebration Hanuman Jayanti celebration indicates the balanced coexistence of the whole human fraternity with the nature’s incredible creature, Lord Hanuman from Vanara community. People from the Hindu religion worship Lord Hanuman as a divine creature. This celebration has lots of importance to all however Brahmacharis, wrestlers and bodybuilders are specially inclined towards this celebration. There are many names through which Lord Hanuman is famous among his devotees like Bajrangabali, Pavanasuta, Pavankumar, Mahavira, Balibima, Marutsuta, Anjanisut, Sankat Mochan, Anjaneya, Maruti, Rudra and many more. Hanuman avatar is considered as the 11th Rudra avatar of the Lord Siva with great devotion, strength, knowledge, divine power, bravery, intelligence, spirit for selfless service and etc. He has devoted his life only for his Lord Rama and Mata Sita and never shows his bravery and intelligence without any purpose. The devotees of the Lord Hanuman always pray him for getting blessed with the same for their bright future. He is worshipped in many ways by his devotees; some meditates by repeating his name many times to get power, fame, success and etc in the life whereas some reads the Hanuman Chalisa to get the same. History behind Celebration of Hanuman Jayanti Once, a great saint named Angira went to visit the heaven king, Indra and welcomed there through the dance presented by a damsel named, Punjiksthala. However, saint was not used of that type dance and started meditating on his God. After the end of dance, he was asked by the Indra about the performance of dance. He was silent and said that I was in deep meditation to my Almighty because I have no interest in such dance. It was very ashamed to the Indra and damsel; she started disappointing the saint and then cursed by the Angira that “Behold! You shall degrade to earth from Swarg. You will be born as a female monkey in the mountain forests”. She then felt sorry and regretted to the saint then a merciful saint supported her through blessings like, “A great devotee of Paramatma will be born to you. He will forever serve Paramatma”. She became the daughter of Kunjar (king of the monkeys on earth) and got married to the Kapiraj Kesari of the Mount Sumeru. She gave birth to the Hanuman with the help of five divine factors such as curse and blessings of the saint Angira, her prayers, blessings of Lord Shiva, blessings of Vayu deva and Putreshti Yagna’s fruit. It is considered that Lord Shiva had to rebirth as a human being on the earth in his 11th Rudra avatar in the form of Hanuman as He could not serve to the Lord Rama by being in His real form. The whole Vanara community including all the human fraternity was happy and celebrated his birthday with great enthusiasm and joy by dancing, singing and lots of activities. From then, it was started celebrating as a Hanuman Jayanti by his devotees to get strength and wisdom like him. Hanuman Mantra: Aarti Kije Hanuman Lala ki, Dustdalan Raghunath kala ki Jake bal se giriwar kanpe, Rog dosh jake nikat na jhanke Anjani putra maha bal dayee, Santan ke prabhu sada sahayi De beera Raghunath pathaye, Lanka jaari seeya soodhi laye Lanka so koti Samudra Si khaayi, Jat pawansut bar na layee Lanka Jaari asur sanghare, Seeya Ramjee ke kaaj saware Lakshman murchhit pare Sakare laye Sajeewan pran ubaare Paithi patal tori jam kare, Ahiravana ki bhuja ukhare Baaye bhuja asur dal mare, Dahine bhuja sant jan tare Sur nar muni jan aarti utare, Jai jai jai Hanuman uchare Kanchan thal Kapoor lou chhayi, Aarti karat Anjana mayi Jo Hanuman ji ki Aarti gawe, Basi Bakuntha parampad pawe. Doha: Shri Guru charan saroj raj, nij man mukur sudhari Varnau Raghubar vimal jasu, jo dayak phal chari Buddhihin tanu janike, sumiro Pavankumar Bal buddhi vidya dehu mohi, harahu kalesh vikar. Jay Hanuman gyan gun sagar, jay Kapis tihun lok ujagar. Ramdut atulit bal dhama, Anjani putra Pavansut nama. Pavantanay sankat haran, Mangal murati rup Ram Lakhan Sita sahit, hriday basahu sur bhup. Hanuman Chalisa Mahavir vikram Bajrangi, kumati nivar sumati ke sangi Kanchan baran viraj suvesha, kanan kundal kunchit kesa Hath vajra aur dhvaja biraje, kandhe munj janeu saje Shankar suvan Kesrinandan, tej pratap maha jagvandan Vidyavan guni ati chatur, Ram kaj karibe ko atur Prabhu charitra sunibe ko rasiya, Ram Lakhan Sita man basiya Sukshma rup dhari siyahi dikhava, vikat rup dhari Lanka jarava Bhim rup dhari asur sanhare, Ramchandra ke kaj sanvare Laye sanjivan Lakhan jiyaye, Shri Raghubir harashi ur laye Raghupati kinhi bahut barai, tum mam priya Bharathi sam bhai Sahas badan tumharo yash gave, asi kahi Shripati kanth lagave Sanakadik Brahmadi Munisha, Narad Sarad sahit ahisha Yam Kuber Digpal jahan te, Kavi kovid kahi sake kahan te Tum upkar Sugrivahin kinha, Ram milai Rajpad dinha Tumharo mantra Vibhishan mana, Lankeshvar bhaye sabh jag jana Jug sahasra yojan par bhanu, lilyo tahi madhur phal janu Prabhu mudrika meli mukh mahi, jaladhi langhi gaye achraj nahin Durgam kaj jagat ke jete, sugam anugraha tumhare tete Ram duare tum rakhvare, hot na agya binu paisare Sab sukh lahai tumhari sarna, tum rakshak kahu ko darna Aapan tej samharo apai, tino lok hank te kanpe Bhut pisach nikat nahin ave, Mahabir jab nam sunave Nase rog hare sab pira, japat nirantar Hanumat bira Sankat te Hanuman chhudave, man kram bachan dhyan jo lave Sab par Ram tapasvi raja, tinke kaj sakal tum saja Aur manorath jo koi lave, soi amit jivan phal pave Charo jug partap tumhara, hai parsidh jagat ujiyara Sadhu sant ke tum rakhvare, asur nikandan Ram dulare Asht siddhi navanidhi ke data, us var din janki mata Ram rasayan tumhare pasa, sada raho Raghupati ke dasa Tumhare bhajan Ram ko bhave, janam janam ke dukh bisarave Antakal Raghuvar pur jai, jahan janma Hari bhakta kahai Aur devta chit na dharai, Hanumat sei sarva sukh karai Sankat kate mite sab pira, jo sumre Hanumat balbira Jai Jai Jai Hanuman gusain, kripa karahu gurudev ke nai Jo shat bar path kar soi, chhotahin bandi maha sukh hoi Jo yah padhe Hanuman chalisa, hoi siddhi sakhi gaurisa Tulsidas sada Hari chera, kije nath hriday mahan dera. Author: Archana I am an Entrepreneur, a responsible mother of two, a good housewife and a hard working woman. I totally believe in hard work as where I am just because of that. It’s my great passion to be busy in my all time. I respect a person who is disciplined and respect others. Share This Post On	i don't know
"Who wrote ""Mrs Dalloway"" and ""Orlando""?"	The 100 best novels: No 50 – Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf (1925) \| Books \| The Guardian The 100 best novels The 100 best novels: No 50 – Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf (1925) Woolf's great novel makes a day of party preparations the canvas for themes of lost love, life choices and mental illness 'What is this terror? What is this ecstasy?' Virginia Woolf takes on the big questions in Mrs Dalloway. Photograph: Central Press/Getty Images Share on Messenger Close In the spring of 1924, Virginia Woolf , then in her 40s, gave a famous lecture, later published as the essay Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown, in which she declared that "we are trembling on the verge of one of the great ages of English literature". She might have been speaking about herself. In the next 15-odd years, before her suicide, Woolf would transform the English literary landscape forever. She would innovate (To the Lighthouse); she would flirt (Orlando); she would provoke (A Room of One's Own) and, privately, would dazzle herself and her friends with a stream of letters (and diaries), all of which reveal a writer's mind at full tilt. Woolf is one of the giants of this series, and Mrs Dalloway, her fourth novel, is one of her greatest achievements, a book whose afterlife continues to inspire new generations of writers and readers. Like Ulysses (no 46 in this series), it takes place in the course of a single day, probably 13 June 1923. Unlike Joyce's masterpiece, Woolf's female protagonist is an upper-class English woman living in Westminster who is planning a party for her husband, a mid-level Tory politician. As Clarissa Dalloway's day unfolds, in and around Mayfair, we discover that not only is she being treated in Harley Street for severe depression, a familiar subject to Woolf, but she also conceals a troubled past replete with unarticulated love and suggestions of lesbianism. Equally troubled is the novel's second main character, explicitly a "double", a Great War veteran who fought in France "to save an England which consisted almost entirely of Shakespeare's plays". Septimus Warren Smith is suffering from shell shock and is on his way to a consultation with Clarissa's psychiatrist. Mingled with the preparations for the party, the stream-of-consciousness exploration of Mrs Dalloway's inner state is broken by an irruption of senseless violence when Septimus, who is waiting to be taken to an asylum, throws himself out of a window. News of Septimus's suicide becomes a topic of conversation at Mrs Dalloway's party, where Woolf indicates Clarissa's deep sympathy for the dead man's suffering. The novel ends unresolved, but on a note of suspenseful menace. "What is this terror?" writes Woolf. "What is this ecstasy?" Her mature work would be devoted to exploring these questions. A note on the text Mrs Dalloway, published by the Hogarth Press with a striking Vanessa Bell dust jacket on 14 May 1925, was a novel that grew out of two previous short stories, Mrs Dalloway in Bond Street and The Prime Minister. The latter makes his appearance at the party at the end of the novel. Clarissa also appeared in Woolf's first novel, The Voyage Out, as well as in five of her short stories. Mrs Dalloway's literary influence can be seen in Michael Cunningham's The Hours and perhaps also in Ian McEwan's novel Saturday, which takes place on a single day, 15 February 2003. Three more from Virginia Woolf To the Lighthouse (1927); Orlando (1928); A Room of One's Own (1929).	Virginia Woolf
What is the name of the mouthpiece of a brass musical instrument?	SparkNotes: Mrs. Dalloway: Context Mrs. Dalloway Table of Contents Plot Overview Virginia Woolf, the English novelist, critic, and essayist, was born on January 25, 1882, to Leslie Stephen, a literary critic, and Julia Duckworth Stephen. Woolf grew up in an upper-middle-class, socially active, literary family in Victorian London. She had three full siblings, two half-brothers, and two half-sisters. She was educated at home, becoming a voracious reader of the books in her father’s extensive library. Tragedy first afflicted the family when Woolf’s mother died in 1895, then hit again two years later, when her half-sister, Stella, the caregiver in the Stephen family, died. Woolf experienced her first bout of mental illness after her mother’s death, and she suffered from mania and severe depression for the rest of her life. Patriarchal, repressive Victorian society did not encourage women to attend universities or to participate in intellectual debate. Nonetheless, Woolf began publishing her first essays and reviews after 1904, the year her father died and she and her siblings moved to the Bloomsbury area of London. Young students and artists, drawn to the vitality and intellectual curiosity of the Stephen clan, congregated on Thursday evenings to share their views about the world. The Bloomsbury group, as Woolf and her friends came to be called, disregarded the constricting taboos of the Victorian era, and such topics as religion, sex, and art fueled the talk at their weekly salons. They even discussed homosexuality, a subject that shocked many of the group’s contemporaries. For Woolf, the group served as the undergraduate education that society had denied her. The Voyage Out, Woolf’s first novel, was published in 1915, three years after her marriage to Leonard Woolf, a member of the Bloomsbury group. Their partnership furthered the group’s intellectual ideals. With Leonard, Woolf founded Hogarth Press, which published Sigmund Freud, Katherine Mansfield, T. S. Eliot, and other notable authors. She determinedly pursued her own writing as well: During the next few years, Woolf kept a diary and wrote several novels, a collection of short stories, and numerous essays. She struggled, as she wrote, to both deal with her bouts of bipolarity and to find her true voice as a writer. Before World War I, Woolf viewed the realistic Victorian novel, with its neat and linear plots, as an inadequate form of expression. Her opinion intensified after the war, and in the 1920s she began searching for the form that would reflect the violent contrasts and disjointed impressions of the world around her. In Mrs. Dalloway, published in 1925, Woolf discovered a new literary form capable of expressing the new realities of postwar England. The novel depicts the subjective experiences and memories of its central characters over a single day in post–World War I London. Divided into parts, rather than chapters, the novel's structure highlights the finely interwoven texture of the characters' thoughts. Critics tend to agree that Woolf found her writer’s voice with this novel. At forty-three, she knew her experimental style was unlikely to be a popular success but no longer felt compelled to seek critical praise. The novel did, however, gain a measure of commercial and critical success. This book, which focuses on commonplace tasks, such as shopping, throwing a party, and eating dinner, showed that no act was too small or too ordinary for a writer’s attention. Ultimately, Mrs. Dalloway transformed the novel as an art form. Woolf develops the book’s protagonist, Clarissa Dalloway, and myriad other characters by chronicling their interior thoughts with little pause or explanation, a style referred to as stream of consciousness. Several central characters and more than one hundred minor characters appear in the text, and their thoughts spin out like spider webs. Sometimes the threads of thought cross—and people succeed in communicating. More often, however, the threads do not cross, leaving the characters isolated and alone. Woolf believed that behind the “cotton wool” of life, as she terms it in her autobiographical collection of essays Moments of Being (1941), and under the downpour of impressions saturating a mind during each moment, a pattern exists. Characters in Mrs. Dalloway occasionally perceive life’s pattern through a sudden shock, or what Woolf called a “moment of being.” Suddenly the cotton wool parts, and a person sees reality, and his or her place in it, clearly. “In the vast catastrophe of the European war,” wrote Woolf, “our emotions had to be broken up for us, and put at an angle from us, before we could allow ourselves to feel them in poetry or fiction.” These words appear in her essay collection, The Common Reader, which was published just one month before Mrs. Dalloway. Her novel attempts to uncover fragmented emotions, such as desperation or love, in order to find, through “moments of being,” a way to endure. While writing Mrs. Dalloway, Woolf reread the Greek classics along with two new modernist writers, Marcel Proust and James Joyce. Woolf shared these writers' interest in time and psychology, and she incorporated these issues into her novel. She wanted to show characters in flux, rather than static, characters who think and emote as they move through space, who react to their surroundings in ways that mirrored actual human experience. Rapid political and social change marked the period between the two world wars: the British Empire, for which so many people had sacrificed their lives to protect and preserve, was in decline. Countries like India were beginning to question Britain’s colonial rule. At home, the Labour Party, with its plans for economic reform, was beginning to challenge the Conservative Party, with its emphasis on imperial business interests. Women, who had flooded the workforce to replace the men who had gone to war, were demanding equal rights. Men, who had seen unspeakable atrocities in the first modern war, were questioning the usefulness of class-based sociopolitical institutions. Woolf lent her support to the feminist movement in her nonfiction book A Room of One’s Own (1929), as well as in numerous essays, and she was briefly involved in the women’s suffrage movement. Although Mrs. Dalloway portrays the shifting political atmosphere through the characters Peter Walsh, Richard Dalloway, and Hugh Whitbread, it focuses more deeply on the charged social mood through the characters Septimus Warren Smith and Clarissa Dalloway. Woolf delves into the consciousness of Clarissa, a woman who exists largely in the domestic sphere, to ensure that readers take her character seriously, rather than simply dismiss her as a vain and uneducated upper-class wife. In spite of her heroic and imperfect effort in life, Clarissa, like every human being and even the old social order itself, must face death. Woolf’s struggles with mental illness gave her an opportunity to witness firsthand how insensitive medical professionals could be, and she critiques their tactlessness in Mrs. Dalloway. One of Woolf’s doctors suggested that plenty of rest and rich food would lead to a full recovery, a cure prescribed in the novel, and another removed several of her teeth. In the early twentieth century, mental health problems were too often considered imaginary, an embarrassment, or the product of moral weakness. During one bout of illness, Woolf heard birds sing like Greek choruses and King Edward use foul language among some azaleas. In 1941, as England entered a second world war, and at the onset of another breakdown she feared would be permanent, Woolf placed a large stone in her pocket to weigh herself down and drowned herself in the River Ouse. More Help	i don't know
"What sport is played in the Hitchcock film ""Strangers on a train""?"	Strangers on a Train (1951) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Strangers on a Train ( 1951 ) PG \| A psychotic socialite confronts a pro tennis star with a theory on how two complete strangers can get away with murder - a theory that he plans to implement. Director: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC Pedro Almodóvar Interview: ‘Julieta’ Director Tells IndieWire About His Oscar Contender — Watch 15 December 2016 9:30 AM, -08:00 \| Indiewire a list of 28 titles created 03 Jul 2013 a list of 22 titles created 20 Oct 2014 a list of 48 titles created 11 months ago a list of 33 titles created 4 months ago a list of 25 titles created 2 weeks ago Title: Strangers on a Train (1951) 8.1/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 Oscar. Another 1 win & 1 nomination. See more awards » Videos An ex-tennis pro carries out a plot to murder his wife. When things go wrong, he improvises a brilliant plan B. Director: Alfred Hitchcock Two young men strangle their "inferior" classmate, hide his body in their apartment, and invite his friends and family to a dinner party as a means to challenge the "perfection" of their crime. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A hapless New York advertising executive is mistaken for a government agent by a group of foreign spies, and is pursued across the country while he looks for a way to survive. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A woman is asked to spy on a group of Nazi friends in South America. How far will she have to go to ingratiate herself with them? Director: Alfred Hitchcock A family vacationing in Morocco accidentally stumble on to an assassination plot and the conspirators are determined to prevent them from interfering. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A wealthy San Francisco socialite pursues a potential boyfriend to a small Northern California town that slowly takes a turn for the bizarre when birds of all kinds suddenly begin to attack people. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A wheelchair-bound photographer spies on his neighbours from his apartment window and becomes convinced one of them has committed murder. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A self-conscious bride is tormented by the memory of her husband's dead first wife. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A young woman discovers her visiting uncle may not be the man he seems to be. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A San Francisco detective suffering from acrophobia investigates the strange activities of an old friend's wife, all the while becoming dangerously obsessed with her. Director: Alfred Hitchcock When a reformed jewel thief is suspected of returning to his former occupation, he must ferret out the real thief in order to prove his innocence. Director: Alfred Hitchcock An insurance representative lets himself be talked into a murder/insurance fraud scheme that arouses an insurance investigator's suspicions. Director: Billy Wilder Edit Storyline Bruno Anthony thinks he has the perfect plot to rid himself of his hated father and when he meets tennis player Guy Haines on a train, he thinks he's found the partner he needs to pull it off. His plan is relatively simple. Two strangers each agree to kill someone the other person wants disposed of. For example, Guy could kill his father and he could get rid of Guy's wife Miriam, freeing him to marry Anne Morton, the beautiful daughter of a U.S. Senator. Guy dismisses it all out of hand but Bruno goes ahead with his half of the 'bargain' and disposes of Miriam. When Guy balks, Bruno makes it quite clear that he will plant evidence to implicate Guy in her murder if he doesn't get rid of his father. Guy had also made some unfortunate statements about Miriam after she had refused him a divorce. It all leads the police to believe Guy is responsible for the murder, forcing him to deal with Bruno's mad ravings. Written by garykmcd It's Off The Beaten Track! See more » Genres: Rated PG for some violence and tension \| See all certifications » Parents Guide: 30 June 1951 (USA) See more » Also Known As: Alfred Hitchcock's 'Strangers on a Train' See more » Filming Locations: Did You Know? Trivia When Bruno searches for the cigarette lighter in the drain, Alfred Hitchcock personally selected the items of rubbish that lie on the floor. See more » Goofs When Bruno is kicking Guy on the merry-go-round, he is not holding the cigarette lighter, but when he dies, he has it in his hand. See more » Quotes A stunning thriller from the master of suspense 16 September 2004 \| by The_Void (Beverley Hills, England) – See all my reviews Alfred Hitchcock has made many brilliant thrillers, and many of them have gone on to be hailed as some of the greatest films of all time. One film that tends to get somewhat lost under the Vertigo's and the Psycho's is this film; Strangers on a Train, the most compelling film that Hitchcock ever made. The story follows Guy Haines, a tennis player and a man soon to be wed to the Senator's daughter, if he can get a divorce from his current wife. One day, on the way to see his wife, he meets the mentally unstable Bruno Anthony aboard a train and soon gets drawn into a murder plot that he can neither stop nor stall; and one that could ultimately cost him his life. The conversation aboard the train between Bruno and Guy is one of the cinema's most intriguing and thought provoking of all time. What if two people "swapped" murders, thus resolving themselves of all suspicion of the crime, and rendering their motive irrelevant? Could this truly be the perfect murder? What makes this film all the more frightening is that the events that Guy is lead into could happen to any, normal everyday person. Everyone has someone they'd like to get rid of, so what if you met an insane man aboard a train that does your murder for you and then forces you to do his? The chances of it happening are unlikely, but it's the idea that anyone could be a murderer that is central to the message of Strangers on a Train; and in this situation, anyone could. Is there any actor on earth that could have portrayed the character of Bruno Anthony any better than Robert Walker? The man was simply born for the part. He manages to capture just the right mood for his character and absolutely commands every scene he is in. The character of Bruno is a madman, but he's not a lunatic; he's a calculating, conniving human being and Robert Walker makes the character believable. His performance is extremely malevolent, and yet understated enough to keep the character firmly within the realms of reality. Unfortunately, Robert Walker died just one year after the release of Strangers on a Train, and I believe that is a great loss to cinema. Nobody in the cast shines as much as Walker does, but worth mentioning is his co-star Farley Granger. Granger never really impresses that much, but his performance is good enough and he holds his own against Walker. Also notable about his performance is that he portrays his character as a very normal person; and that is how it should be. Ruth Roman is Guy's wife to be. She isn't really in the film enough to make a lasting impression, but she makes the best of what she has. Alfred Hitchcock's daughter, Patricia, takes the final role of the four central roles as Barbara, the sister of Guy's fiancé. She is suitably lovely in this role, and she tends to steal a lot of the scenes that she is in. Alfred Hitchcock's direction is always sublime, and it is very much so in this film. There is one shot in particular, that sees the murder of the film being committed in the reflection of a pair of sunglasses. This is an absolutely brilliant shot, and one that creates a great atmosphere for the scene. Hitchcock's direction is moody throughout, and very much complies with the film noir style. The climax to the film is both spectacular and exciting, and I don't think that anyone but Hitchcock could have pulled it off to the great effect that it was shown in this film. It's truly overblown, and out of turn from the rest of the movie; but it works. There is a reason that Hitchcock is often cited as the greatest director of all time, and the reason for that is that he doesn't only use the script to tell the film's story, but he also uses to camera to do so as well. Strangers on a Train is one of the greatest thrillers ever made. Its story is both intriguing and thought provoking, and is sure to delight any fan of cinema. A masterpiece. 90 of 119 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Tennis
"Which football league team are nicknamed ""The Cod Army""?"	View All Photos (6) Movie Info In one of Alfred Hitchcock's suspense classics, tennis pro Guy Haines (Farley Granger) chances to meet wealthy wastrel Bruno Anthony (Robert Walker) on a train. Having read all about Guy, Bruno is aware that the tennis player is trapped in an unhappy marriage to to wife Miriam (Laura Elliott) and has been seen in the company of senator's daughter Ann Morton (Ruth Roman). Baiting Guy, Bruno reveals that he feels trapped by his hated father (Jonathan Hale). As Guy listens with detached amusement, Bruno discusses the theory of "exchange murders." Suppose that Bruno were to murder Guy's wife, and Guy in exchange were to kill Bruno's father? With no known link between the two men, the police would be none the wiser, would they? When he reaches his destination, Guy bids goodbye to Bruno, thinking nothing more of the affable but rather curious young man's homicidal theories. And then, Guy's wife turns up strangled to death. Co-adapted by Raymond Chandler from a novel by Patricia Highsmith, Strangers on a Train perfectly exemplifies Hitchcock's favorite theme of the evil that lurks just below the surface of everyday life and ordinary men. ~ Hal Erickson, Rovi Rating:	i don't know
"""Durham Early"" and ""January King"" are types of which vegetable?"	Cabbage 'Durham Early' (Spring) - Brassica & Leafy Green Seeds - Thompson & Morgan Brassica & Leafy Green Seeds Competitions Important delivery notice The products on this site are only delivered to UK addresses. If you require delivery to another country please visit one of our other sites below. Rollover image for an enlarged view Cabbage 'Durham Early' (Spring) Brassica oleracea (Capitata Group) Hardy Annual Probably one of the most well known and reliable spring cabbages. Cabbage 'Durham Early' produces firm, pointed, well flavoured hearts on compact plants. This compact variety also be sown or planted closely for delicious 'spring greens' ready to harvest from February. Height: 30cm (12"). Spread: 35cm (14"). Companion planting: Try growing cabbages with Nasturtiums to draw cabbage white butterflies away from your crop, and mint to help deter flea beetles. Useful links: March, April, May, July, August Position: 1 packet (300 cabbage seeds) Reviews Sow spring cabbage indoors seed from March to May for Summer harvesting or July to August to overwinter for a spring harvest. Alternatively direct sow outdoors into a well prepared seedbed, for transplanting to their final positions later on. Sow at a depth of 13mm (½") and distance of 23cm (9") between rows. Indoors, sow seed at a depth of 12mm (½") in trays of free-draining, seed sowing compost and cover with a layer of vermiculite. Place in a propagator or seal container inside a plastic bag at a temperature of 20-25C (68-77F) until germination which takes 4 -7 days. Once germinated, grow Cabbage plants on in cooler conditions until all risk of frost has passed and plants are large enough to be transplanted with 2-3 true leaves. Gradually acclimatise them to outdoor conditions over 7 - 10 days before planting cabbage in moist, rich, well drained soil in full sun. A fertile soil is essential as cabbages require high levels of nitrogen. Prepare the soil in early spring by adding plenty of well rotted farmyard manure to the soil to improve its structure and fertility. Apply lime to acid soils to reduce the acidity and lessen the risk of clubroot. Plant cabbages at a distance of 50cm (20") apart and cover with a protective netting or fleece to prevent attack from birds and insects. Place a collar around the stem of each plant to prevent cabbage root fly attacks. Water the plants thoroughly after planting. Water cabbages regularly, particularly during dry periods. Feed throughout the growing season with a high nitrogen feed. Hoe between plants regularly to prevent weeds from establishing and bring insect larvae to the surface. Draw earth up around the base of each stem to prevent wind rock and improve the plants stability. Harvest Spring Cabbages in late summer or the following spring once the heads have matured. Culinary note: Vitamin rich cabbages are particularly high in iron and potassium, but also low in calories. Seeds and garden supplies will normally be delivered within the time period stated against each product as detailed above. Despatch: Within 24 hours applies to orders placed online from Sunday to Thursday. Orders placed online on Friday or Saturday will be despatched on Monday. Please note that for Bank Holiday weekends, orders placed Friday to Sunday will be despatched on Tuesday. Plants, bulbs, corms, tubers, shrubs, trees, potatoes etc are delivered at the appropriate time for planting and will be stated on the product page or in your order acknowledgement page and email. Orders for packets of seed incur a P&P charge of £1.95. Orders which include any other products will incur a P&P charge of £4.95. Where an order includes both packets of seeds and other products a maximum P&P charge of £6.90 will apply - regardless of the number of items ordered. Please see our Delivery / P&P page for further details and details of any surcharges that may apply to certain destinations. Post a review	Cabbage
"Finish the proverb ""He is a fool who makes his doctor....""?"	Cabbage Unwins All Season Collection \| Seeds by Post Cabbage Unwins All Season Collection (UN30310064) Cabbage Unwins All Season Collection A great value pack for a year round harvest of delicious cabbages . January King 3	i don't know
"Which English Philosopher said ""The greatest happiness of the greatest number""?"	Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number Home Utilitarianism: The Greatest Good for the Greatest Number , December 22, 2014 Introduction You have probably heard a politician say he or she passed a piece of legislation because it did the greatest good for the greatest number of citizens. Perhaps you have heard someone justify their actions because it was for the greater good. In this article, we are going to talk about the philosophy behind such actions. The philosophy is known as utilitarianism. Although it is a long word, it is in common usage every day. It is the belief that the sole standard of morality is determined by its usefulness. Philosophers refer to it as a “teleological” system. The Greek word “telos” means end or goal. This means that this ethical system determines morality by the end result. Whereas Christian ethics are based on rules, utilitarianism is based on results. Utilitarianism began with the philosophies of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Utilitarianism gets its name from Bentham’s test question, “What is the use of it?” He conceived of the idea when he ran across the words “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” in Joseph Priestly’s Treatise of Government. Jeremy Bentham developed his ethical system around the idea of pleasure. He built it on ancient hedonism which pursued physical pleasure and avoided physical pain. According to Bentham, the most moral acts are those which maximize pleasure and minimize pain. This has sometimes been called the “utilitarian calculus.” An act would be moral if it brings the greatest amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain. John Stuart Mill modified this philosophy and developed it apart from Bentham’s hedonistic foundation. Mill used the same utilitarian calculus but instead focused on maximizing the general happiness by calculating the greatest good for the greatest number. While Bentham used the calculus in a quantitative sense, Mill used this calculus in a qualitative sense. He believed, for example, that some pleasures were of higher quality than others. Utilitarianism has been embraced by so many simply because it seems to make a good deal of sense and seems relatively simple to apply. However, when it was first proposed, utilitarianism was a radical philosophy. It attempted to set forth a moral system apart from divine revelation and biblical morality. Utilitarianism focused on results rather than rules. Ultimately the focus on the results demolished the rules. In other words, utilitarianism provided for a way for people to live moral lives apart from the Bible and its prescriptions. There was no need for an appeal to divine revelation. Reason rather than revelation was sufficient to determine morality. Founders of Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham was a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law and one of the founders of utilitarianism. He developed this idea of a utility and a utilitarian calculus in the Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1781). In the beginning of that work Bentham wrote: “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think: every effort we can make to throw off our subjection, will serve but to demonstrate and confirm it.” {1} Bentham believed that pain and pleasure not only explain our actions but also help us define what is good and moral. He believed that this foundation could provide a basis for social, legal, and moral reform in society. Key to his ethical system is the principle of utility. That is, what is the greatest good for the greatest number? Bentham wrote: “By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness.” {2} John Stuart Mill was a brilliant scholar who was subjected to a rigid system of intellectual discipline and shielded from boys his own age. When Mill was a teenager, he read Bentham. Mill said the feeling rushed upon him “that all previous moralists were superseded.” He believed that the principle of utility “gave unity to my conception of things. I now had opinions: a creed, a doctrine, a philosophy; in one among the best senses of the word, a religion; the inculcation and diffusion of what could be made the principle outward purpose of a life.” {3} Mill modified Bentham’s utilitarianism. Whereas Bentham established an act utilitarianism, Mill established a rule utilitarianism. According to Mill, one calculates what is right by comparing the consequences of all relevant agents of alternative rules for a particular circumstance. This is done by comparing all relevant similar circumstances or settings at any time. Analysis of Utilitarianism Why did utilitarianism become popular? There are a number of reasons for its appeal. First, it is a relatively simple ethical system to apply. To determine whether an action is moral you merely have to calculate the good and bad consequences that will result from a particular action. If the good outweighs the bad, then the action is moral. Second, utilitarianism avoids the need to appeal to divine revelation. Many adherents to this ethical system are looking for a way to live a moral life apart from the Bible and a belief in God. The system replaces revelation with reason. Logic rather than an adherence to biblical principles guides the ethical decision-making of a utilitarian. Third, most people already use a form of utilitarianism in their daily decisions. We make lots of non-moral decisions every day based upon consequences. At the checkout line, we try to find the shortest line so we can get out the door more quickly. We make most of our financial decisions (writing checks, buying merchandise, etc.) on a utilitarian calculus of cost and benefits. So making moral decisions using utilitarianism seems like a natural extension of our daily decision-making procedures. There are also a number of problems with utilitarianism. One problem with utilitarianism is that it leads to an “end justifies the means” mentality. If any worthwhile end can justify the means to attain it, a true ethical foundation is lost. But we all know that the end does not justify the means. If that were so, then Hitler could justify the Holocaust because the end was to purify the human race. Stalin could justify his slaughter of millions because he was trying to achieve a communist utopia. The end never justifies the means. The means must justify themselves. A particular act cannot be judged as good simply because it may lead to a good consequence. The means must be judged by some objective and consistent standard of morality. Second, utilitarianism cannot protect the rights of minorities if the goal is the greatest good for the greatest number. Americans in the eighteenth century could justify slavery on the basis that it provided a good consequence for a majority of Americans. Certainly the majority benefited from cheap slave labor even though the lives of black slaves were much worse. A third problem with utilitarianism is predicting the consequences. If morality is based on results, then we would have to have omniscience in order to accurately predict the consequence of any action. But at best we can only guess at the future, and often these educated guesses are wrong. A fourth problem with utilitarianism is that consequences themselves must be judged. When results occur, we must still ask whether they are good or bad results. Utilitarianism provides no objective and consistent foundation to judge results because results are the mechanism used to judge the action itself. Situation Ethics A popular form of utilitarianism is situation ethics first proposed by Joseph Fletcher in his book by the same name. {4} Fletcher acknowledges that situation ethics is essentially utilitarianism, but modifies the pleasure principle and calls it the agape (love) principle. Fletcher developed his ethical system as an alternative to two extremes: legalism and antinomianism. The legalist is like the Pharisees in the time of Jesus who had all sorts of laws and regulations but no heart. They emphasized the law over love. Antinomians are like the libertines in Paul’s day who promoted their lawlessness. The foundation of situation ethics is what Fletcher calls the law of love. Love replaces the law. Fletcher says, “We follow law, if at all, for love’s sake.” {5} Fletcher even quotes certain biblical passages to make his case. For example, he quotes Romans 13:8 which says, “Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his fellow man has fulfilled the law.” Another passage Fletcher quotes is Matthew 22:37-40. “Christ said, Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. . . . Love your neighbor as yourself.’ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.” Proponents of situation ethics would argue that these summary verses require only one absolute (the law of love). No other universal laws can be derived from this commandment to love. Even the Ten Commandments are subject to exceptions based upon the law of love. Situation ethics also accepts the view that the end justifies the means. Only the ends can justify the means; the means cannot justify themselves. Fletcher believes that “no act apart from its foreseeable consequences has any ethical meaning whatsoever.” {6} Joseph Fletcher tells the story of Lenin who had become weary of being told that he had no ethics. After all, he used a very pragmatic and utilitarian philosophy to force communism on the people. So some of those around him accused him of believing that the end justifies the means. Finally, Lenin shot back, “If the end does not justify the means, then in the name of sanity and justice, what does?” {7} Like utilitarianism, situation ethics attempts to define morality with an “end justifies the means” philosophy. According to Fletcher, the law of love requires the greatest love for the greatest number of people in the long run. But as we will see in the next section, we do not always know how to define love, and we do not always know what will happen in the long run. Analysis of Situation Ethics Perhaps the biggest problem with situation ethics is that the law of love is too general. People are going to have different definitions of what love is. What some may believe is a loving act, others might feel is an unloving act. Moreover, the context of love varies from situation to situation and certainly varies from culture to culture. So it is even difficult to derive moral principles that can be known and applied universally. In other words, it is impossible to say that to follow the law of love is to do such and such in every circumstance. Situations and circumstances change, and so the moral response may change as well. The admonition to do the loving thing is even less specific than to do what is the greatest good for the greatest number. It has about as much moral force as to say to do the “good thing” or the “right thing.” Without a specific definition, it is nothing more than a moral platitude. Second, situation ethics suffers from the same problem of utilitarianism in predicting consequences. In order to judge the morality of an action, we have to know the results of the action we are about to take. Often we cannot know the consequences. Joseph Fletcher acknowledges that when he says, “We can’t always guess the future, even though we are always being forced to try.” {8} But according to his ethical system, we have to know the results in order to make a moral choice. In fact, we should be relatively certain of the consequences, otherwise our action would by definition be immoral. Situation ethics also assumes that the situation will determine the meaning of love. Yet love is not determined by the particulars of our circumstance but merely conditioned by them. The situation does not determine what is right or wrong. The situation instead helps us determine which biblical command applies in that particular situation. From the biblical perspective, the problem with utilitarianism and situation ethics is that they ultimately provide no consistent moral framework. Situation ethics also permits us to do evil to achieve good. This is totally contrary to the Bible. For example, Proverbs 14:12 says that “There is a way which seems right to a man, but its end is the way of death.” The road to destruction is paved with good intentions. This is a fundamental flaw with an “ends justifies the means” ethical system. In Romans 6:1 Paul asks, “Are we to continue sinning so that grace may increase?” His response is “May it never be!” Utilitarianism attempts to provide a moral system apart from God’s revelation in the Bible, but in the end, it does not succeed. Notes 1. Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, printed in 1781 and published in 1789 (Batoche Books: Kitchener, ON Canada, 2000), 14. 2. Ibid. 3. John Stuart Mill, “Last Stage of Education and First of Self-Education,” Autobiography, 1873 (New York: P.F. Collier & Sons, 1909-14). 4. Joseph Fletcher, Situation Ethics: The New Morality (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966). 5. Ibid., 70. Was John the Baptist Elijah? John 1:21 and Matthew 11:14 appear to give different answers to this question. To begin, the Lord had promised Israel that He would send them… Share this	Jeremy Bentham
"Anything you can do"" and ""There's no business like show business"" are songs from which musical?"	Jeremy Bentham Quotes - BrainyQuote Jeremy Bentham Quotes Find on Amazon: Jeremy Bentham Cite this Page: Citation	i don't know
"Who wrote the plays ""Lost in Yonkers"" and ""The Prisoner of second avenue""?"	Neil Simon - Biography - IMDb Neil Simon Jump to: Overview (4) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (5) \| Trivia (23) \| Personal Quotes (7) Overview (4) 6' 1½" (1.87 m) Mini Bio (1) Neil Simon was born on July 4, 1927 in The Bronx, New York City, New York, USA as Marvin Neil Simon. He is a writer and producer, known for The Odd Couple (1968), Your Show of Shows (1950) and The Odd Couple (1970). He has been married to Elaine Joyce since September 11, 1999. He was previously married to Diane Lander , Marsha Mason and Joan Baim. Spouse (5) ( 10 September 1953 - 17 July 1973) (her death) (2 children) Trivia (23) Almost every one of his 30-plus plays, mostly Broadway comedies, has also been adapted into a motion picture-- the greatest such achievement of any playwright/author, even surpassing William Shakespeare As a result, Simon has received more Oscar and Tony nominations than any other writer in the history of show business. Received newly established 'Apple Award' from The Nederlander Company and Wayne State University. Named in honor of Sarah Applebaum Nederlander, who was known affectionately as 'Apple', the Apple Award will be presented annually to a nationally recognized theatre professional who has made significant contributions in his or her field. The Nederlander's and WSU established the award this year in celebration of the Fisher Theatre's 40th anniversary. [November 2001] Children: daughters Ellen, Nancy by Joan Baim; Bryn (adopted) with Diane Lander . He loves playing tennis. He has became so successful financially that he backs his own plays. His brother, Danny Simon , actually started writing the "The Odd Couple" but was not able to finish it. He asked Neil to take it over, and Neil did in exchange for sole author credit. However, he continued to pay Danny 10% of everything the property generated. The Alvin Theater at 250 W. 52nd Street on Broadway was renamed the Neil Simon Theater on June 23, 1983. 2004: Received kidney transplant donated by Bill Eveans, his publicist. His play, "Laughter on the 23rd Floor", was nominated for a 1997 Laurence Olivier Theatre Award for Best New Comedy of 1996. He won both a Tony Award and a Pulitzer Prize for "Lost In Yonkers" in 1991. Has won two Tony Awards as author of Best Play winners: in 1985 for "Biloxi Blues" and in 1991 for "Lost in Yonkers." Additionally, he has been Tony-nominated an impressive 15 times: in 1963, as Best Author (Musical) and book for Best Musical nominee "Little Me," in 1964, as author of Best Play nominee "Barefoot in the Park;" in 1965, as Best Author (Dramatic) and author of Best Play nominee "The Odd Couple;" in 1966, for book of Best Musical nominee "Sweet Charity;" in 1968, as author of Best Play nominee "Plaza Suite;" in 1969, for book for Best Musical nominee "Promises, Promises;" in 1970, as author of Best Play nominee "Last of the Red Hot Lovers;" in 1972, as author of Best Play nominee "The Prisoner of Second Avenue;" in 1973, as author of Best Play nominee "The Sunshine Boys;" in 1974, as Best Score, his lyrics with Peter Link 's music, for "The Good Doctor;" in 1978, as author of Best Play nominee "Chapter Two;" in 1979, as Best Book (Musical) for "They're Playing Our Song;" and in 1987, as author of Best Play nominee "Broadway Bound." Received the 2006 Mark Twain prize on October 15, 2006 at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. Neil Simon was nominated for the 1987 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for the play "Broadway Bound" and the 1991 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for the play "Lost in Yonkers". Practiced Shaolin Qi Gong with Shaolin Warrior Monk Shi Yan Fan in Sherman Oaks before he moved to New York. Based his play 'The Odd Couple' on his brother Danny's divorce. He actually wrote two versions of it. The more famous version features Oscar Madison and Felix Ungar, and is written primarily for a male cast. The other one changes the leads to two women - Olive Madison and Florence Ungar. In 1966 Simon had four shows playing in Broadway theaters at the same time: 'Sweet Charity', 'The Star-Spangled Girl', 'The Odd Couple', and 'Barefoot in the Park'. Part of his film 'Chapter Two' was based on his own life in that after losing his first wife he married actress Marsha Mason 6 months later after a courtship of 22 days. In the film recently widowed George (James Caan) meets and impulsively marries actress Jennie (Marsha Mason) after a whirlwind courtship. His play, "Lost in Yonkers" at the Northlight Theatre in Chicago, Illinois was nominated for a 2014 Joseph Jefferson Equity Award for Large Play Production. He was awarded the 1977 Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for Distinguished Playwriting for "Chapter Two," at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California. His play, "Biloxi Blues," on Broadway in New York City was awarded the 1985 Antoinette Perry (Tony) Award for Best Play. He was awarded the 1992 Drama-Logue Award for Writing for "Lost in Yonkers" in presented by the Center Theatre Group/Ahmanson at the James A. Doolittle (University of California) Theatre in Los Angeles, California. His play, "Lost in Yonkers" in presented by the Center Theatre Group/Ahmanson at the James A. Doolittle (University of California) Theatre in Los Angeles, California was awarded the 1992 Drama-Logue Award for Production. He was awarded the 1997 Drama Logue Award for Writing for "Proposals" at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Personal Quotes (7) When it's 100 in New York, it's 72 in Los Angeles. When it's 20 in New York, it's 72 in Los Angeles. However, there are six million interesting people in New York - and 72 in Los Angeles. On writing 1991's "The Marrying Man": "With a play, I have only two people to please - myself and the director. With this movie, it was 19 executives, a director who'd never done anything but animation before, and two stars who would tell you what lines they'd say and what lines they wouldn't say." On Hollywood: "Everyone in Hollywood is looking for a blockbuster. They tell you their last movie 'only grossed $70 million,' as if that were some kind of crime." I don't like writing for comedians. I like writing for actors. The best comedians are the best actors. [on Herbert Ross ] I think Herb Ross is the best director I've worked with in films. The others just don't understand my material as well. On the 2009 closing of his Broadway revival, "Brighton Beach Memoirs" one week after it premiered: I'm still dumbfounded. After all these years, I still don't get how Broadway works, or what to make of our culture. I didn't think of a thing called money. If I had a nickel, I would run in the street and say, 'I got a nickel! I got a nickel! I'm rich! I'm rich!' As a kid, I always thought, I'll never forget all these things, but you do. I managed to forget all of it. Some people spend their lives remembering, and that's what I thought I would do. But it doesn't last. See also	Neil Simon
Which French king married Mary Tudor sister of Henry VIII in 1514?	The Prisoner of Second Avenue - YouTube The Prisoner of Second Avenue Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Jul 2, 2010 Following his sell-out success in Speed-the-Plow, Hollywood star Jeff Goldblum makes a hotly-anticipated return to the London stage in Neil Simon's brilliantly observed, award-winning comedy, The Prisoner of Second Avenue. Academy Award-winner Mercedes Ruehl also stars in this bittersweet, comic masterpiece about a man at breaking point. The play runs at the Vaudeville Theatre from 30 June - 11 September and is directed by Terry Johnson. Mel Edison (Jeff Goldblum) can't sleep. In the heat of a New York City summer his air-conditioning has broken, his neighbours won't shut-up, his job is hanging by a thread and there are a gang of burglars on the prowl. As things go from bad to worse, Mel heads for a meltdown and his loyal wife Edna (Mercedes Ruehl) is left to pick up the pieces. Tony and Pulitzer prize winning writer Neil Simon is best known this side of the Atlantic for his plays The Odd Couple, Barefoot in Park and Lost in Yonkers. He has also written the books for many musicals including Promises, Promises and Sweet Charity. Terry Johnson is a multi-award winning playwright and director. His recent shows include The Rise and Fall of Little Voice, Rain Man and La Cage aux Folles, the current Broadway production of which has received 11 Tony Nominations. Jeff Goldblum's numerous film credits include The Fly, Jurassic Park, Independence Day and The Tall Guy. His Broadway credits include The Pillowman for which he won an Outer Critics' Circle Award. Mercedes Ruehl won an Oscar for her performance in The Fisher King and multiple awards including a Tony for her Broadway performance in Neil Simon's Lost in Yonkers, alongside Old Vic Artistic Director Kevin Spacey. Video Produced by Rob Kluger Category	i don't know
Cydonia oblonga is the Latin of which fruit, used in preserves and originally used to make marmalade?	Quince \| Define Quince at Dictionary.com quince noun 1. either of two small trees, Cydonia oblonga or C. sinensis, of the rose family, bearing hard, fragrant, yellowish fruit used chiefly for making jelly or preserves. 2. the fruit of such a tree. Origin of quince Latin 1275-1325 1275-1325; Middle English quince, apparently orig. plural (taken as singular) of quyne, coyn < Middle French cooin < Latin cotōneum, akin to cydōnium < Greek (mêlon) Kydṓnion quince, literally, (apple) of Cydonia Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for quince Expand Jacob Faithful Captain Frederick Marryat No Sanskrit name is known for the quince, whence it may be inferred that its area did not extend towards the centre of Asia. British Pomology Robert Hogg I put the last switch of tobaccy I had in the world into that pipe, just arter throwing myself outside of that quince of fish. British Dictionary definitions for quince Expand noun 1. a small widely cultivated Asian rosaceous tree, Cydonia oblonga, with pinkish-white flowers and edible pear-shaped fruits 2. the acid-tasting fruit of this tree, much used in preserves 3. Also Japanese or flowering quince another name for japonica Word Origin C14 qwince plural of quyn quince, from Old French coin, from Latin cotōneum, from Greek kudōnion quince, Cydonian (apple) Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for quince Expand n. early 14c., plural of quoyn, from Old French cooin (Modern French coing), from Vulgar Latin codoneum, from Latin cotoneum malum "quince fruit," probably a variant of cydonium malum, from Greek kydonion malon "apple of Kydonia" (modern Khania), ancient seaport city in Crete. The plant is native to Persia, Anatolia, and Greece; the Greeks imported grafts for their native plants from a superior strain in Crete, hence the name. Kodu- also was the Lydian name for the fruit. Italian cotogno, German Quitte, etc. all are ultimately from the Greek word. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper	Quince
Which medical condition prevalent in World War One was caused by standing around in cold, wet and unsanitary conditions	quince - WordReference.com Dictionary of English quince WordReference Random House Learner's Dictionary of American English © 2017 quince /kwɪns/USA pronunciation n. Plant Biology[ countable ] a small tree of the rose family, giving hard, yellowish fruit used for making preserves. Plant Biology[ uncountable ] the fruit of such a tree. WordReference Random House Unabridged Dictionary of American English © 2017 quince (kwins),USA pronunciation n. Plant Biologyeither of two small trees, Cydonia oblonga or C. sinensis, of the rose family, bearing hard, fragrant, yellowish fruit used chiefly for making jelly or preserves. Plant Biologythe fruit of such a tree. Greek (mêlon) Kydó̄nion quince, literally, (apple) of Cydonia Latin cotōneum, akin to cydōnium Middle French cooin	i don't know
Delphinium is the botanical name for which common flower?	Delphinium Flowers Contact The Delphinium Flower Delphinium is the genus name for a group of approximately three hundred flowering perrennials in the Ranunculaceae, or Buttercup family. Also known as Larkspurs, the various members of this garden favorite are native to all parts of the northern hemisphere. The entire genus is highly toxic. Where the plant grows wild on rangelands, it is known to poison cattle. Scientific Name Delphinium the scientific designation for the genus. The Latin word following it refers to one of the member species. D. occidentale, for instance, is the Sub-alpine Larkspur. Delphinium comes from the Greek delphis, or delphin, which means "dolphin." The name likely refers to the delphinium flower's curving, dolphin-like shape. The common name "larkspur" refers to the sharp claws, or spurs, of the lark's foot. Another legend says that the name originates from Delphi in ancient Greece, the famous city of the oracle. The flower was originally called "Delphinium Apollo" for the god of that city. Geographic Origin Members of the delphinium family are found everywhere above the equator and in some of the high mountain ranges of Africa. Three species under threat of extinction - Delphinium leucophaeum, D. oreganum, and D. pavonaceum - are known to grow wild only in the Willamette Valley of Oregon in the United States. Delphinium andersonii, or Anderson's Larkspur, is found wild only in the Sierra Nevada mountains and the Great Basin region to the east of them. Delphinium exaltatum, or Tall Larkspur, is native to the Appalachian Mountains in eastern North America. Delphinium dasycaulon is one of the sub-species native to Africa, found in the wild primarily in Mozambique. Description and Characteristics Widely cultivated for its tall spikes of florets, delphinium cultivars range in size from four inches to well over six feet in height. Each plant terminates in a raceme containing many florets. The leaves of the plant are deeply divided, with anywhere from three to seven lobes that are palm-shaped. A delphinium flower has five sepals. They form a hollow pouch or pocket with the characteristic "spur" at one end. Just inside the pouch are the plant's four true petals. An unusual looking subspecies is Delphinium nuttallianum. One of the shorter members of the family, its flowers don't grow on a stalk but rather appear at the ends of widely spaced stems, or pedicels at the top of the plant stalk. Blue delphiniums are the most well-known, but there are other colors, too. Delphinium cardinale is an unusual sub-species in that its flowers are always a deep, rich red. D. luteum, appearing wild only in California, has bright yellow blooms. D. elatum is a popular garden cultivar with brilliant white blooms. Meaning The birth flower for July, larkspur flowers symbolize an open heart and ardent attachment. Older traditions state that delphiniums offer protection against lightning, eye disease, and witches. A delphinium wedding bouquet is more suitable for a tabletop centerpiece than carried by the bride, but they remain popular flowers for weddings. Cultivation and Care Delphinium is easy to sow from seed, though they won't flower until their second year. The seeds should be sown about 3/4-inch apart in well-drained soil, barely dusted over with dirt, and kept damp. Seedlings should sprout in two to three weeks. Transplant the seedlings into their own small pots when they've grown their first four true leaves. Give them full sunlight to avoid them gaining a "leggy" appearance. They can be placed out of doors, three feet apart, after the last hard freeze. Larkspur in bloom likes plenty of water and fertilizer. Wet the leaves and flowers encourage mildew, so keep the flow of water as close to the ground as possible. Trim old or fading flower stalks, about a foot above the foliage, then water lightly for a few weeks afterward to let the plant rest. After new growth appears, cut away the old stem, re-fertilize, and water generously again. Taller cultivars should be staked for support. Stakes should be about four feet tall and the plants tied loosely to them with twine in several places along the stalk. Delphinium should be divided once every three years, preferably in spring. Diseases and Pests Overly damp conditions encourage the growth of bacterial leaf spot, powdery mildew, and other unsightly diseases. These can be treated with a sulfur spray over and under leaves and around stalks. Be sure to thin the plants and provide well-drained soil so the problems do not recur. One exception to this is crown rot, which is characterized by the stems wilting from the top down. Plants with crown rot should be dug up and destroyed immediately. Pests include caterpillars, aphids, mealybugs, slugs, nematodes, and beetles, all of which can be corrected with normal garden pesticides or preventatives. Uses All parts of these plants are poisonous and should not be ingested. Delphinium seeds, especially those from D. staphisagria, are said to kill head lice and in the topical treatment of scabies. The juice from delphinium flowers, when combined with alum, provide blue ink. Other Interesting Facts Delphinium is a short-lived perennial, with an average life-span of about three years. Belladonna is a member of the delphinium family. A tincture of the larkspur flower was once used to treat asthma and dropsy, but is not now recommended. White delphinium was once called "Elijah's Chariot." Pictures Click thumbnails to see pictures:	Larkspur
Who replaced Tom Jones on the TV show the voice?	Candle Larkspur, Delphinium elatum - Flowers - NatureGate Delphinium elatum Growing form: Perennial herb. Height: 50–150 cm (20–60 in.). Stem glabrous or upper part sparsely hairy, blue-grey. Flower: Perianth zygomorphic, usually blue (there are several different-coloured cultivation varieties), 15–30 mm (0.6–1.2 in.) across. Sepals 5, petaloid, uppermost spurred, spur 12–20 mm (0.48–0.8 in.) long. Petals 4, of which 2 nectariferous, 2 vestigial, blackish–blue. Stamens 8. Gynoecium separate, pistils 2. Inflorescence branched–unbranched, quite lax raceme. Leaves: Alternate along stem, stalked. Blade almost as broad as long, with palmate venation, glabrous–sparsely hairy, cordate based, 3–5-lobed, lobes broad, tapered, doubly lobed–serrated. Fruit: 14–20 mm (0.56–0.8 in.) long follicle, of which 3 united. Habitat: Yards, roadsides, banks and woods near dwelling areas. Ornamental, sometimes wild. Flowering time: July–August. Candle larkspur’s family’s scientific name Delphinium goes way back into history: it was used for the first time as the name of a species in the first century A.D. in a book by the Greek doctor and botanist Pedanios. Perhaps the flower’s bud was seen in some way to resemble a dolphin. The plant family has since become linked with knights in many languages. The name probably comes from the flower’s spur, which has looked like the spurs that knights used when they rode their horses to people at that time. Of the many varieties of candle larkspur that are popular as ornamentals, many took their name straight from the stories of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. Larkspurs’ distribution area includes a surprisingly large part of the northern hemisphere, and only in Africa a few species have spread to the south side of the equator. Thirty species grow in Europe, of them only candle larkspur in Finland. The natural area of its distribution begins in the Aunus region of eastern Karelia and covers European Russia and Siberia’s broad-leaf forests and damp meadows as well as central European high mountain ranges. It is very diverse and different areas of its distribution can be defined by a number of subspecies and variations. In Finland the species is generally cultivated in gardens, and it can be found especially near old countryside gardens as a leftover, especially in the north. As old native varieties are either unrefined natural forms or have been at most only slightly refined, they can survive a long time without any care or attention. The majority of candle larkspurs that are currently grown as ornamentals are hybrids, and their descendants are the product of cultivation. They belong to the perennial elite, but they are too demanding with regards to habitat and care to survive in the Finnish wilds. All Delphinium species (worldwide about 300 is known) are considered toxic to humans. So are also monkshood (Aconitum napellus) and nothern wolfsbane (A. lycoctonum) which can be mixed with candle larkspur when not flowering. → Distribution map (Kasviatlas, University of Helsinki) Other species from the same family	i don't know
At what time of the day is the Ceremony of the Keys held in the Tower of London?	Ceremony of the Keys at Tower of London By Laura Porter Updated March 23, 2016. The Ceremony of the Keys at The Tower of London is a 700 year old tradition that takes place every night. Essentially it's locking all the doors to the Tower of London and the public are allowed to escort the warden, as long as they apply in advance. The Ceremony of the Keys involves the formal locking of the gates at the Tower of London . As the Tower must be locked - it houses the Crown Jewels ! - the Ceremony of the Keys has happened every night for around 700 years. Literally, they never miss a night because you can't leave the door open, can you? What Happens During The Ceremony of the Keys? The Chief Yeoman Warder is escorted around the Tower locking all the doors until he is 'challenged' by the sentry whom he must answer before completing the task. The same wording is used every night. Visitors are admitted to the Tower under escort at 21.30 (9.30pm) precisely. Between 40-50 visitors are admitted to watch the Ceremony of the Keys each night. continue reading below our video Before Your Road Trip, Watch This (Latecomers are not admitted as there is a strict schedule.) Every night, at exactly 21.52 (eight minutes to 10pm), the Chief Yeoman Warder of the Tower comes out of the Byward Tower, dressed in red, carrying a candle lantern in one hand and the Queen's Keys in the other hand. He walks to Traitor's Gate to meet two/four members of the duty regiment Foot Guards who escort him throughout the ceremony. One soldier takes the lantern and they walk in step to the outer gate. All guards and sentries on duty salute the Queen's Keys as they pass. The Warder locks the outer gate and they walk back to lock the oak gates of the Middle and Byward Towers. All three then return towards Traitor's Gate where a sentry awaits them. Sentry: "Halt, who comes there?" Chief Yeoman Warder: "The Keys!" Sentry: "Whose Keys?" Warder: "Queen Elizabeth's Keys." Sentry: "Pass Queen Elizabeth's Keys and all's well." All four men walk to the Bloody Tower archway and up towards the broadwalk steps where the main Guard is drawn up. The Chief Yeoman Warder and escort halt at the foot of the steps and the officer in charge gives the command to the Guard and escort to present arms. The Chief Yeoman Warder moves two paces forward, raises his Tudor bonnet high in the air and calls "God preserve Queen Elizabeth." The guard answers "Amen" exactly as the clock chimes 10pm (22.00) and 'The Duty Drummer' sounds The Last Post on his bugle. The Chief Yeoman Warder takes the keys back to the Queen's House and the Guard is dismissed. Visitors are escorted to the exit at 22.05 (10.05pm). Review I attended the Ceremony of the Keys on a dry, dark October evening. There were about 50 people in the group and the Yeoman Warder who escorted us was very theatrical and entertaining. He was strict about no photography and mobile phones off so don't forget. As the ceremony itself is very short, he gave us a talk about the Tower of London and it's history, as well as what would happen in the ceremony, while we were waiting. We stood outside Traitor's Gate which kept us all quiet. The 'escort' – four Foot Guards – marched into position for us and the slippery cobble stones meant one Guard went flying! Oh dear. No-one said anything. No-one laughed. Quite frankly they have guns and we weren't going to be silly about such an accident. Our Yeoman Warder ushered us along to see the final part of ceremony and then gave us more history about the Tower before escorting out. He was an excellent guide. How to Apply For The Ceremony of the Keys Tickets are free but you must book online in advance. To apply you need to include all of the names in your party. You can book for up to six in a group between 1 April and 31 October and up to 15 in a group between 1 November to 31 March inclusive. Important Notes Bring your original ticket issued by the Tower of London. Latecomers will not be admitted. There are no toilet or refreshment facilities available. Photography is not permitted during any part of the ceremony.	10 time
"""Just now the lilac is in bloom, all before my little room"", is the first line of which poem by Rupert Brook?"	Ceremony of the Keys, Tower of London - Rick Steves Travel Forum Please sign in to post. Ceremony of the Keys, Tower of London Posted by Mark G (London, United Kingdom) on 03/21/15 08:28 PM I'm trying to work my way round all the sorts of tourist and interesting things that tend to get taken for granted when you live so close to a place (I live in London). So, one Sunday night in February, I took my father to see the Ceremony of the Keys in the Tower of London. Here are some tips for those travellers thinking of booking up to attend, based on my experience: It's free (great!)....but you have to book online, several months in advance (boo), so this is an experience to plan well ahead for. The whole briefing then ceremony is short - enter the Tower about 9.30pm, and out finished by about 10.10pm. NO photography is allowed - the Yeoman Warder explains by stating that they want to keep the ceremony's mystique private to those who observe it! Perhaps paradoxically, I personally think that the ceremony is best observed in the Winter months - the darkness, damp/wet and wind adds to the occasion (but you do need to dress appropriately) People attending need to be able to walk quickly on cobblestones, in the dark - people with poor walking ability may not be best suited. If you want to get a glimpse of a traditional English military ceremony that goes back 700 years it's excellent. However if you think it is going to be a large-scale ceremony, think again. However its intimacy makes it more appealing I think. Enjoy!	i don't know
In which country were Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid supposedly killed in a shootout with soldiers in 1908?	Proof Butch Cassidy DIDN'T die in 1908 shootout with the Bolivian army? \| Daily Mail Online It is one of the most enduring stories to emerge from the American Wild West. But the death of Butch Cassidy may not be quite as dramatic as we have been told. A lost manuscript claims that the outlaw did not die in a gunfight in a shootout alongside his partner in Bolivia in 1908. Mystery: This undated photo of William T Phillips (left) was taken from the Larry Pointer Collection. The image on the right is of Butch Cassidy when he was in prison. According to the Bandit Invincible manuscript, Butch fled South America to Europe where he has plastic surgery. This would go some way to explain the change in appearance between the two images The scene was immortalised by Hollywood in 1969’s Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, with Paul Newman and Robert Redford running out into a hail of bullets after being cornered by troops. Instead, in a plot which could also have come straight out of a movie, Cassidy is said to have fled to France where he had surgery on his face before sneaking back into the U.S. Furthermore, according to the same account, he lived out his final days quietly and anonymously in Washington State – and wrote an autobiography which he disguised as a biography. American rare books expert Brent Ashworth and author Larry Pointer have obtained a 200-page manuscript from 1934 called Bandit Invincible: The Story of Butch Cassidy written by a William T Phillips which they claim was actually written by Cassidy. Certain death? New evidence has emerged that Butch Cassidy may have survived the shootout so famously portrayed by Paul Newman and Robert Redford (l-r) Wild times: This is a famous photo taken of Cassidy and his gang in Fort Worth, Texas in 1900. This is said to show Bill Carver, top left, the Sundance Kid, bottom left, and Butch Cassidy, bottom right. The other two members of the gang are not identified They claim the book is Cassidy’s own story of his life as an outlaw. It describes how after surviving the shootout in Bolivia he went to Paris and had his face altered then went back to the U.S. and reunited with an old girlfriend, Gertrude Livesay. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share The authors say they married in Michigan in 1908 and moved to Spokane in Washington state in 1911. He apparently died in 1937, aged 71. Paul Newman: Butch Cassidy according to Hollywood Redford, left, and Newman in a still from the 1969 film. Stories abound of Sundance living long after his time in South America. But they're outnumbered by purported Cassidy sightings. A brother and sister of Cassidy's insisted he visited them at a family ranch in 1925 Iconic: Redford (left) and Newman (right) gave memorable performances as the legendary outlaws Its discovery is the latest of many theories surrounding the life and death of the two outlaws. It is also claimed by other writers that Sundance survived. Cassidy was born Robert LeRoy Parker in 1866 in Utah, the oldest of 13 children in a Mormon family. He robbed his first bank in 1889 in Telluride, Colorado, and fell in with cattle rustlers who hid out at The Hole in the Wall, a refuge in northern Wyoming’s Johnson County. For 20 years, his Wild Bunch gang held up banks and trains across the West and in South America. Despite the claims of Pointer and Ashworth, not all are convinced by the manuscript’s authenticity. ‘Total horse pucky,’ said Cassidy historian Dan Buck. ‘It doesn’t bear a great deal of relationship to Butch Cassidy’s real life, or Butch Cassidy’s life as we know it.’	Bolivia
What colour is the 100 euro note?	Butch and Sundance: Where Are They? - Utah Department of Heritage and Arts Utah Department of Heritage and Arts Page: D1 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid–Robert LeRoy Parker and Harry Longabaugh. Legends beyond their time. Despite the gallons of ink devoted to the exploits of these two colorful, romantic, but struggling cowboys-turned-bank robbers, their mystique continues to capture the imagination. From the day of Butch’s first stickup at Telluride, Colorado, June 24, 1889, when–as Roy Parker–he threw in with Matt Warner and Tom McCarty to make an unauthorized withdrawal of $20,750 from the San Miguel Valley Bank, to his last job November 4, 1908, robbing a cash shipment from a mining company near Tupiza in southern Bolivia, the saga of Butch Cassidy and his cohort, the Sundance Kid, has grown to mythic proportions in the annals of Western outlaws. Butch and the Kid were not killer-desperadoes on the order of the James boys or the Youngers or the Daltons, but there was an aura about the two alumni from Hole-in-the-Wall, Wyoming, and their connection with the notorious Wild Bunch from Robbers Roost that stuck like glue. It may have been the $10,000 reward posted by the Pinkerton Detective Agency, but as the legend goes, Butch and Sundance (and Sundance’s lady friend, the stunning Etta Place) could find no rest for fear of discovery and capture. There are many twists to the story, but no ending. The traditional version has the trio fleeing to South America, with Cassidy and Sundance knocking off the mining-company shipment, only to be trapped in a village called San Vicente by Bolivian police. Then history becomes muddled. Some say the two outlaws fought it out with the federales, killed a few and were themselves wounded; in this version, Cassidy puts Sundance out of his misery with a bullet to the head, then shoots himself rather than surrender. Yet another faction of Western historians holds that the shootout involved two other North American outlaws, that they were deliberately misidentified to provide Butch and the Kid an opportunity to go straight without further fear of the Pinkertons. (This account also has Cassidy returning to America and working in the embryo Hollywood film industry.) There are dozens of stories emanating from Utah, Nevada and Wyoming of “Butch Cassidy” sightings at various times and in as many places from the 1920s through the 1940s. In a new book, Digging Up Butch and Sundance (St. Martin’s Press), author Anne Meadows details the circumstances that led her and her husband, Dan Buck, to search for answers to the mystery in South America. What they found in poking through Bolivian, Chilean and Argentinian newspaper and court records eight decades old brought them to the conclusion that Parker and Longabaugh lived with Etta Place on a ranch in northern Patagonia’s Cholila Valley, under assumed names (James Ryan and Mr. and Mrs. Harry A. Place), from 1901 to 1905. During these years, Butch kept in touch with friends in Utah with occasional letters explaining how the fugitives were getting along. But apparently the call of the wild was too strong and they took to the outlaw trail once again, plying their trade in Argentina and Bolivia. But the Pinkertons blamed them for virtually every holdup on the continent. Sometime over the next two years, the lovely Etta drops from sight. According to Meadows, the schoolteacher and bandit queen was last seen “crossing Argentina’s Salado River on a raft” after a holdup at Villa Mercedes de San Luis in 1905. Etta continues to be a mystery, since researchers have never learned her real name or background. Students of outlaw history theorize Etta was everything from a Boston finishing-school graduate to madam of a Texas bordello. One insists she was actually Ann Bassett of Brown’s Hole on the Green River. Meadows and Buck, intrigued by the Butch Cassidy story, doggedly retraced the events of the Tupiza robbery and shootout at San Vicente, making frequent trips over the ensuing years from their Washington, D.C., home to South America in a frustrating search for records that would lead them to positive identification of the two slain bandoleros or the location of their graves. Their quest ultimately was brought to PBS television in a 1993 “Nova” episode that documented an exhumation at the San Vicente Cemetery. As described in her book, the forensic investigation of the bones of a white male Caucasian became a public-relations debacle when members of the scientific team talked to the press. “Did somebody forget to tell those guys to keep their mouths shut until the testing is complete,” Meadows agonizes, “or are they just hard of listening?” Over the next weeks, stories that Butch and Sundance had been identified found their way into newspapers and television across the country–before the tests had begun. In the final analysis, the recovered skeletal remains believed those of the Sundance Kid are ruled to be one Gustav Zimmer, a German working in Bolivia. There are no plans to excavate San Vicente graves, although Meadows and Buck believe the outlaws they seek are indeed buried there. “We just dug in the wrong spot.” She is convinced, as is her husband, that the two did indeed die in the shootout. As for claims that William T. Phillips, a Spokane, Washington, businessman who died in 1937, was Butch Cassidy, Meadows puts forth a convincing argument that he was born in Sandusky, Michigan, to Celia Mudge and Laddie J. Phillips, thus eliminating him. The name Hiram BeBee, a convicted killer who died in Utah State Prison, also surfaces as the “real” Harry Longabaugh. Absurd as this claim is–Longabaugh stood 6 feet tall–and the best BeBee could muster on his tallest day was 5- foot-3–the folktale continues. But Meadows has located a 1919 photograph of BeBee taken in San Quentin under his alias George Hanlon. The glossy mug shot looks more like a senior Dustin Hoffman or Jimmy Durante than the Sundance Kid. (In 1919, California authorities pegged BeBee/Hanlon’s height at 5 feet, 2 3/4 inches. Not Sundance by any s-t-r-e-t-c-h.) The story that Butch and Sundance died at San Vicente was first reported in a 1930 Elks Magazine article by Arthur Chapman. He used Percy Seibert, an American engineer in Bolivia, as the source. From the outset, the story was greeted with skepticism. And reports from scores of witnesses claiming to have seen one or the other of the outlaws after 1908 abounded. Writes Meadows: “Unverifiable reports have him–asking a postal detective in Salt Lake City to buy a wagon, harness, and camping outfit for him with money he peeled from a big roll of bills’ in 1910; saving Jesse James’s grandson from five kidnappers in the St. Louis railroad station,’ after receiving a coded telegram about the plot while getting a medical checkup in a nearby hospital; then returning to Utah to work in a saloon in Price in 1915 and to sell shoes in Delta in 1918. Later, he supposedly went to Wyoming and spent two days in Baggs, drank whiskey in a Lander bar, looked up an old flame, and had his Model-T Ford repaired in Rock Springs, while hauling around a two-wheel trailer full of camping gear. He also attended a Wild West show in San Francisco; prospected with Wyatt Earp in Alaska; popped up in Nogales, Arizona; visited Albuquerque, New Mexico, and drifted to Europe.” And, of course, a story carried in The Salt Lake Tribune last October that retired Utah Highway Patrol Trooper Merrill Johnson and his wife had seen, heard and spoken to Robert LeRoy Parker in Kanab in 1941, 32 years after the episode at San Vicente! Meadows also writes that Joyce Warner, daughter of one of Cassidy’s early cohorts, Matt Warner, said she was visited by Cassidy after her father’s death; that she had last seen him in 1941; that he settled in the East under the name Frank Ervin and died in 1944 in Nevada. When all is said and done, Meadows has pulled together a compelling and convincing argument in favor of Butch and Sundance on a holdup spree in South America during the early 1900s, and an almost convincing argument that the two stole the mine payroll and died in the San Vicente shootout four days later. (There is no question that two masked bandits–apparently “Yankees”–did the deed, but Cassidy and Longabaugh?) Until absolute proof is discovered (or their identifiable remains), many history buffs will prefer to believe the pair escaped to North America and lived out their lives in welcome obscurity. But that does not detract a whit from Anne Meadows’ very readable and interesting account of Digging Up Butch and Sundance.	i don't know
"How many musicians are left at the end of Haydon's ""Farewell Symphony"""	Haydn, Symphony No. 45, "Farewell" - In Mozart's Footsteps - Uncommon Musical Travel Posted on October 27, 2010 by David Nelson Sometimes pieces of music are meant to entertain an audience. Sometimes they are meant to celebrate an occasion or welcome dignitaries to an event. Sometimes music is written just to get people’s attention. And sometimes a piece of music is designed to send a message in subtle – or not so subtle – ways. That is the case with Haydn’s Symphony No. 45, known as the “Farewell”. Franz Josef Haydn was the composer and “Kapellmeister” for the wealthy Esterházy family near Vienna. This was one of the great musical jobs in Europe because his primary responsibility was to compose music for Prince Nicholas Esterházy for a variety of events or even just for the Prince’s pleasure. And Haydn had an orchestra and opera company at his disposal just for these purposes. Composers today should be so fortunate. Two Palaces for One Family The Esterhazy’s primary residence was a sumptuous palace in Eisenstadt which has a beautiful concert hall that is still used today. This picturesque Austrian town was where the musicians – employees of the Prince – lived with their families. Prince Nicholas was an avid hunter, and apparently the hunting was not good enough near Eisenstadt for his liking. So, in 1772, he had another palace built hear his hunting lodge in the little town of Fertöd, Hungary. He named it Esterháza. Esterháza Palace in Fertod, Hungary In the warm summer months, everyone who worked in Esterházy Palace packed up and moved to Esterháza. This included the musicians. But only a few of them, Haydn included, were allowed to take their wives and families with them. This was usually fine with the members of the orchestra because the Prince only stayed at Esterháza for a short time. However, in 1772, the Prince decided to stay longer in Hungary than usual. Of course, this was not a popular decision to the orchestra members, but they were powerless to do anything about it themselves. If something like this happened today, the musician’s union would certainly raise a fuss. Wanting to Go Home The married men, wanting to return to their wives, asked Haydn if he could help. The great composer, being a true diplomat, did not want to confront the Prince, but he came up with another idea that (he hoped) would get Nicholas’s attention. Haydn would use his music to strongly hint that the musicians wanted to return home. When it came time to perform his new symphony, the fast first movement went along without a hitch. Then the slow second movement and dance-like third movement, a minuet, followed. The finale started as did most final movements of the day, fast and lively. But a few minutes into the last movement, just when the audience was expecting the work to wind to a close, a slower section began. Prince Nicholas was quite knowledgeable about music, so this must have attracted his attention. What was this about? Why is there slow music here? The room in Esterháza Palace where the "Farewell" Symphony was first performed. Vacating the Premises What the Prince then saw was remarkable. As the fourth movement progressed, a few musicians stopped playing, blew out the candles on their music stands, took their music, and left the stage. Then more stopped and exited the room. This continued until only two violinists were left, and when they stopped, they too blew out their candles and left. Whereas most symphonies end with lots of energy and sound, Haydn had written this work so that it gradually tapered out into thin air. The Prince understood Haydn’s message. The next day, he gave the order for the musicians to return to Eisenstadt. It was not until a hundred years later that the name “Farewell” was associated with this symphony, and it is hard to imagine a more fitting title for the work. This program note first appeared in Greensboro, North Carolina’s News and Record on February 14, 2010. Share this: Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Name * Website Comment You may use these HTML tags and attributes: <a href="" title=""> <abbr title=""> <acronym title=""> <b> <blockquote cite=""> <cite> <code> <del datetime=""> <em> <i> <q cite=""> <strike> <strong> Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Notify me of new posts by email. Search for:	2
Which historical character has been played in film by Norma Shearer (1938), Jane Seymour (1989) and Kirsten Dunst (2006)?	Haydn — Symphony No. 45, “Farewell” \| Columbus Indiana Philharmonic Haydn — Symphony No. 45, “Farewell” 0 Comment Haydn — Symphony No. 45, “Farewell” His given name was Franz Joseph; but to generations of classical music devotees, he is known as Papa. It was a nickname that came into favor during Franz Joseph Haydn’s lifetime in the late 1700s, in the long period when he served as Kapellmeister for the Hungarian Court of Eszterházy. At the time, ‘Papa’ was simply a term of endearment for the composer and orchestra leader, who often served as a kind of father-figure to his younger musicians. Yet the name stuck for centuries, for a symbolic reason: When it comes to the core musical form of the orchestral canon, all roads lead back to Haydn and his brilliant innovation known as the symphony. Actually, the origins of the symphony dated back far prior to Haydn’s birth in 1732. Derived from an ancient Greek word that referred to harmonious or concordant sound, ‘symphony’ was originally a term that referenced various instruments, particularly those that could produce more than one tone at the same time. As a term referencing a musical form, ‘symphony’ began appearing widely among the works of 16th and 17th century composers, who seemed to use it loosely and interchangeably with other words; most often it referenced collections of sacred vocal works. By the time Haydn appeared on the musical landscape of Austria, the word ‘symphony’ most often applied to a three-movement instrumental work in which two fast movements sandwiched a central, slow movement. In 1759, Haydn himself penned his First Symphony in this form; his Second Symphony, written sometime within the following three years, also plays out in three movements. But with his Third Symphony, Haydn introduced what probably seemed, at the time, a minor innovation: the inclusion of an additional middle movement in the form of a Minuet. Then highly popular as a courtly social dance form, the minuet had already made its way into the music of other classical composers such as Bach and Handel. But in adding a bit of dance music to his symphonies (and also, later, his innovations in what would become known as sonata form), Haydn established what would eventually become the primary long-form structure of orchestral music for more than two centuries. Of course, it didn’t hurt that he left behind plenty of examples. In his lifetime, Haydn penned 104 “numbered” symphonies and an actual total of 108 symphonies – a far cry from Beethoven’s nine or Brahms’ four. Perhaps not surprisingly, a relatively small handful of those many symphonies have endured as staples of the orchestral repertoire. Among those, one of the earliest is the 45th, written in 1772. Haydn spent much of his career working as the court composer for Nikolaus Esterházy, a Hungarian prince who allowed the composer considerable creative freedom, demanding only that he produce new music regularly. Nonetheless, the relationship wasn’t always entirely carefree. Haydn and his orchestra had spent that summer at the prince’s remote countryside castle, and as the weeks dragged on, the musicians began to grumble about getting home to their families. Haydn dealt with the issue by writing this symphony. In the first three movements, the composer employs his signature techniques to exquisite form. But it is the final movement that provides the work’s clever raison d’être. After a vigorous opening typical of Haydn’s finales, the music suddenly shifts to a slow adagio. One by one, the musicians stop playing and exit the stage quietly, leaving just two violinists. If the legends are true, the prince got the message: It is written that the very next day, the entire court returned to civilization. Program notes provided by Joe Nickell About the Author	i don't know
In which Canadian City would you find the Skytrain overhead railway?	Vancouver: SkyTrain - TripAdvisor Want the lowest hotel prices? You're in the right place. We check 200+ sites for you. Vancouver: SkyTrain We'll send you updates with the latest deals, reviews and articles for Vancouver each week. Vancouver Traveler Article: Share your knowledge Share your knowledge about SkyTrain and help millions of travelers researching their trips. Start the traveler article . Share your knowledge © 2017 TripAdvisor LLC All rights reserved. TripAdvisor Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . * TripAdvisor LLC is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site... (more) TripAdvisor LLC is not responsible for content on external web sites. Taxes, fees not included for deals content.	Vancouver
Who hosts Radio 1 breakfast show?	Vancouver Airport Skytrain – Schedules, Tickets, Station Locations, & more Vancouver Airport Skytrain – Where to Go, How to Ride & more Vancouver Airport Skytrain - Tickets, Schedules, Station Location and Other Tips for Riding the YVR Skytrain VTT Home › Vancouver Airport Transportation › Skytrain For Vancouver Airport By Darrin Robertson , VTT Editor - Updated: January 2, 2017 Skytrain arriving at Vancouver Airport! If you’re wondering about a train or subway to/from Vancouver International Airport and downtown Vancouver, here’s what you should know about the Canada Line Skytrain. This new Vancouver Airport train service replaces all public transit bus service to/from YVR. The “Canada Line” Skytrain is a quick, clean, comfortable and affordable way of transportation from Vancouver Airport to Downtown Vancouver. Designed to handle the increase in traffic during the 2010 Winter Olympics, the Skytrain is an above-ground monorail-type train that connects YVR with downtown Vancouver and Richmond (the train actually travels underground once it crosses the bridge into the city of Vancouver). Vancouver Airport Skytrain Station - Location How to Get to the Skytrain Station at Vancouver Airport:The YVR – Airport Canada Line Station is located above the covered parking garage at the airport. You can get there 2 different ways: Domestic Arrivals (flights arriving from within Canada) – go up to level 3, then walk towards the International Terminal. Before you get there, you will come to the Link Building which is situated between the domestic and international terminals. Look for the signs that say “Canada Line” and proceed up the escalator (or elevator) to level 4 where there is a covered walkway to the Skytrain Station. International Arrivals (flights arriving from USA and International) - make your way up to level 3 and then outside where you will see the covered walkway across the street to the Canada Line Station (Note: If it's raining heavily, you may prefer to stay indoors and walk an extra couple minutes to the Link Building and access the Skytrain there as described above for Domestic arrivals). YVR Skytrain Ticket Prices & How to Purchase Here’s a quick guide to the cost of riding the Skytrain from Vancouver Airport. Please Note: These fares are updated and include the new YVR AddFare. The $5 YVR AddFare applies only to travel from YVR to Vancouver and Richmond. It is not paid in reverse for travel to YVR. Monday to Friday, early morning to 6:30 PM: Vancouver Airport – Downtown Vancouver: 2 Zone Ticket $9.00 (two-zone fare of $4.00 + YVR AddFare of $5) Vancouver Airport – Richmond: 1 Zone Ticket $7.75 ( one-zone fare of $2.75 plus YVR AddFare of $5) Monday to Friday after 6:30 PM, Weekends and Holidays: Vancouver Airport - All Zones: $7.75 ($2.75 plus YVR AddFare of $5) Tickets are good for up to 90 minutes of travel for the zones you purchase. Skytrain ticket machine at Vancouver Airport! How to Purchase Tickets for the Skytrain at Vancouver Airport: Ticket Machines: You'll find Skytrain Ticket Machines on all Canada Line station platforms. They accept cash, credit and debit/ATM cards. At YVR, you may also buy Skytrain tickets at the 7-Eleven Store downstairs on Level 1 in the Domestic Terminal building. Transfers: There’s no need to purchase a transfers – your 2-Zone ticket is all you need for travel from YVR Airport to Downtown. YVR Skytrain Schedule to Downtown Vancouver Skytrain Hours – the Vancouver Airport Skytrain operates a frequent schedule from very early in the morning to past midnight. Here are some details: From the Airport to Downtown Vancouver: Skytrain service begins at 5:08 AM, with the last train at night at 12:57 AM. From Downtown Vancouver to the Airport: first Skytrain is at 4:49 AM, and the last one departs at 1:05 AM. Frequency - Trains run on average once every 6 to 7 minutes throughout the day and evening, and about once every 20 minutes during late-night hours. Route/Stops - the train makes 12 stops, the final one at Waterfront Station in Dowwntown Vancouver. Travel Time – about 25 minutes from YVR to Waterfront Station in downtown Vancouver. IMPORTANT - Skytrains travelling from downtown Vancouver south towards YVR/Richmond will alternate final destinations between Vancouver Airport and Richmond. If you're travelling to the Airport, make sure you board a Skytrain that is designated "YVR Airport" and not "Richmond". All Skytrains at YVR Airport Station depart for downtown Vancouver. Downtown Hotels Closest to Airport Skytrain Stations Waterfront Station - Fairmont Waterfront Hotel , Pan Pacific Vancouver City Center Station - St. Regis Hotel, Four Seasons, Westin Baggage, Bikes & More The Skytrain has room for your luggage, including skis, snowboards and golf clubs. Can you take your bike on the Skytrain at Vancouver Airport? Each train has space for two bicycles (1 in each car) (Disclaimer: This page is a general guide only - It is NOT the official Skytrain website. Skytrain schedules, fares and services are subject to frequent change. Vancouver Travel Tips.com accepts no responsibility for any loss, injury or inconvenience sustained by anyone resulting from this information. Please consult translink.ca and yvr.ca before starting any travel.) Vancouver Airport Skytrain Pictures Vancouver Airport Domestic Terminal - Entrance to Skytrain Station Vancouver Airport International Terminal - Outside Entrance to Skytrain Station Vancouver Airport Skytrain Station	i don't know
What position does Amber Rudd hold in the Cabinet?	Profile: Amber Rudd, a true believer in climate change \| Conservative Home Profile: Amber Rudd, a true believer in climate change Our survey returns Ruth Davidson as Remain campaigner of the year The charge often made against the Cameroons, that they do not in their heart of hearts believe in the modish causes they espouse, is not levelled at Amber Rudd. The new Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change is agreed, by admirers and detractors, to be a true believer in the science of climate change. Her appointment was welcomed by the Ecologist, which warned she would face opposition from Conservatives such as Lord Lawson, Owen Paterson and Peter Lilley: “Rudd will have to fight a strategic, robust and constant rearguard defence against those who are ostensibly on her side.” But she has faced no immediate condemnation from that quarter. This is not just because it would obviously be unfair to condemn her before she has shown what she is going to do. It is also a mark of the high regard in which she is held by many other Conservatives, including some of Thatcherite outlook. As a leading member of the No Turning Back group told ConHome: “She is one of the most authentic believers in the Cameron proposition.” But, he added, she also recognises ( as Tim Montgomerie has pointed out ) that the policies which in the general election cut through to the electorate had nothing much to do with modernisation. This Tory went on to attribute some of the other promotions in the reshuffle to “slavering, mindless sycophancy” to George Osborne, for whom Rudd did indeed have a spell as PPS. But Rudd’s authenticity saved her from being written off by this Tory as a sycophant. Like many others, he liked her well enough to have gone to canvass for her in her marginal seat of Hastings and Rye, and he said of her in a tolerant tone: “She’s a Macmillanite pragmatist – pretty much like our dear, dear leader.” When forming a Cabinet, David Cameron pursues an unusual policy. He likes to promote people who know something about the department they are going to run, and then he keeps them there for a good long time. Rudd was an Under Secretary at DECC before making the double jump to become its head. For those of us who treasure the fine old tradition of throwing ministers into departments of which they know nothing, and moving them on just as they start to understand what is going on, this is a disconcerting process. Rudd’s predecessors at DECC, Ed Davey and Chris Huhne, were Liberal Democrats, and Conservative energy policy has been described, even by some Conservatives, as “a hopeless mess”, in which contradictory objectives jostle for attention. But thanks in part to her previous experience, Rudd was able to sound quite lucid when she spoke a few days ago to her local paper, The Hastings & St Leonards Observer : “My ambition in my new role is quite simple: to keep the lights on and carbon emissions down, whilst saving consumers money on their energy bills.” She followed this up with an interview in the Sunday Times in which she declared: “No more onshore wind farm subsidies and no more onshore wind farms without local community support. That’s going to be one of the first things we’re going to do. I’ve put a rocket under the team to get it done.” Here is a rocket fired in a direction which shows she is not just some loony environmentalist. In the same interview, she said: “I think women should always be in 50 per cent of places of influence.” When Rudd says this, it does not just sound like tokenism, and she herself becomes harder to dismiss as a token woman who has been promoted so that the Prime Minister can say a third of Cabinet ministers are women. She carries conviction because she says what she thinks. This characteristic sometimes gets her into trouble. At the 2005 election, she fought the safe Labour seat of Liverpool Garston, in 2006 she was put on the A list of candidates and selected for the marginal but still Labour seat of Hastings and Rye, in 2010 she won that seat with a majority of 1,993, and in 2013 she gave an interview to the Financial Times in which she said of the constituency: “You get people who are on benefits, who prefer to be on benefits by the seaside. They’re not moving down here to get a job, they’re moving down here to have easier access to friends and drugs and drink.” That was considered tactless, but has not stopped her winning again this May, with her majority more than doubled to 4,796. A woman who went to canvass for her in this campaign said: “She’s funny and she’s feisty. She had a huge number of other MPs helping her. When you go canvassing for someone, you really get a feel for who has a good team and a nice atmosphere. “We went round with two locals, both of them young women, she’d motivated them and they’re both standing for the council. She can’t be pigeon-holed politically. I think she did really get AA Gill on the road to recovery. She’s never complained about being dumped by him.” Gill was an alcoholic who gave up drink and became, while married to Rudd, a star journalist. They had two children, on whom he dotes, before he walked out on her and went off with Nicola Formby, a model. Rudd, who is 51, is not one of those politicians who has never done anything before politics. But wherever we glimpse her, we find a kind of buoyant practicality: a refusal to be down-hearted. Emma Craigie, a writer, was at Cheltenham Ladies’ College with Rudd: “Same house, same year, same classes, so I knew her very well then. There were real problems in the house, there were 17 in our year and a huge proportion developed eating disorders.” Rudd did not suffer in that way: “She was very comfortable in herself, very warm, outgoing, confident, and very, very competitive. I think she got into a bit of trouble on the day we left school, when she tied together all the chair legs in the dining-room.” After reading History at Edinburgh University, Rudd joined a bank – J.P.Morgan – which was followed by a spell as a financial journalist, and the foundation of a recruitment agency. Her own father, Tony Rudd, was a stockbroker, while her mother, born Ethne Fitzgerald, was a woman of great energy who served as a magistrate and managed, as secretary of the Kensington Society, to stop the initial scheme for a Diana Memorial Garden in Kensington Gardens. The Rudds operated on an expansive scale: they also acquired a large house in the country. Amber’s brother, Roland Rudd, is one of the richest and best known people in financial PR. She herself recruited the extras for Four Weddings and a Funeral, in which she can be glimpsed. If a slight air of unreality hangs over this, it makes it an appropriate preparation for the grand but possibly vainglorious task of passing resolutions to avert climate change. In November, Rudd will attend a summit in Paris which will attempt to arrive at a global agreement to limit temperature rises to two degrees centigrade. Rudd knows this project will be viewed with profound scepticism by some Conservatives. But she insists: “I’m going to win them over. This is good for the economy. I approach it with a high moral purpose but also a strong pragmatic one for the economy in terms of building jobs.” Once again, the fact that she so evidently believes what she is saying may help to carry her through. At the heart of the Cameroon project lies a dual appeal, to both morality and practicality. The task of saving mankind will also, we are assured, create jobs. Green economics are going to make us not only virtuous but rich. In the affable conviction that they know what they are doing, and vindicated by their unexpected election victory, the Cameroons believe they can dominate politics for many years to come. Rudd epitomises that confidence. She and her colleagues hold the initiative, and they intend to use it.	Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change
What position did Will Sommers hold at the Court of Henry VIII	Amber Rudd clinches top energy position in Cameron’s new cabinet \| Clean Energy News Amber Rudd clinches top energy position in Cameron’s new cabinet By Peter Bennett Editor, Next Energy News Amber Rudd has been promoted Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change in David Cameron’s new cabinet. The announcement was confirmed this morning despite reports yesterday that suggested minister of state for climate change, Matthew Hancock was to be handed the role. Cameron has yet to confirm if Hancock is to keep his role at the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) or be shuffled elsewhere, with appointments continuing to be announced following last week’s shock majority win for the Conservatives. Rudd’s predecessor Ed Davey was one of 49 Liberal Democrat MPs to lose their seat during the election, leaving the party with just eight MPs as the Conservatives swept to a majority of 331 seats, trumping Labour’s 232. Rudd’s appointment does however act as confirmation that DECC is to be maintained, following suggestions that it could be scrapped if the Conservatives won a majority. The Independent yesterday reported that the Conservatives had been considering abolishing the department and sharing its duties between other departments, suggesting its climate change remit could be handed over to the Department for Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs – Liz Truss’ department. ‘Significant’ appointment for ‘progressive’ Conservatives Amber Rudd’s appointment as Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change has been warmly welcomed by industry groups this morning, with many adjudging her to have been the best possible option for renewable energies. Richard Black, director of the Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit, described Rudd’s promotion as “significant” and said it enforced the Conservative Party’s “commitment to policies based on sound climate science”. “Just before the election, Ms Rudd recalled the fact that Margaret Thatcher was the first leader of any major nation to call for a United Nations treaty on climate change, and pledged that a Conservative Government would be faithful to Mrs Thatcher’s legacy. “Logically, that suggests that in the coming months we can expect to see the Government pressing for a strong global deal at the UN climate talks in December, safeguarding cost-effective policies leading to UK decarbonisation and re-invigorating progress in areas that are currently stalled, such as cutting energy waste,” he added. Karl Harder, co-found and joint managing director at renewables financing firm Abundance Generation, echoed Black’s sentiments and added that Rudd’s appointment would be “welcome news for the industry” because of her “evidence based approach” to her previous role as climate change minister. British Photovoltaics Association chief executive Reza Shaybani said her appointment confirmed David Cameron’s support for renewable energy to put DECC “in the hands of a very senior member of parliament”, while Renewable Energy Association chief executive Nina Skorupska argued that her appointment would allay fears that UK renewables would suffer at the hands of a future Tory government. By putting a progressive, modern Conservative into #DECC , who totally gets the big challenges of #Climate PM showing real green leadership — Greg Barker (@GregBarkerUK) May 11, 2015 But Paul Barwell, CEO of the Solar Trade Association, reiterated warnings that stable policy support is needed if solar is to meet its potential. “Rudd gets solar, and has often talked about the astonishing success of solar and how popular solar is, and has said in the past that she was watching solar’s performance in the CfD auctions very closely,” he said, revealing that the STA will be addressing Rudd to request a meeting to discuss future goals. Solarcentury chief executive Frans van den Heuvel also said the industry would have to “remain cautious” because of the “huge influence” the Treasury is to retain over renewable subsidies, but ultimately welcomed Rudd’s appointment. “Her appointment suggests that government policy is not going to go lurching off to the climate sceptic right as many still fear,” he said. Matthew Hancock’s future as minister for climate change remains unclear however with Cameron yet to confirm a position for him in his reshuffled cabinet. He has been linked to the position as chief secretary to the treasury and if he should receive such a promotion, two new ministers could yet be appointed to DECC in the coming days. Cover image credit: Electricity Storage Network Tags	i don't know
The island of New Guinea is split between Papua New Guinea to the east and which country to the west?	Papua New Guinea: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities Australia and New Zealand Help Manage Election Geography Papua New Guinea occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea, just north of Australia, and many outlying islands. The Indonesian province of West Papua (Irian Jaya) is to the west. To the north and east are the islands of Manus, New Britain, New Ireland, and Bougainville, all part of Papua New Guinea. About one-tenth larger than California, its mountainous interior has only recently been explored. Two major rivers, the Sepik and the Fly, are navigable for shallow-draft vessels. Government Constitutional monarchy with parliamentary democracy. History The first inhabitants of the island New Guinea were Papuan, Melanesian, and Negrito tribes, who altogether spoke more than 700 distinct languages. The eastern half of New Guinea was first explored by Spanish and Portuguese explorers in the 16th century. In 1828, the Dutch formally took possession of the western half of the island (now the province of West Papua [Irian Jaya], Indonesia). In 1885, Germany formally annexed the northern coast and Britain took similar action in the south. In 1906, Britain transferred its rights to British New Guinea to a newly independent Australia, and the name of the territory was changed to the Territory of Papua. Australian troops invaded German New Guinea (called Kaiser-Wilhelmsland) in World War I and gained control of the territory under a League of Nations mandate. New Guinea and some of Papua were invaded by Japanese forces in 1942. After being liberated by the Australians in 1945, it became a United Nations trusteeship, administered by Australia. The territories were combined and called the Territory of Papua and New Guinea (PNG). Australia granted limited home rule in 1951. Autonomy in internal affairs came nine years later, and in Sept. 1975, Papua New Guinea achieved complete independence from Britain. A violent nine-year secessionist movement took place on the island of Bougainville. In 1989, guerrillas of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) shut down the island's Australian-owned copper mine, a major source of revenue for the country. The rebels believed that Bougainville deserved a greater share of the earnings for its copper. In 1990, the BRA declared Bougainville's independence, whereupon the government blockaded the island until Jan. 1991, when a peace treaty was signed. On July 17, 1998, an earthquake-triggered tsunami off the northern coast of PNG killed at least 1,500 people and left thousands more injured and homeless. Many analysts say Papua New Guinea is in danger of political and economic collapse. The country's political system is unstable, the crime rate has soared, corruption is rampant, and essential services including health care and education continue to decline. According to the World Bank, 70% of the country lives in poverty. In 2006, Australia announced that it was gravely concerned about the country and had peacekeeping forces at the ready. Sir Michael Somare was elected to a second consecutive term as prime minister in August 2007, defeating Sir Julius Chan. Governor-General Sir Paulias Matane was reelected in June 2010, but was removed from office after the Supreme Court ruled that the election was unconstitutional. Jeffery Nape became acting governor-general on Dec. 13, but without explanation, Michael Ogio took over as acting governor-general on Dec. 20. In April 2011, a tribunal convicted Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare of misconduct and suspended him for two weeks. Citing ill health, he extended his absence and Sam Abal became acting prime minister. Somare officially resigned in June. In August, the parliamentary-designated vacancy in the prime minister's office and the election of Peter O'Neill were ruled illegal by the Supreme Court, who then ordered the reinstatement of Sir Michael Somare as prime minister. Mr. O'Neill refused to acknowledge the order and remained in office. A rebel group led by Colonel Sasa mutinied, but failed in its attempt to restore Somare's prime ministership. Parliamentary elections take place in June 2012.	Indonesia
What is the maximum number of clubs that a golfer can carry in their bag?	\| Politics , Guinea , Indonesia , Papua New Guinea When the Dutch decolonised their East Indies empire after the Second World War they handed it all to the emergent country of Indonesia - all except the territory of West Papua, which forms one half of New Guinea, the second largest island on Earth. This remarkable landmass - split neatly by colonial powers into West Papua and Papua New Guinea - is like few other places in the world. Its mountainous terrain and dense rainforests have spawned extraordinary linguistic diversity among its indigenous population, some of whom are still in uncontacted tribes. Five decades ago few, if any of these tribes, showed any desire for their land to become an extension of Indonesia, a new nation state with which they shared neither history, culture, religion nor ethnicity, but which wanted resource-rich West Papua within its borders. The Dutch resisted Indonesia's demands for a while, beginning to invest in West Papuan education and encouraging nationalism. But eventually global realpolitik intervened in the shape of US President Kennedy. Concerned about the possibility of communism spreading across South and Southeast Asia, the Kennedy administration saw Indonesia as a useful regional ally that should be kept happy. In 1963, with American backing, the United Nations gave Indonesia caretaker rights over the territory, on condition that a referendum on independence should follow. But when the poll - named, without apparent irony, as the 'Act Of Free Choice' - took place in 1969 it was widely perceived as a sham. From a population of around of 800,000, just over 1,000 tribal elders were selected by the Indonesians to represent the nation. Allegedly threatened, intimidated and held in seclusion, they voted as they were told. Ignoring well-founded international protests that the referendum had been rigged, the UN accepted the result and West Papua moved from being a Dutch colony to an Indonesian province. But a West Papuan resistance movement, the Free Papua Organisation (OPM), soon started fighting back - in the first instance using bows and arrows to capture the guns of the Indonesian military. A sporadic, low level conflict has continued ever since. It has never been an even fight (a few thousand unfunded guerrillas against the well-equipped modern army of the world's fourth most populous nation) and Amnesty International and other human rights groups estimate that the Papuan death toll has reached in excess of 100,000 over the years. Some believe it might be even higher, although it is hard to know for sure because the Indonesian authorities have never welcomed independent monitors and foreign reporting is banned. Even today, 15 years after a democracy replaced Indonesia's dictatorial President Suharto, West Papua is still one of the most policed places on the planet - with approximately 30,000 security personnel dealing with an indigenous population of around two million. According to Jennifer Robinson, from International Lawyers for West Papua, it has also become one of the most brutal places on the planet. "West Papuans have suffered all forms of human rights abuse, whether it be torture, enforced disappearances, killings, extreme restrictions upon freedom of expression," she says. Amnesty International is equally critical. In August 2012 it said it continued to receive "credible reports of human rights violations committed by the security forces … including torture and other ill-treatment, unnecessary and excessive use of force and firearms by the security forces and possible unlawful killings. Investigations into reports of human rights violations by the security forces are rare and only a few perpetrators have been brought to justice." For its part, the Indonesian government routinely denies such charges and claims the actions of its security forces in West Papua are simply a necessary counterpoint to a criminal insurgency that threatens law and order, the safety of the population and the legitimacy of the state. Over the last decade, however, the dynamics of this struggle have begun to change, with the emergence - alongside the armed struggle - of a new civic non-violent independence movement, the West Papuan National Committee (KNPB). Its membership has grown exponentially and it has bred a new generation of activists focused on both organising non-violent mass protest and making the outside world more aware of their plight. And that, says Robinson, has provoked the Indonesians into a predictably harsh response. "In the past few years we've seen a change in the security situation in West Papua - I think in response to the growing momentum behind their campaign for a referendum on self-determination which has got widespread popular support, but which is also gaining momentum internationally. [It has] resulted in a greater security crackdown on all peaceful activists who are in any way affiliated with the independence movement," Robinson says. So what lies behind this five-decade-old struggle and why, in the face of Indonesia's heavy handed intransigence, are activists so determined to continue with their campaigns and protests? People & Power sent filmmaker Dom Rotheroe and fixer Sally Collister to find out. Because it is virtually impossible for foreign journalists to obtain official permission to visit the territory they travelled in the guise of tourists. Filming discreetly, keeping a low profile and evading the attention of the security police they managed to meet up with KNPB supporters and activists and hear a remarkable story of a people committed to doing whatever it takes to gain control of their own destiny. People & Power can be seen each week at the following times GMT: Wednesday: 2230; Thursday: 0930; Friday: 0330; Saturday: 1630; Sunday: 2230; Monday: 0930. Click here for more People & Power Source: Al Jazeera	i don't know
On the cover of the album Abbey Road by The Beatles, which company manufactured the white car parked on the footpath to the left of the picture?	SuperBeetles.Com 'Twas the nacht before Christmas, and in the garage, Not a Beetle was stirring, Nor Ghia, nor Dodge. The stockings were hung by the tool chest with care, In hopes that St. Porsche, soon would be there. And I settled down, fast asleep in my bed, While visions of Veedubs, danced through my head. When up on the roof there arose such a clatter; I leapt out of bed to see what was the matter! I raced to the window, and peered out the sill, To gaze at the snow, that was silent and still. When what up above to my eyes did appear, But a fine German man with eight Nordic reindeer! And there was a Speedster - A '356. Which took me a moment to recognize quick. It was the dear Doktor, the great Ferdinand! He jumped off the roof, and extended his hand. My heart leaped so high, and was full of such glee! I thought of the things he might have for me! He reached for his bag, he had in his car. And said "Guten Abend! For I've traveled far, And have wunderbar things, on this great Christmas night, To give out to all, before the dawn's light!" I gave me a pinch, for somehow it seemed, That all of a sudden, it was but a dream. For he pulled from his bag so much wonderful stuff, As he smoked on his pipe, and blew a big puff. Like new Hella lamps to go on my Bug, And a toy Schuco windup, to run on my rug. Plus new Continentals, a Blaupunkt, chrome wheels! And a spare tire tool kit, of fine German steel. The gifts they were endless, the list it went on. As he emptied his bag, the night turned to dawn. He climbed in the Speedster, and cracked at the whip, To summon the reindeer, to take him off quick. His Porsche it flew, like a Messerschmidt plane, As he called back to me and said, "Wiedersehen!". And once more he called, from his fanciful flight, "Froehliche Weihnachten Und to all a gut night!" Hey Mike...It looks like you're a poet and don't know it! Awesome job! Wayne - SuperBeetles.com Hi Wayne, Mid America Motorworks is excited to announce that our friend Dr. Mac Jones will be lending us a Kübelwagen, Schwimmwagen, KdF-Wagen and 5-6 other unique and rare VW's for Funfest for Air-Cooled VW! These VW's will make up a WWII military vehicle display at the event's 15th anniversary that will take place May 31st-June 2nd at Mid America Motorworks corporate campus in Effingham, IL. Included in the display will be a Kübelwagen, Schwimmwagen and KdF-Wagen. All three of these vehicles were produced by VW and used by the German military during WWII. The Volkswagen Kübelwagen, literally translated as "tub truck," for its resemblance to a metal bathtub on wheels, was based heavily on Ferdinand Porsche's early Beetle designs and became a light military vehicle known internally as the Type 82. The VW Thing sold in the 1970s and used by many European countries as a responder and military vehicle was clearly designed along the simple lines of the Kubelwagen. 50,435 Kubels were produced. It is estimated that there are 150 in the United States and approximately 1,000 worldwide. The Volkswagen Type 166 Schwimmwagen is an amphibious four-wheel drive off-road vehicle used extensively during the war with a unitized bodytub structure for smooth movement through the water. The VW Type 166 is the most numerous mass-produced amphibious car in history. 15,584 "Schwimms" were produced. There are approximately 100 on the Schwimmwagen registry including 1 in New Zealand and another in Japan. The KdF-Wagen was set up by Hitler's "Strength through Joy" organization as an affordable car for the people. Due to the shift to wartime production, no consumers ever received a KdF-Wagen; only a few military personnel had possession of the vehicle. After WWII, the vehicles were ordered destroyed which makes them extremely rare. This vehicle was the closest predecessor of what we now know as the Volkswagen Beetle. There are just 50 KdF-Wagens on the register with 5 of them listed under the Dr. Mac Jones collection. Mid America Motorworks is celebrating the event's 15th Anniversary with a Magical Mystery Funfest. In addition to this unique collection of Air-Cooled VW's the event will include Celebrity Choice car judging, slalom races and Saturday night concert which welcome The Beatles tribute band, The Return to the Funfest Amphitheater. Funfest will also bring an all new line up of seminars with a new location and will be exhibiting more suppliers and vendors than ever. For the latest updates and to register, visit www.funfestacvw.com . All participants registered by May 15, 2013 will receive preferred pricing on weekend admission and the Funfest t-shirt and a goody bag, while supplies last. Best Regards, Kelsey. Hey Kelsey, That sounds iike one awesome show. If I wasn't up here in Canada I'd be there! Cheers, Wayne- SuperBeetles.com Hello, I am the guy that D-D-B chose to be the spokesman for that famous " Floating VW" TV commercial in June, 1972. My name is Lew Wood, and I was doing commercials and V/O's in NYC when I was booked for the job. We shot it at a launching ramp in Stamford, CT on LI Sound. The production crew was Horn-Greiner. Director Norm Greiner. D-D-B's creative director was Tom Yobaggy. And even Mr. Bernbach was on the location! They hired a stuntman to drive the VW into the water. However, Norm Greiner suddenly woke up to the fact that I had to deliver that last line "Now, what other car gives you this kind of quality at this kind of price?" from the car! I said, "Norm, I'm a sailor, I'm at home on the water. I'll drive it in!" I splashed it three times. (We used three identical Beetles, all burnt orange in color. Splashed two of them alternately, the third never got wet and was used for "beauty shots." Swimmers went in to tow them back to shore after each take. We all thought our commercial would win the "Clio" that year, but the "Snowplow" commercial took the prize. However, the residuals were nice! After many years of searching for a 1972 Super Beetle in burnt orange with NO RUST, I finally found one a few years ago in Vista, CA, and snapped it up. I now proudly drive around town frequently and get admiring looks. Now, you know "the rest of the story!" Hey Lew, That is one awesome story and one awesome comercial! Thanks for sharing... Cheers, Super Beetles for SuperBeetles Written by Rachael Miller It’s safe to say that since the Beetle was first manufactured in 1938, it has become one of the most loved models of car of all time. The Beetle particularly represents the fun loving 60’s, with the introduction of the 1967 edition of the VW Beetle, changing the motor scene forever. The Beetle’s popularity is apparent simply because of the number of films, adverts and music videos they feature in. The essence of the Beetle and the free loving spirit of the 60’s have been on our screens more times than you’d think. Here are some of the most famous Beetles… Herbie- The Ultimate Beetle Movie Franchise Herbie is probably the most recognised VW Beetle in the world. Herbie is a self-controlled white Beetle, with red, white and blue racing stripes which go from his bumper all the way across the top to his back bumper. Herbie burst onto the scene in 1968 in the feature film The Love Bug, which saw the loveable Beetle being snubbed by a socialite, but then was found by Jim Douglas who saw Herbie’s potential. This VW Beetle has a mind of his own, and turned out to be a serious racing contender, winning his owner numerous races. People couldn’t get enough of Herbie, which is why this franchise of movies has done so well and has spanned over five decades. Other feature films include Herbie Rides Again, Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo, Herbie Goes Bananas and more recently in 2005, Herbie: Fully Loaded, featuring Lindsey Lohan. There have also been several animated television series of Herbie throughout the years, showing that this Beetle isn’t just fun car, but it has turned into an iconic model which is still as popular as ever. Bumblebee- Transformers 2 Transformers started out as a Japanese toy line made by Hasbro, which became so popular that comic books, video games and movies were made in their honour. Bumblebee was created to be the youthful character who was constantly trying to prove himself to his peers. Bumblebee had an advantage over his more mature counterparts; he was small and quick, meaning he could reach places that the larger robots couldn’t. This is why the yellow VW Beetle was chosen to represent Bumblebee’s character- it represents his youthful and care-free nature, which is true of the image of the Beetle since its release. Bumbleebee was a VW Beetle in the main series of Generation 1 and continued to be manufactured as a Beetle in the toy ranges; however, in the most recent Transformers films Bumblebee is a Chevrolet Camaro, despite the fact that he was originally a VW Beetle in the comics, animations and previous television series. Footloose, 1984 Anyone who’s anyone will have heard the song ‘Footloose’ and will have probably seen the film at some point too. This 1984 movie tells the tale of a city boy, Ren, who moves from the big lights of Chicago to a small town in the sticks. Rock music and dancing are illegal in this little town, much to Ren’s disgust. Ren happens to drive a yellow VW Beetle in Footloose, highlighting is free spirit and audacious personality, which is highlighted when Ren and his friends manage to abolish the dancing ban, which seems to breathe life into the rest of the otherwise repressed town. Dazed and Confused, 1993 Dazed and Confused is a feel good, easy going film set in the 70’s. This movie had a host of upcoming stars in the making, including Matthew McConaughey, Milla Jovovich and Ben Affleck, who all stamped their authority in the movie business after the release of this film. The film is all about different high school characters who aim to get either stoned or laid, as typical teenagers do. An off-white VW Beetle convertible makes an appearance of this film, again keeping with the tone of being fun loving and free. Fight Club, 1999 Fight Club is the only Beetle in our list which doesn’t represent a fun loving, free spirited character or ideal, in fact, quite the opposite. For those not familiar with Fight Club, the film is sees a questionably mentally stable insomniac (Brad Pitt) and a salesman (Edward Norton) creating ‘clubs’ where men could vent their anger and frustration- by fighting each other. The Beetle only makes a brief appearance in this otherwise serious and mature film, as more of a symbol of the cast’s beliefs of consumerism. Neither Pitt or Norton like the new style Beetle, seeing the original as an ‘icon of 60s youth culture and values that is being repackaged and resold to a younger generation by baby boomers who have sold out and become advertising executives’. So, not only does the Beetle represent a time of free spirit, youth and fun, but can also represent modern issues. Unfortunately, this new Beetle got smashed to pieces. No original Beetles were harmed during the making of Fight Club. Hey Rachael, Great job on the article. I always knew that there where a few more famous Beetles other than Herbie!. Peace, Wayne- SuperBeetles.com Hello, I'm 39 years old and have Muscular Dystrophy and always wanted to restore a VW bug. So a couple of weeks ago I acquired a 70 beetle. The car is in bad shape it needs new pans and heater channels, hope I haven't bitten off more than I can chew!!!!!!!!! I was lost until I found your site the articles on pan replacement and body removal was my savior before this I did not have a clue. I am ordering new rocker panels with new heater channels and everything already to install. So wish me luck I have been told this is a big job. But looking forward to the challenge, before I am unable to enjoy it, so yall pray for me and I love your web site!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Jimmy from West Point Alabama Hey Jimmy, Glad to hear that Rick's articles were of help for you! You should consider picking up one of his videos when you get down to doing the work. Take Care, Wayne- SuperBeetles.com Wayne, It's Sean Coleman from NC State.. We last spoke about two years ago when 'DaBaby' my navy blue '74 super beetle was featured on your site. So- what do you get when you yield at a green light for an emergency vehicle crossing the intersection? Rear ended by someone behind you with bad breaks . Fortunately upon closer observation, only the bumper was damaged. I will be purchasing a new bumper. My questions for you: 1. Should I go ahead and buy a new impact strip as well, or keep the old one and install it on the new bumper? 2. As a safety precaution, I would like to purchase the bumper mounting arms as well, but I'm mot sure where to find them (mid America does not sell them for the 74). Do you have any recommendations for an online vendor? Thanks for your time and help- SuperBeetles.com has always been on of my favorite sources of info! Warmest Regards, Sean and 'DaBaby My first question would be is the person that hit you paying for the damage? If so I'd put the new impact strip because it will always be pushed in where the impact is. I guess it all depends on how fussy you are but I would have to have it perfect. You are going to have a hard time finding new bumper brackets as they are not produced anymore so you may have to get used if you need one. Measure the distance between the bumper and the body and if it's not pushed in on one side your bracket should be good. If you have the original VW bumper produced in Germany you might want to get it re-chromed as most of the aftermarket stuff is not of great quality. Wayne - SuperBeetles.com Hi guys, I recently came across the article in the Idle Chatter section named "The Beetle and the Beatles, By Loren R. Knapp". The comments about the "Paul is Live" cover are incorrect. It is obvious that the Abbey Road scene is actually the same vintage as the original photo. For one, the tree growth is exactly the same, as well as several cars in the background. It is not possible these would have been unchanged some 20 odd years later. Any differences in the 2 photographs were likely airbrushed out, including the different VW license plate. Rick O 15 years a 71 Super owner and Beatles fan It looks like you are correct sir, thanks for the heads up on that one Rick! You obviously know your Beetles and the Beatles! Wayne - SuperBeetles.com 01. Your Bug will never have a headache, although it may give you a few. 02. Your Bug will always respect you in the morning, although it may not start. 03. You can enjoy your Bug all month long. 04. You don't have to wine and dine your Bug to keep it happy. 05. Your Bug will always wait patiently while you play or watch basketball, football, pool etc. 06. Your Bug won't get jealous when you look at another Bug. 07. Your Bug doesn't demand equality. 08. If you change Bugs, you don't have to pay alimony. 09. Afterwards your Bug won't feel guilty, cry, or call her mother, your ex-wife, or her therapist. 10. Your Bug can't talk. 11. Another man will seldom steal your Bug. 12. Your Bug won't wake you up in the middle of the night to ask, "If I died, would you get another Bug?' 13. Your Bug isn't allowed in Macys, Bloomingdales, Neiman-Marcus or on the Shopping Channel. 14. Your Bug will never divorce you and take your trailer. 15. Your Bug will usually start every time without protest and requires only 30 seconds to warm up. 16. Your Bug responds to input quickly without complaint or an involved discussion. 17. Your Bug requires low maintenance and should run to 200,000 miles without a complaint. 18. Your Bug only needs four pairs of shoes..really. 19. Your Bug is always waiting to go. 20. Your Bug won't run off with a younger Bug. 21. Your Bug won't have a fit if you leave the toilet seat up. *No disrespect meant to all of the woman that own a VW Bug or put up with their husband's hobby. We love you! The Beetle and the Beatles By Loren R. Knapp If you look at The Beatles' famous Abbey Road LP Jacket, you will note there is an extra Beetle in the photo. Yes, I know what you're thinking. There are only four .... George Harrison, Paul McCartney, Ringo Star and John Lennon. But, look carefully. In the background, there's a 1968 VW Beetle parked up on the curb at the time the four famous Englishmen were photographed strolling across the street. Who could possibly have known the little white Beetle would be part of a classic Rock 'N Roll photograph and become entwined in an Urban Legend. All the Fab Four knew on Friday morning, August 8th, 1969 was that they were simply shooting another LP cover. The Beatles were at a loss as to what to title their eleventh album. The number-one selling album was almost named "Everest" after their engineer Geoff Emerick's brand of cigarettes. The plan was to be photographed at the foot of that famous mountain in the Himalayas, but that idea was not very popular with the boys. So Paul said, "Hey, why don't we just have our picture taken as we walk across the crossing just outside here and call the LP "Abbey Road"? John contacted a photographer friend Iain MacMillan, and a photo shoot was arranged. At 11:35 AM, Macmillan stood on a stepladder and snapped six photos of the group walking across the street while a policeman held up traffic. Some time later, Paul McCartney studied the negatives under a magnifying glass and chose image number 5, which is now so familiar. The LP was released, and Abbey Road became known throughout the world. The little Beetle did not go unnoticed. As a matter of fact, it became entwined in a rumor that spread like wildfire .... "Paul McCartney was dead, killed in a motorcycle accident, and the man in the photo was a look-a-like." The believers in the "Paul is dead conspiracy" used the "Abbey Road" LP jacket photo to bolster their claims. They point to hidden messages and clues in the photo. The photo obviously shows the Beatles walking across Abbey road. Note that John is dressed in white like a preacher. Ringo is dressed like a pallbearer. Paul is barefoot, out of step, and the only one holding a cigarette in his right hand .... when he is left-handed. (Supposedly, at some point in time in England people were buried barefoot.) George is dressed like a gravedigger, and the VW Beetle has a license plate that reads "LWM 28IF." The connection here with the VW Beetle is that, at the time of the release of the album, Paul would have been "28 IF" he had lived. The LMW indicates "Linda McCartney Weeps." Also, note the hearse parked on the right side of the street in the background. The Beatles, the record company and all concerned took no stock in the crackpot story, and really didn't care as it was helping generate sales. Years later, when asked about his lack of shoes, Paul said, "I had just turned up at a photo session, and it was a hot day in London, a really nice hot day... and I think I wore sandals. I only had to walk around the corner to the crossing because I lived pretty nearby. And for the photo session I thought, 'I'll take my sandals off.' You know, so what? Barefoot, nice warm day-- I didn't feel like wearing shoes. So I went around to the photo session and showed me bare feet. Of course, when that comes out and people start looking at it they say, 'Why has he got no shoes on? He's never done that before.' Okay, you've never seen me do it before, but in actual fact it's just me with my shoes off. Turns out to be some old Mafia sign of death or something." In the '90's, McCartney would release the album, "Paul Is Live," with a cover parodying Abbey Road. This time, McCartney is tugging on the leash of his sheepdog, and the white Beetle license plate is 51 IS, telling us that he "IS" alive and 51 years old. For the shot, Paul stepped back onto the crossing and stepped back in time. Paul said, "This time I've got my boots on . Veggie Doc Martens, by the way, so they're not dead either." The Volkswagen Beetle parked near the crossing walk belonged to a Swedish couple living in the apartment across from the recording studio. At the time of the photo session an effort was made to get them to move the Beetle, but they were on vacation at the time. After the album Abbey Road came out, the license plate was stolen repeatedly from the car. In 1986, the car was sold at an auction for $23,000, it is currently on display at the Volkswagen museum in Wolfsburg, Germany. A great tribute to the little white Beetle in the foreground, as well as The Beatles, took place when the site was selected to début the new Volkswagen Beetle in a commercial with two new Volkswagen Beetles crossing the road. Volkswagen had tried unsuccessfully to get the Beatles to endorse their new cars. I suppose this was the next best thing. Elephant into a Beetle? Q: How do you get an elephant into a Beetle? A: Open the right door, put the elephant inside, close the door. Q: How do you put an elephant into a fridge? A: Open the Beetle's door, take the elephant out, close the door, open the fridge, put the elephant inside, close the fridge. Q: How do you get 4 elephants into a Beetle? A: 2 in the front and 2 in the back. Q: How do you know if there is an elephant in your fridge? A: There's a Beetle parked in your driveway. Q: How do you get 8 elephants in a fridge? A: Put four in a Beetle, four in another Beetle, and then put the two Beetle's in the fridge. Surely a fridge large enough to hold two elephants can hold two Beetle's! Q: What did the fifth elephant in the Beetle discover? A: The retractable metal sun roof. Q: The Lion gathered all the animals in the jungle for a meeting, all of them showed up except the elephants. Why? A: They were still in the Beetle. Q: How many giraffes can you fit in a Beetle? A: None, the elephants are still in there! 100,000km By Wayne Dean If you've been reading My Blog then you know that I take my Beetle to a shop in Toronto called Progress Motors . The technician that works on my Super Beetle is Emilio, and he has been a personal friend of mine for years. We used to work together and I found out that he was a factory-trained Volkswagen mechanic that used to work on the air-cooled Beetle back in the day. So you can see why I take my pride and joy only to him. During it's yearly check this summer, Emilio discovered a leak from the rear main seal. He told me I could let it go as most VWs do leak a bit of oil, or "Mark their Territory" as I've been told. But the sight of that puddle of oil in my garage and the clutch starting to slip led me to believe that I should get it done now, rather than later. While I was at the shop, I noticed a gentleman admiring my Beetle. His name was Peter and he was an older gentleman with a German accent. He told me stories about all of the Beetles that he had owned in Germany and here in Canada. He also told me about a letter that he had received from Volkswagen when his Beetle broke the 100,000 km mark. I had heard of this letter before but had never seen one. Apparently in the 1950's a letter of congratulations was sent to every VW owner that had taken good care of their car and driven over 100,000 kms without any major problems. That in itself is interesting enough, but the letter was said to have been signed by Heinz Nordhoff himself. Heinrich Nordhoff (January 6, 1899 April 12, 1968) was a German engineer famous for his leadership of the Volkswagen company as it was rebuilt after World War II. He is usually referred to as Heinz Nordhoff. Nordhoff attended technical college in Berlin, where he became a member of the Roman Catholic fraternity Askania-Burgundia and in 1927 began work for BMW working on aircraft engines. He soon went to work for Opel where he gained experience of the automotive industry. Following the war, he was appointed Managing Director of Volkswagen, assuming the position on January 2, 1948. Nordhoff became legendary by turning the Volkswagen Beetle into a worldwide automotive phenomenon. He pioneered the idea of constant improvement - improving the car's underpinnings while keeping the styling the same. He gave liberal benefits to VW workers and increased pay scales. Within six years after taking over Volkswagen, Nordhoff reduced the number of man-hours to produce a single car from 400 to 100, a 75 percent reduction. His commitment to improving the workmanship at VW made the Beetle famous for its bulletproof reliability. A few days after my Beetle was serviced, I got a call from Emilio telling me that he had something for me. I couldn't believe my eyes. There, in a dark blue file folder was the letter to "Herr Fritz Muller" from Mr. Nordhoff! I copied the German text into an online translator and spoke to a friend in Germany, and got a pretty close translation. Here's the text in German: Dank und anerkennung. Der Volkswagen Hat mehr als 100000 kilometer. Ohne nennenswerte reparaturen zurückgelegt - Auf diese leistung dürfen alle stolz sein, die daran mitgewirkt haben: die vielen tausend unbekannten im volkswagenwerk und seiner organisation, die diesen wagen konstruiert, gefertigt und betreut haben,vor allem aber sein gewissenhafter, sorgsamer lenker und pfleger, Herr Fritz Müller, Der gute fahrer dieses guten wagens. Wir widmen ihm diese urkunde als zeichen unserer dankes und unserer anerkennung. Volkswagenwerk GMBH. And in English: Appreciation and recognition. The Volkswagen has done more than 100,000 KM, without major repairs. Of this achievement we are all proud. Who helped, thousands of unknown employees in the Volkswagen plant and organization, who designed and manufactured the car. Above all, it's careful driver Mr. Fritz. Müller, the good driver of this good car. We dedicate this document to him as appreciation and recognition. Volkswagenwerk GmbH. You can click the small copy of the letter to see it full size. So because of a rear main seal leak at just the right time I came across a document that I might have never seen in my lifetime. Thanks to Emilio and Peter. Detailing your Beetle By Wayne Dean We get a lot of email at SuperBeetles, and one question that pops up from time to time is, "What is the best way to keep my Beetle looking good?" For starters, washing and waxing your VW will keep it looking new for years. Some people say that you only have to wax your car once a year, my opinion is that you can't wax it enough. I had my Beetle painted over five years ago and it still looks as good as the day I brought it home. Start out by rinsing your Beetle with cold water to get the loose dirt and dust off. I use a pressure washer but you can use a garden hose with a spray nozzle on it. If you do use a pressure washer avoid spraying directly at the door, trunk and deck lid seals as you may damage them and they may start to leak. Start at the roof and rinse your VW from top to bottom. This way you will have less of a chance of any dust remaining on the surface that could scratch the paint during the washing process. Spray underneath the car and in and around the wheels, behind the bumpers and other potential hiding places for dirt. Mix up a pail of washing solution like Turtle Zip Wax Car Wash . This product doesn't actually wax your car but it does make it easier to dry and the extra wax that is in it can't hurt. Dip a car wash mitt (I wear one on each hand) into your pail of warm soapy water and start washing from the top down. Make sure that you rinse the wash mitt frequently in your pail to avoid leaving grit on it that could scratch your ride. Work around the vehicle, washing downward until you reach the bottom. At that point you can use the mitt to wash the wheels. Rinse your VW with clean water, top to bottom, and dry it with a chamois. PS: Throw your wash mitts in the laundry to get them ready for next time. When you wax your VDub you should make sure that it is parked in a cool place away from direct sunlight. You'll want to keep the surface of the vehicle cool to make it easier to apply/remove the wax. Use a liquid wax, such as Meguiar's Cleaner Wax , as it is easier to use and remove than a paste wax. Starting at the top, apply the wax with a damp clean cloth (or special waxing sponge) to the roof. Apply in a circular motion and overlap the strokes to make sure that you don't mix a spot. I apply the wax to my chrome for added protection from the elements. Use another clean cloth to remove the wax that you just put on after it dries to a haze. Turn the cloth frequently for best results. Wax another section, like the hood, remove the wax, and repeat the process, working your way around the car and downward. Keep the wax away from the glass, rubber and other areas that are not painted. After you've taken all the wax off, give your Bug a once over with a clean cloth to make sure that you haven't missed any wax. Be sure to read all of the instructions on the particular products that you use as they do vary. After that clean the windows inside and out with glass cleaner and another clean, dry cloth. Once you wipe the glass cleaner off with a cloth, finish them with lint-free paper towel to avoid streaks. Vacuum the interior and mats and finish the job by protecting your vinyl interior with a product like 303 Aerospace Protectorant. This product is like SPF 40 sunscreen for your vinyl and gives 100% prevention of UV caused slow-fade with regular use. Once you've followed these simple steps your VDub with be ready to win "Best of Show" at the next VW event! What We Have here is a Failure to Communicate Most of the time my Bug seems to ignore my whimpering pleas. So, I thought maybejust maybe if I spoke the VW mother language. I mean after all it was designed and built by Germans. For instance: 01. Oh Mist! Nicht (schon) wieder! - Oh Crap! Not again! 02. Komm schon, komm schon, Du schaffst es! - Come on, come on, you can do it! 03. Das muss ein Scherz sein! - You got to be kidding me! 04. Bitte, bitte spring an! - Please, please start! 05. Komm schon Baby, lass mich jetzt nicht haengen! - Come on baby don't quit on me now! 06. (difficult to translate) Du wirst mir das nicht schon wieder zumuten, oder? - You're not going to pull this on me again. Are you? 07. Also sitzen wir hier (fest) ohne Ueberbrueckungskabel. - So here we sit with no jumper cables. 08. Toll! Einfach toll! Jetzt muessen wir uns anschieben lassen. - Great! Just great! Now we have to get a push. 09. Es ist eiskalt! Mach es bitte ein bisschen warm! - It's freezing! Please give me some heat! 10. Du benoetigst (schon) wieder Oel?? - You need oil again? 11. Lieber Gott . bitte lass uns ankommen. - Dear God ... please get us where we're going. Jetzt koennen Sie Deutsch sprechen - Now you can "Speak in German" Bodengruppe - pan. Brezelfenster - pretzel window - nickname for splitwindow Bug. Bulli - German nickname for Bus. Fahrvergnuegen - enjoyment from driving. Faldach or Stoffschiebedach - ragtop sunroof. Fliessheck - fastback. Fridolin - a special mixture of types I, II and III for postal service work. Halbautomatik - auto stick. By Wayne Dean Photography by John Spironello and Caroline Dean It's Friday night and I'm getting my Super Beetle ready for the June Jitter Bug VW Show that's being held on Sunday. This is one of Canadas' top VW events and draws well over 250 Volkswagens every year. It’s held in Niagara Falls Canada, which is about and hour and a half drive from our home. My wife and I look forward to this event every year and I made myself the promise that no matter how busy I am at work, “NOTHING would keep me away.” The detailing of my gold '75 La Grande Bug was going pretty well, I washed her, waxed her, cleaned her windows and vacuumed the carpets and seats. At that point it was time to load all of the "supplies" into the trunk for Sunday. We bring along a blue folding picnic table, two blue and white lawn chairs, a blue and white umbrella (notice the blue and white VW color scheme we've got going on here) and a bucket of cleaning supplies in case the Bug meets with a few bugs on the way to the show. I pulled my trunk release, which has always been a bit temperamental, and after a few tugs it popped open. Since I wanted my ride to be "pristine" at the JJB I took out the spare tire and the trunk lock and adjusted the cable, hoping to solve my problem. Okay, the release cable and lock are lubed, the striker is lined up, the spring adjusted, now I simply shut the trunk, pull the lever, and re-open it. Nothing. I was in shock. What did I do wrong? Well maybe I need to pull it some more. Nothing. Okay I'll pull it and my wife will simply lift the trunk open. Nope. Then it must need a bit more force on the lever. And that was the last straw as the release lever went loose in my hand. Now here's where the depression and self pity set in. We couldn't go to the show because we couldn't fit all that stuff in the back seat, and I wouldn't want to take my SB all the way to Niagara Falls if she wasn't perfect. So that's it, we're not going. My wife Caroline kept telling me that we would find a way. We'd call our mechanic Emilio and he could fix it Saturday morning, we'll search the forums and find a solution. She was all about going and I was all about giving up. I emailed my friend Brad to tell him that I wasn't going, content to stay at home while all of our friends would be having a blast. I would sit in a snit and watch the weekend go by, upset that the 31-year old trunk cable had given up the ghost. How dare it? And after all the care that I've given my 1303. Nothing but the best, and this is how you reward me? Just then I got and email back from Brad who quoted me from my blog at SuperBeetles.com, just the week before I had written "NOTHING would stop me" from attending the June Jitter Bug VW show. And you know what? He was right. I got on the phone at 10pm to leave a message for John, at John's Bug Shop . John has put on the June Jitter Bug for the last 20 years and is one of the nicest VW people that I know. Once I heard the beep I left my sad story on the answering machine and asked if John could call me back in the morning and give me some advice. 9am on Saturday morning the phone rings and John, who is in the middle of loading his tractor-trailer for the show on Sunday, tells me to come on down to his shop in Niagara Falls and he'd take a look at. I was ecstatic and so thankful. I couldn't believe that he was willing to take the time to help me out when he had so much to do. Ten minutes later I was on the highway filled with that same feeling as when I first got my VW. Along the way I came up on a silver dune buggy with a matching trailer that was one the way to Niagara Falls for the show. I looked in the back window of the buggy and there were two little girls flashing me the "peace symbol". I honestly thought that I was going to cry. This is what it's all about. Peace, love and helping one another. And these two children were the extra dose of medicine that I needed. When I got to John's shop he dropped everything and got my Bug up on the hoist. He tried to "persuade" the trunk to open by rocking it back and forth and pulling, but it wasn't going to give up that easy. According to the VW shop manual the only way to open the trunk in a situation like this is to cut the handle and then spin the pieces off. John decided that this wouldn't do. He didn't want to cut the handle and perhaps damage the paint. He thought that there must some other way. We took a look at a scrap Super Beetle that was sitting in the back of his property and John noticed a 5" access plate in the bottom of the spare tire well. If only the trunk was empty...but wait, it was! I had taken everything out while I worked on the hood lock. We put the Bug up in the air and popped the access plate open. However, due to the frame head, you couldn't quite get your hand in there to do much else. John grabbed a light and a mirror and could actually see the bottom of that lock that just wouldn't let go. We tried to come up with ideas on how to get inside when John noticed that a factory drain hole in the frame head lined up perfectly with the trunk lock. You could actually look through the hole and see the bottom of the latch! John grabbed a two-foot long slot screw driver and after heating it with a torch, bent the tip to a perfect 45 degree angle. Then, with the skill of a surgeon, and working backwards with a light and mirror, popped the trunk lid open. What a guy! Once open, we found out that the casing on the cable had been slowly cracking away. The previous owner had incorrectly routed the cable when the gas tank was out for repair and that was the reason for it binding. John disconnected the cable, took the casing off and reversed it, putting the "good end" at the lever. He then re-installed the lock, made a few adjustments, and it was working as good as new. Now all of this had taken at least a couple of hours of John's precious time so I volunteered to help finish packing the trailer for tomorrows show. An hour or so later, John and his VW parts were good to go. Thanks to John Spironello we'd be at the show on Sunday and my faith in the VW spirit of helping one another had been restored. I went to "settle up" with John for all of his hard work and efforts on that hectic Saturday and he told me to forget about it, because "Saturday is his day off." You May be a VW Bug Owner if... 01. Your windshield wipers have two speeds, slow and slower. 02. Your heater has three temperature settings, off, high and none. 03. Strangers come up and say, "I had one just like this way back in..." 04. After a hard left turn you and your clothes both smell like gasoline. 05. You find straw under your seats. 06. Children slug each other when you drive by. 07. Your wife slugs you when you try to get her into the car. 08. Your air-conditioning consists of two windows down. 09. Dogs bury your car in the yard. 10. A bug hitting the windshield slows you down. 11. You can roll up the passenger window from the driver's seat without outstretching your arm. 12. The sound of the motor reminds you of your mother's Singer sewing machine. 13. The full service gas station attendant stands at the front and asks you to "pop ...the hood." 14. Your children are embarrassed to be picked up from school. 15. Oil spots accumulate readily under the engine no matter how short the time it's parked. 16. You know your mechanic's phone number by heart. 17. Children point and giggle shouting," Herbie!" 18. Your wife points and shouts. "Spare me!" 19. Your windshield washer system consists of hanging your head out of the window and spitting. 20. When you floor it, old ladies with walkers pass you. 21. People yell at you, "Get a horse!" 22. You have to use the owner's manual to find the battery. 23. The horn sounds like a duck with a sore throat. 24. Your VW mechanic named his first born after you 25. You have a bumper sticker that reads "Don't Honk, I'm Peddling As Fast As I Can!" 26. You pray for a strong tail wind and say three Hail Mary's when trying to merge onto the interstate during rush hour. 27. You don't have a clue what a radiator is. 28. You can't fully unfold a map in the car. 29. When someone asks you what kind of car you have, you lie. 30. When driving through curb high water, you have to pump the brake pedal and throw out an anchor to stop. 31. When at speeds between 40 and 45 MPH. the steering wheel and front end begin to shimmy and wobble like a washing machine out of balance. 32. Your local fraternity pranksters set it high atop the library steps. 33. You can see the road through the floor. 34. Your mother-in-law keeps asking, "Do you like this better than a real car?" 35. Your owner's manual is two pages double spaced. 36. The junk in your trunk is in the front. 37. It's adorned with peace signs and "Grateful Dead" decals. 38. Gusty winds decide which lane you'll travel in. 39. Your window defroster is your shirt sleeve. 40. You wouldn't trade it for the world! Installing Baja Champion Fog Lamps on a 72 Super Beetle in a Factory Manor Instructions, Illustrations and Photos by Ziggy Instructions: The lamps install on the factory bumper arms, but you will have to make the 2 brackets from 1/8 flat stock 4 inches long by 2 inches wide, drilled and bent 90 degrees, then painted black. Disconnect the battery and carefully remove the trunk liner covers. The first 2 wires you want to make up are the red 14 gauge and the Lt Blue 20 gauge wire both share one Ta-733 connector going on the 87 output at the relay block. The other end of the Lt blue wire gets the instrument bulb kit and plugs into the Speedometer 71 and newer it has a place for it on the opposing side of the speedometer from the high beam indicator. You will use the wire puller by inserting the lopped end of it into the 87 output slot of the relay block on the car and let it come out the bottom where you can grab it and plug the red and blue connector wires on and guide it back up through the block, until it locks in. This step takes a little practice You may need to slightly close the connector end by crimping it to secure it enough to complete this step on the 4 connections going in the relay block. Also note the connectors only go in one way. Now you can route the red 14 gauge wire forward following the head light harness all the way to the passenger side up and out into the wheel well area. You will need the ice pick to pass it through the head light harness boot and out of the trunk then down forward into the bumper arm slot and up back into the fog lamp. Leave 6 inches at the lamp and cut it. Now your leftover red 14 gauge wire is for the driver side harness, route it likewise from the front corner of the fuel tank where the harnesses split, on out into the driver side into the fog lamp. Splice into the other red wire right in the corner of the trunk, just in front of the fuel tank. You will solder it there and tape it up carefully. This completes the red harness. Now the Black 14 gauge wiring is routed almost the same as the Red harness. Put a connector on the black wire and plug it into the ground cluster between the speedometer and the radio. Route it like the red all the way to the fog lamps. You need to ground the 14 gauge black wires to the 13 mm bolts on the bumper arms with ring terminals; it is a must to solder the ring terminal in the weather exposed area. You can pull them from the lamps and put them back after you have soldered and bolted them in. You should wrap the red and the black wires together with electrical tape as far as you can, from one end to the other. I taped mine in with the headlight harness trunk boots in the wheel wells, down as close to the headlight buckets as possible. Making the connections to the fog lamp bulbs with shielded connectors completes the forward harness. On to the Dash: Now the hard part, you must pull the air box and the radio to get to the light switch. If needed you also may also need to remove and lower the switch to connect the wire. That's easy with the radio out. If your air duct covers are really old like mine were you will need to go to a auto upholsters shop that also installs carpet, they will have gray jute padding that is the closes thing I have found to the factory stuff, that you can trim to match. You will need 4 black pull ties 12 inches long. I got the ones with the quick releases from Mc Masters Karr. That's nice if you want to reuse them. The VW the light switch is the best place to add accessories, it has a factory double terminal #30 on the switch made for a 12 gauge connection this is where the battery supply for the lights also connects to the switch. Your long white/black wire plugs in right beside it, then is routed across over the speedometer and down into a cartridge fuse with a 20 amp fuse installed. The other W/B wire is also connected to the cartridge then shorted to a neat length, you will then add the TA-733 connector and pull it into the 30 slot on the relay block. The secondary key interrupted power supply will require 2 red 14 gauge wires 8 inches long with connectors on both ends of both wires all Ta-733s. You will connect them to the second cartridge fuse, with a 8 amp fuse installed plug one end into the 85 on the relay block and the other end, to the pre-fused side of the fuse box. On either the black wires spade or the green wires spade. (Preferred) Now the rocker switch installs. Look under the dash and take note of where the defroster switch is. You will drill 2 1/4 holes, 2 inches to the left of the defroster switch that you can file into a rectangle with the 2 files. Take your time keeping it neat, until your new used switch will fit in. The rockers blue wire gets a TA-733 connector and is installed to the 86 terminal on the relay block. The black wire gets a connector and plugs into the same ground cluster, now you can install the relay. You can now to put it all back together. I would wait on the air box until you have tested all the systems including the radio. I also suggest you hold a 15 amp fuse on the battery post and touch the cable to that as a safety, while you're testing, lights, signals, horn, fuel gauge and the radio. It's a pass or fail test. But usually pass. Tools and Parts List: 13 mm socket and ratchet Roll of electrical tape Electric drill and ¼ drill bit 1/8 rat tail file 12 inch of 0.30 mig wire (folded to use as wire puller) 20 pack of Car quest TA-733 female wire connectors 2 ¼ ring terminals (for bumper arm grounds) 4 female shielded connectors for inside the fog lamps (Radio Shack) 2 smaller connectors for rocker switch (Radio Shack) or the black and blue wires from a VW defroster rocker switch 2 VW fuse cartridges (used) like the ones used for the backup lights found near distributor 1 20 amp fuse and 1 8 amp fuse 1 VW instrument bulb and bulb holder and its Lt Blue wire (used) 1 VW defroster rocker switch (used) 1 20 ft roll of red 14 gauge wire and 1 20 ft roll of black 14 gauge wire (OR) a PAINLESS WIRING fog light wiring kit from Jeggs racing (my preference) 2 long 10 gauge white/black wires from a VW high beam lights harness. Bosche or Hella 30 amp relay or Car quest fuel or fan relay Tested !!!!! I have seen new relays that are defective use fused test leads and a battery to check them by connecting to the 85 and 86 terminals on the relay and listen to the click of the points closing . If you blow the fuse repeatedly return it as defective. Another source is a wrecked 81 to 86 Cadilliac Fleetwood they used Bosche relays found in the glove box relay center. For submission to this page send your comments to [email protected]	Volkswagen Beetle
What was the family name of Frank and his six children in the Channel 4 TV series Shameless?	Global rock legends of the '60s and '70s: The Beatles ’s Abbey Road studios for an audition on June 6, 1962. He had apparently not been very impressed by their demo recordings, but, according to Wikipedia, instantly liked them as people when he met them. “He concluded that they had raw musical talent, but said (in later interviews) that what made the difference for him that day was their wit and humour in the studio.” And it is surely this, their collective sense of humour – a bit like an impromptu Monty Python sketch – which shines through even on their early albums when they are in effect often only doing covers of great ’50s rock and roll songs like Roll Over Beethoven (a Chuck Berry classic, though not a classical tune by any means) or Twist And Shout, a Lennon-McCartney song that is clearly a product of those early ’60s when in order to succeed in the genre the song had to have an obvious rock-and-roll or R&B feel to it – and be suitable for dancing. With Lennon and McCartney evidently having collaborated closely in composing virtually all their early hits, ably assisted by Martin, the Beatles in those early days seemed to roll along as a tightly knit unit. I know McCartney has gone on record as saying he would like to see all those tunes he mainly wrote with his name listed first on the credits – McCartney-Lennon – and I suppose he has a point. But, while McCartney was clearly the driving force behind much of the group’s success, I see the listing of Lennon first as a purely alphabetical arrangement which reads and sounds better than the other way round. Indeed, the bickering over who did what song is really irrelevant to the masses of Beatles fans, who, if they are anything like me, are more interested in the fact that four copiously gifted people were able to keep going at such a frenetic pace for 10 years during which they produced such a magnificent body of work. And, as the later albums started emerging, so too did the individual talents of the protagonists, with George Harrison, and to a far lesser extent Ringo Starr, also providing songs which will remain icons in the history of modern music. Just how big were the Beatles? Wikipedia says they were the “best-selling popular musical act of the 20th century”. In the UK alone, says Wikipedia, they released more than 40 different singles, albums, and EPs that reached number one. “This commercial success was repeated in many other countries: EMI estimated that by 1985, the band had sold over one billion discs or tapes worldwide.” They were also the top selling artists of all time in America based on US sales of singles and albums. And they provided a stepping stone for the other bands constituting the “British Invasion” of the US in the mid-1960s. Wikipedia says they “helped to pioneer more advanced, multi-layered arrangements in pop music”, which was clearly thanks in large measure to George Martin’s genius. Of course they also had a major impact on the clothes and hairstyles of the youth and, through their commitment to peace, contributed in large measure to the social and cultural upheavals of the 1960s. Even we in apartheid South Africa came under their spell – which just shows how strong it must have been. And that influence would continue well into the ’70s, thanks to the solo work of John, Paul and George and the legacy of all that great music from the Sixties. In one of the biggest gaffe’s in musical history, Beatles manager Brian Epstein in 1962 approached a senior Decca Records A&R executive called Dick Rowe for a recording contract. He reportedly turned him down with the immortal words: “Guitar groups are on their way out, Mr Epstein.” Oops! With Epstein employing amazing marketing strategies in the US, by the time I Want To Hold Your Hand was released in early January, 1964, Beatlemania in the States was rife. The record sold a million copies in 10 days. So when the Fab Four arrived at JFK on February 7, 1964, they were totally amazed at the hysterical reception they received from fans. A record-breaking 73 million viewers – about 40% of the US population at the time – watched their first appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show on February 9. Incredibly, during the week of April 4, the Beatles held the top five places on the Billboard Hot 100, something that has never been repeated. They had a further 7 songs at lower positions, with a total of 12% of the chart comprising Beatles songs. Bizarrely, they were blissfully unaware of their popularity in the US , and on arrival at JFK initially thought the crowds were there to greet someone else! Another milestone event occurred on August 15, 1964, when the Beatles performed the first stadium concert in the history of rock. They played for a crowd of 55 600 at New York ’s Shea Stadium – and later admitted they could hardly hear themselves because of the screaming and cheering. Small wonder they later gave up live performances. They did their last concert for paying fans at Candlestick in San Francisco on August 29, 1966. Sadly, only half the concert, which lasted just under 35 minutes, was recorded, due to a technical mishap. They then concentrated on recording music, with their epochal eighth album, Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, being produced after a 129-day recording session at Abbey Road studios from November 24, 1966. In yet another first, on June 25, 1967, the Beatles became the first band to be globally transmitted on television, with some 400 million people watching their segment of the first-ever worldwide TV satellite hook-up, a show called Our World. The Beatles were transmitted live from Abbey Road studios, with their new song All You Need Is Love recorded live during the show. Abbey Road was the last album they recorded – in the summer of 1969. When they finished I Want You (She’s So Heavy) on August 20, it was the last time all four would work together in the same studio. While Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group on September 20, 1969, he was persuaded not to say anything publicly. The final Beatles recording sessions were on January 3 and 4, 1970, and produced their last new song, I Me Mine, for the Let It Be album. Lennon wasn’t present. McCartney publicly announced the break-up of the band on April 10, 1970. As a measure of just how popular the band still is, 450 000 copies of Anthology 1 were sold on its first day of release on November 21, 1995, the highest volume of single-day sales ever for an album. Then in 2000, when the compilation album,1, comprising almost every number-one single they had from 1962 to 1970, was released, it sold 3,6 million copies in its first week and more than 12 million in three weeks worldwide. This made it the fastest-selling album of all time and the biggest-selling album of the year 2000. The album also reached number one in the United States and 33 other countries. And as long as George Martin and Paul McCartney are around, they are going to continue exploiting that rich legacy. But how did it all begin? While the story of the Beatles’origins is part of rock legend by now, for those who, like me, kind of never really cared, it is perhaps worth a little diversion back in time, to 1957, a year after I was born, when Lennon formed a skiffle group called The Quarrymen while he was at the Quarry Bank Grammar School. Wikipedia says he and the band met a guitarist called Paul McCartney at a church fete in Woolton on July 6, 1957. At the time of writing, that’s just over 50 years ago! It was to be a meeting, as we have seen, which changed the shape of modern popular music forever. On February 6, 1958, another young guitarist, George Harrison, saw the group perform at another hall in Liverpool . McCartney knew Harrison, who was just a year younger, because they travelled to the Liverpool Institute on the same bus from their homes in Speke. In March that year McCartney, says Wikipedia, insisted Harrison join the Quarrymen as lead guitarist. Lennon evidently thought he was too young. Lennon’s art school mate Stuart Sutcliffe followed as a bass player. So how did they get their name? Wikipedia says the Quarrymen became Johnny and The Moondogs, Long John and the Beatles, The Silver Beetles, and finally, on August 17, 1960, they became simply The Beatles. Wikipeida says there are “many theories as to the origin of the name and its unusual spelling”. Lennon is “usually credited” with having come up with it as a combination of “beetles” – in recognition of Buddy Holly’s band The Crickets – and the obvious music-based word, “beat”. Lennon is also said to have later jokingly observed that it was a joke – Beat-less. Cynthia Lennon later said the name was arrived at during a drinking session, and if you turn the name around you get “les beat”, “which sounded French and cool”. Lennon, in typically zany style, also told Mersey Beat magazine back in 1961 that the name “came in a vision – a man appeared on a flaming pie and said unto them, ‘From this day on you are Beatles with an A’”. Anyway, by early 1960, the band, sans Ringo, was a going concern. And that summer they were “hired to tour the north-east of Scotland as a back-up band with singer Johnny Gentle”, whoever he was. One Tommy Moore was recruited as a stand-in drummer. And when the tour was over, on their way back to Liverpool , their van ploughed into a stationary vehicle. Only Moore was seriously injured, losing some teeth and needing stitches. Poor bugger. Being quite a lot older than the rest, he followed his girlfriend’s advice and left the band – set to become the greatest show on earth – and went back to work in a bottling factory as a forklift truck driver. Eina! Ouch! Eish! Drummers are often considered necessary incidentals in rock bands. Not necessarily musical, they have to have lots of energy and be able to keep a beat. Norman Chapman only lasted a few weeks before being called up for National Service. Fortunately, conscription was not extended, because, as stated earlier, McCartney believes if any one of the Beatles had been caught in its web the band would not have happened. Booked to play in clubs on the notorious Reeperbahn in Hamburg , Germany , they now needed a new sticks man. So on August 16, 1960, McCartney invited Pete Best, whom he’d seen playing with The Blackjacks, to join the band. The Beatles had also played at the Casbah Club, a cellar club operated by Best’s mother, Mona, in Liverpool’s West Derby . The Beatles’ “unofficial manager”, Allan Williams, said Best played “not too cleverly”, but was “passable”. So there they were, in Hamburg , West Germany , 15 years after the end of the Second World War and at the height of the Cold War, with the menacing threat of the Soviet Union to the east always no doubt present. They played in the Indra and Kaiserkeller bars – most unlikely sounding places for a bunch of Merseyside Poms. But it was here that they honed their skills, playing “six or seven hours a night, seven nights a week”, according to Wikipedia. By the end of the year, most had been hounded out of the country. First Harrison was deported for lying about his age. Then McCartney and Best started a small fire in living quarters they were quitting for better rooms. They were charged with arson and deported. With the rest of the band gone, Lennon and Sutcliffe joined them back in Liverpool in December of 1960. On March 21 the following year, 1961, they played their first concert at Liverpool’s Cavern Club, before returning to Hamburg in April. There, says Wikipedia, they were approached by singer Tony Sheridan to perform as his backing band for recordings he was doing for the German Polydor Records label. My Bonnie was released on October 31 and appeared on the German charts as by Tony Sheridan and The Beat Brothers. This, however, says Wikipedia, was “a collective name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan ’s backup band at any given time”. The US press took notice, and early in 1962 Cashbox cites My Bonnie as being the debut of a “new rock and roll team, Tony Sheridan and the Beatles”. Then it was time for another would-be Beatle to depart, on the brink of massive fame. Wikipedia says Sutcliffe decided to stay on in Germany when the band returned to Liverpool , “so McCartney took over bass duties”. And that was surely a masterstroke, given the pivotal role which McCartney’s bass was to play in the future. But still the Beatles’ German gigs continued. Their third stay in Hamburg , says Wikipedia, was from April 13 till May 31, 1962, at The Star Club. And it was during this time that they learnt that Sutcliffe had died from a brain haemorrhage. At this point, clearly, The Beatles were still a struggling outfit playing long sessions at club gigs wherever they could find them. Then enter one Brian Epstein, manager of the record department at NEMS, his family’s furniture store. In 1962 he took over as The Beatles’ manager, and “led their quest for a recording contract”. It was during this quest that that senior Decca man turned Epstein down with that infamous “guitar groups are on the way out” error of judgment. But EMI, it seems, were almost equally out of touch. Wikipedia notes that three EMI record producers, contacted via marketing executive Ron White – Norrie Paramor, Walter Ridley and Norman Newell – all “declined to record The Beatles”. EMI’s fourth staff producer could not be contacted because he was on holiday at the time. His name was George Martin. Epstein was able to get Sid Coleman, who ran EMI’s publishing arm, to listen to the early Beatles demo tapes, and Coleman suggested he take the tapes to Martin, who, Coleman explained, “does comedy records”, and headed the Parlophone label at EMI. Martin had not been much impressed by the demo recordings, but nevertheless invited the band for an audition on June 6 of that year at London ’s Abbey Road studios. While conceding they had raw musical talent, says Wikipedia, Martin was most taken by their wit and humour. But he did not like Best, who he later said was unable to keep time. Best, a good-looking lad and popular among fans, refused to adopt the “distinctive hairstyle” as part of “their unified look”, and was sacked by Epstein on August 16, 1962, “under direction of the band members”. Richard Starkey, at the time the drummer for a top Merseybeat group, Rory Storm and the Hurricanes, was immediately recruited. Known as Ringo Starr, the Beatles had met and performed with him previously in Hamburg . Indeed, Wikipedia notes that the first recordings of Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr together were made back in October 1960 – done privately in Hamburg while acting as a backing group for singer Lu Walters. While Martin had hired a session drummer for the Beatles’ first EMI recording session on September 4, 1962, Starr played in their second session on September 11. And the lads were not set for instant wealth, even if they became relatively popular. Wikipedia says their recording contract was fairly standard. They would be paid one penny – shared between the four of them – for every single sold, and half a penny for those sold abroad. In their publishing contract, each writer would get 50% of gross monies received. But first they had to record something worth selling. And things didn’t start auspiciously, with their first session on June 6 failing to provide a releasable recording. The next sessions, however, produced the group’s first minor UK hit – Love Me Do, which reached No 17 in the UK , and topped the US singles chart over 18 months later. But isn’t that a great debut song? Love Me Do is unmistakably the Beatles, not just some early fumbling effort by a band that would become great. It was a great track. And of course then the Beatles’ sausage-machine-like production line, oiled by Martin, kicked rapidly into overdrive. They “swiftly” followed up with their second single, Please Please Me, and three months later their first album, also Please Please Me, had been recorded. Their first televised performance was on People and Places, which was transmitted live from Manchester by Granada Television on October 17, 1962. And the marketing vehicle was soon set in motion, with The Beatles Book, a monthly magazine devoted to the band beginning publication in August 1963. It would run through 77 issues till the end of 1969, says Wikipedia. Incredibly, the US up till the advent of the Beatles, had been virtually infertile soil for British acts. Initially EMI-owned Capitol Records, Parlophone’s US counterpart, wanted nothing to do with early UK hits Love Me Do, Please Please Me and From Me To You in the States. This says Wikipedia, though adding that “citation is needed”, was “partly because no British act had ever yet had a sustained commercial impact on American audiences”. A small Chicago label, Vee-Jay Records, reportedly issued the singles in a complex deal over the rights to another performer’s masters, and Please Please Me was first heard on US radio in late February 1963. But it seemed to fizzle. In August 1963, the Philadelphia-based Swan label released She Loves You “which also failed to receive airplay”. One gets the feeling the US was reluctant to unleash this great band on its youth, for fear of the whirlwind this would generate. In fact, the first reaction when the US youth saw the band was … laughter. Wikipedia says Dick Clark’s television show American Bandstand showed the Beatles performing She Loves you, and US teenagers laughing when they saw the lads’ haircuts. Even top radio deejay Murray the K, who played She Loves You on his record revue in October 1963, was met with an “underwhelming response”, says Wikipedia. But it would only be a matter of time before the floodgates opened. Wikipedia says a clip of the Beatles was shown on the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite on December 7 1963, and this led to a teenage girl in Washington , D.C. requesting a Beatles song on a local radio station. The station duly obtained an imported copy of I Want To Hold Your Hand to play for her “to an overwhelming response”. Capitol Records’s hand was forced, and it released the song ahead of schedule on December 26. As interest in the band grew, on January 3, 1964, a “grainy film” of the band playing She Loves You was shown on the late-night Jack Paar Programme, “building excitement,” says Wikipedia, “and setting the stage for their first American television live appearance a few weeks later on the Ed Sullivan Show on February 4,1964”. After keeping the tide at bay, the floodgates were opened, and the British Invasion was launched. The US , having driven their British rulers out in 1776, was suddenly being recolonised, in the nicest possible way. Well at least that’s what the teenagers felt, especially the plethora of youngsters who would set to work during the 1960s to emulate this wacky group of Liverpudlians. Those small labels, Vee-Jay and Swan Records, capitalised on the rights they had secured to those early singles and reissued the songs, all of which reached the Top 10. They also released numerous albums comprising those early tracks, one of which the Beatles shared with The Four Seasons. But Wikipedia says it has been claimed that when they took on Capitol/EMI to secure full US contractual rights to the Beatles, this contributed to their eventual demise. Needless to say, those early Vee-Jay/Swan albums are today highly sought after. Yet for the next few years, it seems, the US market was hard done by. Wikipedia says different editions of subsequent Beatles albums “with fewer songs per album” were released in the US by Capitol Records. It was only when Sgt Peppers came out that the content was identical in both the US UK . This pattern was retained for the remainder of their albums. Epstein obviously knew the US was the market to crack, and once he had persuaded a major label to release their albums, and Ed Sullivan to feature them on his show, it was only a matter of time before the inevitable would happen, and a new word would enter the English language: Beatlemania. With I Want To Hold Your Hand released on Boxing Day, 1963, it was soon being played on several New York radio stations, selling a million copies in 10 days. When Sullivan hosted the band on February 7, 1964, as noted earlier, about 40% of the population of the United States – some 73 million people – tuned in to watch. Phenomenally, again as noted earlier but it’s worth repeating, by April 4 the Beatles held the top five places on the Billboard Hot Hundred, with a further seven songs in lower positions. This meant they occupied 12% of the chart. No doubt due to apartheid, they gave South Africa a miss when they embarked on their first tour outside the US in mid-1964. This took them to Australia and New Zealand . In Adelaide, Australia, reputedly the largest crowd ever to greet them turned up at the Town Hall – over 300 000 people. Bizarrely – and I’m sure they would have turned it down later in their careers – in 1965, on instructions from the Labour government, Queen Elizabeth II bestowed the MBE on the Fab Four, sparking a conservative backlash. Back in the US , on August 15 that year, they performed at the first stadium concert in the history of rock, according to Wikipedia. A crowd of 55 600 packed Shea Stadium in New York for the event, which is well documented in the Beatles Anthology documentary. With the sound coming through the stadium’s public address system, and hordes of teenagers screaming hysterically, the band conceded they were unable to hear themselves play or sing. Nevertheless, the songs seem as tight as ever when heard on the Anthology documentary. However, the group was clearly growing disenchanted with the rigours of touring, dealing with Beatlemania and performing live. Also documented in Anthology was their narrow escape from the Marcos dictatorship in the Phillipines in July 1966, where they inadvertently offended first lady Imelda by turning down a breakfast invitation. They ended up fleeing to the Manila airport without police protection, with Epstein being forced to hand over all the money they had made on the tour. They flew home to a storm caused by comments Lennon had made in March, when he told British reporter Maureen Cleave that the Beatles were “more popular than Jesus now”. He was just being brutally honest, his views endorsing my belief that rock music did indeed become a de facto, thought totally unorganised, “religion” for the younger generation. The right-wing backlash in the US was massive, and again is recorded in Anthology. While I wasn’t aware of it at the time, I notice that Wikipedia says that the backlash spread to apartheid South Africa and South Africa started to burn Beatles records in protest.” Small wonder the band wouldn’t touch this part of the world with a barge pole. But in a typically Beatles, though admittedly apocryphal story, the Beatles are reported to have responded that “they’ve gotta buy ’em before they can burn ’em”. Lennon is reported to later have apologized for his remarks ahead of their last US tour. And the end to touring was to mark the beginning of their most productive years – in the recording studio. August 29, 1966, marks the last time they performed live in concert before paying fans. The show, at Candlestick in San Francisco , lasted only 35 minutes, with the 30-minute tape used to record it running out midway through the last song. After a three-month break, they returned to Abbey Road Studios on November 24, 1966, to begin work on arguably the most definitive album of the era. It would take 129 days of recording sessions to produce their eighth album, Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, which was released on June 1, 1967. But, despite the success of this album, and the Beatles’ global exposure as the first band to be shown around the world via satellite, in a show – watched by 400 million – called Our World, problems were brewing. On August 27, 1967, manager Brian Epstein – who was the driving force behind their early success – died of an overdose of sleeping tablets. He was just 32. Suddenly, the band lacked a steadying business brain. Then came the widespread criticism of their TV film, Magical Mystery Tour. Not surprisingly, they looked for some form of escape, and found it in transcendental meditation, which became a big “thing” in the late 1960s hippie era. The Anthology documentary traces their sojourn in Uttar Pradesh , in early 1968, where they studied under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Back in London , Lennon and McCartney then flew to New York to announce the formation of Apple Corporation, a supposedly “altruistic business venture”, according to Wikipedia. But the band still had much to contribute, and by mid-1968 they were back in the studio recording yet another seminal work, the double album that became known as the White Album. But did Paul play drums on the album? Yes, evidently Ringo at one staged walked out on the band, which led to Paul recording the drums on Back In The USSR. While McCartney’s attempts to dominate weren’t appreciated, neither, says Wikipedia, was the presence of Yoko Ono at Lennon’s side “through much of the sessions”. Harrison ’s difficulties in getting his own songs used on Beatles albums added to the growing sense of estrangement. And when McCartney suggested that the father of his wife, Linda Eastman, manage the Beatles, he found himself isolated, with the others preferring Allen Klein. Coming out of the Colloseum cinema in East London after watching the matinee of Let It Be, the wind was howling and I was momentarily blinded by some dust. I walked slap into a pole holding a traffic sign. The Beatles were also being jolted into oblivion, and their final live appearance was a fractious, surreal affair on the rooftop of the Apple building in Savile Row, London , on January 30, 1969. Footage of this “happening” was included in the film. And, while many years later people would probably marvel at the fact that they had witnessed the last live Beatles performance, the cops at the time were not amused. Wikipedia says while they were playing, the cops were called out due to noise complaints. The band was asked to end the performance. And so to their final album, Abbey Road , which was recorded in the northern summer of 1969. “I want you! I want you so bad, it’s driving me mad, it’s driving me mad.” On August 20, 1969, the Beatles got together for the last time to work on this song, I Want You (She’s So Heavy). While Lennon had already told the band he was quitting on Setpember 20, 1969, he did not go public. Lennon, however, did not attend the final Beatles recording sessions on January 3 and 4, 1970, which yielded their last song, I Me Mine. It took American producer Phil Spector to bring the whole thing to a messy end. In March, 1970, says Wikipeida, he was given the Get Back session tapes. McCartney was incensed when, instead of a “stripped down live studio performance”, he gave the songs his “wall of sound” treatment. McCartney was especially upset at how The Long And Winding Road turned out and tried to halt release of the song. Ever the self-publicist, however, he announced the break-up of the Beatles on April 10, 1970, just a week before releasing his first solo album, McCartney. He had even included pre-release copies of the album along with a self-written interview explaining the end of the Beatles when he made the announcement. Meanwhile, on May 8, 1970, the Spector-produced Let It Be was released, followed soon after by the film. The acrimony continued even as the Beatles folded, with McCartney filing a lawsuit on December 31, 1970, says Wikipedia. It was then a case of seeing which of the four had the best backlog of songs to make his solo career a success. Lennon’s John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band came out in 1970 and McCartney’s Ram in 1971. But the stand-out album for me was Harrison’s All Must Pass , also from 1970. All three would play prominent roles in rock’s evolution during the 1970s, with McCartney’s group Wings racking up success after success, Lennon producing some memorable solo albums, and Harrison exploring new frontiers in the company of the likes of Eric Clapton and Bob Dylan. When in 1971 it was found that Allen Klein had stolen £5-million from the Beatles’ holdings, Lennon admitted to McCartney that they should have opted for Lee Eastman as manager. This, says Wikipedia, helped to mend their personal relationship. A jam session featuring the two was recorded in 1974 and was bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore. Neither was to know it would be the last time they would record together. I was in an army sick bay in Kimberley with shingles when I heard that Lennon had been shot and killed by Mark David Chapman in New York on December 8, 1980. The collapse of the Beatles saw the release of a flurry of compilation albums, though only one, The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl, their only live album, was sanctioned by the band members. It was produced by George Martin. The acrimony continued even after Lennon’s 1980 death, with only Harrison and Starr (along with Lennon’s widow Yoko Ono) turning up for the band’s induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. McCartney cited “unresolved difficulties” with Harrison, Starr and Lennon’s estate, says Wikipedia. The Beatles Anthology series of television documentaries ensured that the legend lived on into the 1990s. Released in tandem with it were a couple of Lennon’s unfinished demos, with the remaining three – now seemingly reconciled – combining to produce a full Beatles sound. Free As A Bird (1995) and Real Love (1996) were included in the Anthology CDs. Having caught the documentary series on local TV – miraculously – I do feel the DVDs are a must for any self-respecting Bealtephile. And, according to Wikipedia, the Anthology collections of CDs from 1995 and ’96 each consist of “two CDs of never-before-released Beatles marerial”. And that man Klaus Voormann, who knew the lads in their Hamburg days and later performed with Harrison at the Concert for Bangladesh – as well as designing the Revolver cover – directed the Anthology cover concept. Obviously to have made the impact they did, the Beatles had to be pioneers. Harrison , for instance, became interested in Indian music and bought a sitar in 1965. This he played on the song Norwegian Wood (The Bird Has Flown) which, says Wikipedia, is the first instance of such an instrument being used on a rock record. After then studying the instrument under Ravi Shankar, he used it on other songs, such as Love You Do and Within You Without You. With the help of Martin and other technically gifted staff at EMI, the Beatles used various sound effects, unconventional mic placements, automatic double tracking and vari-speed recording, says Wikipedia. They used other instruments that were “unconventional for rock music at the time”, such as string and brass ensembles, the swarmandel, tape loops and “early electronic instruments including the Mellotron, which was used with flute voices on the intro to Strawberry Fields Forever”. While both Lennon and McCartney moved the group towards psychedelia in the mid to late 1960s, it was Lennon, notes Wikipedia, who in typical fashion rebuffed all attempts at pretentiousness, saying once that “Avant garde is French for bullshit”. Nonetheless, he and McCartney were known to experiment with all the latest electronic equipment. Interestingly, while I had long credited Martin with providing the orchestral scores for some of the group’s best songs, it seems Lennon and McCartney were themselves pioneers in this regard. Wikipedia says starting with the use of a string quartet on Yesterday (arranged by Martin) in 1965, the Beatles pioneered “a modern form of art song, exemplified by the double-quartet string arrangement on Eleanor Rigby (1966), Here, There And Everywhere (1966) and She’s Leaving Home (1967)”. And, who would have guessed, but Wikipedia says the pair’s interest in the music of Bach, of all people, led them to use a piccolo trumpet on Penny Lane and that Mellotron on Strawberry Fields. But, as with several other groups to be examined later, the group returned to their bluesy roots later in the decade on songs like Yer Blues and Birthday from 1968 and Don’t Let Me Down from 1969. And they certainly did not let us down. It is a moot point as to whether they could have sustained the group any longer, given that each individual seemed to be desperate to go his own way and do his own thing. But few would deny that those glorious eight or nine years of recording produced arguably the most memorable, and influential, music of the 20th century. To have grown up at the time this was all happening was, I suppose, like being present when any epoch-making event occurs. Our lives were shaped and changed completely by the impact of the Beatles, and all the other wonderful talents which flowered in their wake. But let’s take a trip down memory lane, as opposed to Penny Lane , and look at each of those albums. As I said, I was about seven years old when the first Beatles number one hit single, From Me To You, burst upon the scene in1963. It was to set the stage, style and standard for the avalanche of hits to come. Each is a nugget in the history of modern music. Please Please Me Produced on the Parlophone label and released in mono on March 22 and stereo on April 26, 1963, the first Beatles album was Please Please Me, which went straight to the top of the British charts. I doubt we ever owned this album, but we knew many of the songs from the singles played on the radio. We may have owned a few singles off it as well. Having just given the album a listen, I was surprised at how many songs were indeed very familiar to me – more than half. And what struck me most was that, way back then in 1963, you have a band that is instantly recognisable as the Beatles, complete with some chirpy comments by Ringo to George. Listening to the album I discovered a variety of styles – from rhythm and blues to almost folk rock – but Wikipedia classifies the genre as rock and roll. The cover features a colour photograph, seen from below, of the four standing on a landing inside a high-rise building, with the words “The Beatles” written in yellow. It was, says Wikipedia, “rush-released on March 22, 1963, in the UK to capitalize on the success of singles Please Please Me (which reached No 2) and Love Me Do (No 17). Incredibly for a first album, of the 14 songs, eight were written by Lennon/McCartney. While many dismiss the early Beatles albums as almost juvenilia, this debut by the Beatles was ranked No 39 in 2003 on the Rolling Stone magazine list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. But its stiffest competition came from later Beatles albums, with five of them ranked higher. I Saw Her Standing There was ranked No 139 and Please Please Me at No 184 in the magazine’s list of the 500 greatest singles. Endorsing my view, Wikipedia quotes the All Music Guide as saying that “decades after its release, the album still sounds fresh, with the cover versions “impressive” and the originals “astonishing”. Wikipedia, as is to be expected, is incredibly detailed in its information on this first album. It emerges that it took the band just 9 hours and 45 minutes to record the album in what was a “virtually live” series of studio sessions. The session cost Martin £400 of his £55 000 annual budget, including each Beatle’s £7.50 session fee for each three-hour session. Martin, says Wikipedia, wanted to call the album Off the Beatle Track, before opting for Please Please Me. Twist And Shout was recorded last, to preserve Lennon’s voice. He had a bad cold and it was feared the “throat-shredding” vocal would ruin his voice for the rest of the day. Only one song, Hold Me Tight, was not used, but recorded again for With the Beatles. Interestingly, the 1987 CD releases of the first four Beatles albums are in mono only. The famous photograph for the cover was taken inside EMI’s London headquarters by legendary theatre photographer Angus McBean. Another McBean photograph of the four, taken in 1969, was intended for Let It Be, but was not used until the Beatles retrospective albums, The Beatles 1962-1966 and The Beatles 1967-1970 were released in 1973. Another shot taken by McBean at that initial session in 1963 was used on the other cover. As to the label for Please Please Me, Wikipedia says the first pressings of the LP were the only ones by the Beatles to have gold on black Parlophone labels (later silver was used). As a result, they are highly sought after. Another interesting aspect about this debut album is that McCartney initially got his way – the songs by him and Lennon are credited as McCartney/Lennon. Let me just say, having for the first time ever really listened to this album right through, that there are only a handful of typically Beatles songs on it. Many I doubt I would identify as the Beatles if you played them to me blind. And the song which probably best fits the early Beatles mould is not even one of their eight own compositions. It is the final track, Twist And Shout, written by Phil Medley and Bert Russell. But let’s start at the start. Certainly the opening track, I Saw Her Standing There, is a typically Beatles song, which I remember growing up with in the early to mid-sixties. It is a typical old-fashioned rock and roll song, with the “whooos” of Little Richard and the lead riffs of Chuck Berry. And of course there is already evidence of strong Beatles harmonies. But this was really an attempt to make a dance song with a catchy melody and lyrics. “Well she was just seventeen / You know what I mean / And the way she looked / Was way beyond compare / So how could I dance with another, / Oh, when I saw her standing there.” It is real teeny-bopper stuff, all about superficial romantic love. “Well she looked at me / and I, I could see / That before too long / I’d fall in love with her / She wouldn’t dance with another / Oh, when I saw her standing there.” The whole falling in love saga unfolds. “Well my heart went boom / When I crossed that room / And I held her hand in mine.” Then: “Oh we danced through the night / And we held each other tight / And before too long / I fell in love with her / Now I’ll never dance with another / Oh, when I saw her standing there.” With a bit of further repetition that’s about it. But it was enough to give the band a song that reached No 14 in the US in 1964, so clearly the world was crying out for this sort of sound. The next song, Misery, is another Beatles original, but was totally unfamiliar to me, as was Anna (Go To Him), by Arthur Alexander. Again, it is a stilted, ballady kind of song which, despite a valliant vocal effort, lacks the Beatles spark. Also not familiar was Chains, written by Gerry Goffin and one Carole King. Here, for the first time, we hear Lennon’s harmonica but, while there is loads of potential, again the song lacks that real Beatles feel. Ringo Starr’s lead vocals on Boys, also not a Beatles song, are competent, but again the song lacks the Beatles imprint. The whoops and wows, along with the bop-shoo-wops, are throw-backs to the Fifties. I had hoped Ask Me Why, another Beatles composition, would provide that spark of originality, but it too lacks the fun with which one associates the Fab Four. It was totally unfamiliar to me, despite some fine vocals. Clearly it never made it off the album and onto the radio. But what of the title track, Please Please Me, the final song on Side One? This, obviously, has the early Beatles imprint, with tight vocal harmonies and some excellent guitar work. But it is a tenuous identity. It is as if, had anything gone wrong, all the potential could have just simply been lost. The Lennon/McCartney magic had not fully gelled, but on this song it comes close to doing so. And of course those of us growing up at the time had this two minutes of Beatles magic going into our ears via the radio at regular intervals. “Last night I said these words to my girl / I know you never even try, girl / Come on, come on, come on, come on / Please, please me, wo yeah, like I please you.” The repeated “come on” phrase, sung alternately by, I assume John and Paul, was arguably the first truly Beatles piece of music. This was the sort of furrow the band would have to plough early on, relying on their superb harmonies to lift them out of what was truly something of a morass of mediocrity, some of which is reflected in the majority of songs on this album. The opening track on Side Two, Love Me Do, is unarguably fully fledged Beatles – and it is Lennon’s opening harmonica solo which gives it its edge. A fast rock and roll track, here you get inside the early Beatles oeuvre at its best, with great vocal variations and changes of tempo. This is the sound of the early to mid sixties. It is also an object lesson in how simplicity was the key to good lyrics for this type of song. “Love, love me do. / You know I love you, / I’ll always be true, / So please, love me do. / Whoa, love me do.” This is repeated before there is a change of mood. “Someone to love, / Somebody new. / Someone to love, / Someone like you.” The opening mantra is then repeated a few times, with Lennon’s harmonica lifting the song into a league where a group called the Rolling Stones would set the pace. With Love Me Do reaching No 1 in the US , however, the band was set up for success. I can’t say I recalled P. S. I Love You at all. Another Beatles original, this may have great harmonies, but again it seems to fall flat. “As I write this letter, send my love to you …” It just never registered at the time. The same applies to Baby It’s You, among the three writers of which was Burt Bacharach. Any song with “sha-la-la-la” in it is going to be somewhat hackneyed. This again has great vocals, but not much else. Incredibly, though, it reached No 10 in the US . The real Beatles return on their own song, Do You Want To Know A Secret, but again it is this half-achieved identity that is emerging, rather than the real thing. It is a safe, shallow love song, with nice harmonies. But with George Harrison handling the lead vocals it is good to see he got a show in even on the debut album. And the song also reached No 14 on the US singles charts, so his place was secure. The band again marks time with A Taste Of Honey, another non-Beatles song, safe and ballady. It is simply just too sweet for words. And There’s A Place , while a Beatles composition, is equally nondescript. To me it was totally unfamiliar. I did detect a hint of McCartney’s distinctive vocals style at one point, however: “Don’t you know! that it’s so?” Then, the real redeemer, Twist And Shout ends the album, and cements Lennon’s role as the one man in the band who could break through the bubble-gum and give them some street cred. And here, finally, we witness the full vocal range of the lads, with Lennon’s deliberately harsh lead vocals setting the pace to this rough and ready rock and roll song, which reached No 2 in the important US charts. “Well, shake it up, baby, now, (shake it up, baby) / Twist and shout. (twist and shout) / Cmon cmon, cmon, cmon, baby, now, (come on baby) / Come on and work it on out. (work it on out).” This goes on in similar vein for several verses before the lads really let it all hang out. The verse goes: “Well, shake it, shake it, shake it, baby, now. (shake it up baby) / Well, shake it, shake it, shake it, baby, now. (shake it up baby) / Well, shake it, shake it, shake it, baby, now. (shake it up baby) / Ahhhhhhhhhh(low) Ahhhhhhhhhh(higher) Ahhhhhhhhhh(higher) Ahhhhhhhhhhh(high).” It is here, with one voice covering the next up the old scale that one senses the Beatles really enjoying themselves. Certainly, in the years ahead they would produce many hauntingly beautiful melodies, incisive rock songs and psychedelic masterpieces. But I sense that it was this song which gave them the impetus to try anything. You almost sense, as they cry out those notes, that they are bursting to start exploring, pioneering, the path ahead. And what an exciting and rewarding, but also exacting and turbulent, journey that would be. The album topped the UK charts for 30 weeks, from May 11, 1963, and spent a total of 74 weeks in the chart, from April 6, 1963, and again from March 7, 1987, with the release of the CD. With The Beatles Recorded just four months after their debut album, With The Beatles was released on November 22, 1963. And finally we see the full Beatles sound emerge – at least on several songs. Again, the album features eight original compositions, including the first by George Harrison, and six covers – mostly, according to Wikipedia, Motown and R&B hits. In a curious arrangement, most of the songs were only released in the US in January, 1964, as Meet the Beatles!, with the remainder released on The Beatles’ Second Album. But demand for the album in the UK was vast, with Wikipedia saying the LP had advance orders of half a million and sold another half million by September, 1965. This made it only the second album to sell a million copies in the UK , after the soundtrack to the movie, South Pacific. It stayed on top of the charts for 21 weeks, says Wikipedia, displacing Please Please Me. This meant the Beatles held the top spot for 51 consecutive weeks. It was ranked No 420 in 2003 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 greatest albums. It too was released on CD in 1987. Wikipedia has very little information about the actual making of the album, but in the end it’s the songs that count. And, of course, George Martin was the producer again, also contributing piano on certain tracks. Sure everyone who grew up at the time knows the chorus to the opening track, It Won’t Be Long, but what are the opening lines? Lennon’s powerful vocals are accompanied by the usual superb harmonies from the other lads, but this is still essentially dance music. “Ev’ry night when ev’rybody has fun, / Here am I sitting all on my own, / It won’t be long yeah, yeah, / It won’t be long yeah, yeah, / It won’t be long yeah, yeah, / Till I belong to you. / Since you left me I’m so alone, / Now you’re coming, you’re coming home, / I’ll be good like I know I should, / You’re coming home, you’re coming home.” This is another of those songs about being young and in search of love. “Ev’ry night the tears come down from my eyes, / Ev’ry day I’ve done nothing but cry. / It won’t be long yeah, yeah. / Since you left me I’m so alone, / Now you’re coming, you’re coming home, / I’ll be good like I know I should, / You’re coming home, you’re coming home. / Ev’ry day we’ll be happy, I know, / Now I know that you won’t leave me no more. / It won’t be long yeah, yeah.” These lyrics are really only viable in the context of the song. And it’s one of the better, more solid early Beatles tracks. Others, like the next song, All I’ve Got To Do, are not familiar at all. With McCartney singing lead vocals, this again lacks that Beatles spark. Yet from the obscurity of that song, we next find the incredible All My Loving, an early Beatles classic. Here, again, McCartney is on lead vocals, and he launches straight into the song. It is a quick-fire, very catchy number that even includes a solid lead guitar break, albeit in a stilted, old-style format. But here is one of those iconic early Beatles songs that became such an integral part of our lives. “Close your eyes and I’ll kiss you, tomorrow I’ll miss you, / remember I’ll always be true. / And then while I'm away, / I’ll write home ev’ry day, and I’ll send all my loving to you.” Obviously, the subject matter is again teenage romance, but the writing is skilful. “I’ll pretend that I’m kissing the lips I am missing, / and hope that my draems will come true. / And then while I’m away, / I’ll write home ev’ry day, and I’ll send all my loving to you.” The song stops momentarily ahead of that famous chorus line: “All my loving I will send to you. / All my loving, darling I’ll be true.” After a brief lead guitar interlude, the first verse and chorus are repeated. Harrison ’s debut song, Don’t Bother Me, was not familiar to me, but he certainly brought a new, almost soothing, voice to the band. There is a slightly naïve quality to the lyrics which are somewhat devoid of poetic quality. “Since she’s been gone I want no one to talk to me. / It’s not the same but I’m to blame, it’s plain to see. / So go away, leave me alone, don’t bother me. / I can’t believe that she would leave me on my own. / It’s just not right when every night I’m all alone. / I’ve got no time for you right now, don’t bother me.” It is a poorly crafted song about lost love. Little Child has almost the same lack of substance, although it does start with some interesting harmonica, and the infusion of the piano adds some body to the basic rock and roll song. And then suddenly there is Paul McCartney singing a gentle folk ballad totally out of character with the rest of the album. Till There Was You, a Meredith Wilson composition, starts with some lovely acoustic guitar, and includes jazzy acoustic guitar solos further on. McCartney is given full scope to explore his vocal range, but this is by no means a typical Beatles song. Far from it. “There were bells, on a hill, but I never heard them ringing … there was music and wonderful roses…” And, while the next track, written by five people none of whom I’d heard of, was also not an original, it became an instantly recognisable Beatles track. The last song on Side I, Please Mr Postman, features Lennon’s voice which, at this stage, for me exemplified the Beatles sound rather more than did McCartney’s. “Wait, oh yes wait a minute mister postman / Wait, wait mister postman.” Then the first verse: “Mister postman look and see / You got a letter in your bag for me / I been waiting such a long time / Since I heard from that girl of mine.” Side 2 started with another track that became an instantly recognisable Beatles hit. It is only in retrospect, having subsequently discovered the songs of Chuck Berry, that one realises what a sanitised, commercial imitation this is of one of the great early rock and roll songs, Roll Over Beethoven. Harrison tries valiantly to do justice to the lead guitar part, while Ringo’s cymbal-laced drumming also fails to live up to the original. Yet it was still a fairly strong attempt by a bunch of honkeys to play black music. But spare a thought for the genius who wrote these words, not to mention the melody. This has to be one of the all-time greatest songs of the post-Second World War era. “Well gonna write a little letter / Gonna mail it to my local D.J. / It’s a rockin’ little record / I want my jockey to play / Roll over Beethoven / I gotta hear it again today.” Berry taps into the very artery, the aorta at the heart of American youths’ fixation in the Fifties with this new and exciting world of rock and roll music. “You know my temperature’s risin' / And the jukebox’s blowin’ a fuse / My hearts beatin’ rhythm / And my soul keeps singing the blues / Roll over Beethoven / And tell Tchaikovsky the news.” And the writing gets even better, alluding to how rock music would become like a fever which gripped a generation. “I got a rockin’ pneumonia / I need a shot of rhythm and blues / I think I got it off the writer / Sittin’ down by the rhythm reviews / Roll over Beethoven / We’re rockin’ in two by two.” Then there is that lovely change of rhythm: “Well if you feel it and like it / Well get your lover and reel and rock it / Roll it over and move on up / Just jump around and reel and rock it / Roll it over / Roll over Beethoven / A rockin’ in two by two, oh.” The next verse seems to encapsulate the Fifties: “Well early in the mornin’ / I'm a givin’ you the warnin’ / Don’t you step on my blue suede shoes / Hey diddle diddle / Gonna play my fiddle / Ain’t got nothing to lose / Roll over Beethoven / And tell Tchaikovsky the news.” Many of these words, despite hearing this song hundreds of times, are new to me: “You know she winks like a glow worm / Dance like a spinnin’ top / She got a crazy partner / Oughta see ‘em reel an rock / Long as she’s got a dime / The music will never stop / Roll over Beethoven / Roll over Beethoven / Roll over Beethoven / Roll over Beethoven / Roll over Beethoven / And dig these rhythm and blues.” This song was clearly inspired by a culture of jukebox entertainment, something which never really caught on in South Africa – at least not in the Sixties. I can’t speak for the Fifties. From that well-known Beatles cover, the record returns to, for me, more obscure fare. Hold Me Tight features some more great harmonies, but again fails to acquire the Beatles stamp. The same applies to the slow, bluesy Smokey Robinson song, You Really Got A Hold On Me, although it does feature some vintage Lennon/McCarney harmonies. Then, suddenly, another true-blue Beatles song, instantly recognisable. I Wanna Be Your Man. This is good old foot-tapping dance music, but a key part of the Beatles’ progression. “I wanna be your lover baby, / I wanna be your man, / I wanna be your lover baby, / I wanna be your man. / Tell me that you love me baby, / Like no other can, / Love you like no other baby, / Like no other can.” Then that chorus: “I wanna be your man, / I wanna be your man.” And so on. Certainly not great poetry, but it did the trick as a pop hit, and that, at this stage, was what the Beatles were after above all else. They wanted to make a living out of music, no more, no less. The next track, another cover called Devil In Her Heart, features some good piano and guitar near the end, but remains an unfamiliar, very un-Beatles-like song which seems far too long-winded. And while Not A Second Time may be a Lennon/McCartney original, it too is formulaic and unmemorable. But, as with the first album, it was left till the last track, Money, written by Janie Bardford and Berry Gordy, for the album to acquire a bit of gravitas. Again, Lennon’s rasping vocals set the scene, establishing him as the personality in the band. And for once it’s a song not about boys and girls. It is packed with some long-overdue irony, and was sure to have influenced Lennon’s songwriting in the future. “The best things in life are free / But you can keep them for the birds and bees / Now give me money / That’s what I want / That’s what I want, yeah / That’s what I want.” What a contrast to all those soppy love songs they’d made thus far: “Your lovin’ gives me a thrill / But your lovin’ don’t pay my bills / Now give me money / That’s what I want / That’s what I want, yeah / That’s what I want.” Viva materialism, the song seems to say: “Money don’t get everything it’s true / What it don’t get, I can’t use / Now give me money …” Further on, the importance of money for economic freedom is stressed: “Well now give me money / A lot of money / Wow, yeah, I wanna be free / Oh I want money…” It is something, I am sure, that Paul McCartney knew all along, but the others took far longer to latch onto. Wikipedia quotes Mark Lewishon on the credits for the album, noting that it was Lennon who played that enchanting nylon-string lead acoustic guitar on Till There Was You, as well as some rather weird Hammond organ on I Wanna Be your Man. And, it seems, it was Harrison who played a second nylon-string acoustic guitar on Till There Was you. George Martin again chipped in with some piano. Wikipedia only gives the US singles charts achievements, with All My Loving reaching No 45 and Roll Over Beethoven No 68 in 1964. A Hard Day’s Night I have not been able to get hold of a copy of the Beatles third album, A Hard Day’s Night, but I believe this signalled the real coming of age of the band. The title track alone encompasses the sort of word-play that would become a hallmark of the Beatles throughout the decade. The album cover comprises 20 monochrome photographs of the four – five across, four up – with black typography for The Beatles, while the album title is red on black. Released in the UK on July 10, 1964, the album was the soundtrack for the group’s first film of the same name. It was released 16 days later in the US , with a slightly different tracklisting. And it was their first album to feature only original songs written by members of the band, and the first with only Lennon-McCartney songs. Wikipedia notes that the album and film “are said to portray the classic image of the Beatles, as it was released at the height of Beatlemania”. Can’t Buy Me Love was a transatlantic No 1 hit single for the band. There is a dispute over the title of the album and film, with Ringo being credited with its “accidental creation”, according to Wikipeida, which adds that Lennon also used the phrase in his contemporary book, In His Own Write, and also at least once during the Hamburg era. One of the great omissions in my life is that I haven’t seen the film. But evidently Side 1 comprises songs from the movie soundtrack, while Side 2 has two songs written for but not included in the film. It was, says Wikipedia, the first Beatles album recorded on four-track tape, allowing for good stereo mixes. In 2003, the album was ranked No 388 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. It was released, along with the other first three albums, on CD in mono in 1987. As I could not get a copy of this album on CD, I at least had three tracks on the 1962-66 hits album, and this afforded me the chance to hear them in stereo. One senses a definite increase in confidence on this album. The lads are finally coming into their own. There is that distinctive, and aggressive, opening lead guitar chord as the opening and title track gets under way, with Lennon again taking up the lead vocals. However, it is good to hear McCartney take over on the choruses, setting up an interesting contrast in their singing styles. This is a classic Beatles song, with tight vocal harmonies and music, including what sounds like an organ break. Harrison ’s guitarwork is also more assured. The lyrics do seem to endorse a stereotypical male chauvinism which I suppose even the Beatles, in their early days, would battle to shrug off. This is the story of the man who goes out and earns the bread, while his woman stays at home and provides all the loving comforts he needs. “It’s been a hard day’s night, and I’ve been working like a dog / It’s been a hard day’s night, I should be sleeping like a log / But when I get home to you I’ll find the things that you do / Will make me feel alright.” The things she does clearly include sexual favours: “You know I work all day to get you money to buy your things / And it’s worth it just to hear you say you’re going to give me everything / So why on earth should I moan, ’cause when I get you alone / You know I feel OK.” Then that McCartney chorus: “When I’m home everything seems to be right / When I’m home feeling you holding me tight, tight.” I like the way Lennon starts the next verse as McCartney concludes, their voices almost overlapping. Wikipedia says Lennon did tend to dominate the album, writing the majority of the 13 tracks on his own. It is also one of only two UK Beatles releases where Ringo Starr does not sing lead vocals. Sadly, I did not get a chance to listen afresh to I Should Have Known Better, but of course it was a staple of our generation, as much part of our Beatles-engendered psyches as any other of their hits. “I should have known better with a girl like you / That I would love everything that you do / And I do, hey, hey, hey, and I do.” This is clearly targeted at the teenage romantics. “Whoa, oh, I never realized what a kiss could be / This could only happen to me / Can’t you see, can’t you see.” Then that change of key: “That when I tell you that I love you, oh / You’re gonna say you love me too, oh / And when I ask you to be mine / You’re gonna say you love me too.” The only other verse is not as well remembered: “So I should have realized a lot of things before / If this is love you’ve got to give me more / Give me more, hey hey hey, give me more.” But then we run into a few less known songs. If I Fell and I’m Happy Just To Dance With You don’t register immediately, even after reading the lyrics, but they are followed by one of the all-time early Beatles greats, with McCartney showcasing his incredible vocal talent on And I Love Her. How great, after those rather harsh electric-guitar-led songs, to kick off here with some nylon-string acoustic guitar, before McCartney launches into this beautiful ballad. “I give her all my love / That’s all I do / And if you saw my love / You’d love her too / I love her.” So simple, but set within that exquisite acoustic guitar sound, this is sublime. “She gives me ev’rything / And tenderly / The kiss my lover brings / She brings to me / And I love her.” This is surely a breakthrough track for the Beatles, revealing that it is possible to put gentle ballads on a rock album. “A love like ours / Could never die / As long as I / Have you near me.” There is a lovely acoustic lead break around here, before the final verse. “Bright are the stars that shine / Dark is the sky / I know this love of mine / Will never die / And I love her.” The next track, Tell Me Why, is another that doesn’t really register with my memory banks, but the final number on Side 1 is one of the all-time Beatles classics, and seems to be a reply to Money from the previous album. It is hard to discern who sings lead vocals on Can’t Buy Me Love, but it sounds like a joint effort as they launch into this catchy chorus from the opening note. “Can’t buy me love, love / Can’t buy me love.” Then the poor man’s cop-out. “I’ll buy you a diamond ring my friend if it makes you feel alright / I’ll get you anything my friend if it makes you feel alright / ’Cause I don’t care too much for money, money can’t buy me love.” He’s still tentative. “I'll give you all I got to give if you say you love me too / I may not have a lot to give but what I got I’ll give to you / I don’t care too much for money, money can’t buy me love.” The chorus changes somewhat: “Can’t buy me love, everybody tells me so / Can’t buy me love, no no no, no.” Then the final verse: “Say you don’t need no diamond ring and I’ll be satisfied / Tell me that you want the kind of thing that money just can’t buy / I don’t care too much for money, money can’t buy me love.” So much better, the song seems to suggest, if men can just get what they need – “love” – without having to go through all the palaver of spending money on the woman. Of course, fairly soon the Beatles would be rolling in the stuff. Side 2 starts with another hit, Any Time At All. On those albums it was often the practice to put a hit at the start of the second side, too, since it would be easy for a disc jockey to find. Again, this is a classic Beatles song, complete with catchy tune and simple, easyly remembered lyrics. “Any time at all, any time at all, / Any time at all, all you’ve gotta do is call and I’ll be there.” There is even some poetry here. “If you need somebody to love, / Just look into my eyes, / I’ll be there to make you feel right.” Then: “If you’re feeling sorry and sad, / I’d really sympathize. / Don’t you be sad, just call me tonight.” This heralds the chorus: “Any time at all, any time at all, / Any time at all, all you’ve gotta do is call and I’ll be there.” Then a longer verse: “If the sun has faded away, / I’ll try to make it shine, / There’s nothing I won’t do / When you need a shoulder to cry on / I hope it will be mine. / Call me tonight, and I'll come to you.” The titles and lyrics of I’ll Cry Instead, Things We Said Today, When I Get Home, You Can’t Do That and I’ll Be Back all look somehow familiar, but I am unable to summon them to memory and in the absence of the album they’ll remain distant, possibly imagined, memories. But wait, having just looked at the lyrics of You Can’t Do That, I remembered immediately that this was another hit that we knew by heart – the chorus line at least. “I got something to say that might cause you pain, / If I catch you talking to that boy again, / I’m gonna let you down, / And leave you flat, / Because I told you before, oh, / You can’t do that.” Another lilting rock and roller, this was a great favourite in those simpler Beatles days. It’s interesting to see the spin that was put on the “sin” of a girl even talking to another guy. “Well, it’s the second time, I've caught you talking to him, / Do I have to tell you one more time, I think it’s a sin, / I think I’ll let you down. / Let you down and leave you flat, / Gonna let you down and leave you flat, / Because I’ve told you before, oh, / You can’t do that.” And it was also all about keeping face: “Ev’rybody’s green, / ’cause I’m the one, who won your love, / But if it’s seen, / You’re talking that way they’d laugh in my face. / So please listen to me, if you wanna stay mine, / I can’t help my feelings, I’ll go out of my mind. / I know I’ll let you down, / And leave you flat, / Gonna let you down and leave you flat, / Because I’ve told you before, oh, / You can’t do that.” Wikipedia again quotes Mark Lewisohn regarding who played what on the album. Lennon tackled rhythm and acoustic guitars, some lead on You Can’t Do That, piano on Things We Said Today and harmonica. McCartney played bass guitar and piano and possibly acoustic guitar on I’ll Be Back. Harrison played 6 and 12-string lead guitar, acoustic and Spanish guitars, and sang lead vocals on I’m Happy Just To Dance With You. Starr supplemented his drums with cowbell, maracas and tambourine, while Martin again played some piano. Beatles For Sale Interestingly, the Beatles’ fourth album, Beatles For Sale, is described by Wikipedia not only as rock and roll, but also folk rock and country rock. Released in late 1964 and again produced by George Martin for Parlophone, the cover features a colour photograph of the four looking somewhat glum, with orange and green foreground shapes that are out of focus, but probably of flowers and foliage. Wikipedia says the album is “a minor turning point in the evolution of Lennon and McCartney as lyricists, (with) Lennon particularly now showing interest in composing songs of a more autobiographical nature”. This, it says, is evident in I’m A Loser, with Lennon “for the first time seemingly coming under the influence of Bob Dylan, having met him for the first time in New York while on tour on August 28, 1964”. My observation about the glum-looking guys on the cover is supported by Wikipedia’s overview of the album. It says it was considered by some to be their weakest due to the “war weariness” caused by the “constant slog of touring and recording”. While not quoting sources, it adds that the album, “with its ironic title and downbeat lyrics and cover photo, seems intended as a direct challenge to fans who wanted the Beatles to continue writing upbeat, happy songs”. Richie Unterberger of All Music Guide is quoted as saying the album “brought folk and rock closer together on tracks such as I’m A Loser and I’ll Follow The Sun”. The “war weariness” of the lads at the time is legend. In the two months between the last session for A Hard Day’s Night and this album, they did a tour of some seven countries, along with television and radio shows. Yet they were starting to pioneer new territory, with Gram Parsons noting that the strong country influence on songs like I Don’t Want To Spoil The Party pre-empted the advent of country rock as a popular genre in 1967. And, worn out or not, the album still topped the UK charts, taking over from A Hard Day’s Night. In the US , released as Beatles ’65, it also went to Number 1. Wikipedia observes that when Beatles For Sale was being recorded, Beatlemania had just passed its peak. After early 1964 television appearances in the US , demand for their records there was unprecedented. But Beatles For Sale was their four album in just 21 months. And much of the recording was done on “off days” between performances in the UK , with “most of the songwriting … done in the studio itself”, says Wikipedia. Most of the songs were recorded in just three weeks, starting on September 29, 1964. George Martin agreed they were “battered like mad” at the time. And Lennon and McCartney couldn’t keep up with the demand for new songs, which meant they again used six covers on the album. Three cover tunes were recorded in five takes in one session. And I’m afraid it shows. At the time, Lennon and McCartney collaborated closely as songwriters. Wikipedia quotes McCartney as saying in 1994 how he would go to Lennon’s house and the two would sit down each afternoon and produce a song a day. Harrison is quoted as saying that by their fourth album they were also more comfortable in the studio, where they started experimenting with things like overdubbing. Beatles manager Neil Aspinall is quoted as saying that the pressure to produce an album before Christmas was immense, but the band were naïve enough to believe they simply had to do as they were told. Having just given the album a fresh listen, I was immediately struck by the growing sophistication that is evident. Clearly, despite the fatigue, the guys were coming into their own, doing things more their way. Wikipedia says the opening three tracks “are sometimes referred to as the ‘Lennon Trilogy’, as Lennon was the chief writer of all three. Unusual for pop music at the time, each one has a sad or resentful emotion attached to it”. As noted before, the Dylan influence seemed to rub off on Lennon, with the sombre mood of No Reply, I’m A Loser and Baby’s In Black, also echoed in I Don’t Want To Spoil The Party, where he arrives at a party to find his girlfriend isn’t there. Yet I don’t think anyone need have worried about the subdued lyrics. As a kid growing up at the time, I can honestly say whatever the sentiments expressed, we were only really interested in the overall Beatles sound. We simply enjoyed songs like the opening track, No Reply, immensely, and a fresh listen reveals Lennon’s growing stature as a vocalist. It is also good to hear that acoustic guitar underpinning the song. It’s said there is no growth except in adversity, and that seems to be the case here. Suddenly, Lennon is looking at the world he’s singing about, and not just writing songs for the sake of it. “This happened once before, / when I came to your door, / no reply. / They said it wasn't you, / but I saw you peep through your window, / I saw the light, I saw the light, / I know that you saw me, / ’cos I looked up to your face. / I tried to telephone, / they said you were not home, / that’s a lie, / ’cos I know where you’ve been, / I saw you walk in your door, / I nearly died, I nearly died, / ’cos you walked hand in hand / with another man in my place. / If I were you’d realise that I / love you more than any other guy, / and I’ll forgive the lies that I / heard before when you gave me no reply.” It’s certainly not on a par with Dylan, but here finally we see some narrative. Wikipedia quotes Beatles music publisher Dick James as saying the song was “a complete story”. Lennon’s fine voice gives I’m A Loser a wonderful quality, assisted as it us by the full force of the others as backing vocalists. Again, that acoustic guitar is more to the fore, while the electric guitar is less harsh, more subdued. Indeed, the song has a more “modern” feel – as opposed to earlier songs which harked back to the Fifties – and Lennon’s use of harmonica seems to reflect both the Dylan influence and also possibly that of the Rolling Stones. “I’m a loser / I’m a loser / And I’m not what I appear to be.” This song has a wonderful melody, with Lennon’s voice becoming really the definitive Beatles sound. “Of all the love I have won or have lost / there is one love I should never have crossed / She was a girl in a million, my friend / I should have known she would win in the end.” What a shame he should see a relationship with a girl as a win-lose tussle. In the chorus, he laments: “I’m a loser / And I lost someone who’s near to me / I’m a loser / And I’m not what I appear to be.” So all that bravado is just for show. Lennon, it seems, did hurt when the chips were down. “Although I laugh and I act like a clown / Beneath this mask I am wearing a frown / My tears are falling like rain from the sky / Is it for her or myself that I cry.” How insightful! And finally we see the use of a simile. After the chorus, the next verse shows the song taking on a folk-song-like narrative quality. “What have I done to deserve such a fate / I realise I have left it too late / And so it’s true, pride comes before a fall / I’m telling you so that you won’t lose all.” Then that chorus, where love is shown to hurt. “I’m a loser / And I lost someone who’s near to me / I’m a loser / And I’m not what I appear to be.” I wonder who the woman was, though. Wikipedia quotes AMG as saying this is “one of the very first Beatles compositions with lyrics addressing more serious points than young love”, while Beatles student David Rowley, it says, found it to be “an obvious copy of Dylan”. He cites the use of the word “friend” and compares this to Dylan’s use of the word on Blowin’ In The Wind. He adds that the aim was to “openly subvert the simple true love themes of their earlier work”. And none too soon, I might add. The last in the “Lennon Trilogy” is Baby’s In Black, which seems to borrow from the nursery rhyme, “Oh dear, what can the matter be”. And why not? Dylan was showing that idiomatic English language was the perfect vehicle of expression, and he used it to the full. Lennon was catching on fast. Slower, with lead guitar and piano dominating at the start, Lennon’s vocals are again superb. And of course McCartney’s harmonising only adds to the effect, which has become increasingly sophisticated. Consider just how much richer the lyrics are: “Oh dear, what can I do? / Baby’s in black and I’m feeling blue, / Tell me, oh what can I do? / She thinks of him and so she dresses in black, / And though he’ll never come back, she’s dressed in black. / Oh dear, what can I do? / Baby’s in black and I’m feeling blue, / Tell me, oh what can I do? / I think of her, but she thinks only of him, / And though it’s only a whim, she thinks of him.” He’s clearly distraught at his girl even thinking about another guy, even as a whim. “Oh how long will it take, / Till she sees the mistake she has made? / Dear what can I do? / Baby’s in black and I’m feeling blue, / Tell me, oh what can I do?” The song is repeated, but here finally we see some substance, which probably reflects a growing experience of the vagaries of female affection. AMG, says Wikipedia, call this “a love lament for a grieving girl that was perhaps more morose than any previous Beatles song”. It also says Lennon’s sole penmanship is contested. Some have said McCartney contributed a harmony to the main tune, while others say they were equally responsible, which is evidently why they “share lead vocal duties”. Wikipedia quotes McCartney as saying they were reaching a more mature phase, with this song reflecting their enjoyment of waltz-time … “and I think also John and I wanted to do something bluesy, a bit darker, more grown-up, rather than just straight pop”. Next up was the first cover, Chuck Berry’s Rock And Roll Music which, at the time, we thought superb, but which I later discovered paled in comparison to the Berry original. This was another of those rock and roll classics, like Roll Over Beethoven, which cemented Berry as one of the kings of rock and roll. “Just let me hear some of that rock and roll music, / Any old way you choose it. / It’s got a back beat, you can’t blues it, / Any old time you use it. / It’s gotta be rock roll music, / If you wanna dance with me. / If you wanna dance with me.” Ever wondered just what Berry and the Beatles were singing? “I’ve got no kick against modern jazz, / Unless they try to play it too darn fast. / And lose the beauty of the melody, / Until they sound just like a symphony.” After saying in the chorus that’s why he goes for that rock and roll music, he continues: “I took my lover on over ’cross the tracks, / So she can hear my man awail a sax. / I must admit they have a rockin’ band, / Man, they were blowin’ like a hurricane.” Then all those Southern references. “Way down South they had a jubilee, / Those Georgia folks they had a jamboree. / They’re drinkin’ home brew from a wooden cup, / The folks dancin’ got all shook up.” After then playing more of that rock and roll, the final verse: “Don’t care to hear ’em play a tango, / I’m in the mood to take a mambo. / It’s way too early for a congo , / So keep on rockin’ that piano.” And, as I cast my mind back, I can see my pre-teen self jiving to that chorus. “That’s why I go for that rock and roll music, / Any old time you use it. / It’s got a back beat, you can’t blues it, / Any old time you use it. / It’s gotta be rock and roll music, / If you wanna dance with me. / If you wanna dance with me.” Then, just to remind fans that the Beatles were not stuck in their Merseybeat phase and were becoming a growing force of originality, they follow this cover with the sublime I’ll Follow The Sun. If anyone doubted McCartney’s role as a foil to Lennon’s cynicism, that doubt is silenced by songs like this. Short and, not sweet, but beautiful, the acoustic guitar gives it an added intimacy. Extremely catchy, with some sublime harmonies, this was a very modern song, devoid of all the clichéd devices which still attached themselves to their more traditional rock and roll songs. “One day you’ll look to see I’ve gone / For tomorrow may rain, / so I'll follow the sun.” This seems to have the McCartney stamp, the melody more important really than the meaning of the lyrics. But that doesn’t detract from the use of a lovely English expression. “Some day you’ll know I was the one / But tomorrow may rain, / so I’ll follow the sun.” Then a nice change of key: “And now the time has come / and, my love, I must go / And though I lose a friend / In the end you will know, oh.” This leads back into that haunting chorus, before being repeated. Wikipedia says the song was a reworking of a song McCartney had written as a youth. He was quoted, in 1988, as saying that initially, because of their “hard R&B image”, lighter ballads like this were “pushed back to later”. Next up is another cover, Mr Moonlight by Roy Lee Johnson, which starts with a really loud scream. Wikipedia quotes AMG as calling the song “arguably the worst thing the group ever recorded”. Yet Lennon’s vocals are strong, and there is a rather strange, muted, organ solo which sounds like a church organ. Side 1 ends with another cover, the medley Kansas City/Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey. This is McCartney now having fun with an old rock and roll song written by three men including Richard Penniman, better known as Little Richard. McCartney, quoted by Wikpedia, in 1984 recalled how it required “a great deal of nerve” to “scream like an idiot” on this song, egged on by Lennon. Side 2, naturally, kicks off with another true-blue Beatles mega-hit, Eight Days A Week. A strummed guitar is introduced almost casually, before the assault is launched, with Lennon again on lead vocals. There are even some slightly jazzy guitar chords. This was one of those songs we grew up with; that we ate and breathed. “Ooh I need your love babe, / Guess you know it’s true. / Hope you need my love babe, / Just like I need you. / Hold me, love me, hold me, love me. / Ain’t got nothin’ but love babe, / Eight days a week.” It’s an unashamed pop song. “Love you ev’ry day girl, / Always on my mind. / One thing I can say girl, / Love you all the time. / Hold me, love me, hold me, love me. / Ain’t got nothin’ but love babe, / Eight days a week.” Then, that change of key, with the harmonies sublime: “Eight days a week / I love you. / Eight days a week / Is not enough to show I care.” Wikipedia says this song was “one of the first examples of the in-studio experimentation that the band would use extensively in the future; in the two recording sessions totalling nearly seven hours on October 6 devoted exclusively to this song, Lennon and McCartney tried one technique after another before settling on the eventual arrangement”. It notes that the song “begins with a fade in as a counterpoint to pop songs which end in a fade out”. Then it’s back to the covers, with Buddy Holly’s Words Of Love followed by Honey Don’t, by Carl Perkins, with Starr, who did the vocals, calling it his “little featured spot” on the album. Every Little Thing was a McCartney attempt at their “next single”, while also balancing the dark theme on the album. While it features some nice acoustic guitar, it lacks substance and was, McCartney later conceded, destined to become “an album filler … It didn’t have quite what was required”. Lennon’s dark theme continued on I Don’t Want To Spoil The Party, but it too was something of an album filler. So too, sadly, is McCartney’s What Your’e Doing, while the band returns to the safe rock and roll bedrock with Carl Perkins’s Everybody’s Trying To Be My Baby for the final track. But what of that downbeat cover photograph? Wikipedia says the picture of the “unsmiling, weary-looking Beatles in an autumn scene” was photographed in Hyde Park by Robert Freeman. It was the first gatefold Beatles cover, with the inside photo showing the Beatles in front of a montage of photos. Wikipedia says some have assumed this inspired the cover of Sgt Peppers, though there was no evidence for this. Help! The fifth Beatles album was a turning point for me, because it is the first LP I ever owned. I’ve no idea what became of my copy of Help!, which again reached No 1 in the UK , and was released on August 6, 1965. I would have got it for my birthday, but probably only the next year, when I turned 10. Naturally, I know all the songs backwards, but it is worth repeating what they were, since this to my mind was a breakthrough album, in which the individuality, particularly of McCartney, really starts to shine through – in his case on the song, Yesterday. This time Wikipedia classifies the genre as pop rock and rock and roll – which clearly does not cover Yesterday. And of course it was another soundtrack album for an eponymous film, which I also failed to see. Again, half the songs (all seven on Side 1) appeared in the movie and seven did not, among them the McCartney ballad Yesterday, which Wikipedia says is “the most covered song in history”. But the album also included two transatlantic No 1 singles in Ticket To Ride and Help! Wikipedia adds that Lennon’s You’ve Got To Hide Your Love Away indicates “the influence of Bob Dylan and folk music”. It also quotes Lennon as having said years later that the title was indeed “a sincere cry for help, as the pressures of the Beatles’ fame and his own unhappiness … began to build, and that he regretted turning it from a downbeat song in the style of Roy Orbison’s Only The Lonely to an upbeat pop song as a result of commercial pressures”. Indicative of McCartney’s growing stature as a songwriter, Wikipedia says he wrote Yesterday, Another Girl, The Night Before and I’ve Just Seen A Face, which Arlo Guthrie would cover so superbly several years later. And Harrison chipped in with I Need You and You Like Me Too Much, his first song compositions since Don’t Bother Me from With The Beatles. Again, the album saw critical acclaim, with Rolling Stone magazine listing it at No 332 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. One of the most talked-about aspects of the album was its cover, with the blue-clad lads on a white cover, with the word help!, in lower case, red-outlined white letters, and “the beatles” black on white. Wikipedia explains that their arms are “positioned to spell out a word in flag semaphore”. It quotes photographer Robert Freeman as saying he had the idea of “semaphore spelling out the letters HELP. But when we came to do the shot, the arrangement of the arms with those letters didn’t look good. So we decided to improvise and ended up with the best graphic positioning of the arms”. So what on earth do those arms spell? Wikipedia says on the UK release, which we also got in SA, the letters “appear to be NUJV, whilst the slightly re-arranged US release on Capitol Records appear to feature the letters NJUV”. The sheer quality of the album can be gauged from the fact that, for the first time, virtually every song was a success. There may be one or two “fillers”, but unlike the previous four albums, almost every track is a superb example of the Beatles at the height of their powers, albeit that they are still strongly commercial and by and large seem to target the teenage market. I don’t have the Help! CD, but did track down five of the songs on compilation albums. And I have to agree with Lennon’s view regarding the title track. Of course at the time we thought nothing of the actual meaning of the lyrics. This was just another piece of Beatles magic, and of course it remains one of their most popular songs. But one has to take Lennon’s point that there is something of a contradiction between the upbeat, pop nature of the song, and the rather desperate cry for help in the lyrics. It reminds me of some of the inept newsreaders on SABC television who retain the same artificial smile and “happy” intonation even when they’re reading tragic news, like the death of dozens of people in a suicide bomb blast in Iraq . As with A Hard Day’s Night, Lennon launches straight into Help!, which is characterised by those bold, descending notes on the electric guitar and some solid acoustic guitarwork. But let’s see just how inappropriate the music was for those lyrics. “Help, I need somebody, / Help, not just anybody, / Help, you know I need someone, help.” No question he needs help – but from whom, a therapist, perhaps? He tells the story: “When I was younger, so much younger than today, / I never needed anybody’s help in any way. / But now these days are gone, I’m not so self assured, / Now I find I’ve changed my mind and opened up the doors.” The chorus somehow still captures the downbeat nature of the song, with those descending notes following the voice. “Help me if you can, I’m feeling down / And I do appreciate you being round. / Help me, get my feet back on the ground, / Won’t you please, please help me?” This was at the height of the band’s fame, when the demands on them were immense. “And now my life has changed in oh so many ways, / My independence seems to vanish in the haze. / But every now and then I feel so insecure, / I know that I just need you like I’ve never done before.” Most of us would have taken this, at face value, as a cry for a lover’s help – help in the sense of bringing companionship and affection. The chorus and first verse are repeated to complete the song. McCartney’s penchant for writing catchy tunes is much to the fore on the next track, The Night Before, with its jaunty, upbeat quality. Lennon’s harmonies are almost deadpan, as if trying to mitigate McCartney’s optimism. “We said our goodbyes, ah, the night before. / Love was in your eyes, ah, the night before. / Now today I find you have changed your mind. / Treat me like you did the night before.” Well the song may be about concern for a broken relationship, but McCartney never ever sounds too concerned. “Were you telling lies, ah, the night before? / Was I so unwise, ah, the night before? / When I held you near you were so sincere. / Treat me like you did the night before.” Then, with a change of key, he thinks back to his good times of the previous night. “Last night is a night I will remember you by. / When I think of things we did it makes me wanna cry.” As with most of the top hits, the song repeats choruses and verses, and even includes a short lead guitar solo by Harrison . Then, arguably the best Beatles song so far – and it is essentially a Lennon solo. You’ve Got To Hide Your Love Away is more folk music than anything else. It starts with some great acoustic guitar and bass guitar played almost like a lead instrument. There is an interesting innovation, for the early Beatles, of wind instruments near the end. Wikipedia tells us this sound is made by John Scott’s flutes. But what a crackerjack vocal performance by Lennon. And, unlike with Help!, he was clearly allowed to play the song as he wrote it, without turning it into a pop tune. “Here I stand head in hand, / turn my face to the wall. / If she’s gone I can’t go on, / feelin’ two-foot small.” The tension builds: “Everywhere people stare, / each and every day. / I can see them laugh at me, / and I hear them say:” Then those immortal chorus lines, started with the word, Hey, which has to be a first in popular music. “Hey you’ve got to hide your love away. / Hey you’ve got to hide your love away.” But why should he hide his love away? Is he unworthy of this girl? “How could I even try, / I can never win. / Hearing them, seeing them, / in the state I’m in.” He seems to wallow in his misery: “How could she say to me, / love will find a way. / Gather round all you clowns, / let me hear you say…” Then those two chorus lines again. Here, finally, we see Lennon really starting to use language effectively. The song is a masterpiece of economy, and as catchy as hell. I was unable to track down Harrison ’s I Need You, and despite reading the lyrics found it hard to conjure up the song in my mind. More’s the pity. “You don’t realise how much I need you. / Love you all the time and never leave you. / Please come on back to me. / I’m lonely as can be. I need you.” I’m sure I’d recall Another Girl if I head it again, but the following track was another Beatles hit that was part of our growing up. You’re Going to Lose That Girl is as familiar to me as the most famous Beatles songs. “If you don’t take her out tonight / She’s going to change her mind / She’s going to change her mind / And I will take her out tonight / And I will treat her kind / I’m going to treat her kind.” Then the warning: “You’re going to lose that girl / Yes, yes, you’re going to lose that girl / You’re going to lose that girl / Yes, yes, you’re going to lose that girl.” It’s actually quite a nasty song about what we used to call chiselling – taking someone else’s girl from them. “If you don’t treat her right, my friend / You’re going to find her gone / You’re going to find her gone / ’Cause I will treat her right, and then / You’ll be the lonely one / You’re not the only one.” The next short verse is particularly cutting: “I’ll make a point / Of taking her away from you, yeah / Watch what you do / The way you treat her what else can I do.” I suppose it is a friendly warning, but a threat as well: “If you don’t take her out tonight / She’s going to change her mind / She’s going to change her mind / And I will take her out tonight / And I will treat her kind / I’m going to treat her kind.” And then that nasty chorus: “You’re going to lose that girl, yes, yes... / You’re going to lose that girl, yes, yes... / You’re going to lose that girl.” The last track on the side, all of which are from the movie Help!, is the chart-topping Ticket To Ride, which is in the mould of most of the early Beatles hits. It starts with jangling lead guitar and then Lennon on some typically well-sung lyrics. And of course it is also a sad song about love lost. “I think I’m gonna be sad, / I think it’s today, yeah. / The girl that’s driving me mad / Is going away.” Then that famous, oh so simple, chorus: “She’s got a ticket to ride, / She’s got a ticket to ride, / She’s got a ticket to ride, / But she don’t care.” I think at the time, the teenage fans of the Beatles were right up for songs about the vagaries of romance. In fact, that was probably part of the thrill – with the depths of depression on losing a girl the corollary of the highs of being “in love”. “She said that living with me / Was bringing her down yeah. / She would never be free / When I was around.” And so she’s off, with her ticket to ride. And the worst is, she doesn’t care. The next verse, in a different key, questions why. “I don’t know why she’s ridin’ so high, / She ought to think twice, / She ought to do right by me. / Before she gets to saying goodbye, / She ought to think twice, / She ought to do right by me.” It was a time of massive egos, especially male egos. Do right be me, babe. That’s what matters. While I haven’t heard the first track on Side 2, Act Naturally, in many decades, I always remember it as Ringo Starr’s star turn. Even then, I think he had a reputation as something of an actor, and this song, by Johnny Russell and Voni Morrison, endorsed the view for me that all he had to do to act was act himself. His reputation as the Beatles’ court jester added to that image. “They’re gonna put me in the movie, / They’re gonna make a big star out of me. / We’ll make a film about a man that’s sad and lonely, / And all I gotta do is act naturally.” The story continues: “Well, I’ll bet you I’m gonna be a big star, / Might win an Oscar you can never tell. / The movies gonna make me a big star, / ’Cause I can play the part so well.” Seen in the light of the fact that the Beatles were already megastars, this all seems a little odd. “Well I hope you’ll come and see me in the movies, / Then I know that you will plainly see. / The biggest fool that ever hit the big time, / And all I gotta do is act naturally.” Finally: “We'll make the scene about a man that’s sad and lonely, / And begging down upon his bended knee. / I’ll play the part and I won’t need rehearsing, / All I gotta do is act naturally.” The next song, It’s Only Love, was another delight, and is one I’ve not heard for years. The chorus alone is familiar. “I get high when I see you go by / My oh my. / When you sigh, my, my inside just flies, / butterflies / Why am I so shy when I’m beside you?” Then the famous chorus: “It’s only love and that is all, / Why should I feel the way I do? / It’s only love, and that is all, / but it’s so hard loving you.” Harrison ’s You Like Me Too Much is also unfamiliar territory after all these years. “Though you’ve gone away this morning, / You’ll be back again tonight, / Telling me there’ll be no next time / If I don’t just don't treat you right, / You’ll never leave me and you know it’s true, / ’cause you like me too much and I like you.” Actually, on reading this again, that melody does indeed come singing back. Tell Me What You See is unfamiliar, but not so that wonderful McCartney song, I’ve Just Seen A Face, which I’ll cover in full in a section on Arlo Guthrie, since that is the last and possible the best version of it I’ve heard. Then to an all-time McCartney classic. Yesterday is just one of the great inspirations of our generation. With a bass-heavy acoustic guitar as backing, his voice is at its crystal-clear best on this song. “Yesterday, / All my troubles seemed so far away, / Now it looks as though they’re here to stay, / Oh, I believe in yesterday.” Incidentally, the theme of love lost is not dissimilar to that of several tracks mentioned earlier. “Suddenly, / I’m not half the man I used to be, / There’s a shadow hanging over me, / Oh, yesterday came suddenly.” It is after the word, Suddenly, that a string quartet is introduced, probably also a first in modern pop music. It shadows McCartney through the rest of the song. “Why she / Had to go I don’t know, she wouldn’t say. / I said, / Something wrong, now I long for yesterday.” The verses are economy itself, but incredibly effective. “Yesterday, / Love was such an easy game to play, / Now I need a place to hide away, / Oh, I believe in yesterday.” A couple of verses are repeated before the song ends with a mournful, “Mm-mm-mm-mm-mm-mm-mm.” Finally, to bring the listener down to earth, the album ends with Larry Williams’s Dizzy Miss Lizzy, another of those loud, fast rockers that are used at the end of so many of the early Beatles albums. One interesting aspect about the US release of the album is that it included selections from the orchestral score of the movie, composed by Ken Thorne and performed by the George Martin Orchestra. Wikipedia says it contains “one of the first uses of the Indian sitar on a pop album”. Rubber Soul By now the Beatles were really up and running. And they were about to embark on some of their greatest studio work over the next few years. Their sixth album, Rubber Soul, predictably, went to No 1 on the UK charts. It was released on December 3, 1965, no doubt with Christmas sales in mind. I was still only nine. The cover shows the mop-headed four photographed from below, their hair much longer than on earlier albums. The words “Robber Soul” are written in psychedelic red writing, but interestingly the word “Beatles” does not appear on the cover. Were they already that famous? Of course they were. Rubber Soul contains numerous classics, many of them epoch-making new departures in the history of modern music. Consider the wealth of material among the following: Drive My Car, Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown), You Won’t See Me, Nowhere Man, Think For Yourself, The Word, Michelle – another of those McCartney solo classics – What Goes On, Girl, I’m Looking Through You, In My Life, Wait, If I Needed Someone and Run For Your Life (“if you can little girl”). Many, like the last song, were clearly premised on a rather unhealthy attitude towards women. And finally the Beatles have “graduated” from rock and roll, or rhythm and blues, and, according to Wikipedia, are performing a genre simply called “rock”. After two movie-soundtrack albums, I’m sure the band was happy to be back working simply on an album. And, under George Martin’s direction, they knocked it together in just over four weeks, according to Wikipedia. And, it seems, not taking too long over it was a good idea, because the online encyclopedia goes on to say it was “a major artistic achievement for the band” which attained “widespread critical and commercial success”. Not surprisingly, in 2003 Rubber Soul was ranked No 5 in Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 greatest albums. Wikipedia says the band “broadened their sound, most notably with influences from the contemporary folk-rock of the Byrds and Bob Dylan”. The album was also notable for Harrison ’s use of the sitar on Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown). According to Wikipedia this track is “generally credited as being the first pop recording to use the sitar”. It led to an upsurge in interest in the instrument as the mid-Sixties went hip. Harrison started taking lessons from Indian sitar virtuoso Ravi Shankar. It also emerges that George Martin recorded a piano piece of In My Life at half-speed, then speeded it up, giving it a harpsichord quality. There was also “electronic sound processing” of some instruments, such as the “heavily compressed and equalized piano sound on Lennon’s The Word; this distinctive effect soon became extremely popular in the genre of psychedelic music”, says Wikipedia. It adds that lyrically, the album “represented a pronounced development in sophistication, thoughtfulness, and ambiguity”. Earlier boy-girl love songs had become “more nuanced, even negative portrayals”, with Norwegian Wood “one of the most famous examples and often cited as the Beatles’ first conscious assimilation of the lyrical innovations of Bob Dylan”. But more about the songs later. Wikipedia says after completing the album and accompanying single, We Can Work It Out and Day Tripper, the lads were “exhausted from years of virtually non-stop recording, touring, and film work”. The took three months’ break in the first part of 1966, “and used this free time exploring new directions that would colour their subsequent work”. This, says Wikipedia, became apparent on their next album, Revolver. Very interestingly, Wikipedia tells us that “until very late in their career, the ‘primary’ version of the Beatles’ albums was always the monophonic mix”. It quotes Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn as saying the group, Martin and the Abbey Road engineers “devoted most of their time and attention to the mono mixdowns, and the band were usually all present throughout these sessions and actively participated in them”. Even with “their landmark Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band” album, the stereo mixdowns were considered “less important than the mono version and were completed n far less time than the mono mixdown”. A technical explanation given revolves around the need to ensure that stereo recordings still sounded good on mono equipment, because at the time stereo was still fairly new. One song lucky to make the album was Wait, originally set aside for Help!, then left off it. They needed one more track for Rubber Soul, and opted not to wait any longer. So to the question everyone asks – whence the title? This wasn’t soul music, and albums aren’t made of rubber. But the soles of shoes are. So was it just a clever play on words? Wikipedia says McCartney “claims to have conceived the album’s title after overhearing a black musician’s description of Mick Jagger’s singing style as ‘plastic soul’.” It quotes Lennon as confirming this in 1970, telling Rolling Stone: “That was Paul’s title … meaning English soul. Just a pun.” Another reference is made, says Wikipedia, on Anthology 2 when McCartney says “Plastic soul, man. Plastic soul…” at the end of I’m Down. George Martin’s involvement with the Beatles continued right into the 2000s. So when the CD version was released in 1987, Wikipedia says he prepared the stereo digital remix. At the time, the original UK version of Rubber Soul was released on vinyl in the US for the first time. In that respect, we in SA were better off than the US , since we tended to get what the folk in the UK got. And what of that strange photograph on the cover? Wikipedia quotes McCartney as saying on Volume 5 of the documentary film, Anthology, that photographer Bob Freeman took some pictures at Lennon’s house and showed them to the band by projecting them onto an album-sized piece of cardboard. One slide card fell slightly backwards, elongating the projected image. The lads, typically excited by this happy accident, clamoured for the cover to look like that. And the poor old US fans saw Capital Records use a different colour saturation, causing the orange lettering used by Parlophone Records to appear more brown. And for those looking for evil subliminal messages in everything the Beatles did, it seems the lettering by Charles Front contains a surprise. Wikipedia says if you hold it to a mirror, the words Rubber Soul can be seen to spell Road Abbey in the reflection, “which could have been a recognition of the studio where the band recorded it, or possibly just a large coincidence”. The US market was obviously of great importance to the Beatles, and Rubber Soul was released there just three days after its British release, says Wikipedia. It “began its 59-week long chart run on Christmas Day. It topped the charts for six weeks from January 8, 1966, before dropping back. The album sold 1,2 million copies within nine days of its release, and to date has sold over four million copies in America But it wasn’t the authentic UK version. Wikipedia says that “like other pre-Sgt Peppers Beatles albums, Rubber Soul differed markedly in its US configurations”. The US sequencing made it appear like a “folk rock” album, “to angle the Beatles into that nascent and lucrative American idiom”. This was achieved by the use of I’ve Just Seen A Face and It’s Only Love, not included on the US version of Help!, and the deletion of upbeat tracks like Drive My Car, Nowhere Man, If I Needed Someone and What Goes On. These missing tracks then appeared on a collection called Yesterday … and Today. Significantly, Wikipedia says the US version “also greatly influenced the Beach Boys’ Brian Wilson, who ‘answered’ the album by releasing Pet Sounds in 1966. In turn, Pet Sounds greatly impressed the Beatles, and served as inspiration for Sgt Peppers”. So just how good was the album? Having given it a fresh listen – I picked up an old vinyl copy at a second-hand shop – I have to say Phew! Finally, the lads have got it all together and produced an album without a blemish. This is surely the first mature Beatles album, where every track counts and will go down in history as the work of true masters. And what a pleasure to listen to it on the original vinyl. Even though there are surface noises, these are a minor hassle. Considering the album was released on December 3, 1965, this album would have been bought only a few months later. How do I know? It has a piece of paper pasted on the back, with the following written on it: “3 April 1966. Wishing Laura a happy birthday. Love, (signature)”. I did check out the cover in a mirror and found that, indeed, if held upside down, the word SOUL could be seen as reading ROAD, while RUBBER does read ABBEY, except there is an obvious upside-down R at the start of it. A feature of the cover is the notes accompanying each song, which include some useful information. On the opening track, Drive My Car, for instance, we are told that the vocals are by “Paul and John (with George)” and that Paul plays piano. This is a cracking good start to the album, with Harrison ’s twanging lead guitar and some dynamic bass from McCartney, along with solid piano-work, lifting this song into the “rock” realm. A lead guitar solo midway is also more than just a token gesture. I always heard the opening line as “asked MY girl …”, but it seems I was wrong. “Asked a girl what she wanted to be, / she said baby, can’t you see. / I wanna be famous, a star on the screen, / but you can do something in between.” Then that lovely piano-backed chorus: “Baby you can drive my car. / Yes I’m gonna be a star. / Baby you can drive my car, / and baby I love you.” So who’ll be famous? “I told a girl that my prospects were good, / and she said baby, it’s understood. / Working for peanuts is all very fine, / but I can show you a better time.” Then the chorus again, followed by the typically Bealtlesesque “Beep beep’m beep beep yeah!” and a bit more of Harrison ’s guitar. Then the final verse: “I told a girl I can start right away, / and she said listen babe I got something to say. / I got no car and it’s breaking my heart, / but I’ve found a driver and that’s a start.” A lovely, whimsical bit of humour which, after the chorus ends in much fun as the lads go through “Beep beep’m beep beep yeah!” four times. What’s it all about? Wikipedia sums it up as “a satirical piece of reverse sexism” – which is fitting considering the hammering women take from the Beatles on the rest of the album. Then to the first of what I’d call the Beatles masterpieces, Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown). Lennon leads the vocals, backed by McCartney. The transition between folk and rock reaches a high point on this song, which starts with the melody adroitly plucked on acoustic guitar, with Harrison ’s sitar joining in soon afterwards. And it is that sitar sound, not only between verses but also during them, which gives this song a whole new dimension which would be copied again and again by later groups. As with so many of the greatest songs, this one is short. But wonderfully sweet. “I once had a girl / Or should I say, she once had me / She showed me her room / Isn’t it good Norwegian wood?” But what is the relevance of this Norwegian wood, I wonder. Wikipedia offers little help on that score, but does say the song is “often cited as the Beatles’ first conscious assimilation of the lyirical innovations of Bob Dylan”, adding that it “sketches a poetically ambiguous extramarital affair between the singer and a mysterious girl”. I suppose that’s enough. Dylan was a past master at keeping matters ambiguous, why not the Beatles? There is a change of key for the lines: “She asked my to stay and told me to sit anywhere / So I looked around and I noticed there wasn’t a chair.” Then, back to the original melody: “I sat on a rug, biding my time / Drinking her wine / We talked until two, and then she said: / ‘It’s time for bed’,” Then some Dylanesque stuff: “She told me she worked in the morning and started to laugh / I told her I didn’t, and crawled off to sleep in the bath.” Then a final bit of fun, like something out of a chick flick: “And when I awoke, I was alone / This bird has flown / So I lit a fire / Isn’t it good Norwegian wood?” A few sparks of genius and you have an absolute Beatles classic. The thing about this album is that each song is entirely memorable – even if you can’t immediately recall it just from the title. The chorus to You Won’t See Me is based precisely on those words, but how did it start? It is a straight rock song with good vocals, piano, bass, harmonies – indeed, the entire Beatles package, with McCartney this time on lead vocals. And the lyrics just flow the moment the song begins. “When I call you up / Your line’s engaged / I have had enough / So act your age / We have lost the time / That was so hard to find / And I will lose my mind / If you won’t see me (You won’t see me) / You won’t see me (You won’t see me).” We’re back to the boy-girl thing. “I don’t know why you / Should want to hide / But I can’t get through / My hands are tied / I won’t want to stay / I don’t have much to say / But I can’t turn away / And you won’t see me …” A change of key: “Time after time / You refuse to even listen / I wouldn’t mind / If I knew what I was missing.” The remorse of love lost. “Though the days are few / They’re filled with tears / And since I lost you / It feels like years / Yes, it seems so long / Girl, since you’ve been gone / And I just can’t go on / If you won't see me …” Wikipedia lumps this with I’m Looking Through You and Girl (both on Side 2), as examples of songs that “express more emotionally complex, even bitter and downbeat portrayals of romance”. And it says the next track, Nowhere Man, is “arguably the first Beatles song to move beyond a romantic subject”. Arguable, it adds, because the song Help! need not necessarily be interpreted as being about a boy-girl relationship. It is “a general cry for ‘help’ from the singer to another person, whose relationship to the singer remains unspecified”. Nowhere Man is a classic example of the three main vocalists – Lennon, McCartney and Harrison – using those powerful voices to superb effect, with the opening lines being sung acapella (sp?). Then understated bass and distinctive lead guitar riffs are introduced. This is the “modern” Beatles sound, full-bodied, inventive, infused with ironic humour. And Lennon’s lead vocals reinforce the belief that it was his voice which was the most distinctive and defining of the Beatles sound. This song would, of course, be a feature of the animated movie, Yellow Submarine, a few years later: “He’s a real nowhere Man, / Sitting in his Nowhere Land, / Making all his nowhere plans / for nobody.” Consider the genius of those lines. Suddenly, like Dylan, they’ve made the English language their oyster. Anything goes, provided it is done intelligently. Let’s see where they take it. “Doesn’t have a point of view, / Knows not where he’s going to, / Isn’t he a bit like you and me?” Then that wonderful chorus, the sort of sound that went on to describe the Beatles down the next few decades: “Nowhere Man, please listen, / You don’t know what you’re missin', / Nowhere Man, the world is at your command.” Harrison kicks in here with some interesting lead guitar riffs, before the next verse. “He’s as blind as he can be, / Just sees what he wants to see, / Nowhere Man can you see me at all?” The next chorus is different. “Nowhere Man, don’t worry, / Take your time, don’t hurry, / Leave it all ’till somebody else / lends you a hand.” That sounds a bit like Africa today. Let the problems remain unresolved until, like Zimbabwe , you are printing 100-billion dollar notes. “Doesn’t have a point of view, / Knows not where he’s going to, / Isn’t he a bit like you and me?” The song winds down with our protagonist heading along blindly, just like us. “Nowhere man please listen, / you don’t know what your missin’ / Nowhere Man, the world is at your command.” Then that concluding statement: “He’s a real Nowhere Man, / Sitting in his Nowhere Land, / Making all his nowhere plans for nobody. / Making all his nowhere plans / for nobody. / Making all his nowhere plans / for nobody.” Suddenly, I suspect, Dylan was sitting up and taking notice. I wonder if fuzz bass had been used much before this album, because McCartney certainly makes a huge impact with this instrument on the Harrison composition, Think For Yourself. McCartney clearly had great fun with the fuzz, turning the bass into virtually the lead instrument on the song. Harrison ’s vocals are also a revelation, definitely adding a new element to the Beatles sound. This is, as many Harrison songs were, another decidedly “catchy” tune, but at the same time it doesn’t err on the side of being too overtly commercial – which was often McCartney’s failing. Remember these lyrics? “I’ve got a word or two / To say about the things that you do / You’re telling all those lies / About the good things that we can have / if we close our eyes.” It all builds up nicely ahead of the chorus, as typical a Beatles chorus as you’re likely to find: “Do what you want to do / And go where you’re going to / Think for yourself / ’cause I won’t be there with you.” Again, there is some bitterness towards the fairer sex here, a sort of patronising attitude which both the Beatles and Dylan at times were guilty of. “I left you far behind / The ruins of the life that you have in mind / And though you still can’t see / I know your mind’s made up / You’re gonna cause more misery.” This really is a far cry from the early rosy boy-girl love songs. “Do what you want to do / And go where you’re going to / Think for yourself / ’cause I won’t be there with you.” Imagine all these short-worded lines with that fuzz bass clipping alongside. The effect is superb. “Although your mind’s opaque / Try thinking more if just for your own sake / The future still looks good / And you’ve got time to rectify / All the things that you should.” Ouch! Can womankind take any more of this? The song ends with the chorus repeated a couple of times. Although the album sleeve cites all three as vocalists on The Word, it puts Lennon first and he clearly sings the solo parts on a song which is arguably his first real venture into the peace campaign which would dominate his life later on. The word, of course, is Love. Indeed, this song again emphasises the importance to the Beatles sound of Lennon’s voice. Whereas McCartney’s was often beautiful, rounded and pure, it lacked the character of Lennon’s. Also notable on this track is a harmonium solo by the “fifth Beatle”, George Martin. “Say the word and you’ll be free / Say the word and be like me / Say the word I’m thinking of / Have you heard the word is love? / It’s so fine, It’s sunshine / It’s the word, love.” After this upbeat introduction sung jointly by Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, Lennon takes over: “In the beginning I misunderstood / But now I’ve got it, the word is good.” Then back to the three in harmony: “Spread the word and you’ll be free / Spread the word and be like me / Spread the word I’m thinking of / Have you heard the word is love? / It’s so fine, It’s sunshine / It’s the word, love.” Then Lennon alone again: “Every where I go I hear it said / In the good and bad books that I have read.” It was probably through songs like this that Lennon started assuming Dylan-like importance among the disillusioned youth angry at a world plagued by wars. The messianic message – short but given with great authority – on songs like this, were latched onto by the peaceniks of the era. “Give the word a chance to say / That the word is just the way / It’s the word I’m thinking of / And the only word is love.” Then that change of pace again: “It’s so fine, It’s sunshine / It’s the word, love.” And a clear, confident insight: “ Now that I know what I feel must be right / I’m here to show everybody the light.” The song ends with that opening chorus, a mantra of truth; a policy statement for a generation. From the universal proselytizing of The Word, the album switches, on the last track on Side 1, to the intimate musings of McCartney on another of his bewitching ballads, Michelle. Slow acoustic guitar and bass, along with harmonies from the other two, provide the support for McCartney on a song which was this album’s answer to Yesterday. The use of French in one of the verses only adds to the song’s appeal. “Michelle, ma belle / These are words that go together well / My Michelle.” Then: “Michelle, ma belle / Sont des mots qui vont tres bien ensemble / tres bien ensemble.” This apparently simply means, “These are words that go together well.” Imagine a world full of Beatles fans singing along to this and not knowing what in the “world they were actually singing. The song changes key and picks up pace for the next lines: “I love you, I love you, I love you / that’s all I want to say / Until I find a way / I will say the only words I know you’ll understand / Michelle, ma belle / Sont des mots qui vont tres bien ensemble / tres bien ensemble.” How much is lost in translation? “I need to, I need to, I need to / I need to make you see / Oh, what you mean to me / Until I do I’m hoping you will know what I mean / I love you.” I wonder if this was based on problems McCartney, a notorious flirter in his younger days, had with the many beautiful girls who flocked to be with him in Europe in the early 1960s? “I want you, I want you, I want you / I think you know by now / I’ll get to you some how / Until I do I’m telling you so you’ll understand.” The song ends with that bit of French and a reiteration of his saying the only words she’d understand: “My Michelle”. Already, this album has delivered seven tracks of remarkable diversity, each unique and part of the catalogue of Beatles classics. And unlike with virtually all the previous albums, there is no let-up on Side 2. Even old Ringo gets in on the act with alactrity on the opening track, What Goes On, which he co-wrote with Lennon and McCartney. There are some songs for which his voice is ideal and this is one of them. I enjoyed the bluesy electric guitar here too. “What goes on in your heart? / What goes on in your mind? / You are tearing me apart / When you treat me so unkind / What goes on in your mind.” Then Ringo – who one really can’t call by his surname – in his best Thomas The Tank Engine voice, lays down the verse. “The other day I saw you / As I walked along the road / But when I saw him with you / I could feel my future fold / It’s so easy for a girl / like you to lie / Tell me why.” It is another song of love lost, the genesis of most of the blues music. After the chorus, he continues. “I met you in the morning / waiting for the tides of time / But now the tide is turning / I can see that I was blind / It’s so easy for a girl / like you to lie / Tell me why / What goes on in your heart?” Vulnerable young men are often more at the mercy of beautiful young women’s wily ways than the other way round. “I used to think of no one else / But you were just the same / You didn’t even think of me / As someone with a name / Did you mean to break my / heart and watch me die / Tell me why.” The song ends with that plaintive cry for clarity in the chorus. Lennon continues this theme of analyzing relationships with females in Girl, which is slow, quiet, almost mournful – but again contains classic Lennon vocals, with superb harmonies during the choruses. If ever a song was evocative of the Beatles sound, for me it is this one. Anyone who heard this in the Sixties will have instantly recall of the melody as they read these lines: “Is there anybody gone to listen to my story / All about the girl who came to stay? / She’s the kind of girl you want so much / It makes you sorry; / Still, you don’t regret a single day. / Ah girl! Girl!” There is an interesting, almost resigned, inhalation of air ahead of each “Ah girl!”. He’s just being philosophical about the effects this woman has on him – a sort of beautiful, wonderful torture. He expounds on this further as the pace picks up for the chorus: “She’s the kind of girl who puts you down / When friends are there, you feel a fool. / Di-di-di-di. / When you say she’s looking good / She acts as if it’s understood. / She’s cool, cool, cool, cool, / Girl! Girl! (Was she)” It’s that “Di-di-di-di” sung by the others which just lifts the song, emphasising again the importance of vocal harmonies in the Beatles sound. Then it’s back to the accusatory tone, superb in Lennon’s voice: “When I think of all the times I’ve tried to leave her / She will turn to me and start to cry; / And she promises the earth to me / And I believe her. / After all this time I don’t know why. / Ah, girl! Girl!” After the chorus is repeated, he indulges in further analysis. “Was she told when she was young the pain / Would lead to pleasure? / Did she understand it when they said / That a man must break his back to earn / His day of leisure? / Will she still believe it when he’s dead? / Ah girl! Girl! Girl!” He seems to be almost in tears at the end of that exhortation. Significantly, towards the end there is some wonderful acoustic lead guitar, with the lads discovering yet again how effective this instrument is as a foil to its electronic counterparts. Is the next track still instantly recognisable, or have we finally reached the low point of the album? Well, for many McCartney’s rather harsh vocals on I’m Looking Through You are a trifle off-putting, but the band was trying to put some heavier tracks together, and this became one of them. But McCartney loved a tune, and this one is again rich in melody, while it also features a rather brash, in your face, lead guitar break. The theme is again familiar. “I’m looking through you, where did you go / I thought I knew you, what did I know / You don’t look different, but you have changed / I’m looking through you, you’re not the same.” The anger wells up at this point, then subsides for a further glance: “Your lips are moving, I cannot hear / Your voice is soothing, but the words aren’t clear / You don’t sound different, I’ve learned the game. / I’m looking through you, you’re not the same.” Then that typical Beatles change of key: “Why, tell me why, did you not treat me right? / Love has a nasty habit of disappearing overnight.” Those few bars of music are as instantly discernable as any in the Beatles catalogue. Yet this is the third song on Side 2! “You’re thinking of me, the same old way / You were above me, but not today / The only difference is you’re down there / I’m looking through you, and you’re nowhere.” Dylan, in his angry mode, would have been proud of this song. “Why, tell me why, did you not treat me right? / Love has a nasty habit of disappearing overnight.” The first verse is repeated, before the song descends, as it were, into a rather brash bit of McCartney vocals and lead guitar: “Yeah! Oh baby you changed! / Aah! I'm looking through you! / Yeah! I'm looking through you! / You changed, you changed, you changed!” Again, on In My Life, Lennon and McCartney are listed as the vocalists on the album cover, but it is Lennon who leads the way. And is this some obscure Beatles song, like those many fairly obscure tracks on the early albums? Hardly. Indeed, it is again one of their most famously familiar songs, with the Lennon factor again key. The melody is superb, and it is here that one hears Martin’s slowed down and speeded up piano, while Ringo is listed on the cover as playing Hammond organ. “There are places I remember / All my life, though some have changed / Some forever not for better / Some have gone and some remain / All these places had their moments / With lovers and friends / I still can recall / Some are dead and some are living / In my life I’ve loved them all.” Isn’t this classic Lennon songwriting? How good to see it in black and white. “But of all these friends and lovers / there is no one compares with you / And these memories lose their meaning / When I think of love as something new / Though I know I’ll never lose affection / For people and things that went before / I know I’ll often stop and think about them / In my life I love you more.” It is about change, really. A hard choice – between the group, the gang, the band, even the family, for many, and on the other hand a girl, a one-on-one relationship which often isolates the couple. “Though I know I’ll never lose affection / For people and things that went before / I know I’ll often stop and think about them / In my life I love you more / In my life I love you more.” Okay, so there has to be a weak link on this album. Could it be Wait? Not when Lennon and McCartney launch into an a cappella opening few lines before a fairly heavy rock song evolves, with McCartney this time leading the vocals. Indeed, his more obvious Liverpudlian accent is often conspicuous, with “trust in me” sounding like “troost in me”. But it is again a strong, instantly recognisable Beatles song. “It’s been a long time, / now I’m / coming back home. / I’ve been away now, / Oh how / I’ve been alone.” Then the song starts to pick up pace: “Wait / until I come back to your side, / we’ll forget the tears we cried. / But if your heart breaks, / don’t wait, / turn me away. / And if your heart’s strong, / hold on, / I won’t delay.” The McCartney vocals are as good as it gets on this song: “Wait / until I come back to your side, / we’ll forget the tears we cried. / I feel as though, / you ought to know / that I’ve been good, / as good as I can be. / And If you do, / I’ll trust in you, / and know that you will wait for me.” This is repeated as the song concludes. Okay, so Harrison must surely let the side down with If I Needed Someone. Wrong. He only adds that new X-factor to the group, with the others providing superb backing harmonies which are reminiscent of The Who at their best. “If I needed someone to love / You’re the one that I’d be thinking of / If I needed someone.” Harrison had the ability to infuse songs rather than belt them out. This one grows on one in a wonderfully understated way. “If I had some more time to spend / Then I guess I’d be with you my friend / If I needed someone.” The low-key opening mood continues: “Had you come some other day / Then it might not have been like this / But you see now I’m too much in love.” Finally, that wonderful chorus: “Carve your number on my wall / And maybe you will get a call from me / If I needed someone / Ah, ah, ah, ah.” I like the caveman (person) image of her having to carve her number on his wall. Like he’s so important. Again, there is an undercurrent of male chauvinism here. “If I had some more time to spend / Then I guess I’d be with you my friend / If I needed someone / Had you come some other day / Then it might not have been like this / But you see now I’m too much in love.” The carved number lines end another Beatles classic. And so finally, Rubber Soul comes to an end with Run For Your Life. And Lennon’s voice is left to round things off. Fast-paced acoustic guitar and an electric lead guitar break take us into the instantly recognisable melody: “Well I’d rather see you dead, little girl / Than to be with another man / You better keep your head, little girl / Or I won’t know where I am.” Then, aware that you have here some seriously chauvinistic, almost misogynistic, sentiments, the chorus: “You better run for your life if you can, little girl / Hide your head in the sand little girl / Catch you with another man / That’s the end’a little girl.” This reminds me of a current political row in South Africa , in mid-2008, with ANC Youth League Julius Malema saying he would “kill for Jacob Zuma”, the ANC president, who stands accused of massive arms deal fraud, while aspiring to the presidency of the country. He claims he did not mean it literally. Be that as it may, in Lennon’s case I do think/hope he did not mean he’d rather see his girl dead than with another man. But then again, crimes of passion are almost invariably the most violent. “Well you know that I’m a wicked guy / And I was born with a jealous mind / And I can’t spend my whole life / Trying just to make you toe the line.” So here, at least, he concedes his own shortcomings, with his jealousy to be the subject of another song in his solo career, Jealous Guy. After the chorus is repeated, he concludes: “Let this be a sermon / I mean everything I’ve said / Baby, I’m determined / And I’d rather see you dead.” Phew! Was this guy really that badly hurt? The threats fly thick and fast. If this was in real life, she would have applied for a restraining order. “You better run for your life if you can, little girl / Hide your head in the sand little girl / Catch you with another man / That’s the end’a little girl.” Then he repeats the warning. “I’d rather see you dead, little girl / Than to be with another man / You better keep your head, little girl / Or you won’t know where I am.” Will he be stalking her, waiting to plunge a knife in her back? While Dylan was out there threatening the lives of the “masters of war”, here was Lennon waging war on a woman he suspects of cheating on him. But, as with Dylan, who did many songs in a similar vein, though possibly not quite as threatening, it is the very controversy of the song, not to mention its intrinsic musical quality, which sets it apart. As the chorus is repeated, the song ends with some rollicking rock music. To my mind, Rubber Soul really established the Beatles as the premier band in the world at this time. Of course there would be others, like the Stones and the Who, who’d seek to topple them from their perch. But for now, and over the next few years, they would cement their position as they reached the peak of their creative powers. Wikipedia adds some useful insights about the instruments each of the lads played, based on research by Mark Lewishon and Allan W Pollack. It emerges that Lennon plays that beautiful 12-string acoustic guitar on Norwegian Wood, as well as electric piano on Think For Yourself and harmonium on If I Needed Someone. He also plays slide guitar on Run For Your Life and cowbell on Drive My Car. McCartney is listed as playing lead guitar on Drive My Car and acoustic guitar on I’m Looking Through you. Apart from his well-known accomplishments of lead and acoustic guitars and sitar on Norwegian Wood, Harrison played a 12-string guitar on If I Needed Someone and something called a tone pedal guitar on Wait. As regards the global reception the album received, Wikipedia says it was “a major artistic leap for the group, and is often cited by critics, as well as members of the band, as the point at which the Beatles’ earlier Merseybeat sound began to be transformed into the eclectic, sophisticated pop/rock of their later career. John Lennon later said this was the first album on which the Beatles were in complete creative control during recording, with enough studio time to develop and refine new sound ideas.” Well, they certainly were “sound ideas”, because Wikipedia says Rubber Soul “is often cited as one of the greatest albums in pop music history”. As noted earlier, in 2003 Rolling Stone ranked it No 5 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. Revolver Their next album, Revolver, released in the UK on August 5, 1966, and the US three days later, continued where Rubber Soul left off. Wikipedia found it impossible to pigeonhole this new, eclectic Beatles sound, describing the album as experimental rock, hard rock, pop rock and psychedelic rock. The lads’ seventh album, Wikipedia says Revolver “showcased a number of new stylistic developments which would become more pronounced on later albums”. It says the album moved from a folk-rock inspired Rubber Soul to “an electric guitar-rock sound”. It spent seven weeks at No 1 on the UK charts, and six on the US charts. An interesting snippet from Wikipedia is that the album was released while the band was still touring. While no citation is given, it says “some people (fans) were disappointed that, during that tour, the Beatles did not perform songs from that album”. It cites as a likely reason the fact that “the music was getting more complicated, and thus more difficult to play live”. The newest song they did play at the time, again no source is provided, was Paperback Writer, which was released as a single and recorded at the same time as Revolver. Wikipedia, at the time I downloaded this information, says sources for the material on the album’s songs are needed. The comments, nevertheless, seem more than useful. Revolver, incredibly (because Lennon and McCartney had dominated matters thus far), starts with a Harrison song, Taxman. And it starts not with music, but with a spoken voice. Someone calls out the time: one, two, three, four, one two … before a thumping bass and lead guitar chords kick in. For probably the first time, a Beatles song has a political slant, and it is given a typically humorous touch. “Let me tell you how it will be; / There’s one for you, nineteen for me. / ’Cause I’m the taxman, / Yeah, I’m the taxman.” Whether this was written from the viewpoint of an increasingly wealthy entertainer, or from that of the masses remains to be seen. I predict the former. “Should five per cent appear too small, / Be thankful I don’t take it all. / ’Cause I’m the taxman, / Yeah, I’m the taxman.” Of course this is hyperbole, but at least he got his maths right. Then that wonderful bit of harmonising, with the rest of the lads backing Harrison on the chorus: “(if you drive a car, car;) - I’ll tax the street; / (if you try to sit, sit;) - I’ll tax your seat; / (if you get too cold, cold;) - I’ll tax the heat; / (if you take a walk, walk;) – I’ll tax your feet. / Taxman! / ’Cause I’m the taxman, / Yeah, I’m the taxman.” Then comes a reference to the Labour Party Prime Minister Harold Wilson and the Conservative Party’s Leader of the Opposition at the time, Edward Heath. “Don’t ask me what I want it for, (ah-ah, Mister Wilson) / If you don’t want to pay some more. (ah-ah, Mister Heath) / ’Cause I’m the taxman, / Yeah, I’m the taxman.” I’m not quite sure what the next lines mean: “Now my advice for those who die, (taxman) / Declare the pennies on your eyes. (taxman) / ’Cause I’m the taxman, / Yeah, I’m the taxman. / And you’re working for no one but me. / Taxman!” It was such an inventive song. Wikipedia says the album was “a breakthrough” for Harrison as a songwriter, as he had three songs on it. Bizarrely, though, it was McCartney who would contribute the guitar solo on Taxman. Regarding the references to Wilson and Heath, Wikipedia said “this marked the first time that public figures were directly named in a Beatles song. It says the song was indeed, as I suspected, “a protest against the high marginal rates of income tax paid by high earners like the Beatles, which were sometimes as much as 95 percent of their income. (This would lead to many top musicians becoming tax exiles in later years.)” After that fine opening track, a piece of sheer brilliance. Few songs are as original as Eleanor Rigby, which really showed that the Beatles were capable of doing virtually anything at this time. I may be wrong, but having just again listened to this song, it seems it consists entirely of an elaborate string arrangement and McCartney’s vocals, although backing vocals are discernable on the choruses. I must confess I never did hear that first word as an exclamation. I was hearing “I”, not … “Aah, look at all the lonely people / Aah, look at all the lonely people.” I know much has been written about the meaning of this song, but let’s first see what precisely McCartney was singing. “Eleanor Rigby picks up the rice in the church where a wedding has been / Lives in a dream / Waits at the window, wearing the face that she keeps in a jar by the door / Who is it for?” The surrealist image of her wearing a face she keeps in a jar recalls, for me, the paintings of Salvador Dali. I picture a face that is like his soft watches, which can be pulled over her actual features, giving her a different guise. The song continues with the chorus: “All the lonely people / Where do they all come from? / All the lonely people / Where do they all belong?” Then the focus moves to what I gather is a small-village clergyman: “Father McKenzie writing the words of a sermon that no one will hear / No one comes near. / Look at him working. Darning his socks in the night when there’s nobody there / What does he care?” After the chorus, the two protagonists are “united”. “Eleanor Rigby died in the church and was buried along with her name / Nobody came / Father McKenzie wiping the dirt from his hands as he walks from the grave / No one was saved.” The song concludes with those haunting lines: “All the lonely people / Where do they all come from? / All the lonely people / Where do they all belong?” This song, says Wikipedia, was also released concurrently with the album as a single, with Yellow Submarine on the double A-side release. It says the song “contains McCartney’s lyrical imagery and a string arrangement (score by George Martin under McCartney’s direction) which was inspired by the Bernard Herrmann score for Francios Truffaut’s film, Fehrenheit 451”. It says the strings “were recorded rather dry and compressed, giving a stark, urgent sound”. And while McCartney was the driving force, Wikipedia adds Eleanor Rigby is unique among Beatles songs “for having a lyric idea contributed by each Beatle”. It says Ringo Starr provided the line about Father McKenzie writing his sermon, although originally he referred to Father McCartney. He also contributed the line about Father McKenzie darning his socks. Clearly the song’s origins are controversial, with Wikipedia saying Lennon claimed “40 percent” of the lyric, including that famous line about the face in a jar by the door”. And Harrison is said to have contributed the opening chorus line: “Ah, look at all the lonely people.” Wikipedia said the song had “a great effect upon release for its quirky subject matter and stark, elegiac tone, which contrasted with the Beatles’ prior output”. Touché. There is an interesting strummed steel-string acoustic guitar chord which opens I’m Only Sleeping and occurs regularly during the song, which is further characterized by some innovative bass that seems to undulate like lead vocalist Lennon’s voice. This song seems to be getting closer to the surreal sound Lennon would begin to embrace increasingly as the decade wore on. “When I wake up early in the morning, / Lift my head, I’m still yawning / When I’m in the middle of a dream / Stay in bed, float up stream.” Compare those lines with his later solo song, Oh Yoko, where he sings “In the middle of a dream I call your name”. Here the song tempo switches for the chorus: “Please don’t wake me, no Don’t shake me / Leave me where I am / I’m only sleeping.” This is Lennon in bed-peace mood, and its only 1966! “Everybody seems to think I’m lazy / I don’t mind, I think they’re crazy / Running everywhere at such a speed / Till they find, there’s no need.” There is some interesting progressive-sounding lead guitar on this song too. But Lennon is still in his reverie: “Please don’t spoil my day / I’m miles away / And after all / I’m only sleeping.” The sentence construction lends itself to the sort of lyrical, melodic sound that has the iconic Beatles stamp. “Keeping an eye on the world going by my window / Taking my time / Lying there and staring at the ceiling / Waiting for a sleepy feeling.” This is one guy who just doesn’t want his sweet dreams intruded upon. “Please don’t spoil my day / I’m miles away / And after all / I’m only sleeping.” After earlier lines are repeated, he ends with: “Please don’t wake me, no / don’t shake me / Leave me where I am / I’m only sleeping.” Wikipedia confirms Lennon was the “main writer” of I’m Only Sleeping. And the weird-sounding guitar is the product of experimentation in the studio. Wikipedia says Harrison and Lennon “played the notes for the lead guitar (and for the second guitar in the solo) in reverse order, then reversed the tape and mixed it in. The backwards guitar sound builds the sleepy, ominous, and weeping tone of the song” This, along with a concurrent recording of Rain (B-side to the Paperback Writer single), was “the first recorded instance of backmasking in popular music, which Lennon stated he discovered after mistakenly loading a reel-to-reel tape backwards under the influence of marijuana”, says Wikipedia. While on the subject of technological innovation, Wikipedia says automatic double tracking (ADT) was invented by EMI engineer Ken Townsend on April 6, 1966, and used extensively on Revolver. “This technique used two linked tape recorders to create automatically a doubled vocal track. The standard method was to double the vocal by singing the same piece twice onto a multitrack tape, a task Lennon particularly disliked.” Wikipedia says ADT “quickly became a standard pop production technique, and led to related developments”. Next up on Revolver, it is Harrison whose creative talents are on display with Love You To. He seems to have a tendency to end his titles on a preposition, giving them a sort of restless quality. And this, finally, is Harrison in full Indian music mode. The song starts with some complex sitarwork. There also seems to be a hint of tablas, before the rhythm section turns it into a solid rock sound, with somewhat monotone (but not monotonous) vocals. Some interesting fuzzy sounding bass can be heard, while Harrison ’s exploits on the sitar provide him with arguably his most up-front solo work thus far. But what was the song all about? “Each day just goes so fast. / I turn around, it’s passed. / You don’t get time / To hang a sign on me.” These lyrics are not even really familiar, although the song itself, with that lavish sitarwork, certainly is. “Love me while you can, / Before I’m a dead old man.” The verses are almost like Dylan’s talking blues: “A lifetime is so short. / A new one can’t be bought. / But what you’ve got / Means such a lot to me.” Harrison , too, is establishing his own lyric style here, with these sentiments to be built on later in his career. The next two lines, “Make love all day long. / Make love singing songs” are repeated, before the verse: “There’s people standing round / Who’ll screw you in the ground. / They’ll fill you in / With all their sins, you’ll see.” Then the invitation, to which the title seems to be an answer, of sorts: “I’ll make love to you, / If you want me to.” Wikipedia says the introduction to Love You To plays in the background when the Harrison character first appears in the 1968 animated Beatles movie Yellow Submarine. The songs are becoming increasingly ethereal, and the next one, Here, There and Everywhere sees McCartney in almost lullaby-singing mood. Slowly strummed electric guitar gets the song under way. “To lead a better life I need my love to be here... / Here, making each day of the year / Changing my life with a wave of her hand / Nobody can deny that there’s something there.” It’s a soothing ballad, with the vituperative attacks on women of Rubber Soul supplanted by an almost euphoric state of inloveness. “There, running my hands through her hair / Both of us thinking how good it can be / Someone is speaking but she doesn’t know he’s there.” I enjoy his use of where and there, since it is our location in life, where we spend our time and with whom, that determines how we indeed live our lives. “I want her everywhere and if she’s beside me / I know I need never care / But to love her is to need her everywhere / Knowing that love is to share.” The verses and choruses flow into one another like a peaceful river. “Each one believing that love never dies / Watching her eyes and hoping I’m always there.” And so the song meanders to a satisfying conclusion, leaving one in a soothed, almost post-coital state of satiation and satisfaction. Wikipedia says the song was written “in the style of the Beach Boys”, and was covered by, among others, Emmylou Harris, who had a hit with it in 1976. After that pacific interlude, Yellow Submarine virtually bursts out of the speakers. Sharply strummed acoustic guitar and bass herald those opening lines: “In the town where I was born, / Lived a man who sailed to sea, / And he told us of his life, / In the land of submarines,” It’s a beautifully bizarre tale, which was immortalized in that animated film, where the surrealistic imagery is given substance. Ringo’s vocals add to the sense of a fun-filled journey, while background chatter, trumpets and the muffled voices of the officers saying things like, “full speed ahead”, add to the fun. “So we sailed on to the sun, / Till we found the sea of green, / And we lived beneath the waves, / In our yellow submarine.” Then the famous sing-alone type chorus: “We all live in a yellow submarine, / yellow submarine, yellow submarine, / We all live in a yellow submarine, / yellow submarine, yellow submarine.” I don’t like the two “alls” in the next line, but so what? “All our friends are all aboard, / Many more of them live next door, / And the band begins to play.” At which point those trumpets herald a repeat of the chorus. Then, against a background of much static, we here the muffled orders being barked: “(Full speed ahead, Mr Parker, full speed ahead! / Full speed over here, sir! / Action station! / Action station! / Aye, aye, sir, fire! / Captin! Captin!)” As we emerge from this drama, we find the doughty travellers still in one piece. “As we live a life of ease / Every one of us is all we need, / Sky of blue, and sea of green, / in our yellow submarine.” Laughter then leads into the chorus, which is sung twice before fading. Wikipedia says the song’s inspiration “can be traced back to one of Lennon’s school drawing books from the early 1950s”, though it adds that citation is needed for this. It also quotes McCartney as saying he wrote Yellow Submarine “as a children’s song for Starr to sing”. It adds that Scottish singer-songwriter Donovan, while not credited on the album, was a close friend of the Beatles and “assisted with vocals and with the writing of the song itself”. It says Donovan “came up with the line ‘Sky of blue, sea of green, in our yellow submarine’,” but again offers no citation for this. And what of all those sound effects? It says Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones “can be heard clinking glasses in the background”, while Beatles road manager Mal Evans also sang on the track. “With the help of their EMI production team, the Beatles overdubbed stock sound effects they found in the Abbey Road studio tape library. (George Martin had collected these for his production of recordings of the British radio comedy programme The Goon Show.)” Now there’s something. Martin was clearly a Goons fan, so the Beatles were just up his street. Instead of letting the lads get ahead of themselves, Lennon brings us back to earth with She Said She Said, which Wikipedia describes as having a “swirling melody”. Here steady lead guitar opens the track, with heavy bass and drums setting up a cracking rock song. But like several great Beatles song, I never really “got” the lyrics, so let’s see what Lennon was on about. “She said ‘I know what it’s like to be dead. / I know what it is to be sad’ / And she’s making me feel like I’ve never been born.” It seems Lennon is back on a bad trip, woman-wise. “I said ‘Who put all those things in your head? / Things that make me feel that I’m mad / And you’re making me feel like I’ve never been born’” This last, mournful line, is accompanied by some great lead guitarwork, before the discourse continues. “She said ‘you don’t understand what I said’ / I said ‘No, no, no, you’re wrong’ / When I was a boy everything was right / Everything was right.” He adds: “I said ‘Even though you know what you know / I know that I’m ready to leave / ’Cause you’re making me feel like I’ve never been born’.” The duologue continues, going round in circles, with previous comments repeated. McCartney’s need for a “good tune”, or their “next hit single” is never far away, and Good Day Sunshine, the opening track on Side 2, has all the ingredients of a typical Beatles hit. It starts with some slow bass, but quickens as the drums step in and the chorus chant begins: “Good day sunshine / Good day sunshine / Good day sunshine.” Then, his bass humming alongside it, McCartney’s voice gives the song its best shot. “I need to laugh, and when the sun is out / I’ve got something I can laugh about / I feel good, in a special way / I’m in love and it's a sunny day.” With Harrison also about to unleash a song about the importance of the sun to the British humour on Here Comes The Sun, McCartney’s almost childlike rejoicing of the golden orb is joyful in the extreme. “Good day sunshine / Good day sunshine / Good day sunshine.” It may seem almost childlike, but then part of the Beatles’ charm was this sense of unbridled delight in things. McCartney must have enjoyed writing these simple lyrics. “We take a walk, the sun is shining down / Burns my feet as they touch the ground.” After a few more greetings to the sunshine, he continues: “Then we lie beneath a shady tree / I love her and she’s loving me / She feels good, she know she’s looking fine / I’m so proud to know that she is mine.” So it’s a bit schmaltzy, so what? It’s a bit of fun, beautifully produced. Next was one of the finest tracks on the album, And Your Bird Can Sing, where Lennon’s inimitable vocals are again a hallmark, alongside thumping bass and some fine lead guitarwork. “You tell me that you’ve got everything you want / And your bird can sing / But you don’t get me, you don’t get me.” I hadn’t realised it before, but this seems to be another of those somewhat spiteful love spats. It remains, though, one of the most conspicuously Beatles melodies ever. “You say you’ve seen seven wonders and your bird is green / But you can’t see me, you can’t see me.” He then seems to offer the hand of friendship. “When your prized possessions start to weigh you down / Look in my direction, I’ll be round, I’ll be round.” This use of a bird metaphor is interesting, because birds are both fragile and incredibly strong and resourceful. “When your bird is broken will it bring you down / You may be awoken, I’ll be round, I’ll be round.” I wonder how accurate these lyrics are. In the next verse, does he say her bird can “swing” or “sing”? “You tell me that you’ve heard every sound there is / And your bird can swing / But you can’t hear me, you can’t hear me.” McCartney couldn’t help it, he simply had to write melodic ballads, and For No One is just that. This time round it is piano and some fiendishly good bass which provide the backing for his Beatle-ful voice. There is also some interesting trumpet on the song. Again, I always thought the song started, “The day breaks …”, but I see it goes like this: “Your day breaks, your mind aches / You find that all her words of kindness linger on / When she no longer needs you.” It is a typical intimate scene. “She wakes up, she makes up / She takes her time and doesn’t / feel she has to hurry / She no longer needs you.” Then that famous chorus: “And in her eyes you see nothing / No sign of love behind the tears / Cried for no one / A love that should have lasted years!” It’s another relationship on the rocks. “You want her, you need her / And yet you don’t believe her when / she says her love is dead / You think she needs you.” After the chorus, the final verse: “You stay home, she goes out / She says that long ago she knew / someone but now he’s gone / She doesn’t need him.” The song returns to the opening verse, but it’s changed somewhat. “Your day breaks, your mind aches / There will be times when all / the things she says will fill / your head / You won’t forget her.” And just to repeat that iconic chorus. “And in her eyes you see nothing / No sign of love behind the tears / Cried for no one /A love that should have lasted years!” Wikipedia casts some light on this track, saying it is “a melancholy song featuring him (McCartney) playing clavichord and a horn solo played by Alan Civil. So much for my piano and trumpet! If that was melancholy, the next track, Dr Robert, is quick-fire rock, with Lennon leading the vocals and McCartney providing superb support in the chorus. And, unusually, at one point an organ is prominent, along with a more mature lead guitar. Again, down the years I’ve heard the opening line as “Me my friend …”. It is in fact: “Ring, my friend I said you’d call / Doctor Robert / Day or night he’ll be there any time at all / Doctor Robert.” It is indeed a strange subject for a song. “Doctor Robert / You’re a new and better man / He helps you to understand / He does everything he can / Doctor Robert.” This doesn’t sound like your typical GP, however. “If you’re down he’ll pick you up / Doctor Robert / Take a drink from his special cup / Doctor Robert.” A drug pusher, perhaps? “Doctor Robert / He’s a man you must believe / Helping anyone in need / No one can succeed like / Doctor Robert.” The inevitable key change comes: “Well, well, well, you’re feeling fine / Well, well, well, he’ll make you / Doctor Robert.” The last verse places this firmly in the UK . “My friend works for the National Health / Doctor Robert / Don’t pay money just to see yourself / Doctor Robert.” Several earlier bits of verses and the chorus are repeated. Harrison returns with another esoteric track, I Want To Tell You, which starts with a few notes struck on the guitar, before the bass and drums settle in. There is some good piano work, with regular changes in tempo. “I want to tell you / My head is filled with things to say / When you’re here / All those words, they seem to slip away.” Wikipedia says this song is about Harrison ’s “difficulty expressing himself in words”. “When I get near you, / The games begin to drag me down / It’s all right / I’ll make you maybe next time around.” Hard to imagine any of the Beatles tongue-tied. “But if I seem to act unkind / It’s only me, it’s not my mind / That is confusing things.” It is still another Beatles classic. “I want to tell you / I feel hung up but I don’t know why, / I don’t mind / I could wait forever, I’ve got time.” He again battles to speak his mind. “Sometimes I wish I knew you well, / Then I could speak my mind and tell you / Maybe you’d understand.” But he’s resolved … to procrastinate. “I want to tell you / I feel hung up but I don’t know why, / I don’t mind / I could wait forever, I’ve got time, I’ve got time, I’ve got time.” It’s time for another McCartney ballad, and Got To Get You Into My Life has all the bells and whistles he could have wished for. This song, which starts with a solid brass assault, is as catchily commercial as you could hope for, and even features a bit of bluesy saxophone. “I was alone, I took a ride, / I didn’t know what I would find there / Another road where maybe I could see another kind of mind there.” It’s the sort of song that seems to have always been there. It’s part of our make-up, those of us who grew up on these sounds. “Ooh, then I suddenly see you, / Ooh, did I tell you I need you / Every single day of my life.” McCartney’s voice is velvet smooth. “You didn’t run, you didn’t lie / You knew I wanted just to hold you / And had you gone you knew in time we’d meet again / For I had told you.” The chorus is changed: “Ooh, you were meant to be near me / Ooh, and I want you hear me / Say we’ll be together every day.” Then that titular line: “Got to get you into my life.” The words just flow: “What can I do, what can I be, / When I’m with you I want to stay there / If I’m true I’ll never leave / And if I do I know the way there.” Verses and chorus are repeated, as the song unfolds. It is simple, but so effective. Wikipedia says the song was “influenced by the Motown Sound and uses brass instrumentation extensively”. While ostensibly a love song, it says McCartney “has since revealed that the song was actually an ode to marijuana”. Lennon, however, is quoted in the Beatles Anthology as claiming it is about LSD. It was released as a single in 1976. The final track, Tomorrow Never Knows, is something altogether and completely different. Surely the first truly psychedelic song, it includes all manner of weird sounds, as well as a device to make Lennon’s voice muted, or distant, at certain points. There are the sound of ducks squawking, and other weird and wonderful effects. Indeed, I was reminded of the first Pink Floyd album, Piper at the Gates of Dawn, which was released a year later, in 1967. But let’s check out those lyrics: “Turn off your mind, relax / and float down stream / It is not dying / It is not dying.” What a statement to make. “Lay down all thought / Surrender to the void / It is shining / It is shining.” So were the lads getting heavily into the hard stuff at this point? It would seem so. “That you may see / The meaning of within / It is being / It is being.” Yet, while this may seem like a stream of consciousness thing, there is an obvious structure to these verses. “That love is all / And love is everyone / It is knowing / It is knowing.” And he even gets a bit political. “That ignorance and hate / May mourn the dead / It is believing / It is believing.” I can only imagine the average dope-head at the time must have relished verses like the next one. “But listen to the / color of your dreams / It is not living / It is not living.” If they were having an existential crisis before, this would have compounded matters. “Or play the game / existence to the end / Of the beginning / Of the beginning / Of the beginning / Of the beginning / Of the beginning / Of the beginning.” Okay, so we’re in the dark about all this. What does Wikipedia have to say? A lot, actually. It says the lads’ “unfolding innovation in the recording studio reaches its apex” with Lennon’s Tomorrow Never Knows, which was “one of the first songs in the emerging genre of psychedelic music, and included such groundbreaking techniques as reverse guitar, processed vocals and looped tape effects”. Musically, says Wikipedia, the song is “drone-like, with a strongly syncopated, repetitive drum-beat, and it is considered to be among the earliest precursors of electronica”. While the lyrics were “inspired by the Tibetan Book of the Dead”, the title says Wikipeida, “came from one of Starr’s inadvertently amusing turns of phrase, playfully called Ringoisms (another being A Hard Day’s Night)”. It says “much of the backing track consists of a series of prepared tape loops, stemming from Lennon and McCartney’s interest in and experiment with magnetic tape and musique concrete techniques at that time”. Mark Lewisohn is quoted as saying the two prepared a series of loops at home, “and these were then added to the pre-recorded backing track. This was reportedly done live in a single take, with multiple tape recorders running simultaneously, some of the longer loops extending out of the control room and down the corridor”. That “distant” lead vocal I spoke of was, says Wikipedia, “another innovation”. It says Lennon told EMI engineer Geoff Emerick he “wanted to sound like he was singing from the top of a high mountain”. “Emerick solved the problem by splicing a line from the recording console into the studio’s Leslie speaker, giving Lennon’s vocal its ethereal, filtered quality (he was later reprimanded by the studio’s management for doing this).” Wikipedia even notes that there were noticeable differences between the stereo and mono mixes of the song. “The opening drone fades in more gradually in the stereo version than in the mono mix. The tape loops fade in and out at different times, and the protracted one that serves as the song’s instrumental break is heavily treated with ADT in the mono mix, lending it further distortion and intensity.” So much for the songs on this epochal album. What of the cover, and the title. Wikipedia says German-born bassist and artist Klaus Voormann, a friend from their Hamburg days, did the black and white illustration. At the time he was playing bass with Manfred Mann. It says the album is “part line drawing and part collage”, and included photographs by Robert Whitaker, who took the back cover photographs. Voormann’s own photo and his name, Klaus O W Voormann, says Wikipedia, is “worked into Harrison ’s hair on the right-hand side of the cover”. And what of the title? Wikipedia says it, like Rubber Soul, is a pun, “referring both to a kind of handgun as well as the ‘revolving’ motion of the record as it played on a turntable”. It seems, according to one McCartney biographer, that initially they wanted the title Abracadabra, but discovered it had already been used. Lennon then wanted Four Sides of the Eternal Triangle, and Starr suggested, jokingly, After Geography, “playing on the Rolling Stones’ recently released Aftermath LP”. Wikipedia’s list of personnel on the album reveals how the band had diversified, with several new instruments and, of course, tape loops and special sound effects, being listed. Also listed are session musicians who played four violins, two violas and two cellos on Eleanor Rigby. Among those listed as having provided backing vocals on Yellow Submarine are Donovan, Brian Jones and Marianne Faithfull, though none are credited on the album. Was it really such a great album? Wikipedia says Revolver is “often cited as one of the greatest albums in rock music history”. While numerous publications have heaped praise on it, I’ll stick with the 2003 Rolling Stone list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, where it was ranked No 3. No 1 is the next Beatles album, Sgt Pepper’s, while second, which I find hard to credit, is Pet Sounds by the Beach Boys. Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band Their genius seemed to know no bounds. But in terms of imagination and creativity, few albums can top their next release, which was again a UK chart-topper. Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band was released on June 1, 1967. I was not yet 11, but this album became as much a part of my life as my closest siblings. I lived and breathed it for the next decade or more. Still do, in fact. Probably one of the first “concept albums” – it later formed the basis for the great Yellow Submarine animated movie – the album became famous even before anyone heard it, thanks to its incredible Pop Art cover. Among the many celebrities featured are two versions of the Beatles themselves. The old Beatles of the straight rock and roll era, and the new Beatles who would increasingly branch out and explore the furthest reaches of the psyche as they travelled across the musical universe. I always view the album as being circus-like (did it influence the Monty Python team, I wonder?). There are certainly circus allusions in Being For The Benefit Of Mr Kite, while the first song, the title track, sets the scene as Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band invites you to “enjoy the show”. But I’m getting ahead of myself. Let’s see what Wikipdia has to say about the album. As is to be expected, Wikipedia has reams of information on this album, which was recorded between December 6, 1966, and April 21, 1967, at Abbey Road Studios in London, runs to just 39:42 minutes and was released on the Parlophone label. George Martin, naturally, was the producer. The group’s eighth studio album, it took 129 days to record and was released on June 1, 1967 in the UK and the following day in the US . Wikipedia says the album “is often described as the Beatles’ magnum opus and one of the most influential albums of all time by prominent critics and publications. It was, as noted above, ranked the greatest album of all time by Rolling Stone in 2003.” How did this bizarre, yet so typically Beatles, concept arise? Wikipedia says when it was being recorded, Beatlemania was waning, with the band having stopped touring in August, 1966. They would remain a studio-based band for the rest of the Beatles’ life, apart from that famous rooftop performance during the Get Back session in 1969. Finally, notes Wikipedia, they had “ample time to prepare their next record”. “As EMI’s premier act and Britain ’s most successful pop group they had almost unlimited access to the state of the art technology of Abbey Road Studios. All four band members had already developed a preference for long, late-night sessions, although they were still extremely efficient and highly disciplined in their studio habits.” They had by this time, says Wikipedia, diversified their musical interests beyond simple R&B, pop, and rock and roll. They had also started working with a range of new instruments, including the Hammond organ and electric piano, strings, brass, woodwind, percussion and sitar. And McCartney, who could not read music but was assisted by producer/arranger George martin, had already scored a British film, The Family Way, which earned him the Ivor Novello award. Wikipedia says he was greatly influenced by avant garde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen. They were already at home using “new modular effects units” such as the wah-way pedal and fuzzbox, as well as “their own experimental ideas, such as running voices and instruments through a Leslie speaker”. This is all quite technical stuff, but when one comes to listen to this album, you realise that it is almost like an alien being that suddenly arrived on Earth, such is the innovative quality and texture of the sounds achieved. So it is important to know that, according to Wikipedia, “another important sonic innovation” was McCartney’s discovery of “the direct input (DI) technique, in which he could record his bass by plugging it directly into an amplifying circuit in the recording console”. Another important element which shaped Sgt Peppers was the sort of musical environment which had evolved, almost overnight. Wikipedia notes that the album “coincided with the introduction of some important musical innovations, both from within the band and the rest of the musical industry. The work of Bob Dylan, Frank Zappa, Jimi Hendrix, Phil Spector and Brian Wilson was radically redefining what was possible for pop musicians in terms of both songwriting and recording”. Longer songs with “complex lyrical themes” were becoming the order of the day. But Wikipedia won’t let us technophobes off that lightly. It even explores the history of “technical innovation” leading up to Sgt Peppers, noting that “since the introduction of magnetic recording tape in 1949, multi-track recording had been developed”. In 1967, Sgt Peppers would be recorded using mono, stereo and 4-track recorders. While 8-track recorders were available already in the US , they were not used in London studios until late 1967, shortly after Sgt Peppers was released. So how did they arrive at that amazingly rich sound? It seems the Abbey Road engineers had followed on earlier work with the Beatles by making “extensive use of the technique known as bounding down (also called multing), in which a number of tracks were recorded across the four tracks of one recorder, which were then mixed and dubbed down onto one track of the master 4-track machine.” This gave the Beatles “a virtual multi-track studio”. This really is the realm of the engineers, but in order to appreciate the art of Sgt Peppers one has to endure the technology that made it possible. Because this was clearly a time of great inventiveness, not only among the musicians, but also among all those technically savvy people working behind the scenes. Wikipedia says the use of magnetic tape led to the “innovative use of instruments and production effects, notably the tape-based keyboard sampler, the Mellotron, effects like flanging (used as early as 1959 on Toni Fisher’s The Big Hurt) and phasing, as well as a greatly improved system for creating echo and reverberation”. New production effects included automatic double tracking (ADT), “a system that used tape recorders to create an instant and simultaneous doubling of a sound”. This method, which “doubled” lead vocals, obviated the need to record such vocal tracks twice. Wikipedia says ADT was invented “specially for the Beatles by EMI engineer Ken Townsend in 1966, mainly at the behest of Lennon, who hated tracking sessions and regularly expressed a desire for a technical solution to the problem”. It soon became a “near-universal recording practice in popular music”. There seemed to be no bounds to the tricks the men in white overalls could come up with. Another cited by Wikipedia is “varispeeding, the technique of recording various tracks on a multi-track tape at slightly different tape speeds. The Beatles use this effect extensively on their vocals in this period. The speeding up of vocals (also known as ‘tweaking’) also became a widespread technique in pop production. The Beatles also used the effect on portions of their backing tracks (as on Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds) to give them a ‘thicker’ and more diffuse sound”. Wikipedia also refers to the bit of “laughter and gibberish” at the end of the final track, Day In The Life, which I heard for the first time when I listened to the CD version. While Wikipedia says this sound was on an endless loop made by “the runout groove looping back into itself” on “non-US pressings” of the album, it does not occur on an original SA pressing which I picked up recently at a second-hand shop. The CD version lasts for about 20 seconds, but we’ll get to that later. On second thoughts, Wikipedia dwells on this issue, so best continue. It says the loop “is also the subject of much controversy, being widely interpreted as some kind of secret message”. I have to confess I don’t recall this “controversy” reaching SA. Wikepedia quotes biographer Barry Miles as saying some fans complained to McCartney that the section, when played backwards, sounds like “Well fuck you like superman”, and McCartney had responded, “Oh God!”, after listening to it. But Wikipedia says it was “nothing more than a few random samples and tape edits played backwards”. It does note that a sped-up voice, possibly McCartney’s, recites the phrase “never could be any other way”. After recovering from the shock of suddenly hearing this stuff, I thought I heard “never push it any other way now”. Before getting to the actual songs, let’s see what Wikipedia has to say about the album concept. It says that with this album, the Beatles “wanted to create a record that could, in effect, tour for them – an idea they had already explored with the promotional film-clips made over the previous years, intended to promote them in the US when they were not touring there”. Wikipedia says McCartney (who else?!) decided they should “create fictitious characters for each band member and record an album that would be a performance by that fictitious band”. It seems the Beatles were desperate for a change of identity, with Wikipedia noting that “the idea of disguise or change of identity was one in which the Beatles, naturally enough, had an avid interest – they were four of the most recognisable and widely known individuals of the 20th century”. As a result, they grew moustaches, beards and longer hair – and then donned their flamboyant Sgt Pepper costumes. “McCartney was well known for going out in public in disguise and all four had used aliases for travel bookings and hotel reservations.” As I suspected, and as we’ll see as we go though each song, there was again a McCartney-Lennon split on what they were aiming to achieve. Wikipedia notes that the opening track “introduces Sgt Peppers’s band”, before it “seques seamlessy” into “a sung introduction for bandleader Billy Shears (Starr), who performs With A Little Help From My Friends”. It adds that a repressive version of the title track, the penultimate song before A Day In The Life, has a “bookending effect”. But, it says, “Lennon was unequivocal in stating that the songs he wrote for the album had nothing to do with the Sgt Pepper concept”. Wikipedia says that as the other songs are “actually unrelated, one might be tempted to conclude that the album does not express an overarching theme”. But it says, “the cohesive structure and careful sequencing of and transitioning between songs on the album, as well as the use of the Sgt Pepper framing device, have led the album to be widely acknowledged as an early and ground-breaking example of the concept album”. And, Wikipedia says, some would argue that Sgt Pepper’s is not even the overriding theme on the album. It says before work started on Sgt Pepper, the Beatles “had begun to work on a series of songs that were to form an album thematically linked to childhood and everyday life”. This led to Penny Lane and Strawberry Fields Forever, which were released as singles as part of EMI’s commitment to produce one album and four singles a year. While Sgt Peppers overtook this concept, Wikipedia says “traces of this initial idea survive in the lyrics to several songs on the album (Day In The Life, Lovely Rita, Good Morning Good Morning, She’s Leaving Home and When I’m Sixtry-Four)”. As a result, says Wikipedia, it could be argued that these “provide more of a unifying theme for the album than that of the Pepper concept itself”. It is the same sense of expectation one had, as a child, when visiting the circus, that one experiences as this album gets under way – in the form of the title track. An excited crowd cheers before the bass, drums and lead guitar launch those immortal opening lines. “It was twenty years ago today / Sgt Pepper taught the band to play / They’ve been going in and out of style / But they’re guaranteed to raise a smile / So may I introduce to you / The act you’ve known for all these years / Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.” This was showman McCartney doing what he did best: marketing. Few would argue that McCartney was the commercial driving force behind the group, and here we have the whole process put on record. And it’s a real romp: “We’re Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band / We hope you will enjoy the show / We’re Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band / Sit back and let the evening go.” Lennon also gets in on the vocals act after the lines, “Sgt Pepper’s lonely, Sgt Pepper’s lonely / Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band,” as he sings: “It’s wonderful to be here / It’s certainly a thrill / You’re such a lovely audience / We’d like to take you home with us / We’d love to take you home…” Then McCartney, or is it Ringo, seems to intrude: “I don’t really want to stop the show / But I thought you might like to know / That the singer’s going to sing a song / And he wants you all to sing along / So let me introduce to you / The one and only Billy Shears / And Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.” This, of course, is the introduction to the wonderful With A Little Help From My Friends, sung by Ringo Starr. The Joe Cocker version of this song at Woodstock in 1969 has often been said to eclipse the original, but they are different songs. That has a more soulful feel to it, whereas this is a straight rock-pop song, with McCartney’s bass again superb. And it was also such an integral part of our growing up. “What would you think if I sang out of tune, / would you stand up and walk out on me? / Lend me your ears and I’ll sing you a song, / and I’ll try not to sing out of key.” Then the chorus: “Oh, I get by with a little help from my friends. / Mm, I get high with a little help from my friends. / Mm, gonna try with a little help from my friends.” Of course we couldn’t escape the “get high” reference, since this was the time when drugs were still seen as almost an innocuous part of being cool. “What do I do when my love is away? / (Does it worry you to be alone?) / How do I feel by the end of the day? / (Are you sad because you’re on your own?)” Here the Beatles’ penchant for harmony kicks in with alacrity. After replying that, no, he gets along fine with a bit of help from his friends, another question and answer session follows: “Do you need anybody? / I need somebody to love. / Could it be anybody? / I want somebody to love.” This was the “love generation”, and this song went a long way to underscoring that, especially after Woodstock . “Would you believe in a love at first sight? / Yes, I’m certain that it happens all the time. / What do you see when you turn out the light? / I can’t tell you but I know it’s mine.” Earlier choruses are then repeated as the song concludes. Then it was Lennon’s turn to lay down one of the world’s most famous songs. Some interesting reverberating lead guitar opens Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds, before the uncannily powerful bass provides support for the opening lyrics, backed by great drumming. “Picture yourself in a boat on a river, / With tangerine trees and marmalade skies / Somebody calls you, you answer quite slowly, / A girl with kaleidoscope eyes.” Then Lennon’s voice assumes a distant quality: “Cellophane flowers of yellow and green, / Towering over your head. / Look for the girl with the sun in her eyes, / And she’s gone.” Then the chorus, or refrain, kicks in: “Lucy in the sky with diamonds / Lucy in the sky with diamonds / Lucy in the sky with diamonds / Ah... Ah...” The hippie era had arrived. For us. This song was about being hip. It was about bright colours and patterns, long hair and a laid-back life where you didn’t have to work and everything you wanted grew on trees. “Follow her down to a bridge by a fountain / Where rocking horse people eat marshmallow pies, / Everyone smiles as you drift past the flowers, / That grow so incredibly high.” Finally, someone had arrived to compete with Dylan as a songwriter. And it’s strange how imagery stays with you. In the next verse the reference to newspaper taxis came home to me when, in 1990, I arrived in London and saw just that, newspaper taxis. What they were, in fact, was ordinary black taxis painted to resemble a newspaper – the London Evening Standard, in fact. Maybe they’d been painting the taxis like that back then. “Newspaper taxis appear on the shore, / Waiting to take you away. / Climb in the back with your head in the clouds, / And you’re gone.” After the refrain is repeated, another incredible verse. “Picture yourself on a train in a station, / With plasticine porters with looking glass ties, / Suddenly someone is there at the turnstile, / The girl with kaleidoscope eyes.” The chorus is then repeated and fades. Lennon may have argued that this doesn’t fit the Sgt Pepper theme, but if you see the album as a colourful, richly textured spectacle, then I think it fits in perfectly. Wikipedia deals generally with the alleged drug references, so I’ll get back to that. Getting Better starts with sharply chopped lead guitar chords, before a chorus sings: “Its getting better all the time.” Then McCartney’s booming bass kicks in, backed by more great Beatles hamonising. “I used to get mad at my school / Now I can’t complain / The teachers who taught me weren’t cool / Now I can’t complain / You’re holding me down, ah, turning me round, ah / Filling me up with your rules, ooh ooh.” Then the chorus: “I’ve got to admit it’s getting better, better / A little better all the time, it can’t get no worse / I have to admit it’s getting better, better / It’s getting better since you’ve been mine.” Then some interesting, deliberate, poor English. “Me used to be angry young man / Me hiding me head in the sand / You gave me the word, I finally heard / I’m doing the best that I can.” After things get better all the time, another verse: “I used to be cruel to my woman / I beat her and kept her apart from the things that she loved / Man I was mean but I’m changing my scene / And I’m doing the best that I can.” Ah, so even a Beatle can mend his misogynistic ways… Our virtually flat roof, at 27 Lotus Avenue Bonza Bay , where I grew up, quite often leaked, so we could relate to the next song, Fixing A Hole. I suspect it’s a mellotron’s notes that start this one, with McCartney again providing fine vocals. Here, too, we experience the full textured sound of the album, particularly the use of cymbals, brushes and tambourine. “I’m fixing a hole where the rain gets in / And stops my mind from wandering / Where it will go / I’m filling the cracks that ran through the door / And kept my mind from wandering / Where it will go / And it really doesn’t matter if I’m wrong / I’m right / Where I belong I’m right / Where I belong. / See the people standing there who disagree and never win / And wonder why they don’t get in my door. / I’m painting the room in a colourful way / And when my mind is wandering / There I will go. / And it really doesn’t matter if I’m wrong I’m right / Where I belong I’m right / Where I belong. / Silly people run around they worry me / And never ask me why they don’t get past my door. / I’m taking the time for a number of things / That weren’t important yesterday / And I still go.” The song ends with the first three lines repeated. The evocative strains of a harp launch She’s Leaving Home, another song with top-notch harmonising. There is a bit of Eleanor Rigby to this too, with an elaborate strings arrangement and not a rock instrument to be heard. “Wednesday morning at five o’clock as the day begins / Silently closing her bedroom door / Leaving the note that she hoped would say more / She goes downstairs to the kitchen clutching her handkerchief / Quietly turning the backdoor key / Stepping outside she is free…” Then the incredibly beautiful chorus section: “She (We gave her most of our lives) / Is leaving (Sacrificed most of our lives) / Home (We gave her everything money could buy) / She’s leaving home after living alone / For so many years / Bye bye.” It’s part of the cycle of life. “Father snores as his wife gets into her dressing gown / Picks up the letter that’s lying there / Standing alone at the top of the stairs / She breaks down and cries to her husband / Daddy our baby’s gone / Why would she treat us so thoughtlessly? / How could she do this to me?” Then more self-pitying remorse: “She (We never though of ourselves) / Is leaving (Never a thought for ourselves) / Home (We struggled hard all our lives to get by) / She’s leaving home after living alone / For so many years / Bye bye.” And she’s found a man, be gods! “Friday morning at nine o’clock she is far away / Waiting to keep the appointment she made / Meeting a man from the motor trade.” Again, onto the pity pot. “She (What did we do that was wrong) / Is having (We didn’t know it was wrong) / Fun (Fun is the one thing that money can’t buy) / Something inside that was always denied / For so many years / Bye bye.” Then, as the orchestral piece wraps up: “She’s leaving home / Bye bye.” And you can’t here those words without anticipating the next song, which flows from it. Solid rock music launches Being For The Benefit Of Mr Kite. This has all the hallmarks of a circus act, with prominent use of cymbals and drum rolls. “For the benefit of Mr Kite / There will be a show tonight on trampoline / The Hendersons will all be there / Late of Pablo-Fanques Fair, what a scene / Over men and horses hoops and garters / Lastly through a hogshead of real fire! / In this way Mr K will challenge the world! / The celebrated Mr K / Performs his feat on Saturday at Bishopsgate / The Hendersons will dance and sing / As Mr Kite flies through the ring don’t be late / Messrs K and H assure the public / Their production will be second to none / And of course Henry The Horse dances the waltz!” At this point, naturally, the song transforms into a whirl of waltzing, jigging and trapeze-like sounds flying through the air. Then it returns to hard rock: “The band begins at ten to six / When Mr K performs his tricks without a sound / And Mr H will demonstrate / Ten somersettes he’ll undertake on solid ground / ’ving been some days in preparation / A splendid time is guaranteed for all / And tonight Mr Kite is topping the bill.” Again, more swirling orchestral sounds take the song to its conclusion. Wikipedia says the lyrics were “adapted almost word for word from an old circus poster which Lennon had bought at an antique shop in Kent ”. It says the “flowing sound collage that gives the song its distinctive character was created by Martin and his engineers, who collected recordings of calliopes and fairground organs, which were then cut into strips of various lengths, thrown into a box, mixed up and edited together in random order, creating a long loop which was mixed in during final production”. And that marked the end of Side 1, already a notable achievement. The second side starts with Harrison in full Indian music mode. Sitars wail, there is a harp and tablas, before the low-key vocals: “We were talking / About the space between us all / And the people / Who hide themselves behind a wall / Of illusion / Never glimpse the truth / Then it’s far too late / When they pass away.” All things must pass, and this song is one of them. “We were talking / About the love we all could share / When we find it / To try our best to hold it there / With our love, with our love / We could save the world, if they only knew.” It’s easy to knock this stuff, but this song provides an essential Eastern element without which this album would not be the same. It is impossible to imagine Sgt Pepper without this opening track on Side 2. “Try to realise it’s all within yourself / No one else can make you change / And to see you’re really only very small / And life flows on within you and without you.” And of course Harrison was the political animal who spoke a bit of truth to power, directly. “We were talking / About the love that’s gone so cold / And the people / Who gain the world and lose their soul / They don’t know / They can’t see / Are you one of them.” Finally, in a frenzy of sitar sounds, the song concludes: “When you’ve seen beyond yourself / Then you may find, peace of mind is waiting there / And the time will come when you see we’re all one / And life flows on within you and without you.” Wikipedia tells us that Harrison played sitar and acoustic guitar on this song, while all the other instruments were played by a group of London-based Indian musicians. Some might argue from the sublime to ridiculous, but few would dismiss McCartney’s immortal song about aging, When I’m Sixty-Four, which proved such a huge hit, and even went on to be used as the theme tune for Capital 604, which ruled the airlines from the Wild Coast of apartheid SA in the late 1970s. This is a far cry, however, from the angry “my generation” lyrics of both The Who and The Rolling Stones at the time. Instead of anger, it starts with laughter, before heavenly bass and clarinet launch the McCartney vocals: “When I get older losing my hair, / Many years from now, / Will you still be sending me a valentine / Birthday greetings bottle of wine?” Again, with strong piano work, bells and vocal harmonies, this is a gem. “If I’d been out till quarter to three / Would you lock the door, / Will you still need me, will you still feed me, / When I’m sixty-four?” Then the change of key: “oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oooo / You’ll be older too, (ah ah ah ah ah) / And if you say the word, / I could stay with you.” It’s a scene of domestic bliss that, after the death of Linda Eastman, one senses McCartney did not really experience. “I could be handy mending a fuse / When your lights have gone. / You can knit a sweater by the fireside / Sunday mornings go for a ride.” How it must have riled the angry young men of pop waiting to launch the likes of punk and underground music. “Doing the garden, digging the weeds, / Who could ask for more? / Will you still need me, will you still feed me, / When I'm sixty-four?” If it weren’t for the fact that the song is so beautifully executed, many would surely baulk at these excesses of good behaviour. “Every summer we can rent a cottage / In the Isle of Wight, if it’s not too dear / We shall scrimp and save / Grandchildren on your knee / Vera, Chuck, and Dave.” I’d always wondered where the Wasting Away thing came in. Now I see the person signs himself thus. “Send me a postcard, drop me a line, / Stating point of view. / Indicate precisely what you mean to say / Yours sincerely, Wasting Away.” I thought he sang, “you’re sincerely wasting away”. The song concludes with: “Give me your answer, fill in a form / Mine for evermore / Will you still need me, will you still feed me, / When I’m sixty-four? / Whoo!” Some seriously harsh guitar, bass and drums set Lovely Rita in motion, before the opening chorus: “Lovely Rita meter maid. / Lovely Rita meter maid.” Then Lennon (I’m fairly sure it is he) lays it on us: “Lovely Rita meter maid. / Nothing can come between us, / When it gets dark I tow your heart away. / Standing by a parking meter, / When I caught a glimpse of Rita, / Filling in a ticket in her little white book. / In a cap she looked much older, / And the bag across her shoulder / Made her look a little like a military man.” There are some sharp brass bursts at this point, all of which add to the texture of the song. “Lovely Rita meter maid, / May I inquire discreetly, / When are you free, / To take some tea with me. / Took her out and tried to win her, / Had a laugh and over dinner, / Told her I would really like to see her again, / Got the bill and Rita paid it, / Took her home I nearly made it, / Sitting on the sofa with a sister or two.” Nothing like a quickie with a bit of rough, eh? “Oh, lovely Rita meter maid, / Where would I be without you, / Give us a wink and make me think of you.” The song concludes with some strange sounds and a bit of laughter, before a rooster crows, heralding, well Good Morning, Good Morning. An interesting brass arrangement sets the scene for those opening lines. “Good morning good morning / good morning good morning / good morning, a…” Then Lennon’s on another classic, while Ringo’s drums add impetus: “Nothing to do to save his life / call his wife in / Nothing to say but what a day / how’s your boy been / Nothing to do, it’s up to you / I’ve got noting to say but it’s OK / Good morning good morning / good morning a.” It’s another day in the life song. “Going to work don’t want to go / feeling low down / Heading for home you start to roam / then you’re in town.” The song picks up tempo: “Everybody knows there’s nothing doing / Everything is closed, it’s like a ruin / Everyone you see is half asleep / And you’re on your own, you’re in the street.” He settles. “After a while you start to smile / now you feel cool / Then you decide to take a walk by the old school / Nothing has changed it’s still the same / I’ve got nothing to say but it’s OK / Good morning good morning / good morning a.” A fresh bit of urgency: “People running round it’s five o’clock / Everywhere in town it’s getting dark / Everyone you see is full of life / It’s time for tea and meet the wife.” Then back to the contemplative mood. “Somebody needs to know the time / glad that I’m here / Watching the skirts you start to flirt / now you’re in gear / Go to a show you hope she goes / I’ve got nothing to say but it’s OK / Good morning good morning / good morning good morning.” Then that famous ending, which starts with the rooster and takes in the sounds of birds, a cat, a horse, sheep, a horse, a lion and many more. And of course that provides the perfect conduit back into the Sgt Pepper theme, as the title track is reprised. It starts with counting, 1, 2, 3, 4 Bye!, before the chorus is sung a few times. “We’re Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band / We hope you have enjoyed the show / Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band / We’re sorry but it’s time to go / Sgt Pepper’s lonely, Sgt Pepper’s lonely / Sgt Pepper’s lonely, Sgt Pepper’s lonely / Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band / We’d like to thank you once again / Sgt Pepper’s one and only Lonely Hearts Club Band / It’s getting very near the end / Sgt Pepper’s lonely, Sgt Pepper’s lonely / Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.” This is a great, hard rock version, featuring some particularly good lead guitar and it ends, fittingly, with loud applause. But then everything quietens, like the lull before the storm, as the Lennon masterpiece, A Day In The Life, is unleashed. It starts quietly with strummed acoustic guitar and piano. “I read the news today oh, boy / About a lucky man who made the grade / And though the news was rather sad / Well, I just had to laugh / I saw the photograph / He blew his mind out in a car / He didn’t notice that the lights had changed / A crowd of people stood and stared / They’d seen his face before / Nobody was really sure if he was from the House of Lords.” Few pop musicians would have dared write such fare, apart perhaps for Dylan. “I saw a film today oh, boy / The English army had just won the war / A crowd of people turned away / But I just had to look / Having read the book.” There’s a wonderfully ethereal quality to all this, like it happened in a dream. Indeed, at this point the song starts to mutate, after the words: “I love to turn you on.” As an orchestra takes us up through the scales, you arrive on a plateau to find McCartney at the helm: “Woke up, got out of bed / Dragged a comb across my head / Found my way downstairs and drank a cup / And looking up, I noticed I was late / Found my coat and grabbed my hat / Made the bus in seconds flat / Found my way upstairs and had a smoke / Somebody spoke and I went into a dream.” And here, again, with the word, “Ah”, we ascend another musical highway – and pop out in Lennon’s mind again. “I read the news today oh, boy / Four thousand holes in Blackburn, Lancashire / And though the holes were rather small / They had to count them all / Now they know how many holes it takes to fill the Albert Hall.” And he, like Alice through the Looking-glass, unleashes another weird journey, with “I’d love to turn you on…” This, of course takes one through more plateaus of sound before a huge final chord that includes various instruments and much reverb, before silence finally descends. Only for you to get a great fright when, a few second later, that strange bit of looped sound starts playing. At 5:33 minutes this is short compared to many Dylan songs, but it had all the trappings at the time of a much longer piece, an epic. It was as if the whole album built up to this one song, which was more than a fitting climax. This album has long been associated with drugs. It features, says Wikipedia, “many effects and themes that appear to be psychedelic”. And there seem to be “many explicit references to drugs”. A Day In The Life, it says was “one of the last major Lennon-McCartney collaborations”, and includes the phrase, “I’d love to turn you on”. While Wikipedia says this was a common term at the time for taking LSD – based on Timothy Leary’s “turn on, tune in & drop out” mantra – we, I fear, saw it more for its sexual connotations. Turning on a woman was where we were at. Evidently Lennon and McCartney denied the drugs allusion, and said they meant they “love to turn you on to the truth”. The drugs myths abounded. “Found my way upstairs and had a smoke / Somebody spoke and I went into a dream” clearly, say biographers, referred to smoking marijuana. But, and here’s a new one to me, the “four thousand holes in Blackburn, Lancashire ” had nothing to do with needle tracks in a junkie’s arm, says Wikipedia. Instead, it refers to a newspaper article Lennon read about the repair of potholes. Many of the allegations were too bizarre to repeat. But what of Lucy (in the) Sky (with) Diamonds. LSD, surely? Wrong, says Lennon, who claims it was a surreal dreamscape inspired by a picture drawn by his son, Julian, who had a classmate called Lucy. Incredibly, for open-minded England , the BBC used this alleged LSD allusion as a pretext for banning the song from British radio. And McCartney later knocked the claim that the line “somebody spoke and I went into a dream” was a drugs reference, saying it alluded to how he sometimes fell asleep on the bus to school. And the “smoke” that he had was a Woodbine cigarette, not marijuana, says Wikipedia. Wikipedia says all the Beatles were present during the mixing of the album in mono, but not for the stereo version. And there are several major differences between the two, with the stereo version only available on CD and the mono vinyl version out of print. Examples include She’s Leaving Home being slower and at a lower pitch on the stereo version. Lucy In The Sky is also “considerably slower” on the stereo version. We were obviously bowled over by this album down in sunny apartheid SA, but what about the rest of the world? Wikipedia says it received immediate popular and critical acclaim. Kenneth Tynan, a prominent critic in The Times of London, called it “a decisive moment in the history of Western civilization”. But Richard Goldstein of The New York Times, says Wikipedia, said the album was spoilt “like an over-attended child”. This was a reference to all the sound effects on the album. However, he did concede A Day In The Life was “a deadly earnest excursion in emotive music with a chilling lyric”, adding that it “stands as one of the most important Lennon-McCartney compositions, and it is a historic Pop event”. I had forgotten that underground music guru Frank Zappa had an early disregard for the Beatles, and Wikipedia says he accused the Beatles, in an article in Rolling Stone, of co-opting the flower power aesthetic for monetary gain with this album. Indeed, the criticism was encompassed in the title of the Mothers of Invention’s next album, We’re Only in It for the Money which, says Wikipedia, “mocked Sgt Pepper with a similar album cover”. This showed him and his bandmates in drag, a spoof of the inside cover, after MGM Records withdrew the original cover featuring the Mothers against a similar collage, with a flowerbed with the letters, MOTHERS, in the foreground. Ironically, says Wikipedia, when recording of Sgt Pepper was complete, McCartney said it was “going to be our Freak Out!”, referring to Zappa’s 1966 debut album, “which is considered by many as the first rock concept album”. Zappa’s famous cynicism aside, clearly any new Beatles album was going to make global waves. Wikipedia says Jimi Hendrix “was performing the title track in concert” within days of its release, while Australian band the Twilights, who obtained an advance copy, performed it note-perfect at live concerts before it was even released down under. And of course it was a massive commercial hit. It debuted in the UK at No 8 before the album was even released, and the next week peaked at No 1, where it stayed for 23 consecutive weeks. While The Sound of Music knocked it off on November 18, 1967, it was back again over Christmas. Including further chart success with the release of the CD in 1987, the album spent a total of 198 weeks on the UK charts. In 1968 it became the first rock album to win the Grammy for album of the year. Sales in the US totaled 11 million, out of 30 million sold worldwide. One regret that George Martin has, says Wikipedia, is the omission of Strawberry Fields Forever and Penny Lane from the album. They together with Harrison ’s Only A Northern Song, were recorded during the Sgt Pepper sessions. They were released as a double-A-sided single in February 1967, but only included in the US version of Magical Mystery Tour. Harrison ’s song made it onto the Yellow Submarine soundtrack in January, 1969. Wikipedia says Sgt Pepper was arguably the last Beatles album where the band were “consistently working together as a group rather than as separate members, and without any fear of conflict or ego domination”. It says this was largely due to manager Brian Epstein “and his ability to resolve any petty differences between them”. He died a couple of months after the album was released, whereafter “the band began the slow path towards breaking up”. Wikipedia says it is notable that this was the last time the band were “unified in their look, all having long hair, moustaches and day-glo suits. After this, their individual appearances varied widely”. And, they add, McCartney “appeared to take up the leadership role, something which the other Beatles saw as controlling”. As an aside it is observed that they soon returned to “more conventional musical expression”, with the release in February 1968 of the Fats Domino-influenced, piano-based single, Lady Madonna. But what of that famous cover? Wikipedia says the packaging was created by art director Robert Fraser, “mostly in collaboration with McCartney”. It was designed by Peter Blake, his wife Jann Haworth, and photographed by Michael Cooper. Not always obvious, looking at the cover, Wikipedia says the album featured “life-sized cardboard models of famous people on the front cover and lyrics printed on the back cover, the first time this had been done on an English pop LP”. The Beatles are dressed as the Sgt Pepper band, their custom-bade military-style outfits made of satin dyed in day-glo colours and designed by Manuel Cuevas. Among the insignia on their uniforms are MBE medals on McCartney and Harrison’s jackets, given to them by the Queen, the Royal Coat of Arms of the UK on Lennon’s right sleeve, and the Ontario Provincial Police flash on McCartney’s sleeve. Fraser, a prominent London art dealer, was a leading champion of modern art in the UK . Wikipedia says it was his idea to use an established fine artist, and he proposed noted British “pop” artist Blake. He, with his wife, created the famous cover collage, known as People We Like. The myths about McCartney being death continued with the back cover, on which he stands with his back to the camera. But just who were all those people featured on the front? Well the “old Beatles” are wax-work figures as they appeared in the early 1960s, borrowed from Madama Tussauds, says Wikipedia. And they seem to look down on the flowers spelling the word “Beatles”, as if it were a grave. I remember at the time this was seen as symbolising the end of the era of the “innocent mop-tops”. Items from the Beatles’ homes are shown, including small statues, a portable TV set and a trophy. A young flower delivery boy was allowed to contribute a guitar made of yellow hyacinths, but Wikipedia rebuffs rumous that some of the plants in the arrangement were cannabis. A Shirley Temple doll wearing a sweater with the words, Rolling Stones, was recognised by that band when they included the Beatles in the cover of Their Satanic Majesties Request album later that year. Ever controversial, Wikipedia says Lennon requested that Adolf Hitler be included. And, while a cutout of him was made it was left out, though it is visible in several photographs taken on the set. The collage itself comprised more than 70 famous people, including writers, musicians, film stars and Indian gurus – a Harrison request. Included is the image of original Beatle bassist Stuart Sutcliffe. The celebrities featured on the cover, in first-name alphabetical order, are: Aldous Huxley, Albert Einstein, Albert Stubbins, Alberto Vargas, Aleister Crowley, Aubrey Beardsley, Bob Dylan, Bobby Breen, Carl Gustav Jung, Diana Dors, Dion DiMucci, Dr David Livingstone, Dylan Thomas, Edgar Allan Poe, Fred Astaire, George Bernard Shaw, George Harrison, Huntz Hall, H G Wells, H C Westermann, Issy Bonn, John Lennon, Johnny Weissmüller, Karl Marx, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Larry Bell, Lenny Bruce , Lewis Carroll, Mae West, Marilyn Monroe, Marlene Dietrich, Marlon Brando, Max Miller, Oliver Hardy, Oscar Wilde, Paul McCartney, Richard Lindner, Richard Merkin, Ringo Starr, Robert Peel, Shirley Temple, Simon Rodia, Sonny Liston, Sri Lahiri Mahasaya, Sri Mahavatar Babaji, Sri Paramahansa Yogananda, Sri Yukteswar Giri, Stan Laurel, Stephen Crane, Stuart Sutcliffe, Terry Southern, The Petty Girl of George Petty, Lawrence of Arabia, Tom Mix, Tommy Handley, Tony Curtis, Tyrone Power, Wallace Berman, William S Burroughs and W C Fields. Unfortunately, the album I’ve picked up is not the original gatefold one that opened out to feature a large picture of the Fab Four in costume against a yellow background. Sadly, the Beatles had meant this to be a double album, but did not have enough material. I don’t think we got the full “lucky packet” treatment at the time either. Wikipedia says the original LP came with a cut-out page including a moustache, picture card of Sgt Pepper, stripes, badges and a stand-up of the band. There was also, in the early pressings, a “multi-coloured psychedelic pattern designed by The Fool”. This, I assume, refers to McCartney, and was originally intended for the front cover, but wisely rejected. Having all those famous people on a record cover created legal worries for EMI, which had to get permission from those still living. Wikipedia says Mae West initially refused, asking “what would I be doing in a lonely hearts club?”. She relented at the lads’ personal request. Actor Leo Gorcey requested payment, and his image was removed. Mohandas Gahdhi’s image was removed by EMI for fear of it causing offence in India . Wikipedia says Lennon “perhaps facetiously” also sought the inclusion of Jesus Christ, but this was also rejected. Once all were agreed on, the collage was assembled by Blake and his wife in late March, 1967 at the London studio of photographer Michael Cooper. The final cover shot was taken on March 30 during a three-hour session. The final bill was £2,868 5s/3p, which was about 100 times the average cost for an album cover at the time, says Wikipedia. One typically Beatles quirk is Billy Shears, a character created by Ringo Starr and introduced on the title track, ahead of Starr’s singing of With A Little Help From My Friends. He crops up again in Starr’s 1973 hit, I’m The Greatest, written by Lennon, which I don’t recall at all. “Yes, my name is Billy Shears / You know it has been for so many years.” He also crops up in the animated film, Yellow Submarine. Wikipedia says the Lennon character asks Jeremy, “who in the Billy Shears are you”. Like with Rubber Soul, no singles were released from the album, although in 1978 Capitol issued the title track and With A Little Help From My Friends on the A side and A Day In The Life on the other of a single that peaked at No 71 in the US. With plans at the time to make the first full-length video of the album canned, it comes as no surprise to learn that the LP was adapted as a stage musical in the mid-1970s. A 1978 Robert Sigwood film version was “widely panned”, says Wikipedia, which is replete with anniversary, fund-raising and classical versions of the album done down the years. Finally, Wikipedia quotes Mark Lewisohn and Allan W Pollack regarding the instruments played on the album. These have largely been covered, but some interesting additions are the use of kazoos by all four of the lads, who also all contribute handclaps. Ringo, for instance, also plays the final piano E chord, maracas, congas, tubular bells and harmonica. Lennon also gives us maracas, tape loops, harmonica, sound effects and Hammond organ, over and above the guitars. McCartney also offered tape loops, sound effects, piano and Hammond organ, and also a final piano E chord. Harrison offered tamoura and harmonica, though no sitar is mentioned. Martin played harpsichord, Hammond organ and piano strings and “final harmonium chord” along with tape loops and sound effects. Mel Evans was another to play a “final piano E chord”. More interesting is the use of session musicians, with four French horns on the title track arranged by Martin and McCartney. The string section and harp on She’s Leaving Home is arranged by Mike Leander and conducted by Martin. Ah yes, and Wikipedia says the harmonium, tabla, sitar, dilruba, eight violins and four cellos on Within You, Without You were arranged and conducted by Harrison and Martin. The clarinet trio on When I’m Sixty Four were arranged and conducted by Martin and McCartney. A saxophone sextet on Good Morning, Good Morning was arranged and conducted by Martin and Lennon. And then the big one. The 40-piece orchestral piece (strings, brass, woodwinds and percussion) on A Day In The Life, was arranged by Martin, Lennon and McCartney and conducted by Martin and McCartney. Small wonder, with all the creativity that went into it, that this album has become arguably the most instantly recognisable Beatles album of all time. Magical Mystery Tour To my mind one of the finest Beatles albums was the soundtrack from the film, Magical Mystery Tour. However, I see from Wikipedia that at the end of 1967 it led to major criticism. I was aware of a certain concern about the disconnectedness of the film which, I see, was actually a TV film. The major problem in the UK , however, seemed to be the fact that it was a surrealistic film in which colour, naturally, was a key element. However, in December of that year very few viewers had colour receivers, since the colour service only started in July 1967. The album was again full of interesting innovations, not least the orchestration which gives I Am The Walrus such a rich texture. The new concept of letting albums do the touring for the Beatles seems to have been part of the motivation for this project, which in a sense continues the Sgt Pepper’s idea of presenting the Beatles as a group performing as another group. The cover, for instance, features the four dressed in animal suits – and a later Lennon song would tell us that the Walrus was Paul. The words Magical Mystery Tour are written above rainbow-coloured lines, while Beatles is written in yellow stars. Magical Mystery Tour was released on November 27, 1967, in the US as an LP, and on December 8, 1967 in the UK as a double EP (extended play, which I don’t think we encountered in SA). It only, I see from Wikipedia, became an LP in the UK in 1976. The album is classified as rock and psychedelic rock. Judging by the release data, it seems this was an ill-conceived project. The soundtrack to a one-hour television film, originally aired in black and white in the UK in 1967, it was released as a six-song double EP and later an 11-song album in the US , having been expanded with the inclusion of recent singles to the B-side. After the above-mentioned failure of the TV film, it was not show in the US until 1976, and then only as midnight movies and on college circuits. So how did such a great idea go wrong? It was, after all, a Beatles/Martin original, so had to have plenty of merit. Wikipedia says after Sgt Pepper’s, McCartney wanted to make a film based on the Beatles and their music. Unscripted, it would include various “ordinary” people (including Lennon’s uncle Charlie) travelling on a charabanc bus, where they would have unspecified “magical” adventures “in the manner of Ken Kesey’s Merry Pranksters. While the movie was made, says Wikipedia, “the hoped-for ‘magical’ adventures never happened”. It seems so many cars followed the hand-lettered bus it led to a “running traffic jam”, until Lennon angrily tore the lettering off the bus. It was their first film project since manager Brian Epstein’s death in August 1967. Wikipedia says his absence was seen by some as the reason for its “undisciplined production” and the absence of a screenplay and professional direction”. Screened twice on BBC-TV, primarily in black and white over the 1967 Christmas holidays, it was, says Wikipedia, “savaged by critics”. However, McCartney is quoted in Anthology as saying that he’d read that Steven Spielberg at film school had said the film was one of those they really took notice of – as an art film as opposed to a “proper film”. I’ve only seen snippets of the film, mainly those excerpts of songs shown on Anthology, but it is surely worth a mint purely for that footage of the Beatles performing. Wikipedia says the soundtrack was “far more favourably received”. It was nominated for a Grammy for best album in 1968, and reached No 1 in the US for eight weeks. This album, with the film soundtrack on Side 1, and A- and B-sides of singles released in 1967 on Side 2, was presumably the one we got into at the time in SA, where, like the US , EPs were not much known. Wikipedia’s detailed description of how the LP was released shows that, for once, it was the US which got the best new Beatles album, which included all those great singles from 1967. I could probably best describe it as understated elegance. Having just given Magical Mystery Tour a fresh listen, I was struck by the extent to which this group had evolved. From the raw rhythm and blues of a few years earlier, they had matured as a rock band not averse to incorporating all manner of sounds and instruments, including what would have generally been considered the preserve of the squares: strings, brass, horns. Fortunately, Wikipedia gives a fairly complex breakdown of the instruments used on the soundtrack tracks, and on the title track one is struck by the fact that the four are accompanied by Mal Evans and Neil Aspinall on percussion, and David Mason, Elgar Howarth, Roy Copstake and John Wilbraham on trumpets. One senses McCartney behind this song, which has echoes of the opening track of Sgt Peppers, as one is invited to “roll up” not for the circus-like events of Sgt Peppers, but for a mystery tour. However, it is Lennon’s voice that is most discernable as the song gets off too a right rollicking start: “Roll up, roll up for the mystery tour. / Roll up, roll up for the mystery tour. / Roll up AND THAT'S AN INVITATION, roll up for the mystery tour. / Roll up TO MAKE A RESERVATION, roll up for the mystery tour.” Then Lennon reinforces that invitation: “The magical mystery tour is waiting to take you away, / Waiting to take you away.” There is a strong sense that you are being invited on a mind journey, not a real one, and that probably some sort of halucinogenic drugs may be involved. “Roll up, roll up for the mystery tour. / Roll up, roll up for the mystery tour. / Roll up WE'VE GOT EVERYTHING YOU NEED, roll up for the mystery tour. / Roll up SATISFACTION GUARANTEED, roll up for the mystery tour.” Next the tour is “hoping to take you away”, before it is “coming to take you away” and finally “dying to take you away, take you away”. With a pleasant piano jangling along, the song fades, but you are set on a new journey with the Beatles. It is all about the songs’ texture. McCartney’s Fool On The Hill has all the hallmarks of the mature phase of the Beatles, with lovely instrumentation – is that a bass harmonica, recorders? – alongside the piano, acoustic guitar and his sublime vocals. “Day after day / alone on the hill / The man with the foolish grin / is keeping perfectly still / But nobody wants to know him / They can see that he’s just a fool / And he never gives an answer …” This leads to the chorus: “But the fool on the hill / sees the sun going down / And the eyes in his head / See the world spinning round.” And of course the music does just that: sets your head a-spinning. Wikipedia tells us that the song features three flautists – not recorders, I note – in Christopher Taylor, Richard Taylor and Jack Ellory, while Lennon and Harrison play harmonicas. “Well on the way, his head in a cloud / The man of a thousand voices / is talking perfectly loud / But nobody ever hears him / Or the sound he appears to make / And he never seems to notice … / But the fool on the hill / sees the sun going down / And the eyes in his head / See the world spinning round.” It is a beautifully crafted song, with that sense of dislocation and directionless reinforced musically: “Oh, round, round, round, round, round / And nobody seems to like him / they can tell what he wants to do / And he never shows his feelings … / But the fool on the hill / sees the sun going down / And the eyes in his head / See the world spinning round … / Oh, round, round, round, round, round / And he never listens to them / He knows that they’re the fools / But they don’t like him … / The fool on the hill / sees the sun going down / And the eyes in his head / See the world spinning round … / Oh, round, round, round, round, round / oh.” The next track, Flying, to my mind is one of the first truly psychedelic songs in the history of rock. An instrumental credited to all four Beatles, it is like a slow blues, but with such a wonderful overlay of textures – both instrumental and choir-like laa-la-laa-la la-la-laas – that you are sucked into it inexorably. In similar vein is Blue Jay Way , which Wikipedia calls “an evocative mood piece by George Harrison”. Again, it is just a rush of understated sound textures which often defy description. At one point it was like listening to the gentle hissing of a steam locomotive, while there are also Oriental touches. And don’t underestimate Ringo’s drumming, which maintains its low-key quality. Revolving microphones seem to be one of the tricks used to create this incredible sound quality. “There’s a fog upon LA / And my friends have lost their way / We’ll be over soon they said / Now they’ve lost themselves instead. / Please don’t be long please don’t you be very long / Please don’t be long or I may be asleep / Well it only goes to show / And I told them where to go / Ask a policeman on the street / There’s so many there to meet / Please don’t be long please don’t you be very long / Please don’t be long or I may be asleep / Now it’s past my bed I know / And I’d really like to go / Soon will be the break of day / Sitting here in Blue Jay Way / Please don’t be long please don’t you be very long / Please don’t be long or I may be asleep. / Please don’t be long please don’t you be very long / Please don’t be long …” And so it continues. After that almost soporific sound, it takes McCartney to inject a bit of ooph with Your Mother Should Know. Wikipedia calls it “nostalgic”, and it does seem to fit the McCartney template for a catchy tune. “Let’s all get up and dance to a song / That was a hit before your mother was born. / Though she was born a long, long time ago / Your mother should know (Your mother should...) / Your mother should know (...know.) / Sing it again. / Let’s all get up and dance to a song / That was a hit before your mother was born. / Though she was born a long, long time ago / Your mother should know (Your mother should...) / Your mother should know (...know.) / Lift up your hearts and sing me a song / That was a hit before your mother was born. / Though she was born a long, long time ago / Your mother should know (Your mother should...) / Your mother should know (Aaaah.) / Your mother should know (Your mother should...)” Again the song ends with much repetition of these lines. Clearly there was not much lyrical substance to this, but it still has all the hallmarks of the mature Beatles, with wonderfully understated harmonies and a gentle, relaxed mood, as if they had nothing more to prove, and by understating what they did say, making the final statement that much more powerful. And of course they needed a light foil before the little masterpiece that is I Am The Walrus. Wikipedia says the song, “full of crashing orchestrations and dubbed vocals, is one of the Beatles’ more startling, avant-garde creations. The lyrics, filled with maddening juxtapositions of words and phrases, were Lennon’s sardonic response to learning that an English master at his alma mater, Quarry , was requiring his students to analyse Beatles songs. Lennon was particularly inspired by ‘ Alice in Wonderland’ during this period and the title comes from ‘The Walrus and the Carpenter’.” This is a wonderland of musical textures, and a listing by Wikipedia of the musicians supporting the four gives an indication of how that sound was achieved. There are eight violinists, four cellists and three people on horns. A further 16 backing vocalists are listed. A slow, fuzzy start distils into piano, cymbals, strings, drums, bass, before Lennon’s somewhat scratchy vocals: “I am here as you are here as you are me /and we are all together / See how they run like pigs from a gun / see how they fly / I’m crying.” For some reason, this song makes me think of George Orwell’s Animal Farm. It may be the juxtaposition of pigs and guns, but there is something menacing afoot. “Sitting on a cornflake / Waiting for the van to come / Corporation T-shirt, stupid bloody Tuesday / Man you’ve been a naughty boy / you let your face grow long.” Then that bizarre chorus: “I am the eggman / they are the eggmen / I am the walrus / Goo goo g' job.” All the time, the sounds rage and swirl above and between the lyrics, before Lennon cuts to a new, more strident mood: “Mr City policeman sitting / pretty little policemen in a row / See how they fly like Lucy in the sky / See how they run / I’m crying / I’m crying, I’m crying, I’m crying.” Isn’t that a lovely example of Lennon already referencing the Lucy in the sky with diamonds from their previous album? “Yellow matter custard / Dripping from a dead dog’s eye / Crabalocker fishwife / Pornographic priestess / Boy, you’ve been a naughty girl / you let your knickers down.” Of course those lines went down a treat with us sex-obsessed young teenagers and pre-teens in the late 1960s. After the chorus is repeated, a new switch occurs, as the mood becomes restful, pacific: “Sitting in an English garden / waiting for the sun / If the sun don’t shine you get a tan / From standing in the English rain.” The chorus is repeated before the song picks up pace: “Expert, texpert choking smokers / don’t you think the joker laughs at you / See how they smile like pigs in a sty / See how they snide / I’m crying.” Here, of course, they inject sneering, yelping laughs, as an even weirder bit of verse follows: “Semolina Pilchard / climbing up the Eiffel tower / Elementary penguin singing Hare Krishna / Man, you should have seen them kicking / Edgar Allen Poe.” One gets the sense that at this point even Bob Dylan would have conceded that his lyrics had been, if not surpassed, then at least equalled. The song ends with that wonderful chorus and a series of onomatopoeic walrus noises: “I am the eggman / They are the eggmen / I am the walrus / Goo goo g' job / Goo goo g' job / Goo goo g' job / goo goo g' job / goo goo g' / juba juba juba / juba juba juba / juba juba juba / juba juba.” This occurs against an increasingly frenetic soundscape of people nattering and chanting, dogs yapping and general mayhem descending. Side 2, as noted earlier, comprises five songs from singles released in 1967, and Wikipedia says these show the band “at its creative peak”. They are certainly among the most memorable Beatles songs ever produced, starting with McCartney’s Hello Goodbye, which Wikipedia sees as his “relentlessly upbeat … counter to I Am The Walrus”. This fairly straight-forward rock song is launched into with urgency, McCartney given free rein to put together a song he must have known had all the makings of a hit. It features, says Wikipedia, two violas, though I detected all manner of other instruments. “You say yes, I say no. / You say stop and I say go go go, oh no. / You say goodbye and I say hello / Hello hello / I don’t know why you say goodbye, I say hello / Hello hello / I don’t know why you say goodbye, I say hello.” It really was a just a clever play with opposites and contradictions, but ever so catchy. “I say high, you say low. / You say why and I say I don’t know, oh no. / You say goodbye and I say hello / (Hello Goodbye Hello Goodbye) hello hello / (Hello Goodbye) I don’t know why you say goodbye, I say hello / (Hello Goodbye Hello Goodbye) hello hello / (Hello Goodbye) I don’t know why you say goodbye / (Hello Goodbye) I say hello. / Why why why why why why do you say goodbye goodbye, oh no?” It all gets a little wordy as the backing vocals chip in: “You say yes (I say ‘yes’) I say no (but I may mean no.) / You say stop (I can stay) and I say go go go (till it’s time to go ), oh no. / You say goodbye and I say hello / Hello hello / I don’t know why you say goodbye, I say hello / Hello hello / I don't know why you say goodbye, I say hello / Hello hello / I don’t know why you say goodbye, I say hello hello.” It then fades with the chanting of “Hela heba helloa CHA CHA, hela...” Then arguably one of the finest Beatles songs ever, Strawberry Fields Forever, a semi-autobiographical Lennon masterpiece, which is followed by McCartney’s Penny Lane , in similar vein. Wikipedia says Strawberry Fields is “a surreal account of childhood memories”, and on listening to it I found myself swept away by its pure beauty, its very British, incredibly understated poignancy. Again, it owes a lot to the textures created by the likes of Mal Evans on percussion, four musicians on trumpets and another three on cellos. “Let me take you down, ’cause I’m going to Strawberry Fields. / Nothing is real and nothing to get hung about. / Strawberry Fields forever.” The poetic quality of this writing of superb, with ambiguity an obvious element: “Living is easy with eyes closed, misunderstanding all you see. / It’s getting hard to be someone but it all works out. / It doesn’t matter much to me.” After the chorus, another of those three-line verses which leave you scratching your head: “No one I think is in my tree, I mean it must be high or low. / That is you can’t you know tune in but it’s all right. / That is I think it’s not too bad.” Another chorus, then: “Always know sometimes think it’s me, but you know I know when it’s a dream. / I think I know I mean ‘Yes’, but it’s all wrong. / That is I think I disagree.” As the chorus emphasises, nothing is real in this wonderful place. There is a nice lead guitar break towards the end, buttressed by a myriad sound effects, as the song winds down with the title repeated. McCartney’s gift for painting surreal word pictures is exemplified in his semi-autobiographical Penny Lane , again a perfect foil to Lennon’s more psychedelic vision of the previous song. As usual, he launches straight into the lyrics, against piano, bass and drums. Again, Wikipedia lets us in on the sort of backing musicians who contribute to the textural richness of the song, including four flautists, five trumpeters, two men on English horns, a double bassist and David Mason on piccolo trumpet. Not your typical rock group line-up by any means. These are some of the finest Beatles lyrics ever, offering a trip into the heart of suburban England , post-Second World War. “In Penny Lane there is a barber showing photographs / Of every head he’s had the pleasure to know. / And all the people that come and go / Stop and say hello.” Here we hear McCartney’s Liverpool accent very clearly. Customer becomes coostomer. “On the corner is a banker with a motorcar, / The little children laugh at him behind his back. / And the banker never wears a mac / In the pouring rain, very strange.” This is unabashed nostalgia of the sort Lennon eschewed. The chorus goes: “ Penny Lane is in my ears and in my eyes. / There beneath the blue suburban skies / I sit, and meanwhile back.” Then he returns to another recollection. “In Penny Lane there is a fireman with an hourglass / And in his pocket is a portrait of the Queen. / He likes to keep his fire engine clean, / It’s a clean machine.” That has become a quintessential Beatles image, the fireman keeping his machine clean. There is even a jangle of bells as we head into a new chorus. “ Penny Lane is in my ears and in my eyes. / A four of fish and finger pies / In summer, meanwhile back …” This next verse has echoes of Eleanor Rigby: “Behind the shelter in the middle of a roundabout / The pretty nurse is selling poppies from a tray / And tho’ she feels as if she’s in a play / She is anyway.” Of course to us, as new teens, roundabouts were the things we spun about on in playgrounds, which made us dizzy, not what we called traffic circles. And then that Liverpudlian accent shines through. “In Penny Lane the barber shaves another customer, / We see the banker sitting waiting for a trim. / And then the fireman rushes in / From the pouring rain, very strange.” In this interesting limbo, the song ends with the chorus repeated twice, another Beatles classic tucked away on vinyl. It is not surprising producer George Martin regretted these two songs were left off Sgt Peppers, though then this album would not have been so strong. Is Baby You’re A Rich Man another of those early songs about transvestitism? Its title certainly suggests as much. What I do know, from a fresh listen, is that it again boasts a rich array of musical textures which are probably unique. I had for some reason thought of this as a McCartney song, but the bulk of the vocals seem to be by Lennon. What is interesting is the muffled, muted nature of the music, including the lead guitar. Wikipedia says the song features Eddie Kramer on vibraphone, but there is again an array of sounds it is often hard to pinpoint. “How does it feel to be / One of the beautiful people? / Now that you know who you are / What do you want to be? / And have you travelled very far? / Far as the eye can see. / How does it feel to be / One of the beautiful people? / How often have you been there? / Often enough to know. / What did you see, when you were there? / Nothing that doesn’t show.” It is unclear to whom this is addressed, but we are clearly in the era of the superstars, the beautiful people. Then the chorus: “Baby you’re a rich man, / Baby you’re a rich man, / Baby you’re a rich man too.” Money, of course, is the measure of beauty. “You keep all your money in a big brown bag inside a zoo. / What a thing to do. / Baby you’re a rich man, / Baby you’re a rich man, / Baby you’re a rich man too.” The existentialist questions continue. “How does it feel to be / One of the beautiful people? / Tuned to A natural E / Happy to be that way. / Now that you’ve found another key / What are you going to play? / Baby you’re a rich man, / Baby you’re a rich man, / Baby you’re a rich man too. / You keep all your money in a big brown bag inside a zoo. / What a thing to do. / Baby you're a rich man...” Yet again, a Beatles song that asks more questions than it answers, like a modern novel that leaves you with unresolved plot lines. Finally, the album ends with what Wikipedia calls “Lennon’s jaunty anthem, All You Need Is Love – the centerpiece of the historic Our World satellite broadcast – which coincided with 1967’s Summer of Love and encapsulated the sentiments of the flower power movement”. So this really was the big one, the song that catapulted the hippie era of flowers in your hair, peace signs, bell-bottoms, paisley shirts, dope-smoking, free love, make love not war, and so on, onto the global stage. And it is anthem-like, starting with the strains of some or other national anthem, accompanied by a chorus singing the following: “Love, love, love, love, love, love, love, love, love.” What more impressive statement could one hope to make? Lennon then launches into that immortal opening line. “There’s nothing you can do that can’t be done. / Nothing you can sing that can’t be sung. / Nothing you can say but you can learn how to play the game / It’s easy.” He’s on a roll: “There’s nothing you can make that can’t be made. / No one you can save that can’t be saved. / Nothing you can do but you can learn how to be in time / It’s easy.” Then comes the rider. “All you need is love, all you need is love, / All you need is love, love, love is all you need. / Love, love, love, love, love, love, love, love, love. / All you need is love, all you need is love, / All you need is love, love, love is all you need.” Then the final verse: “There’s nothing you can know that isn’t known. / Nothing you can see that isn’t shown. / Nowhere you can be that isn’t where you’re meant to be. / It’s easy.” Then, as the party hots up, the final joyful chorus: “All you need is love, all you need is love, / All you need is love, love, love is all you need. / All you need is love (all together now) / All you need is love (everybody) / All you need is love, love, love is all you need.” At one point, McCartney can be heard singing “she loves you yeah, yeah, yeah”, which harks back to the early days of the Beatles. Wikipedia says the song features George Martin on piano, with a wide array of backing vocalists including Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, Marianne Faithfull, Keith Mooon of The Who, Eric Clapton of Cream, Graham Nash and several others. Four musicians play violins, while the rich wind/brass section comprises two people on sax, two on trumpets and two on horns. There is someone on accordion and another on cello. The song becomes a frenetic, yet still understated, celebration of love as a global force in opposition to the hatred which was perceived as being caused by the “older generation”. The youth, led by Lennon, were saying they’d had enough. A peaceful revolution was being born. The White Album The Beatles had reached the mature phase of their career. They were ready to bang out a few more brilliant albums before the decade ended. We always knew their next album, titled simply The Beatles, as The White Album. It was released on November 22, 1968, and again topped the UK charts. A double album, the outside was completely white with The Beatles embossed top left, while inside it carried a large poster, a colour collage of the four done by British pop artist Peter Blake (who designed the Sgt Pepper’s cover), which we had on our bedroom wall for years. There were also glossy colour photographs of each of the four, which also went up on our wall. Fittingly, Wikipedia has the digital equivalent of reams of information about this double album, which was recorded at Abbey Road Studios and Trident Studios from May 30 till October 14, 1968. This time it is classified as rock, and it ran to 93:35 minutes, which is a substantial offering. Naturally, George Martin was the producer of their ninth official album. And I see the sleeve was designed by pop artist Richard Hamilton, which would make it a work of art in the mass-produced, commercial sense which Pop Art, a la Andy Warhol, sought to exploit and explore. It was, says Wikipedia, first planned to be called A Doll’s House, and is “often hailed as one of the major accomplishments in popular music”. Using the one criterion I’ll stick with throughout this exercise, The Beatles was ranked No 10 in Rolling Stone magazine’s 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. It is also the Beatles’ best selling album, at 19-times platinum, according to the Recording Industry Association of America, and the 10th-best selling album of all time in the US The album had its origins, says Wikipedia, during the Beatles’ visit to Rishikesh , India , in the spring of 1968, which was where “most of the songs … had been conceived”. Although the group had meant to just relax, “both Lennon and McCartney had quickly found themselves in songwriting mode”, says Wikipeida, often meeting “clandestinely in the afternoons in each other’s rooms” to review the new work. Lennon is quoted as saying that he wrote “some of my best songs there”. Of the 40-odd songs that emerged there, a little more than half would be recorded in rough form at Kinfauns, Harrison’s home in Esher . Ringo Starr and McCartney left Rishikesh first, with Lennon and Harrison departing later. Wikipedia says some reports claim Lennon was miffed because their guru, the Maharishi, had made sexual advances towards Mia Farrow, who was with the Beatles. Shortly after deciding to leave, Lennon wrote a song called Maharishi, which included the lines “Maharishi / You little twat”, and later became Sexy Sadie. But several authors, says Wikipedia, say these were rumours “deliberately engineered” by Alexis Mardas who sought to undermine the Maharishi’s influence over the Beatles. Whatever the background, in May 1968, Lennon, McCartney and Harrison demoed 23 songs they had written at Rishikesh at Kinfauns. During the nearly five months of recording, Wikipedia says the sessions were “reportedly undisciplined and sometimes fractious”, because “tensions were growing within the group”. This was partly due to the simultaneous launch of their new multimedia business corporation Apple Corps, which caused “significant stress”. And it was during these sessions, says Wikipedia, that Lennon’s “new girlfriend and artistic partner, Yoko Ono” made her first appearance in the studio. She would “thereafter be a more or less constant presence in all Beatle sessions”. Previously, says Wikipedia, the Beatles had been “very insular during recording sessions, with influence from outsiders strictly limited”. The process culminated in the Beatles’ first and only 24-hour recording/producing session when final mixing and sequencing of the album was overseen by Lennon, McCartney and George Martin. As had become apparent over the past few albums, the individuality of each of the Beatles was coming increasingly to the fore, and Wikipedia says The Beatles “captured the work of four increasingly individualised artists who frequently found themselves at odds”. It says the “extraordinary synergy” of their previous studio sessions was harder to come by. Often McCartney and Lennon recorded separately in different studios “for prolonged periods”, each using different engineers. At one point, says Wikipedia, Martin, “whose authority over the band in the studio had waned”, left on vacation, leaving Chris Thomas in charge of production. Martin was later quoted as saying that his working relationship with the four changed during this time. He found many of their efforts unfocused, with long jam sessions often sounding uninspired. Recording engineer Geoff Emerick, with the band since Revolver, pulled out in disgust with the “deteriorating work environment”, says Wikipedia. And even Ringo, on August 22, abruptly left the studio, saying he felt his role was being minimised. After the others begged him to reconsider, he returned two weeks later. But it meant that in his absence, McCartney played drums on Back In The USSR and Dear Prudence. But Starr later said the schism was the precursor of future “months and years of misery”. Lennon and Harrison would also stage similar “unpublicised departures” after The Beatles was completed. McCartney’s public departure in 1970 marked the formal end of the band. One presence which calmed things down was that of Eric Clapton, who Harrison invited to perform on While My Guitar Gently Weeps. Wikipedia says the band were well behaved while he was in the studio. He would later invite Harrison to perform on Badge, off Cream’s last album, Goodbye. Some indication of how the sounds of instruments were becoming melded and blurred can be gleaned from the fact that the famous “guitar solo” on the introduction to The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill was “actually made by Chris Thomas playing a mellotron”, says Wikipedia. Which seems a real tragedy, because I always admired that piece of acoustic guitar work. Another musician who helped on the album was Nicky Hopkins, who played piano on Revolution, which also features horns, as does Savoy Truffle. There was also a bluegrass fiddler on Don’t Pass Me By, orchestral players and soothing backround singers on Good Night. Yet, says Wikipedia, no external contributors are listed on the sleeve notes. For the technophiles, Wikipedia says the album marks the band’s “formal transition from 4-track to 8-track recording”. Abbey Road had an 8-track machine, but they were still testing it. However, the Beatles used an 8-track recorder at Trident Studios in central London to record Hey Jude and Dear Prudence. And on returning to Abbey Road , they insisted EMI engineers Ken Scott and Dave Harries use the new machine. Wikipedia says the album contained a diversity of musical genres –1930s dancehall in Honey Pie, classical chamber music in Piggies and avant-garde sensibilities in Revolution 9, which were “quite unprecedented in global pop music in 1968”. There was both praise and criticism. Ono and John Cage’s Revolution 9, “a densely layered 8:13 minute sound collage, has attracted bewilderment and disapparoval from both fans and music critics over the years”. As one who listened to it often at the time, I had to conclude it was simply a load of crab. I may think differently were I to hear it again today, but sadly the tape recording I have of the album excludes it. Significantly, Wikipedia says the only western instrument available to the band while in India was the acoustic guitar, “and thus most of the songs on The Beatles were written and first performed on that instrument”. And that, for me, is the strength of this album. After the dense psychedellic brilliance of Magical Mystery Tour, it was time for a return to basics, and this album was just that. Some of the best songs on the album are virtually solo songs backed by acoustic guitar, such as Dear Prudence, Julia, Blackbird and Mother Nature’s Son. Wow! I have just given the White Album a fresh listen and I am left agog. This has to be one of the greatest albums ever, ever made. I have to agree fully with McCartney’s view – on Anthology – that far from being too long, every second of sound here is worth its weight in gold – though, again, I cannot vouch for Revolution 9. I mean, really! Has there ever been an album with 30 tracks of such diverse and gifted genius? It’s easy, looking back over 40 years of rock since this album, to think that other bands easily surpassed the Beatles, technically, lyrically and in various other ways. But this album proves that they were not only a very good rock group, but that as composers and songwriters they had an inventiveness and originality that remains unequalled. It is also attributable, I believe, to their willingness to explore avenues of sound and genre which would be unthinkable to others. Certainly, given their status as the world’s most popular band at the time, they would have been emboldened to do their own thing – yet, Revolution 9 aside, they have again run a tight ship. There is no superfluous stuff here. Quite the reverse, each song is a nugget in the history of rock. The album is also an interesting commentary on the music of the time, with several references to contemporary musicians. And it starts on the opening track, Back In The USSR, a McCartney classic which clearly pays homage to the surfing sound of the Beach Boys. But it is, of course, also a brilliant riposte to those who saw the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as the great demon in the Cold War conflict with the West. So, instead of giving the Russians a wide berth, the Beatles metaphorically fly into the country and take in the sights. The song starts with the sound of a jet airliner (British Overseas Airways Corporation, or BOAC, forerunner of British Airways) touching down, before a heavy lead guitar and McCartney’s vocals kick in. “Flew in from Miami Beach BOAC / Didn’t get to bed last night / On the way the paper bag was on my knee / Man, I had a dreadful flight / I’m back in the USSR / You don’t know how lucky you are, boy / Back in the USSR, yeah.” It’s amazing how for 40-odd years I thought he said the “paperback” was on his knee. Now it makes sense. He was close to puking on the “dreadful flight”. So it’s a Russian guy returning home. “Been away so long I hardly knew the place / Gee, it’s good to be back home / Leave it till tomorrow to unpack my case / Honey disconnect the phone / I’m back in the USSR / You don’t know how lucky you are, boy / Back in the US / Back in the US / Back in the USSR.” Don’t you love that ambiguous use of US? Then the mood becomes more relaxed, with Beach Boy oooh-woooh-type backing vocals. “Well the Ukraine girls really knock me out / They leave the west behind / And Moscow girls make me sing and shout / That Georgia’s always on my my my my my my my my my mind / Oh, come on / Hu Hey Hu, hey, ah, yeah / yeah, yeah, yeah / I’m back in the USSR / You don’t know how lucky you are, boys / Back in the USSR.” Of course the reality of being back in the neo-Stalinist communist state would have been a far cry from what’s portrayed here. This was a rigidly authoritarian dictatorship which would finally collapse under its own ineptness in the late 1980s. “Oh, show me round your snow peaked / mountains way down south / Take me to you daddy’s farm / Let me hear your balalaikas ringing out / Come and keep your comrade warm / I’m back in the USSR / Hey, You don’t know how lucky you are, boy / Back in the USSR / Oh, let me tell you honey.” Not sure about that last line, but this incredibly punchy piece of political fun comes to a screeching halt as the plane lands. As occurs on all the great albums, this mixes heavy with lighter, more relaxed songs. So, following this early onslaught, we are treated to nearly four minutes of sublime Lennon folk rock on Dear Prudence, with the initial gentle guitar picking emerging seamlessly as the plane sound fades. Wikipedia says this was written about actress Mia Farrow’s sister, Prudence, “who attended the transcendental meditation course with the Beatles in Rishikesh. Often she stayed in her room, engaged in meditation.” Instead, Lennon thought, she should be enjoying the day. “Dear Prudence, won't you come out to play / Dear Prudence, greet the brand new day / The sun is up, the sky is blue / It’s beautiful and so are you / Dear Prudence won’t you come out to play.” This is a prime example of how the Beatles made a great song brilliant. There are grace notes, nuances, here which give the song a rich timbre and texture. They are found in the big bass sound, rich brass touches and enveloping harmonies. “Dear Prudence open up your eyes / Dear Prudence see the sunny skies / The wind is low the birds will sing / That you are part of everything / Dear Prudence won’t you open up your eyes?” Isn’t the switch to these lines typically Beatles-like: “Look around round round / Look around round round / Look around round round.” It was also an object lesson for us South Africans with our flat vowels on how to pronounce the “ou” sound. “Dear Prudence let me see you smile / Dear Prudence like a little child / The clouds will be a daisy chain / So let me see you smile again / Dear Prudence won’t you let me see you smile?” There is some nice bluesy electric guitar towards the end of this beautifully understated song which ends with the opening verse repeated, and just the sound of an acoustic guitar being plucked. I used to somehow resent the heavier tracks on this album, which burst into the reverie induced by gentler fare like Dear Prudence. But this time round I came to the realisation that even when they’re heavy, the Beatles retain a calmness and sense of humour which softens even the hardest blows. And then there are the lyrics which often explore earlier Beatles songs. Glass Onion starts with heavy bass and drums, as Lennon’s vocals kick in. “I told you about Strawberry Fields / You know the place where nothing is real / Well here’s another place you can go / Where everything flows. / Looking through the bent backed tulips / To see how the other half live / Looking through a glass onion.” Wikipedia says the song is “parodic” and “mocks fans who read too much into Beatles’ lyrics”. “I told you about the walrus and me-man / You know that we’re as close as can be-man / Well here’s another clue for you all / The walrus was Paul. / Standing on the cast iron shore-yeah / Lady Madonna trying to make ends meet-yeah / Looking through a glass onion.” So here he has parodied I’m The Walrus and Lady Madonna, while also taking a little dig at those who kept seeing symbolism for McCartney’s death in lyrics or album cover imagery. But more of McCartney’s lyrics come under the spotlight, perhaps emphasising that this album was really the beginning of the end. “I told you about the fool on the hill / I tell you man he’s living there still / Well here’s another place you can be / Listen to me. / Fixing a hole in the ocean / Trying to make a dovetail joint-yeah / Looking through a glass onion.” The repetition of that last line has echoes of the best surrealist Dylan songs, where everything comes back to the final line or two of a verse. Again, the string arrangements and other sound devices render this a classic. There was great excitement among the teenagers and tweenagers in Bonza Bay , where I grew up, over the next, hugely popular track, Ob-La Di, Ob-La-Da, because it seemed to us to say that “life goes on bra”. At that age, a bra is a thing of great import, believe me. Staccato piano, hand-clapping and thumping bass launches this famous McCartney number, which Wikipedia describes as calypso-tinged. “Desmond has his barrow in the market place... / Molly is the singer in a band... / Desmond says to Molly ‘Girl, I like your face’ / And Molly says this as she takes him by the hand... / Ob-la-di, ob-la-da, life goes on, brah!... / Lala how the life goes on... / Ob-la-di, ob-la-da, life goes on, brah!... / Lala how the life goes on.” So it wasn’t a bra after all, but perhaps an abbreviation of brother. I know in this country, the term for brother is spelt bra, in fact. “Desmond takes a trolley to the jeweller store... / Buys a twenty carat golden ring... (Golden ring) / Takes it back to Molly waiting at the door... / And as he gives it to her she begins to sing... (Sing) / Ob-la-di, ob-la-da, life goes on, brah!... / Lala how the life goes on... / Ob-la-di, ob-la-da, life goes on, brah!... / Lala how the life goes on.” There is some great saxophone on this, along with lovely la-la-la-la backing, not to mention typical Beatles ha-ha-has. The key changes for a bit of narrative. “In a couple of years they have built a home sweet home, / With a couple of kids running in the yard, / Of Desmond and Molly Jones... (Ha ha ha ha ha)” Then it’s a life of bliss – a McCartney utopia. “Happy ever after in the market place... / Desmond lets the children lend a hand... / Molly stays at home and does her pretty face... / And in the evening she still sings it with the band... / Ob-la-di, ob-la-da, life goes on, brah!... / Lala how the life goes on... / Ob-la-di, ob-la-da, life goes on, brah!... / Lala how the life goes on.” The last two verses are repeated before the song ends with: “And if you want some fun...take Ob-la-di-bla-da (Thank you)”, amid much guffawing. The sounds which go into the 52-second-long Wild Honey Pie are somewhat squeaky and wobbly, an interesting array of aural textures. The words Honey Pie are repeated a dozen or so times before the concluding line: “I love you, Honey Pie.” It is what Wikipedia calls one of the “incomplete song fragments” on the album, which is, as I have said, all the richer for them. Because out of this emerges that superb acoustic guitar solo which, I learnt earlier, was actually performed on a mellatron, before The Continuing Story Of Bungalow Bill gets under way. Here Yoko Ono provides the first female backing vocals on a Beatles song. Acoustic guitar and tambourine are backed by typically thumping bass. “Hey, Bungalow Bill / What did you kill / Bungalow Bill?” After those opening lines, Lennon, I think it is, sings the verses: “He went out tiger hunting with his elephant and gun / In case of accidents he always took his mum / He’s the all American bullet-headed Saxon mother’s son. / All the children sing…” Then that crazy chorus is repeated, before the story continues: “Deep in the jungle where the mighty tiger lies / Bill and his elephants were taken by surprise / So Captain Marvel zapped it right between the eyes / All the children sing …” Good to see one of the comic book superheroes we were so addicted to in our youth made it onto a Beatles song. After the chorus, the final verse: “The children asked him if to kill was not a sin / Not when he looked so fierce, his mother butted in / If looks could kill it would have been us instead of him / All the children sing…” It is another wonderfully irreverent bit of Beatles fun. Not surprisingly it ends with whistling and clapping. And then the mood becomes more serious as one of the all-time classic of rock history, about a crying guitar, starts, not with guitar, but with piano. First there is a “hi-ho!” before the acoustic guitar and cymbals, followed by the lead guitar bring forth Harrison on arguably his most famous song, While My Guitar Gently Weeps, which Wikipedia says “expresses concern about being ‘bought and sold’, probably a major factor in most artists’ lives. “I look at you all see the love there that’s sleeping / While my guitar gently weeps / I look at the floor and I see it need sweeping / Still my guitar gently weeps.” Then to the chorus: “I don’t know why nobody told you / how to unfold your love / I don’t know how someone controlled you / they bought and sold you.” It is about here that Eric Clapton’s lead guitar comes to the fore. In fact, as they would do often in live concerts in the 1970s, he and Harrison end up jamming a bit, backed by a strident organ, as the song progresses. And yes, at times Clapton does get the guitar to cry - though none would make it talk like a certain Jimi Hendrix was doing at this time. “I look at the world and I notice it’s turning / While my guitar gently weeps / With every mistake we must surely be learning / Still my guitar gently weeps.” Harrison was always a political animal, and here that weeping guitar has a reason for being sad as Harrison , ever hopeful, believes we will surely learn from our cock-ups. “I don’t know how you were diverted / you were perverted too / I don’t know how you were inverted / no one alerted you.” Finally, the benediction. “I look at you all see the love there that’s sleeping / While my guitar gently weeps / I look at you all / Still my guitar gently weeps.” The song, which Wikipedia calls “lyrically sophisticated” ends with a series of ohs and yeahs as the guitars weep in duet. Then from guitars to guns. We had our own rather rude couple of lines which we worked into Happiness Is A Warm Gun. This is another Lennon classic – a weird and wonderful piece of fun. It starts quietly, with piano and guitar. “She’s not a girl who misses much / Do do do do do do- oh yeah…” That last line, for me, clearly inspired a certain David Bowie a couple of years later. Indeed, if anyone carried the Beatles baton on into the 1970s, apart from the lads themselves, it was Bowie , of whom more later. After that gentle opener, the song hardens up. “She’s well acquainted with the touch of the velvet hand / Like a lizard on a window pane / The man in the crowd with the multicoloured mirrors / On his hobnail boots / Lying with his eyes while his hands are busy / Working overtime / A soap impression of his wife which he ate / And donated to the National Trust.” Phew! That’s Dylanesque.Yet so British. The anxiety gets too much as, in Wikipedia’s view, he turns to drugs. “I need a fix ’cause I’m going down / Down to the bits that I left uptown / I need a fix cause I’m going down / Mother Superior jumped the gun / Mother Superior jumped the gun / Mother Superior jumped the gun / Mother Superior jumped the gun / Mother Superior jumped the gun / Mother Superior jumped the gun ...” Then after that somewhat ambiguous verse, the following: “Happiness is a warm gun / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) / Happiness is a warm gun, momma / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) / When I hold you in my arms / (Ooooooooohhh, oh yeah!) / And when I feel my finger on your trigger / I know nobody can do me no harm / Because happiness is a warm gun, momma / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) / Happiness is a warm gun / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) / -Yes it is, it’s a warm gun! / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) / Happiness is a warm, yes it is... / GUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUN! / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) / Well don’t ya know that happiness is a warm gun, momma? / (Bang Bang Shoot Shoot) Yeeeaahhh!” So what was our naughty variation on this theme? Well instead of having Mother Superior jumping the gun, we had Father Superior jumping the nun, and the concomitant “happiness is a warm nun”. Even then we felt for the poor Catholic priests and nuns deprived of sexual relationships. And remember that beneath the flippancy this is a great slow-blues song, with some awesome harmonising. And that was just the first of four sides. Already you have a wealth of material under the belt, and it just goes on being great. McCartney wasn’t just the writer of good tunes. His creations are as vital to the overall Beatles package as Lennon’s, providing as they do a sort of less serious counterpoint to Lennon’s intellectualism and Harrison ’s ascetic and political work. McCartney was also able to bring a humanism to the band, with most of his songs based firmly in the culture of ordinary English people. So when Side 2 starts with a jaunty bit of piano, backed by equally fun bass and vocal harmonies, you know McCartney is afoot. “Martha my dear though I spend my days in conversation / Please / Remember me Martha my love / Don’t forget me Martha my dear.” You can hear the Liverpudlian accent in the words. The mood switches slightly. “Hold your head up you silly girl look what you’ve done / When you find yourself in the thick of it / Help yourself to a bit of what is all around you / Silly Girl.” Naturally, McCartney has harnessed some brass to lift the song about here, but the song then takes on a more solid rock flavour. “Take a good look around you / Take a good look you’re bound to see / That you and me were meant to be for each other / Silly girl.” McCartney was a known ladies’ man, and clearly was as sentimental as his songs suggest. But didn’t the women just love him! “Hold your hand out you silly girl see what you’ve done / When you find yourself in the thick of it / Help yourself to a bit of what is all around you / Silly girl.” He ends with a tribute: “Martha my dear you have always been my inspiration / Please / Be good to me Martha my love / Don’t forget me Martha my dear.” Lennon, in a way, brings us down to earth on the next song, I’m So Tired, which is a slow, bass-led blues. Of course, as the lead electric guitar pours forth jazzy riffs, so the song grows in intensity. “I'm so tired, I haven’t slept a wink / I’m so tired, my mind is on the blink / I wonder should I get up and fix myself a drink / No, no, no.” He subsides back into contemplation. “I’m so tired I don’t know what to do / I’m so tired my mind is set on you / I wonder should I call you but I know what you would do…” Then the realisation dawns, as the mood switches. “You’d say I’m putting you on / But it’s no joke, it’s doing me harm / You know I can’t sleep, I can’t stop my brain / You know it’s three weeks, I’m going insane / You know I’d give you everything I’ve got / for a little peace of mind.” After that outburst, he has no choice but to lie back and reflect again. “I’m so tired, I’m feeling so upset / Although I’m so tired I’ll have another cigarette / And curse Sir Walter Raleigh / He was such a stupid git.” Interesting touch that, blaming the guy who brought tobacco back to the UK during his travels to the New World . Again rich in the textures which are a hallmark of Lennon’s songs, the aggressive verse is repeated. From an intense, introspective Lennon we switch to a McCartney on one of his most uplifting, and obviously famous, songs, Blackbird. What brilliant acoustic guitar work! The Beatles’ achievements on this basic instrument are underestimated, because time and again it comes through on these songs as the foundation, the bedrock, of their compositions. This must rank as one of the most beautiful acoustic ballads ever written, and it is performed superbly. “Blackbird singing in the dead of night / Take these broken wings and learn to fly / All your life / You were only waiting for this moment to arise.” What precisely he means by learning to fly with broken wings, perhaps we’ll discover later. “Black bird singing in the dead of night / Take these sunken eyes and learn to see / all your life / You were only waiting for this moment to be free.” Then, as the acoustic guitar works its magic, the chorus: “Blackbird fly, Blackbird fly / Into the light of the dark black night.” This is repeated before the next verse. It is worth noting that in southern Africa we don’t know the blackbird, clearly a nocturnal species. Apart from the owls and couple of waterbirds, our most likely equivalent is the nightjar, which also has an interesting call. Anyway, I think I know the blackbird’s call thanks to the fact that as the final verse is sung, we get to hear it. “Blackbird singing in the dead of night / Take these broken wings and learn to fly / All your life / You were only waiting for this moment to arise,oh / You were only waiting for this moment to arise, oh / You were only waiting for this moment to arise.” There is a message in there about overcoming adversity, but for us, at the time, it was just one more beautiful Beatles song. Then it was time for a little more Harrison magic. Wikipedia calls Piggies, the next track, a “class-driven piece of social commentary”. It starts with piano and acoustic guitar, with the thumping McCartney bass and the snorting and grunting of pigs joining in soon after Harrison starts singing. “Have you seen the little piggies / Crawling in the dirt / And for all the little piggies / Life is getting worse / Always having dirt to play around in.” There is a strong sense of George Orwell’s Animal Farm here. “Have you seen the bigger piggies / In their starched white shirts / You will find the bigger piggies / Stirring up the dirt / Always have clean shirts to play around in.” Watch out for sharp-dressers, he seems to say. Instead of being workers they are merely networkers. Then that muted, mountain-top sound: “In their sties with all their backing / They don’t care what goes on around / In their eyes there’s something lacking / What they need’s a damn good whacking.” The song has a lugubrious quality, accentuated by the string arrangement. “Everywhere there’s lots of piggies / Living piggy lives / You can see them out for dinner / With their piggy wives / Clutching forks and knives to eat their bacon.” This is a real breakthrough song in that few rock songs could possibly have incorporated such a wonderful, yet obvious, metaphor for greed. Ever inventive, McCartney’s magic is up next with Rocky Raccoon, which Wikipedia calls a “Bob Dylan parody”. I don’t agree. Surely it is simply a rip-off of your typical country and western song, sung in an affected American accent. It opens with acoustic guitar and a bit of harmonica, as McCartney launches into that slow drawl. I never did hear the opening line, so it’s good to finally see what was being sung. “Now somewhere in the black mining hills of Dakota / There lived a young boy named Rocky Raccoon / And one day his woman ran off with another guy / Hit young Rocky in the eye Rocky didn’t like that / He said I’m gonna get that boy / So one day he walked into town / Booked himself a room in the local saloon.” I suppose it is Dylan-like in that there is a narrative, but that was surely true of most country songs of this nature. By this stage a piano has picked up the pace, as the song continues. “Rocky Raccoon checked into his room / Only to find Gideon’s bible / Rocky had come equipped with a gun / To shoot off the legs of his rival / His rival it seems had broken his dreams / By stealing the girl of his fancy. / Her name was Magil and she called herself Lil / But everyone knew her as Nancy . / Now she and her man who called himself Dan / Were in the next room at the hoe down / Rocky burst in and grinning a grin / He said Danny boy this is a showdown / But Daniel was hot, he drew first and shot / And Rocky collapsed in the corner. / Now the doctor came in stinking of gin / And proceeded to lie on the table / He said Rocky you met your match / And Rocky said, Doc it’s only a scratch / And I’ll be better I’ll be better doc as soon as I am able. / Now Rocky Raccoon he fell back in his room / Only to find Gideon’s bible / A Gideon checked out and he left it no doubt / To help with good Rocky’s revival.” It all seems a trifle trite seen here in black and white, but it was always great fun to listen to. A final arpeggio on the piano leads into the next song, a Ringo original. Piano and drums get Don’t Pass Me By under way, and there is some excellent fiddle playing soon after Ringo starts singing: “I listen for your footsteps / Coming up the drive / Listen for your footsteps / But they don’t arrive / Waiting for your knock dear / On my old front door / I don’t hear it / Does it mean you don’t love me any more.” This is actually a fine song, with that fiddle adding lilt to the country sound. “I hear the clock a’ticking / On the mantel shelf / See the hands a’moving / But I’m by myself / I wonder where you are tonight / And why I’m by myself / I don’t see you / Does it mean you don’t love me any more.” Then that chorus. “Don’t pass me by don’t make me cry don’t make me blue / ’Cause you know darling I love only you / You’ll never know it hurts me so / How I hate to see you go / Don’t pass me by don’t make me cry.” And the fiddle just keeps on sawing away. Then a bit of Ringo lunacy. “I’m sorry that I doubted you / I was so unfair / You were in a car crash / And you lost your hair / You said that you would be late / About an hour or two / I said that’s alright I’m waiting here / Just waiting to hear from you.” The song fades and then returns, with drums, fiddle and backing vocals, before fading again. The drumbeat is picked up again, alongside some loud clapping before a voice cries the title of the next track, Why Don’t We Do It In The Road, a McCartney song which Wikipedia says is a Little Richard parody. Whatever it is, I know it obviously had our young imaginations wondering just what “it” was – and making the obvious assumption that it was of a sexual nature. With piano and bass, and electric guitar joining in, this turns into an excellent bluesy number. But lyrically it is minimalist, with the title almost as long as the song, which consists of these words and these words only: “Why don’t we do it in the road? / No one will be watching us / Why don’t we do it in the road?” After that bit of heavy stuff, the album was crying out for something gentler, and McCartney offered his alter ego in the form of what Wikipedia calls a pop ballad, I Will. Again, the acoustic guitarwork here is superb. It is backed by what sounds like bongo drums and rounded bass notes. The backing vocals ably support another McCartney tour de force. “Who knows how long I’ve loved you / You know I love you still / Will I wait a lonely lifetime / If you want me to – I will.” So simple, yet so effective. “For if I ever saw you / I didn’t catch your name / But it never really mattered / I will always feel the same.” Then, like Dylan, McCartney’s penchant for melody asserts itself even further on the chorus. “Love you forever and forever / Love you with all my heart / Love you whenever we’re together / Love you when we’re apart.” The song is short, with the final verse offering just the sort of conclusion it was calling for. “And when at last I find you / Your song will fill the air / Sing it loud so I can hear you / Make it easy to be near you / For the things you do endear you to me / How you know I will / I will.” All the time it must be stressed, that acoustic guitar is working its magic alongside McCartney’s vocals, guaranteeing a sublime end result. And how better to follow this than with a Lennon ballad, arguably one of the most beautiful ever written – and ever put down on record. Wikipedia tells us that Julia was the name of “Lennon’s beloved but frequently absent mother, who died during his youth”. One cannot underestimate that loss on a sensitive soul like Lennon obviously was, and that is why he returns to this subject several times in his later solo career. But this first time is probably the most moving. His acoustic guitarwork is also out of the top drawer, while he sings in that inimitable, slightly subdued tone which has Lennon stamped all over it. As teenagers, we probably misconstrued this, thinking it was being addressed to his lover. Consider the wonderful imagery used to describe this woman whom Lennon would only ever have known as a young, probably beautiful, person. “Half of what I say is meaningless / But I say it just to reach you, Julia.” What a confession! It is as if to say that she, his late mother, alone can affirm what he does, but can he ever reach her? The backing vocals add a soft, soothing dimension as he eulogises this woman. “Julia, Julia, oceanchild, calls me / So I sing a song of love, Julia / Julia, seashell eyes, windy smile, calls me / So I sing a song of love, Julia.” And he waxes even more lyrical as the key changes. “Her hair of floating sky is shimmering, glimmering / In the sun.” But what beautiful images ensue. “Julia, Julia, morning moon, touch me / So I sing a song of love, Julia.” Few songs can have said as much in so few words. “When I cannot speak my heart / I can only speak my mind, Julia.” The images continue to flow. “Julia, sleeping sand, silent cloud, touch me / So I sing a song of love, Julia… / Hum hum hum hum...calls me / So I sing a song of love, Julia, Julia, Julia.” Side 3 lets you know the Beatles have now become a serious rock band. It opens with another McCartney classic, the solid rock track, Birthday. This starts with excellent lead guitar and rhythm section, before a chorus of voices sings the opening lines: “You say it’s your birthday / It’s my birthday too, yeah / They say it’s your birthday / We’re gonna have a good time / I’m glad it’s your birthday / Happy birthday to you.” Heavy drumming and what sounds like electric piano get the mood rockin’. “Yes we’re going to a party party / Yes we’re going to a party party / Yes we’re going to a party party ...” The backing vocals are typically perfect on a track which did indeed become a popular song at birthday parties. The pace escalates. “I would like you to dance (Birthday) / Take a cha-cha-cha-chance (Birthday) / I would like you to dance (Birthday) / Dance.” Heavy lead guitar and even some female backing vocals take us through a repeat of those lines and the opening verse. Funny that this is the first time I’ve seen what the second line of this song was. I never knew he said “well it’s my birthday too, yeah”, but thought it was something like “well happy birthday to ya”. Shows how wrong you can be. From that upbeat sound, to the deeper, more moody Lennon classic, Yer Blues. Wikipedia says Lennon’s songs on this album are “generally more hard-edged lyrically than his previous output, a trend which carried over to his solo career”. It says an example is his “plea for death on Yer Blues”. This is seriously heavy blues-rock, with lead and rhythm section setting the tone straight out. “Yes I’m lonely wanna die / Yes I’m lonely wanna die / If I ain’t dead already / Ooh girl you know the reason why.” As with most great blues songs, a woman’s love lies at the heart of the matter. “In the morning wanna die / In the evening wanna die / If I ain’t dead already / Ooh girl you know the reason why.” Then that amazing middle section. “My mother was of the sky / My father was of the earth / But I am of the universe / And you know what it’s worth / I’m lonely wanna die / If I ain’t dead already / Ooh girl you know the reason why.” McCartney’s bass is especially good on here, while Ringo proves his worth as a drummer, as the cymbals are flailed unflinchingly. “The eagle picks my eye / The worm he licks my bone / I feel so suicidal / Just like Dylan’s Mr. Jones / Lonely wanna die / If I ain’t dead already / Ooh girl you know the reason why.” And isn’t that reference to Dylan’s Mr Jones a wonderful example of the youth culture reinforcing itself? “Black cloud crossed my mind / Blue mist round my soul / Feel so suicidal / Even hate my rock and roll / Wanna die yeah wanna die / If I ain’t dead already / Ooh girl you know the reason why.” The lead guitar wails and whines as this great number finally fades. What next? It would have to be a softer, slower ballad, and what better than McCartney’s Mother Nature’s Son? Again, the acoustic guitar is adroitly picked, with a gentle rhythm section and a bit of brass and strings giving the song the full Beatles treatment. McCartney’s vocals are again superb. “Born a poor young country boy, Mother Nature’s son / All day long I’m sitting singing songs for everyone.” This is a celebration of nature and of the words that describe it. “Sit beside a mountain stream, see her waters rise / Listen to the pretty sound of music as she flies.” Finally, “Find me in my field of grass, Mother Nature’s son / Swaying daises sing a lazy song beneath the sun. / Mother Nature’s son.” At 2:47 minutes this is not a short throw-away song, despite the brevity of the lyrics. Instead, it is couched in wonderful acoustic-guitar based music that one can only lie back and savour. Because you need to brace yourself for the next track, which has one of the longest titles in rock history and is as heavy, probably, as the Beatles get. Lead guitar, drums, bass, action! The adrenalin is pumping as Everybody’s Got Something To Hide Except For Me And My Monkey gets rolling. “Come on come on come on come on / Come on is such a joy / Come on is such a joy / Come on take it easy / Come on take it easy / Take it easy take it easy / Everybody’s got something / to hide except for me and / my monkey.” Wail guitar, wail. Thump you bass, thump. “The deeper you go the higher you fly / The higher you fly the deeper you go / So come on come on / Come on is such a joy / Come on is such a joy / Come on make it easy / Come on make it easy.” After the chorus is repeated, the final verse goes: “Your inside is out and your outside is in / Your outside is in and your inside is out / So come on come on / Come on is such a joy / Come on is such a joy / Come on make it easy / Come on make it easy / Make it easy make it easy / Everybody's got something / to hide except for me and / my monkey.” The song ends with interesting jabbering and yelping, but what is most important about this song is that, despite it being hard rock, it retains sophistication, a stamp of Beatles taste, which sets it apart. As noted earlier, there were rumours that Sexy Sadie was originally written by Lennon as an attack on the Maharish for trying to have his way with Mia Farrow (“Maharishi / You little twat”.) It is interesting to look at the lyrics in this context, but this time addressed to Farrow. Once again, the song has a crisp, understated texture. It starts with piano, drums and bass, with some languorous lead guitar at the end. “Sexy Sadie what have you done / You made a fool of everyone / You made a fool of everyone / Sexy Sadie ooh what have you done.” It’s like a judgment on someone’s behaviour. “Sexy Sadie you broke the rules / You layed it down for all to see / You layed it down for all to see / Sexy Sadie oooh you broke the rules.” Lennon’s voice is again at its best. “One sunny day the world was waiting for a lover / She came along to turn on everyone / Sexy Sadie the greatest of them all.” Or could this be heavily barbed sarcasm directed at the Maharishi? “Sexy Sadie how did you know / The world was waiting just for you / The world was waiting just for you / Sexy Sadie oooh how did you know.” Then comes a warning of retribution. “Sexy Sadie you’ll get yours yet / However big you think you are / However big you think you are / Sexy Sadie oooh you’ll get yours yet.” Whoever this was about, Lennon’s pen was poised for revenge. “We gave her everything we owned just to sit at her table / Just a smile would lighten everything / Sexy Sadie she’s the latest and the greatest of them all.” I guess this will remain one of the great John Lennon mysteries. The song concludes with: “She made a fool of everyone / Sexy Sadie. / However big you think you are / Sexy Sadie.” Wikipedia calls the next track, Helter Skelter, “the prototype heavy metal”, and it certainly is McCartney at his most loud and proud. I remember it best for somehow being linked to the horrific murder of actress Sharon Tate by Charles Manson’s sinister sect in 1969. Anyway, this really does start with some heavy, head-banging electric guitar and the energetic opening lines: “When I get to the bottom I go back to the top of the slide / Where I stop and I turn and then I go for a ride / ’Til I get to the bottom and I see you again, yeah, yeah yeah …” By now the bass is surging, the drums are rampant and the cymbals slashed and burning. “Do you, don’t you want me to love you / I’m coming down fast, but I’m miles above you / Tell me, tell me tell me, c’mon tell me the answer / Well you may be a lover but you ain’t no dancer. / Now Helter Skelter, Helter Skelter, Helter Skelter, yeah ...” I visited Brighton while living in London in 1990 and 1991, and came across the sort of helter skelter slide which probably inspired McCartney on the newer of the two piers (the older was falling apart). It was a colourful affair, with the slide itself circling down around a central cone shape. It seemed a fairly innocuous affair. But this song is far from it, capturing as it does the powerful emotional forces of physical attraction. “a-Will you, won’t you want me to make you / I’m coming down fast, but don’t let me break you / Tell me, tell me, tell me the answer / You may be a lover but you ain’t no dancer.” Then the chorus: “Look out! / Helter Skelter, Helter Skelter, Helter Skelter, oooh... / Look out, ’cause here she come ...” McCartney lets his bass notes run up and down the fretboard at this point. “When I get to the bottom I go back to the top of the slide / And I stop and I turn and then I go for a ride / And I get to the bottom and I see you again, yeah, yeah yeah.” And so verses are repeated, before it seems to fizzle out. “Look out! Helter Skelter ... she’s coming down fast / yes she is / yes she is / coming down fast / oh now helter skelter ... woo hooo.” McCartney’s voice sounds a bit like Deep Purple’s Ian Gillan at times, as this heavy denouement fades and re-emerges with bass and drums thumping and feedback lead guitar screaming. Finally, in desperation, someone cries out a line that has become immortal: “I’ve got blisters on my fingers!” If you’ve played a guitar much, you’ll know that is an occupational hazard. Talk about beautiful bass playing, McCartney really excels on the next track, Harrison ’s soothing Long, Long, Long. Wikipedia calls it a “sparse ballad” that is “stylistically quite similar to much of his solo output”. It is an observation I made while listening to the song, because there are passages in this song which would be at home on his seminal 1970 triple album, All Things Must Pass. It starts with that lovely bass and acoustic guitar, quiet and peaceful. “It’s been a long long long time, / How could I ever have lost you / When I loved you.” By now big drum beats and exquisite vocal backing has joined in. The next verse is again pure simplicity. “It took a long long long time / Now I’m so happy I found you / How I love you.” Then that Harrison sound we were to so enjoy in the 1970s. “So many tears I was searching, / So many tears I was wasting, oh. Oh…” There is a hint of organ, alongside that strummed acoustic guitar and buzzing bass. “Now I can see you, be you / How can I ever misplace you / How I want you / Oh I love you / You know that I need you. / Ooh I love you.” If that song was laid back, then the song that launches Side 4, Lennon’s Revolution 1, is in-your-face rock, with a biting political message. Despite starting with bluesy acoustic guitar, the song is given an old rock ’n roll vibe with the advent of a heavy electric guitar riff before those immortal first words are sung. “You say you want a revolution / Well you know / we all want to change the world / You tell me that it’s evolution / Well you know / We all want to change the world / But when you talk about destruction / Don’t you know you can count me out, in.” On the film, Imagine John Lennon, he says he deliberately sets out to create ambiguity by singing “in” after “count me out”. Clearly, though, Lennon was not advocating destruction. The song is a slow rock number, with brass adding texture, and a saxophone also chipping in before the chorus: “Don’t you know it’s gonna be alright / Alright Alright.” There is a nice bit of harmonising here, with some of the lads singing shoo-be-doo-wap, shoo-be-doo-wap, before the next verse. “You say you got a real solution / Well you know / we’d all love to see the plan / You ask me for a contribution / Well you know / We’re all doing what we can / If you want money for people with minds that hate / All I can tell you is brother you have to wait.” Lennon’s peace crusade, which defined his solo years, is fully to the fore here, as he again reassures the youth. “Don’t you know it’s gonna be alright / Alright Alright.” I doubt whether any pop or rock song had even contained the word “constitution” before this one. “You say you’ll change the constitution / Well you know / we’d all love to change your head / You tell me it’s the institution / Well you know / You better free your mind instead / But if you go carrying pictures of Chairman Mao / You ain’t going to make it with anyone anyhow / Don't you know it’s gonna be alright / Alright ALRIGHT ALRIGHT ALRIGHT ALRIGHT ALRIGHT ALRIGHT ALRIGHT ALRIGHT.” Nice to see that, despite the popularity of Mao’s Little Red Book among the trendy lefties of the time, Lennon had no truck with his form of Marxist dictatorship. Not only does some fine electric lead guitar add urgency, there is also some peppy piano on here and brilliant acoustic lead guitar. It’s fun, too, to hear Lennon’s ah-ah-ahs moving between speakers as the song ends. It took McCartney to bring just the sort of change of mood and focus which makes this album such a rich, eclectic mix. Wikipedia describes the next track, Honey Pie, as a “music-hall foxtrot”. It certainly evokes a sort of 1930s air, including the use of McCartney’s voice which at one point sounds like it was recorded way back when and is being played on a dusty old record. Naturally, a piano gives McCartney backing as he opens with: “She was a working girl / North of England way.” Then that scratchy-record sound: “Now she’s hit the big time / In the U.S.A.” Before his voice returns to normal: “And if she could only hear me / This is what I’d say.” The tempo increases. “Honey pie you are making me crazy / I’m in love but I’m lazy / So won’t you please come home.” It is another love-inspired classic. “Oh honey pie my position is tragic / Come and show me the magic / of your Hollywood song.” It wouldn’t be a Beatles song without some superb brass backing, with I think the trombone prominent. “You became a legend of the silver screen / And now the thought of meeting you / Makes me weak in the knees.” This harks back to the days of romantic sea voyages, before jet aircrafts became the popular travel mode. “Oh honey pie you are driving me frantic / Sail across the Atlantic / To be where you belong / Honey pie, come back to me.” With the brass instruments bellowing, he camps it up a bit. “I like it like that, / Oohh, I like this kinda, hot kind of music. / Hot kind of music, play it to me, / Play it to me Hollywood blues.” Then he becomes more reflective, and somewhat doubtful. “Will the wind that blew her boat / Across the sea / Kindly send her sailing back to me. ” The song ends with the chorus. “Honey pie you are making me crazy / I’m in love but I’m lazy / So won’t you please come home.” Listening to this, I wondered whether it hadn’t had a strong influence on Freddy Mercury, who took this sort of mood and concept to extremes with Queen on Bohemian Rhapsody in 1975. Talk about an album offering a cornucopia of delights, a smorgasbord of delectable treats. Well it’s food that is the subject under discussion on the next track, Harrison ’s Savoy Truffle. Wikipedia calls it “a chronicle of gastronomic excess and dental trauma”. I’d only really heard it on a superficial level before, and listening to it again I was struck by just what a wonderful piece it is. Against a backdrop of quick-paced drums and lead guitar, not to mention some superb fuzz bass, come the opening words: “Creme tangerine and montelimat / A ginger sling with a pineapple heart / A coffee dessert, yes you know it’s good news / But you’ll have to have them all pulled out / After the Savoy truffle.” Harrison, like the rest of the lads, was clearly familiar with such haute cuisine, but no doubt worried about the impact on his health – especially that of his teeth! It is difficult with these songs to isolate instruments, because the overall texture is so well blended. But I detected electric piano, organ and saxes. “Cool cherry cream and a nice apple tart / I feel your taste all the time we’re apart / Coconut fudge, really blows down those blues / But you’ll have to have them all pulled out / After the Savoy truffle.” I like writers, poets, who mix up the senses, enabling one to “feel your taste”. That, surely, is what romantic love can do – so befuddle the senses that you are left utterly helpless. But pain can supersede all other emotions. “You might not feel it now / But when the pain cuts through / You’re going to know and how / The sweat is going to fill your head / When it becomes too much / You’re going to shout aloud.” After another “Creme tangerine”, the song continues: “You know that what you eat you are, / But what is sweet now, turns so sour / We all know Obla-Di-Bla-Da / But can you show me, where you are?” And so Harrison is even referencing a song that appears on the same album. The song concludes with the opening verse repeated – yet another bit of Beatles brilliance. Then it’s back to the ephemeral world into which Lennon’s mind games lead us, on the gentle acoustic ballad, Cry Baby Cry. What sounds like a clarinet joins the acoustic guitar and piano, as the song opens. “Cry baby cry / Make your mother sigh / She’s old enough to know better.” The song has an old English folk-song quality, buffered by at times quite heavy and intense drums and cymbals, and presaging the likes I suppose of Fairport Convention and Pentangle. There is even a hint of Donovan’s influence in the vocals. “The king of Marigold was in the kitchen / Cooking breakfast for the queen / The queen was in the parlour / Playing piano for the children of the king.” The chorus is repeated before the nursery-tale type narrative continues. “The king was in the garden / Picking flowers for a friend who came to play / The queen was in the playroom / Painting pictures for the children’s holiday.” Another chorus then: “The duchess of Kircaldy always smiling / And arriving late for tea / The duke was having problems / With a message at the local Bird and Bee.” What an inspired bit of songwriting, taking us right back to medieval Britain . “At twelve o’clock a meeting round the table / For a seance in the dark / With voices out of nowhere / Put on specially by the children for a lark.” This is a lovely tale of domestic life, which ends with the chorus being repeated … before a shorty by McCartney, a little ditty, adds another interesting dimension: “Can you take me back where I came from? / Can you take me back? / Can you take me back where I came from? / Rowboat can you take me back? / Can you take me back? / Oooh, can you take me where I came from? / Can you take me back?” My cassette of this album, probably made nearly 20 years ago, does not include Revolution 9. It’s a C90, and the rest would probably not all have fitted if it did. But I still have bits of it in my memory – after nearly 40 years! Wikipedia says it is a Lennon-McCartney composition featuring Lennon, Harrison and Yoko Ono on lead vocals. It was, I recall, a weird and at times rather nauseating use of over eight minutes of an album. As noted earlier, Ono’s influence was evidently great, as the track included avant garde tape loops and numerous other sound effects. Throughout there are audible words sung or spoken, so it will be interesting to look at a transcript of those. This, according to one lyrics webside, it what transpires, amidst all that other sound. “(Bottle of Claret for you if I had realised... / Well, do it next time. / I forgot about it, George, I’m sorry. Will you forgive me? / Yes.)” Then the repeated: “Number 9, number 9, number 9, number 9, number 9 / Number 9, number 9, number 9, number 9, number 9 / Number 9, number 9, number 9, number 9, number...” This is followed by: “...then there’s this Welsh Rarebit wearing some brown underpants / ...about the shortage of grain in Hertfordshire.” A little later: “Everyone of them knew that as time went by they’d get a little bit older and a litter slower but...” And then: “It’s all the same thing, in this case manufactured by someone who’s always/umpteen ... / Your father’s giving it diddly-i-dee/district was leaving... / Intended to die ... Ottoman / ...long gone through... / I’ve got to say, irritably and... / ...floors, hard enough to put on ... per day’s MD in our district / There was not really enough light to get down / And ultimately ... slumped down / Suddenly...” As I said, really a load of gobbledygook, but considered so hip at the time. “They may stop the funding... / Place your bets / The original / Afraid she’ll die ... / Great colours for the season … Number 9, number 9.” There are a few intelligible passages towards the end: “A man without terrors from beard to false / As the headmaster reported to my son / He really can try, as they do, to find function... / Tell what he was saying, and his voice was low and his hive high / And his eyes were low... Alright!” Then this, which has Lennon written all over it. “So the wife called me and we’d better go to see a surgeon to price it ... / Yellow underclothes / So, any road, we went to see the dentist instead / Who gave her a pair of teeth which wasn’t any good at all / So I said I’d marry, join the fucking navy and went to sea …” This is followed by the line: “In my broken chair, my wings are broken and so is my hair” and “I’m not in the mood for whirling.” Then the interesting: “How? Dogs for dogging, hands for clapping / Birds for birding and fish for fishing / Them for themming and when for whemming … “ This is followed by: “Only to find the night-watchman unaware of his / presence in the building” and more Number 9s and the lines, “Industry allows financial imbalance” and “Thrusting it between his shoulder blades”. I do recall the words, “The Watusi, the twist”, which were clearly audible, but not the “Eldorado” that follows. I also recall “Take this, brother, may it serve you well”, but not “Maybe it’s nothing / What? What? Oh...” or “Maybe, even then, impervious in London ” or “...could be difficult thing... / It’s quick like rush for peace is because it’s so much / Like being naked.” The “alright” of Lennon’s Revolution 1 is repeated here, “It’s alright, it’s alright / It’s alright, it’s alright”, before one line we, as young teens, couldn’t help but hear: “If, you became naked.” I heard it as “And they became naked”, which shows where me mind was at the time. So much for that revolution. In order to restore sanity, the album ends with a gentle lullaby, Good Night, which I found fairly effective at getting me off to sleep. Strings, a harp, a soporific singing voice and gentle backing vocals, soothing bass. This is probably the closest to heaven the Beatles are going to take you – if heaven is anything like the total oblivion of sleep. It is not even clear who is singing though the song has the McCartney stamp about it. “Now it’s time to say good night / Good night Sleep tight / Now the sun turns out his light / Good night Sleep tight / Dream sweet dreams for me / Dream sweet dreams for you.” It really is soporific. “Close your eyes and I’ll close mine / Good night Sleep tight / Now the moon begins to shine / Good night Sleep tight / Dream sweet dreams for me / Dream sweet dreams for you.” And so it continues before ending with: “Good night Good night Everybody / Everybody everywhere / Good night”, said in a whisper. So much for the brilliant batch of songs which comprise The Beatles/The White Album. Wikipedia informs us it marks the first time female voices are heard on a Beatles album, with Ono adding backing vocals on Birthday, along with Pattie Harrison and Linda Eastman. Ono also contributed a solo line on Bungalow Bill. Remarkably, several songs were recorded in demo form but could not be incorporated in the album – and so of course would bolster the arsenal for their next album. These include such classics as Mean Mr Mustard and Polythene Pam, both of which would be used as a medley on Abbey Road . Wikipedia says Lennon’s Child of Nature became Jealous Guy on Imagine, albeit with “drastically altered” lyrics. Other classics included McCartney’s The Long And Winding Road, which went onto the Let It Be album and Harrison Abbey Road ). This was the Beatles’ first album released by Apple Records, and their only original double album. Wikipedia says producer Martin had initially opposed a double album, but the band insisted. While Ringo, on Anthology, said he thought it should have been released as two albums, and Harrison had reservations about some of the tracks, I agree fully with McCartney, who, according to Wikipedia, said it was fine as it was and that the wide variety of songs was a major part of the album’s appeal. But it goes much deeper than that. The White Album is an iconic art object. It is a Beatles original, and even the absence of Revolution 9 would weaken it considerably – whether one likes it or not. Each song, and the sequencing of those songs, is a product of the minds and artistry of a group of young men who transformed the world of popular music. And of course the lads were multi-taskers, no doubt under hard task masters. Because Wikipedia tells us that during the White Album sessions, the band recorded Hey Jude, which was released as a seven-single before the release of The Beatles. Interestingly, it includes something of a rarity on its B side – a version of Revolution 1, called Revolution, which contains “heavily distorted guitar and a high-energy keyboard solo from Nicky Hopkins”. It was their first Apple single and became “the best selling of all Beatles singles in the US ”. The single’s release also marked the creation of one of the first “music videos”. Wikipedia says a “promotional film” of Revolution was made. “In a later era, such performances would come to be known as ‘music videos’”. It adds that they had been “creating and circulating these films for some time in support of their single releases, and as a replacement of sorts for live tours, which they had abandoned in 1966”. Several songs from the album were released as singles around the world, one as late as 1976, to coincide with the release of the compilation album, Rock ’n Roll Music. But what of that famous minimalist album sleeve? Wikipedia says it was designed by “notable pop artist” Richard Hamilton. His design was “in stark contrast to Peter Blake’s vivid cover art for Sgt Pepper’s”, consisting, as we all know, of a plain white sleeve, with the band’s name embossed just below the middle on the right side. It also featured a “unique stamped serial number”, which would, said Hamilton , “create the ironic situation of a numbered edition of something like five million copies”. Later releases in the US had the title printed in grey, rather than embossed. Early copies on CD were also numbered. Then to the “inside packaging” – that poster we had up on our bedroom wall, along with large colour photos of the four. Wikipedia says the package included the lyrics of the songs, and says the photos were taken by John Kelley in the autum of 1968 and “have themselves become iconic”. It is also, notes Wikipedia, the only Beatles studio album not to show the band on the front. Strangely, they make no mention of that large poster, which if I recall correctly, had the song lyrics printed on the back. It was a wonderful collage of photographs and, possibly, some typography. So was it as great an album as I think it is? Wikipedia says in late 1968 the Beatles were “at the peak of their global influence and visibility”. Sgt Peppers, released in 1967, had “enjoyed a combination of commercial success, hyperbolic critical acclaim and immense popular influence that had previously seemed inconceivable for a pop release”. Time Magazine had called it a “historic departure in the progress of music – any music”, says Wikipedia. While Magical Mystery Tour was their next album – and a great one too in my mind – Wikpedia says the White Album would be their “first major musical statement” since Sgt Peppers. Both the mainstream press and the “youth-orientated counterculture movement with which the band had by this time become strongly associated”, were full of expectations. Wikipedia quotes Tony Palmer of The Observer as writing that the album confirmed Lennon and McCartney as “the greatest songwriters since Schubert”. Richard Goldstein in The New York Times called it a “major success”. But Nik Cohn in the same paper called it “boring beyond belief”. Alan Smith of NME “derided Revolution 9” but praised “most of the rest”. Wikipedia says the album continues to “provoke heated discussions”. Naturally, I agree with the view of “some contemporary critics” that “the inclusion of supposedly extraneous material is a part of its appeal”. As observed earlier, we listened to this album devotedly, religiously, for years. Each song, each note, became part of our psyches. Are we now going to knock music that for decades has fed our souls? Wikipedia discusses the sudden penchant at the time to find hidden meanings in songs, but dwells pointedly on the Charles Manson “connection”. It notes his “now-infamous theory of the album’s supposed hidden meanings culminating in the Tate-LaBianca muders”. Cult leader Manson, says Wikipedia, “used the record, and generous helpings of hallucinogens, to persuade members of his ‘family’ that the album was in fact an apocalyptic message predicting a prolonged race war and justifying the murder of wealthy people”. He evidently took the song Helter Skelter and construed it as “the conflict he thought impending”. It adds that the album’s association (which, I must add, it never sought) with the murder was “one of many factors that helped to deepen the accelerating divide between those who were profoundly sceptical of the ‘youth culture’ movement … and those who admired the openness and spontaneity of that movement”. Ah, and it emerges that the single version of Revolution 1 did not contain the spoken “in” after “count me out”. This, on the album, says Wikipedia, the “radical left” at the time took as Lennon’s acknowledgement “after considered thought, that violence in the pursuit of political aims was indeed justified in some cases”. This coincided with growing street and campus unrest in Paris and Berkeley. The album was “a major commercial success”, says Wikipedia. It spent eight weeks at No 1 in the UK, the first being that of December 7, 1968, and nine at No 1 in the US, with the first being that of December 28. Total US sales are estimated at over 19 million. It is said to be the third-biggest selling Beatles album after Sgt Pepper and Abbey Road . Interestingly, Wikipedia says the album was re-released in 1978 with the disc pressed on white vinyl, to complete the “white” package. A similar pressing was done in Germany in 1985, and later in France . A 30th anniversary reissue on CD was released in 1998. It included the same package as the original. Ah yes, and they confirm that the replica of the poster comprises a photo collage on one side and the lyrics on the other. It is impossible, looking at a section on who played which instruments, to be sure just who was indeed playing what. Lennon, for instance played lead and rhythm (electric and acoustic) guitars, 4- and 6-string bass, piano (electric and acoustic), Hammond organ, harmonium, mellotron, assorted percussion, harmonica, saxophone and such things as whistling, tapes, tape loops and sound effects. Ditto virtually all of those with McCartney, who also added the flugelhorn. The same with Harrison, who in addition to guitars also played bass and organ. Drummer Ringo also contributed electric piano and sleigh bell (on Don’t Pass Me By). And then of course there was George Martin who did string, brass, clarinet, orchestral arrangements and conducting, and played piano on Rocky Raccoon. Fellow producer Chris Thomas played mellotron on Bungalow Bill, harpsichord on Piggies and piano on Long, Long, Long. Ken Scott was the engineer and mixer, along with Martin. The guest artists included, as mentioned earlier, Eric Clapton, Jack Fallon on violin on Don’t Pass Me By, Jimmy Scott on congas on Ob-La-Di-Ob-La-Da and many others, some of them mentioned earlier. The album also features a host of session musicians playing violins, violas, cellos, trumpets, flugelhorn, French horn, trombone, tuba, clarinet and saxophone. Wikipedia says the Beatles “produced most of the sessions themselves, and were there for the mixing sessions but, as usual, were not credited”. It says the same goes for the orchestral arrangements, “as both McCartney and Harrison worked on their own songs’ arrangements”. But enough already. When all is said and done, this album ranks as one of the greatest in the history of modern music. It was a privilege to have grown up with it. Yellow Submarine But of course there was more to come. Yellow Submarine only made it to No 3 on the UK album charts. Released on January 17, 1969, it was the soundtrack of the movie, and included songs off other albums, along with a few made specifically for the animated movie, which was the brainchild of Heinz Edelmann. We saw it as a midnight show at an East London movie theatre. What I loved about the film was the photo-silkscreen quality of the images, which in parts explore lovingly the rich textures of inner-city decay in the UK . This is particularly evident in the opening scenes where the submarine is following Ringo. There is one delightful scene of a man inside an iconic red telephone booth. He is far too large for the space out of which he seems to battle to free himself. Few films can be said to capture as fully the surreal, psychedelic mood of the era. The clothes worn by the four, including the colourful uniforms – which are on the Sgt Peppers cover – echoed the fashions of the time, with bell-bottom hipsters and paisley shirts being key elements. Wikipedia says the album’s genre is “rock, classical”, and it is that dichotomy that galls most Beatles fans. Let’s see if they expand on why those long tracts of classical stuff were included. It was the Beatles 10the official album and the soundtrack to the film. Wikipedia says “in contrast to how the film was received, Yellow Submarine is usually considered the Beatles’ weakest album, as it featured only six songs by the band”. That’s exactly my point. It adds that the Beatles themselves did not consider it a studio album “since the four previously unreleased tracks on it were recorded at various times in 1967 and early 1968”. Only A Northern Son was recorded during the Sgt Peppers sessions, and It’s All Too Much soon afterwards. Hey Bulldog was recorded in February 1968 and All Together Now in May 1967. The title track had, as noted earlier, already appeared on Revolver in August 1966 and as a hit single at about the same time. All You Need Is Love was a hit single in 1967, says Wikipedia, and was also on the US edition of Magical Mystery Tour later that year. But it’s Side 2 that’s the problem, since it consists of arrangements recorded specifically for the album of George Martin’s orchestral score. A plan to release Yellow Submarine as a five-track EP never materialised. As regards the cover, the US missed the point again. Wikipedia says the UK and US covers were virtually the same, except that the words Nothing Is Real in green print above the album’s title in the UK version was omitted in the US . But on the back it was the US who stole a march on the UK . While the back cover of the UK version featured a review by the Observer of the White Album, on the US version there is a “fictitious illustrated biography of Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, in which the ensemble’s battle with the Blue Meanies was compared to three other epic struggles in the history of the English-speaking world: Beowulf's struggle to save the Heorot mead hall, King John's signing of the Magna Carta, and Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the Declaration of Independence”. Listening to Yellow Submarine again is something of an anti-climax. As noted above, Yellow Submarine had already been released on Revolver back in 1966. It is always worth a fresh listen, however. Ringo’s vocals along with some great acoustic guitar backing and the sound of waves breaking are instantly equated with the movie. I hope to get onto them later in this tome, but there was an album by a bunch of Liverpool poets and musicians called The Amazing Adventures of the Liverpool Scene which was part of our growing up, and it featured poems by Adrian Henri about The Amazing Adventures of Che Guevara, who at the time was something of a left-wing, revolutionary hero. Anyway, in each he would comment on topical issues, and in one he reports: “Mysterious yellow submarine spotted off the North Korean coast. Recorded voice, supposedly of the captain, said in dull, monotonous tones: ‘I thought we’d go to India for a spot of meditation’.” Again, though, this song is a perfect example of how the Beatles blended rock with folk-like backing choruses, and richly textured brass and string arrangement, along with that typical Beatles chatter and laughter that marks so many of their later songs. Harrison ’s Only A Northern Song is one of the band’s most psychedelic numbers. It starts off with the sounds of an organ, but this is soon joined by numerous almost unidentifiable sounds, many of them curiously distorted. Harrison ’s vocals are low-key. This was still the Beatles in their prime, so the song has considerable merit. “If you’re listening to this song / You may think the chords are going wrong / But they’re not; / He just wrote it like that. / When you’re listening late at night / You may think the band are not quite right / But they are, they just play it like that / It doesn’t really matter what chords I play / What words I say or time of day it is / As it’s only a Northern song. / It doesn’t really matter what clothes I wear / Or how I fare or if my hair is brown / As it’s only a Northern song. / If you think the harmony / Is a little dark and out of key / You’re correct, there’s nobody there. / And I told you there’s no one there.” It is an interesting take on the “anything goes” in art argument. As the 1960s wound down, so bands became increasingly daring, often abandoning melody and structure altogether. Several songs on this album seem to anticipate the underground music that was around the corner by bands like Lou Reed’s Velvet Underground. McCartney’s more accessible self makes itself felt on All Together Now – at least I trust it’s his work, primarily, though both he and Lennon seem to share the lead vocal duties. Some fast-strummed acoustic guitar leads into the count-up. “One, two, three, four / Can I have a little more? / five, six, seven eight nine ten I love you.” Then, with almost kindergarten naivety, it continues: “A, B, C, D / Can I bring my friend to tea? / E, F, G H I J I love you.” This song really captures the mood of the movie. With bass and drums prominent, there is a lovely bluesy harmonica played through much of the song. The chorus is catchy: “Sail the ship, Chop the tree / Skip the rope, Look at me…” Then the lead and backing vocals chant the line “All together now....” before the next equally simple verse. “Black, white, green, red / Can I take my friend to bed? / Pink, brown, yellow orange blue I love you.” The chanting of “All together now....” speeds up as the song reaches its conclusion, and ends with a round of applause. Hey Bulldog brings a bit of Lennon gravitas to the album. Or Lennon genius, rather, because he was never one to take himself too seriously, but he clearly took seriously how his songs were produced. And this is a gem. A jaunty piano lays down the melody, which is then copied by lead guitar and finally the bass guitar. Lennon’s vocals have a quality that harks back to tracks on the early Beatles albums, rough and rollicking. “Sheep dog standing in the rain / Bulldog doing it again / Some kind of happiness is / measured out in miles / What make you think you’re / something special when you smile.” Again, the lyrics are mysterious and difficult to pin down. “Childlike no one understands / Jack knife in your sweaty hands / Some kind of innocence is / measured out in years / You don’t know what it’s like / to listen to your fears…” Then the chorus. “You can talk to me / You can talk to me / You can talk to me / If you’re lonely, you can talk to me.” The lead guitar in here somewhere is sharp and acerbic, while the bass guitar simply ripples along. “Big man walking in the park / Wigwam frightened of the dark / Some kind of solitude is measured out in you / You think you know but you haven’t got a clue.” The chorus is repeated before the words “Hey Bulldog” conclude the vocals. Then, as the song winds up, a spoken voice asks “What do you say?” and a dog’s bark is heard, along with more chatter and laughter. Another Harrison song that takes the band even deeper into the underground sound follows. It’s All Too Much starts with some searing lead guitar and feedback. What sounds like electric piano is also heard before the rhythm section gets going. “Sold too much.” That’s how the opening line sounds, but of course it is: “It’s all too much / It’s all too much.” There are strong echoes of the early songs by The Who on this as Harrison turns to the verses. “When I look into your eyes, your love is there for me / And the more I go inside, the more there is to see.” His philosophical introspections continue: “It’s all too much for me to take / The love that’s shining all around you / Everywhere, it’s what you make / For us to take, it’s all too much.” There was much interest at the time in whether you could travel through meditation. “Floating down the stream of time, of life to life with me / Makes no difference where you are or where you’d like to be.” The verses become more bizarre. “It’s all too much for me to take / The love that’s shining all around here / All the world is birthday cake, / So take a piece but not too much.” Then: “Sail me on a silver sun, for I know that I’m free / Show me that I’m everywhere, and get me home for tea.” Then more of the same: “It’s all to much for me to see / A love that’s shining all around here / The more I am, the less I know / And what I do is all too much.” This phrase, “too much”, became a hip expression at the time, along with words like “cool” and “far out, man”. “It’s all too much for me to take / The love that’s shining all around you / Everywhere, it’s what you make / For us to take, it’s all too much.” The song unwinds with “It’s too much... It’s too much” repeated, and then I suddenly thought I was hearing David Bowie, as “with your long blonde hair and your eyes of blue” is sung twice, before the words “you’re too much” are chanted amidst mumblings and rumblings as the song fades. The final rock song on the album, All You Need Is Love, was used in the US (and SA) version of Magical Mystery Tour, but was no doubt a big selling point for this album in the UK . With that bold brass opening it really does assume the mantle of an international anthem for love – and that clearly ties in with the theme of the Yellow Submarine movie. It is a joy to listen to, with Lennon’s vocals again superb. Great backing vocals blend with the brass instrumentation, while the lead guitar and violins are also wonderfully complementary. And then of course that “She loves you yeah, yeah, yeah” harks back nicely to an earlier time for the Beatles. And then, if you’d bought this album back then, you would have been seriously disappointed. These are no doubt great music, composed by George Martin (with the final track, Yellow Submarine In Pepperland credited to Martin, Lennon and McCartney), and in the context of the movie, constituted a fine soundtrack. But listened to in isolation, as one hoping to hear the Beatles, you will be devastated. Purely orchestral instrumentals, Pepperland, Sea of Monsters , March of the Meanies, Pepperland Laid Waste and Yellow Submarine in Pepperland just don’t cut it. Yet, even for the six songs on Side 1, this album is still a very interesting part of the lads’ progression, and their catalogue would be incomplete without it. Abbey Road The Beatles returned to their winning ways when Abbey Road again reached No 1 in the UK following its release on September 26, 1969. I recall discussion at the time about the symbolism of having Paul dressed barefoot in a suit as the four walked over a zebra crossing outside EMI studios in London – which has since become a must-see tourist attraction. Did it mean that Paul was dead, many asked. Paul turned out to be very much alive – and became the most prolific of the four in the post-Beatles era. Having read a recent biography on McCartney, however, it would seem that by this stage he was experiencing growing isolation from the others for various reasons which did not matter much to us fans on the southern tip of Africa . Nonetheless here, despite all the growing tensions in the group, was another batch of brilliant recordings. Classified as rock, Abbey Road was recorded between February 22 and August 20, 1969, but not only at Abbey Road Studios. Part of it was recorded at Olympic Sound and Trident Studios, says Wikipedia. It was released in the UK on September 26 and on October 1 in the US . As usual, George Martin was the producer. It was released, I see, on Apple, Parlophone and EMI, about more later, no doubt. It was the Beatles’ 11th official album, but was actually recorded after the 12th and final album, Let It Be, released just before the band’s dissolution in 1970, says Wikipedia, which adds that it is “regarded as one of the Beatles’ most tightly constructed albums, although the band was barely operating as a functioning unit at the time.” In 2003, Rolling Stone magazine placed it at 14 in its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. With the White Album sessions having been beset with conflict, Wikipedia says McCartney suggested to Martin that they get together again and make an album “the way we used to”, without any of the conflict of the White Album sessions. Initially it was to be called Get Back, but was later retitled Let It Be, which seems to acknowledge acceptance of the band’s end, rather than the former title, which points to a getting back together again. On Anthology, Wikipedia notes, the surviving Beatles indicated that they suspected this would be the band’s last album, and agreed to set aside their differences and “go out on a high note”. The Let It Be album was thus partly finished when sessions for Abbey Road began in April, 1969, as the single, Ballad Of John And Yoko/ Old Brown Shoe was completed. Wikipedia says most of Abbey Road was recorded between July 2 and August 1, 1969. Once released, the Get Back / Let It Be project was re-examined and more work done on the album. Which is why it is impossible to say which was their final album. Songs were still being added to Let It Be after Abbey Road ’s release, which makes Let It Be the final album, although the bulk of Let It Be was recorded before Abbey Road . Wikipedia says: “Properly, Abbey Road was the last album started by The Beatles before they disbanded. In September 1969, just shortly before the release of the album, John Lennon quit the group to launch a solo career with the Plastic Ono Band, effectively being the first official sign of dissolution”. Abbey Road has two sides “quite different in character”, says Wikipedia, with the first a collection of single tracks and the second comprising a long suite of compositions, “many of them being relatively short and sequed together”. This is reminiscent of the White Album. Wikipedia says the aim was to “incorporate the various short and incomplete Lennon and McCartney compositions the group had available into an effective part of the album”. Clearly the youth of the world, and we were part of them, knew the end was nigh, so they went out and bought this album in their millions. Wikipedia says Abbey Road “became one of the most successful Beatles albums ever”. It debuted at No 1 in the UK , where it spent 11 weeks on top, before being knocked off for just a week to No 2 by the Rolling Stones, who also debuted on top with Let It Bleed (which has an amazingly similar-sounding title to Let It Be). But the next week, Christmas week, Abbey Road returned to No 1, where it stayed for another six weeks, giving it a total of 17 weeks on top. It spent 92 weeks in the UK Top 75, including a period after its release on CD in 1987, when it reached No 30. Wikipedia says Abbey Road was the best-selling album of 1969, and fourth best of the entire 1960s. It was the eighth-best of 1970. In the US , it debuted at only No 178, but moved to No 4 and then, in its third week, to No 1, where it spent 11 non-consecutive weeks. It spent 129 weeks in the Billboard 200. Heck, I don’t even recall if we had this album. But every track is like part of the soundtrack to my life. And it was great to give the album a fresh listen, and to realise the strength of each track on what was the last Beatles album produced mainly by George Martin. The opening track, Come Together, is one of the great Beatles classics, and I have to confess that as teenagers we couldn’t help reading into it some sexual connotations. I wonder if they were intended? On certain tracks, the Beatles had the ability to create sounds that were not easily identifiable. And that is the case with this one. Who knows precisely which instruments conspire to accompany those opening sounds, which sound a bit like “Shoompa galoo”, but are not included in the lyrics I found on the Net. McCartney’s bass is again brilliant as the band emerges as tight as ever on this opening track, with Lennon laying those crazy lyrics on us. “Here come old flattop he come grooving up slowly / He got joo-joo eyeball he one holy roller / He got hair down to his knee / Got to be a joker he just do what he please.” The second verse is equally odd. “He wear no shoeshine he got toe-jam football / He got monkey finger he shoot coca-cola / He say ‘I know you, you know me’ / One thing I can tell you is you got to be free / Come together right now over me.” Now fortunately, Wikipedia has some serious notes on each song, so let’s see what this is all about. They confirm that the song was “contributed by Lennon”. It says the chorus was “inspired by a song Lennon originally wrote for Timothy Leary’s campaign for governor of California titled ‘Let’s Get It Together’.” It adds that there has been speculation that each verse refers cryptically to each of the Beatles. The “holy roller” of the opening verse supposedly refers to “spiritually inclined Harrison ”. Lennon admitted lifting the line “here come old flat-top” from a Chuck Berry song, You Can’t Catch Me (there was a lawsuit involved). Come Together was released as a double A-side single with Harrison ’s Something, with George Martin describing it as a personal favourite among the Beatles tracks. So I wonder which of the other verses refer to which Beatle? “He bag production he got walrus gumboot / He got Ono sideboard he one spinal cracker / He got feet down below his knee / Hold you in his armchair you can feel his disease / Come together right now over me.” This, surely is about Lennon himself with the Ono reference, although earlier he did say the Walrus was Paul. Finally: “He roller-coaster he got early warning / He got muddy water he one mojo filter / He say ‘One and one and one is three’ / Got to be good-looking ’cause he’s so hard to see / Come together right now over me.” Could this have been a dig at the good-looking McCartney? Which would make the guy with monkey-fingers drummer Ringo Starr. Whatever the meaning, this was a superb song, with some fine Harrison lead guitar alongside electric piano. Then the first of two pieces of Harrison magic, Something, which opens with drums and bass before that definitive riff on the lead electric guitar, da daa da daaa, daaa, daaaa … “Something in the way she moves / Attracts me like no other lover / Something in the way she woos me …” Then, with lead guitar, electric piano, the rhythm section and some strings weaving their magic, the famous chorus: “ I don’t want to leave her now / You know I believe her now …” before that lead riff is repeated. “Somewhere in her smile she knows / That I don’t need no other lover / Something in her style that shows me … Don’t want to leave her now / You know I believe her now…” Then the tone becomes bolder: “You’re asking me will my love grow / I don’t know, I don’t know / You stick around now it may show / I don’t know, I don’t know.” The song then again becomes reflective. “Something in the way she knows / And all I have to do is think of her / Something in the things she shows me … / Don’t want to leave her now / You know I believe her now…” With the to be expected superb backing vocals, supportive string arrangements and Harrison’s own lead guitar, not to mention fine drumming by Ringo, this is another Beatles gem. Wikipedia says the opening line of this track, originally written during the White Album sessions, was based on a James Taylor song, called Something In The Way She Moves. Taylor was signed to Apple at the time, which no doubt helped. During the Let It Be sessions, says Wikipedia, the song was refined, with Lennon heard on tapes giving Harrision some songwriting advice. Though initially given to Joe Cocker, the song was recorded for Abbey Road and become “Lennon’s favourite song on the album”, says Wikipeida, which adds that McCartney also considered it the best Harrison had written. As noted earlier, the song was released on the double A-sided single with Come Together, as Harrison ’s stature as a songwriter grew. The song became the Beatles first No 1 single that was not a Lennon-McCartney composition. And, incredibly, Here Comes The Sun, also on this album, was never released as a single although it received “significant radio airplay”, says Wikipedia. Rely on McCartney to bring an altogether different angle to songwriting, which he does on Maxwell’s Silver Hammer, the next track. Piano, cymbals, bass. These lay the groundwork for the opening line. “Joan was quizzical; studied pataphysical / Science in the home. / Late nights all alone with a test tube. / Oh, oh, oh, oh.” Now what’s that all about? I have to concede I never really heard those lines before. “Maxwell Edison, majoring in medicine, / Calls her on the phone. / ‘Can I take you out to the pictures, / Joa, oa, oa, oan?’” This, surely, was Edison of light-bulb fame. So what’s he doing murdering the poor wench? “But as she’s getting ready to go, / A knock comes on the door…” Then that strange chorus. “Bang! Bang! Maxwell’s silver hammer / Came down upon her head. / Clang! Clang! Maxwells silver hammer / Made sure that she was dead.” McCartney’s bass is played like a lead guitar on this track. There is also a mellotron-like sound on what is yet another classic Beatles track. “Back in school again Maxwell plays the fool again. / Teacher gets annoyed. / Wishing to avoid an unpleasant / Sce, e, e, ene,” The story of his second murder unfolds. “She tells Max to stay when the class has gone away, / So he waits behind / Writing fifty times ‘I must not be / So, o, o, o..’” Then the coup de grace. “But when she turns her back on the boy, / He creeps up from behind …” And the chorus ensures she too is dead. The cops arrive: “P. C. Thirty-one said, ‘We caught a dirty one’ / Maxwell stands alone / Painting testimonial pictures. / Oh, oh, oh, oh.” The court case ensues. “Rose and Valerie, screaming from the gallery / Say he must go free (Maxwell must go free) / The judge does not agree and he tells them / So, o, o, o.” However, not even the judge is safe. “But as the words are leaving his lips, / A noise comes from behind …” And like a superhero, the man with the silver hammer strikes and makes sure the judge, too, is dead, before the song seems to call a halt to this with the closing line. “Whoa, oh, oh Silver hammer …” But what does Wikipedia make of this? It notes that it is his first song on the album, and that it was first performed during the Let It Be sessions “as can be seen in the Let It Be documentary”. It adds that Geoff Emerick, in his book, Here, There and Everywhere, said Lennon despised the song, calling it “more of Paul’s granny music”, and that he refused to participate in the recording thereof. McCartney is back with a vengeance, not literally, on the next song, Oh Darling, which again starts with piano, bass, drums and lead guitar, and his singing of that opening line. “Oh! Darling, please believe me / I’ll never do you no harm / Believe me when I tell you / I’ll never do you no harm.” The second verse is similar. “Oh! Darling, if you leave me / I’ll never make it alone / Believe me when I beg you / Don’t ever leave me alone.” The tempo picks up from a slow blues. “When you told me you didn’t need me anymore / Well you know I nearly broke down and cried / When you told me you didn’t need me anymore / Well you know I nearly broke down and died.” Here, McCartney uses that voice of his to its fullest. It is loud and aggressive at times, a far cry from the angelic sounds on the likes of Yesterday and Michelle. There are some nice sharp, chirpy guitar chords on this song, which, no matter your view on the lyrics, most of which are repeated, remains a fine Beatles achievement. Wikipedia notes the strain the song took on McCartney’s voice, saying while recording it he only did one take a day. Interestingly, Wikipedia says Lennon “was of the opinion he should have sung the lead vocal on this song, remarking it was more his style and McCartney didn’t sing it well”. While listening to it, I did have similar thoughts. So many of the raspy, heavier songs of this nature on earlier albums were Lennon’s preserve. The next track, Ocotopus’s Garden, has been ridiculed as a mediocre Ringo Starr effort. Nevertheless, it remains an integral of this album, and as such will always have a special place in my heart. The lead guitar is tight and bold alongside bass and drums as Ringo’s distinctive voice starts. “I’d like to be under the sea / In an octopus’s garden in the shade / He’d let us in, knows where we’ve been / In his octopus’s garden in the shade.” The whole group seem to join in with the chorus. “I’d ask my friends to come and see / An octopus’s garden with me / I’d like to be under the sea / In an octopus’s garden in the shade.” The song may be naïve and simple, but what it does do is create a unifying atmosphere on an album where the main egos seem to be fragmenting the Beatles. Here, at least, one gets the sense they are all having a bit of much-needed fun. “We would be warm below the storm / In our little hideaway beneath the waves / Resting our head on the sea bed / In an octopus’s garden near a cave.” It is as if Ringo was hankering after a bit of fun, far from the madding crowd. “We would sing and dance around / because we know we can’t be found / I’d like to be under the sea / In an octopus’s garden in the shade.” Maybe he was remembering earlier visits to warmer climes. “We would shout and swim about / The coral that lies beneath the waves / (Lies beneath the ocean waves) / Oh what joy for every girl and boy / Knowing they’re happy and they’re safe / (Happy and they’re safe).” Yeah, I think Ringo wanted a life without deadlines and pressure probably as much if not more than the others. “We would be so happy you and me / No one there to tell us what to do / I’d like to be under the sea / In an octopus’s garden with you.” Wikipedia says this, Ringo’s second composition on a Beatles album, was inspired by a trip to Sardinia when he left the band for two weeks with his family during the White Album sessions. It says he wrote the song while on holiday and it is “arguably his most successful writing effort”. It says while he had “the lyrics nearly pinned down, the song’s melodic structure was partly written in the studio by Harrison (as can be seen in the Let It Be film), although Harrision gave full songwriting credit to Starr”. It adds that Harrison would later collaborate on Ringo’s solo single Photograph and probably also in writing It Don’t Come Easy, which we would get into in a big way on Concert For Bangladesh (1971). Lennon’s profound influence again manifests itself on I Want You (She’s So Heavy), the next track. Heavy lead and rhythm guitars augment the rhythm section before these opening bars stop, and the opening lines assail one. “I want you / I want you so bad / I want you, / I want you so bad / It’s driving me mad, it’s driving me mad.” Harrison ’s lead guitar is played note-perfect alongside the vocals as this slow bluesy bit of rock unfolds. The opening lines are basically repeated, before the song transforms into the bit in parentheses. “… I want you so bad / It’s driving me mad, it’s driving me ... She’s so heavy heavy, heavy, heavy.” Suddenly it is slower and heavier, with huge chords reminiscent of the Who and a bluesy lead break. “She’s so heavy / She’s so heavy, heavy, heavy.” Now it becomes a solid blues, the bass, drums and guitars building up a serious head of steam. “I want you / I want you so bad / I want you, / I want you so bad / It’s driving me mad, it’s driving me mad. / I want you / You know I want you so bad babe / I want you, / You know I want you so bad / It’s driving me mad, it’s driving me mad / Yeah! / She’s so...” There are rich textures at play as Harrison seems to achieve feedback on his guitar before the song finally fades. Wikipedia says the reason for the apparent two-song nature of the track is that it is a combination of “two somewhat different recording attempts”. The first was during the February 1969 Get Back/ Let It Be sessions, and featured Billy Preston on keyboards. The second was during the Abbey Road sessions proper. These were “edited together”, yielding a song of nearly eight minutes, the second longest of any released Beatles song after Revolution 9. Wikipedia says “perhaps more than any other Beatles song”, it reveals a “pronounced progressive rock influence, with its unusual length and structure, repeating guitar riff, and ‘white noise’ effects”. It says the “I want you” section “has a straightforward blues structure. It also features one of the earliest uses of a Moog synthesizer to create the white-noise or ‘wind’ effect heard near the end of the track”. It says the final overdub sessions for this track “would be the last time all four Beatles worked in the studio together”. There can be few songs with a more instantly recognisable introduction than Harrison ’s Here Comes The Sun, the first track on Side 2 of this album. It was to become a staple of his solo performances in the 1970s, so it is easy to lose sight of the fact that it was initially a Beatles song. The opening acoustic guitarwork is superb, and the song gradually builds body with the inclusion of strings, bass and drums. There is also a touch of organ, and even some fuzz bass. As usual, Harrison ’s vocals are somewhat muted. I really do think he only truly came into his own when he went solo. Nevertheless, this must rank as one of his most famous songs. “Here comes the sun, here comes the sun, / and I say it’s all right.” Ever tried playing that complex array of chords which follows those opening lines? As a novice guitarist of some 40 years’ experience I can assure you great digital dexterity (as in moving your digits) is a prerequisite. “Little darling, it’s been a long cold lonely winter / Little darling, it feels like years since it’s been here / Here comes the sun, here comes the sun / and I say it’s all right.” It is not difficult, living in the UK , to link your mood to the season. Winters can be bleak, and here Harrison sees the return of the sun as a metaphor for the resumption of a relationship – at least that seems to be the subtext. “Little darling, the smiles returning to the faces / Little darling, it seems like years since it’s been here / Here comes the sun, here comes the sun / and I say it’s all right.” Then follows that interesting interlude. “Sun, sun, sun, here it comes...” This is repeated four more times before the normal verse structure resumes. “Little darling, I feel that ice is slowly melting / Little darling, it seems like years since it’s been clear / Here comes the sun, here comes the sun, / and I say it’s all right / It’s all right.” This song again proves that simplicity is often the key to a song’s success. But what does Wikipedia say on the subject? Well it endorses my view that it is one of Harrison’s “best-known songs”, but adds that it was “written in Eric Clapton’s garden while Harrison was ‘slagging off’ from an Apple board meeting, which he considered tedious”. The song was, says Wikipedia, influenced by the Cream song Badge, which was co-written with Eric Clapton. It was not released as a single, but received frequent radio airplay. Lennon is back to the fore, if that makes sense, with Because. I had noted that it featured electric piano, but Wikipedia says it is fact a Moog synthesizer, played by Harrison . This is part of what makes these later Beatles albums so interesting. You no longer know precisely what instrument you are hearing, because new technology has started to blur those divides. This is Lennon at his most mystical as he literally places himself as a soul out there in the world, and in the universe. He seems to tap into an energy that the rest of us don’t even know exists. With that Moog setting the scene, the first vocals are a series of “Aaahs”, before a chorus of Lennon-led voices lets rip. “Because the world is round it turns me on / Because the world is round...aaaaaahhhhhh.” Lennon’s use of the term “turns me on” had obvious sexual connotations. But why would a round world excite him? I suppose it’s a far sexier shape than a square or flat world… “Because the wind is high it blows my mind / Because the wind is high......aaaaaaaahhhh.” Now there’s an interesting epithet transfer, with a “high” wind blowing his mind. The song takes a change in tack here. “Love is all, love is new / Love is all, love is you.” Don’t dismiss McCartney’s role in all this, because it is the bass that really peps up the song, while the brass and backing vocals are all superb. “Because the sky is blue, it makes me cry / Because the sky is blue.......aaaaaaaahhhh.” The song ends with a last “Aaaaahhhhhhhhhh....”, Lennon’s “blue” sky bringing inordinate sadness. Wikipedia notes that the chords for this song were “inspired by Ludwig van Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata, which Lennon heard Ono play on the piano”. But then, Wikipedia says, according to Lennon he “played the notes backwards”. Ah, and those harmonies, it adds are a feature, with Lennon, McCartney and Harrison ’s voices being “triple-tracked to sound like nine singers”. It adds that the end result “has been compared in sound to the Beach Boys”, but I never found that link. Beatles author Geoff Emerick is quoted as saying that during the recording of the harmonies, they sat on a bench around a mic, with even Ringo included, “perhaps in an unconscious display of love and brotherhood, despite their increasing differences”. Not having heard the vinyl album for decades, I cannot tell whether I thought of the next 16 minutes of songs as a medley, and when I listened to the CD just now, I considered the first three songs as separate entities. However, Wikipedia says “the climax of the album” comprises a medley “of several short songs, both finished and unfinished, blended into a suite by McCartney and George Martin”. It says most were written and originally recorded as demos, during sessions for The Beatles and Get Back/Let It Be. It starts with a McCartney song, You Never Give Me Your Money, which, in the light of his recent divorce and ongoing, let’s say, obsession with money, is a bit ironic. He seemed to like the immediacy of opening with a few bars on the piano, this time slow and moody, with the bass ever present. “You never give me your money / You only give me your funny paper / and in the middle of negotiations / you break down.” I have to admit this is the first time I’ve actually contemplated what he was on about. “I never give you my number / I only give you my situation / and in the middle of investigation / I break down.” And I’m still not quite sure what it’s about. Anyway, the pace quickens, with the voice becoming more distant. “Out of college, money spent / See no future, pay no rent / All the money’s gone, nowhere to go / Any jobber got the sack / Monday morning, turning back / Yellow lorry slow, nowhere to go…” A honky-tonk sound then kicks in. “But oh, that magic feeling, nowhere to go / Oh, that magic feeling / Nowhere to go / Nowhere to go.” Who can blame us for being confused. What is “magic” about having nowhere to go? Anyway, the McCartney vocals get heavier, as the lead guitar kicks into overdrive. “One sweet dream / Pick up the bags and get in the limousine / Soon we’ll be away from here / Step on the gas and wipe that tear away / One sweet dream came true today / Came true today / Came true today / Came true today (yes it did).” And I never heard that really before. I thought he was saying “hey Jude, Judy”, not “came true, today”. Where this next little snippet fits in I don’t know, but it does. “One two three four five six seven, / All good children go to Heaven.” And as it is repeated, the bass pulsates alongside the lead, with other crazy sounds thrown in too, before it fades. I detected a distinct Jethro Tull quality to the song at this point. Wikipedia says it was “based loosely on the Beatles’ financial problems with Apple”, which seems an odd thing to sing about. For me there is a distinct break between that and Sun King, a Lennon masterpiece which for me has echoes of the famous early Peter Green instrumental, Albatross. Slow, deliberate electric rhythm guitar and bass set the scene for another choral classic. An organ also grinds away pleasantly. “Here comes the sun king / Here comes the sun king / Everybody’s laughing / Everybody’s happy / Here comes the sun king.” Apart from the seeming continuation of Harrison ’s Here Comes The Sun title, the song is also interesting for its sudden departure into, what?, Italian? Spanish? “Quando para mucho mi amore de felice corazón / Mundo paparazzi mi amore chicka ferdy parasol / Presto OBRIGADO tanta mucho cake and eat it carousel.” Ah, and Wikipedia confirms that, as with Because, this too employed overdubbed harmonies between the three vocalists. But it offers nothing on those foreign words, which I see include the words “cake and eat it”. Viva the Internet. I pasted a few of those words onto Google and instantly got a “Sun King deciphered” site, by one Mario Gianella, of Ithaca , New York . He writes that the Beatles “freely mixed dialects and languages here (Italian, Spanish, and Portugues)” - to which I might add those English words, above. He says when combined with “less than perfect enunciation and accent, many uncertainties arise, leading to many possible interpretations”. From the first three lines, he says chica ferdy is a Liverpool expression, or a Spanish/Liverpudlian pun, with chica verde meaning “green girl”. Parasol is an umbrella, but also literally translates as “para sole” – for the sun, or “pa Re Sole” – for sun king”. We all know what paparazzi are. It’s not “cake and eat it”, its “que can eat it”, apparently, while “carousel” was a popular brand of UK chocolates. “Obrigado” is Portuguese for thank you, or “obbligato”, a musical term for a secondary, yet necessary part. His literal translation reads. IF/WHEN FOR MUCH, MY LOVE OF HAPPY HEART / WORLD PAPARAZZI, MY LOVE, CHICKA/GIRL FERDY/GREEN FOR THE SUN / THIS THANKS, VERY MUCH, CAKE AND EAT IT, CAROUSEL/DEAREST SUN.” On a bootleg LP, Abbey Road Talks, he says Lennon explains the lyrics. “"We just started joking, you know, singing ‘quando para mucho’. So we just made up, ah, Paul knew a few Spanish words from school, you know. So we just strung any Spanish words that sounded vaguely like something. And of course we got ‘chicka ferdy’ in. That’s a Liverpool expression - just like sort of – it doesn’t mean anything to me but ‘na-na, na-na-na’.” Anyway, out of that emerges a heavyish drums and bass-led rock sound, and then those immortal words, “Mean Mister Mustard sleeps in the park / Shaves in the dark trying to save paper / Sleeps in a hole in the road / Saving up to buy some clothes / Keeps a ten-bob note up his nose / Such a mean old man / Such a mean old man.” It’s great finally to see what was being sung there. The vocal harmonies are again strong. “His sister Pam works in a shop / She never stops, she’s a go-getter / Takes him out to look at the queen / Only place that he’s ever been / Always shouts out something obscene / Such a dirty old man / Dirty old man.” These lines are repeated, somewhat, before there is a change of pace and some big bass chords, and more importantly, acoustic guitar chords and a fine lead guitar solo. And before you know it you’re in the next song, another Lennon composition, Polythene Pam. “Well you should see Polythene Pam / She’s so good-looking but she looks like a man / Well you should see her in drag dressed in her polythene bag / Yes you should see Polythene Pam / Yeah yeah yeah.” By this stage, homosexuality and transvestism were old hat, with the Kinks and probably others having incorporated elements into their songs. “Get a dose of her in jackboots and kilt / She’s killer-diller when she dance at the Hilt / She’s the kind of a girl that makes the ‘News of the World’ / Yes you could say she was attractively built / Yeah yeah yeah.” It is an interesting bit of social commentary, with the News of the World adding a seedy media dimension. And then, yet again, before you know it, you’re into a McCartney song, She Came In Through The Bathroom Window, the first of four that follow. It starts with Lennon saying: “We’ll listen to that now. He he he. Oh, look out!” before the McCartney lyrical assault. “She came in through the bathroom window / Protected by a silver spoon / But now she sucks her thumb and wanders / By the banks of her own lagoon.” Born with a silver spoon in her mouth? Was it Linda Eastman? “Didn’t anybody tell her? / Didn’t anybody see? / Sunday’s on the phone to Monday, / Tuesday’s on the phone to me.” It means little at face value, but certainly had a nice ring, if you’ll pardon me. “She said she’d always been a dancer / She worked at 15 clubs a day / And though she thought I knew the answer / Well I knew but I could not say.” The narrative continues: “And so I quit the police department / And got myself a steady job / And though she tried her best to help me / She could steal but she could not rob.” I wonder what the cops think of that dismissal of their profession? Ah, but Wikipedia says this is not about Linda, but about a fan who literally came into McCartney’s residence via the bathroom window, though it says “citation (is) needed” for this claim. The chorus is repeated before a gentle piano announces a slumbering song, Golden Slumbers. This is typical post-Beatles McCartney, which anticipates For Your Eyes Only. “Once there was a way to get back homeward / Once there was a way to get back home / Sleep pretty darling do not cry / And I will sing a lullaby.” The strings soar, the bass booms, drums echo, and the song soldiers on. “Golden slumbers fill your eyes / Smiles awake you when you rise / Sleep pretty darling do not cry / And I will sing a lullaby.” The opening verse is repeated before there is a change of mood, and thumping bass and drums announce Carry That Weight. Golden Slumbers, says Wikipedia, is based on lyrics but not the music of Thomas Dekker’s 17th century song of the same name. All four sing vocals on the ballsy Carry That Weight. “Boy, you gonna carry that weight / Carry that weight a long time / Boy, you gonna carry that weight / Carry that weight a long time.” Brass and strings, plus good electric lead guitar smooth and soothe the way forward. “I never give you my pillow / I only send you my invitation / And in the middle of the celebrations / I break down.” Then it’s back to that resounding, “Boy, you gonna carry that weight / Carry that weight a long time / Boy, you gonna carry that weight / Carry that weight a long time”, as the tempo picks up and drums and bass harden. “Oh yeah! all right! / Are you gonna be in my dreams, tonight? / Love you, love you, love you...” There is even a rare almost drum solo about here, and what sounds like two lead guitars in tandem. Then a whimsical bit of piano-accompanied profundity from McCartney: “And in the end, the love you take / is equal to the love you make.” Wikipedia confirms that Ringo “hated solos” and had to be persuaded to do the one on this track, which was edited down. It confirms too that McCartney, then Harrison, then Lennon played alternately the 18 bars of the lead guitar solo, each playing two at a time. Says Wikipedia: “Each had a distinctive style which McCartney felt reflected their personalities: McCartney’s playing included string bends similar to his lead guitar work on Another Girl from the Help! album; Harrison ’s was melodic with slides yet technically advanced and Lennon’s was rhythmic, stinging and had the heaviest distortion.” There is a long silence now, but don’t think that the album is over, because McCartney still has to serenade the Queen. Backed by some lovely acoustic guitar, he sings a short song which may just have inspired Dave Cousins of Strawbs to do Hey Little Man. “Her Majesty’s a pretty nice girl, but she doesn’t have a lot to say / Her Majesty’s a pretty nice girl but she changes from day to day / I want to tell her that I love her a lot / But I gotta get a bellyful of wine / Her Majesty’s a pretty nice girl / Someday I’m going to make her mine, oh yeh, / Someday I’m going to make her mine.” Wikipedia says Her Majesty was originally meant to appear between Mean Mr Mustard and Polythene Pam (Lennon songs), but McCartney baulked, and had it removed. A sound engineer, told not to exclude anything, after the group left the recording studio that day, literally picked up the song off the floor and then spliced 14 seconds of red leader tape onto the final mix reel, followed by Her Majesty. This gets technical. But Malcolm Davies at Apple, who received the tape – and also told to throw nothing out – was confronted with a note on the album’s master reel telling him to leave Her Majesty off the final product. So he “cut a playback lacquer of the whole sequence, including Her Majesty”. And, says Wikipedia, the Beatles “liked this effect and left it on the album”. Which accounts for the long (14 seconds) break before Her Majesty. And, says Wikipedia, on the first printing of the LP cover, it was not even listed, although it is shown on the record label. Bizarrely, the song starts with the “final, crashing chord of Mean Mr Mustard, while the final note of Her Majesty remained buried in the mix of Polythene Pam”, where it was snipped off. The cut in the medley, says Wikipedia, was “subsequently disguised with further mixing”, but Her Majesty “was not touched again and still appears in its rough mix”. There is more technical stuff for the aficionados. Firstly, this was the only Beatles album mainly recorded on an 8-track tape machine, rather than a 4-track machine. This, says Wikipedia, is noticeable in the “better sound separation and mixing of the drum kit”. Conservative EMI had still not approved the use of a new 8-track Studer deck, which led to the album being recorded at three different studios – Abbey Road, Trident and Olympic. Which is extremely ironic considering the album’s title. Another interesting aspect is that it was Harrison who introduced the Moog synthesizer, which plays a key role in Because, Maxwell’s Silver Hammer and Here Comes The Sun. First used by The Monkees, with Daily Nightly, Wikipedia says Harrison discovered the Moog while staying in Los Angeles . He even cut an album, Electronic Sound, in early 1989 “which featured dissonant sounds entirely made from a Moog, on Apple’s short-lived experimental label, Zapple”. Abbey Road was the springboard for other careers. One Alan Parsons worked on it as an assistant engineer, and would go on to engineer Pink Floyd’s “landmark album The Dark Side of the Moon”, says Wikipedia. As the Allan Parsons Project he would also produce many popular albums himself. John Kurlander was another assistant. Later, as an engineer and producer his film scores would include those for the Lord of the Rings trilogy. And then there’s the cover, probably the most talked-about in pop history, if the truth be known. Was the shoeless Paul McCartney actually dead, everyone was asking. Wikipedia quotes Geoff Emerick as saying that at some point the album was to be called Everest, after a brand of cigarettes. It would include a photograph of the Himalayas . But instead of taking the group off to East Asia for the photograph, they instead stepped out of the Abbey Road studio on a fine summer’s day, on August 8, 1969, and were photographed on a zebra crossing. And the album would be called Abbey Road . Wikipedia says the cover designer was Apple Records creative director John Kosh. Iain Macmillan took the photograph in just 10 minutes around 11.30am. Says Wikipedia: “That cover photograph has since become one of the most famous and most imitated album covers in recording history,” it adds. A man on the pavement in the background is Paul Cole, who died on February 13, 2008. An American tourist, Wikipedia says he was unaware he was being photographed until he saw the album cover months later. It says the zebra crossing “remains a popular destination for Beatles fans”, although it is no longer in the exact same location as it was in 1969, which is a pity. It was moved further east in the 1970s. How on earth could any local authority move such a famous, iconic bit of road painting? Absurd. However, the move was just from one side of the light pole shown in the picture to the other, so it’s not that bad. But still, the principle is shocking. Authenticity flies out the window. The VW Beetle parked next to the crossing was incidental. It belonged, says Wikipedia, to one of the people living in the apartment across from the studio. And the car became a target. It says after the album’s release, its number plate was stolen repeatedly. In 1986, the car was sold at auction for $23,000. It is now on display at the Volkswagen museum in Wolfsburg , Germany . And at the end of all that, still no word on why Paul was shoeless. The mystery continues. But on the Web, there is always an answer. On the AllExperts site, I found this explanation from one M Davis. He says, firstly, that the name Everest was meant to symbolise that the band had reached the highest it could yet. But, due to time and expense factors, the plan to photograph them at Mount Everest was ditched. So instead, he says, they decided to have it taken “as if they were leaving the EMI studios where they had recorded since July 1962 on Abbey Road ”. McCartney, he says, drew several sketches for the photographer of what shots were possible. He says the next day they went out for the shoot, and a policeman even asked if they wanted the VW Beetle moved. In fact, they tried to move it themselves, but only got it partially onto the pavement. Because it was a hot day, McCartney took off the sandals he was wearing, and which can be seen in other photos taken that day. He says the cops stopped the traffic, the photographer climbed a ladder to get the right height, and seven minutes later the seven shots were taken. “The symbolism was of them leaving the studio. They knew it would be for the last time; the public, of course, did not,” writes Davis . But, he adds, that was just one theory. Another was that the Beatles “chose everything about the cover shot with deliberate care right down to what they wore, how they walked, and what was shown in the background”. He then paints the alternate version, which fuelled a massive rumour mill. In this, the Beatles are “walking in a funeral procession in another attempt to reveal to the public that McCartney had been killed in a car accident in November 1966”. Lennon, dressed in white, leads the procession as a priest or holy man. Next in line is Ringo, dressed in a dark, conservative suit “as would befit an undertaker or mortician”. McCartney follows, also in a suit but barefooted, with Harrison last, dressed in the clothes of a gravedigger. In fact, reading this, it is precisely the symbolism we read about at the time. Davis says proponents of this view point out that corpses are buried without shoes. They also note McCartney is out of step with the other Beatles and that he is holding a cigarette in his right hand, though he is left-handed. And the licence on the Beetle (Beatle) is 28 IF, which was said to be another clue, since McCartney would have been 28 if he had lived. But that was wrong, says Davis , because in fact he would only have been 27 that year. But the theory goes further, with a police car also in the picture said to represent the cops responding to the crash that claimed his life, supposedly almost three years before. What this fails to explain, however, is how a dead McCartney got out of the grave to pose for the shot. A small omission, I’m sure. But the cover became iconic, and was imitated time and again. Unnoticed by yours truly, apparently in Danny Boyle’s film, Trainspotting, the four protagonists walk towards a climactic drug deal the wrong way across the famous crossing, says Wikipedia. Several other films which use it are also cited, while numerous television series and films also used it, or parodied the title. Indeed, it has entered numerous other facets of modern popular entertainment, including animated comedies and even the cover of a Nintendo magazine. And from covers to cover versions. Wikipedia says the songs were covered many times by numerous artists including George Benson, Booker T & the MGs and Phil Collins. As noted earlier, it was put at No 14 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 greatest albums. In 2006, Time Magazine included it among its 100 best albums of all time. A list of the instruments each played shows that all except Ringo had use of the Moog synthesizer. They played lead and rhythm guitars, acoustic guitars and bass (though not Lennon). Again, Martin helped out on piano, harpsichord and harmonium, while Billy Preston played Hammond organ on I Want You (She’s So Heavy). Lennon and Harrison also played the Hammond . Ringo played a multitude of percussion instruments along with his drums, as well as an anvil! Let It Be The rumours about the Abbey Road album cover only served to reinforce speculation that the Beatles were breaking up. So we were relieved when Let It Be was released on May 8, 1970. It again topped the UK charts, but regrettably was to be their last album. I recall, not long after the album’s release, heading into East London ’s CBD to watch the film of the same title at, I think it was, the old Coliseum theatre (or The Collo, as it was known, though heaven knows how it was actually spelt). It was magic for us teenagers who had been deprived of actually seeing their heroes live, or even on television – though we did see the odd film clip on newsreels before movies – finally to see a film of them actually performing together. Not that the vibe was altogether pleasant, since the schism between the four was evident. Somehow I had missed out on seeing A Hard Day’s Night, Help! or The Magical Mystery Tour, so this was a landmark occasion in my life. Superficially, you know an album by its cover. This one featured four mugshots of the lads – McCartney and Ringo with beards, Harrison with a moustache and Lennon clean-shaven. This, in itself, was symbolic. Each was going his own way, staking his own identity. Released on May 8, 1970, when I was still a tender 14-year-old but already steeped in music, the album was recorded at Apple Studios in Savile Row, London , and EMI Studios in Abbey Road . Wikipedia classes it as rock, and notes that it was produced by George Martin and – and this is the controversial aspect – Phil Spector. It says it was “the final original album released by the Beatles”, that it was released by the band’s Apple Records label, and that shortly afterwards they announced their breakup. It was ranked No 86 in that Rolling Stone magazine list of the 500 greatest albums. As noted earlier, most of it was recorded in January 1969, a full 16 months before its release and before Abbey Road ’s release. With the Beatles “unhappy with the album”, says Wikipedia, it was temporarily shelved, and later “re-produced” by Spector in 1970. So was Let It Be so bad that it required McCartney to recently orchestrate a re-release of an earlier production before Spector got his hands on it? Having just listened to it again, and bearing in mind that I am a firm believer that you cannot “improve” on those Beatles originals, I found the album as good, if not better, than I expected. Talk of Spector’s “wall of sound” obliterating the nuances and subtleties is codders. The album was, to my untrained ear, very similar in substance and style to earlier George Martin productions. And it does feature some of Lennon and McCartney’s absolute classics, like Across The Universe, Let It Be and Get Back. But let’s see what our informed sources at Wikipedia have to say. They start by noting that in early 1969 the Beatles were rehearsing, not for a new album, but to start touring again. McCartney wanted them to make “a grand statement, or rather something unorthodox, after two years of having not performed live. For the past six months, though, tensions had risen as each band member pursued “personal projects”. So they went to Twickenham Studios on January 2, 1969, and, as they were rehearsing for a live show rather than attempting to record an album, no multi-track recordings were made of the sessions, says Wikipedia. However, they say bootlegs were taken from mono recordings that were “synchronised to the film cameras”, which means the sessions were filmed. They discussed locations for the live show during the rehearsals, among them a Roman amphitheatre in North Africa or a cruise ship. Lennon even suggested they perform in an “insane asylum”, says Wikipedia. But the rehearsals went badly, and by the third day looked set to end as tensions rose. Wikipedia says Lennon “had all but withdrawn creatively from the Beatles, seldom contributing even to the arrangements of his own songs”. Harrison was “increasingly resentful” because, despite being treated with respect by the likes of Dylan and Clapton, “when working with the Beatles his songs usually were either derided or ignored”. And when McCartney tried to rally spirits, says Wikipeida, he was seen as controlling. Yoko Ono’s constant presence exacerbated tensions. Wikipedia says she “often spoke on Lennon’s behalf as he sat silently by”. The “intrusive film cameras and the cold, unfamiliar settings of Twickenham Studios”, didn’t help matters. Harrison , peeved at Lennon’s disengagement, announced on January 10 that he was leaving the band, but within a few days he was persuaded to return. By now the group had moved to their Apple Studios. Meltdown, it seems, was imminent. However, on January 22, multi-track recording began at Apple and lasted till January 31. Harrison brought in keyboardist Billy Preston “to ease tensions” from January 23 to 31, says Wikipedia. He would also be part of their live concert. But instead of those grandiose locations mooted earlier, they ended up performing where? On the rooftop of the Beatles’ Apple Building at 3 Savile Row “before a small audience of friends and employees”. And also, of course, before millions who would see the movie I spoke about earlier. The film also shows how the performance was cut short by police after complaints about noise. Imagine that. The famous Beatles, arguably the greatest and most influential band ever, performing live for the very last time, and fuddy-duddies have them shut down because of the “noise”. The complete concert was bootlegged and circulated among collectors for many years, says Wikipedia, who note that three tracks on the album were recorded on the rooftop. These were Dig A Pony, I’ve Got A Feeling and One After 909. Spoken parts from the “concert” also appear between tracks which were recorded in the studio. Now here’s something I didn’t know. Wikipedia says the Beatles played “hundreds of songs during the Get Back/Let It Be sessions”. Apart from those released on Let It Be, they did versions of most of the songs that would appear on Abbey Road . They even did songs that would appear on solo albums, such as Lennon’s Jealous Guy, which was called On The Road To Rishikesh at the time, and Gimme Some Truth. Harrison’s All Must Pass and Hear Me Lord were also performed. These, of course, would be included on the triple album, All Things Must Pass. McCartney’s Teddy Boy and Junk (originally written for the White Album), were also performed. And there was a lot of jamming. Wikipedia says much of the band’s attention was on “extended jams on 12-bar blues as well as a broad range of covers”, including many from the early rock and roll era. Ah, finally we get to the root of the production/arrangement controversy. Wikipedia says after the “increasing use of overdubs and multi-layered recordings on recent albums”, the plan was to record the new album “live”. It would be a back-to-roots concept, with the cover artwork intended to be an “update of the cover of their first album, Please Please Me”. Yeah, remember it? The four looking down a stairwell at EMI’s Manchester Square headquarters in London . The picture was, as noted earlier, finally used on the compilation album, 1967-1970, which Wikipedia says is also known as The Blue Album. Sound engineer Glyn Johns, says Wikipedia, put together a “rough version” of Get Back in March 1969. It included many of the same songs that made the final cut, as well as McCartney’s Teddy Boy. But when he played the tape to the Beatles, they were “not really interested in the project any longer”. But in March, 1969, Lennon and McCartney contacted Johns and “offered him free rein to produce an album from the Get Back recordings”. Wikipedia says from April 3 till May 28, Johns mixed the album at Olympic Studios, and presented the “final banded master tape” to the band on May 28. Side 1 comprised One After 909, Rocker (Instrumental), Save the Last Dance For Me (a cover song), Don’t Let Me Down, Dig A Pony, I’ve Got a Feeling and Get Back. Side 2 comprised For You Blue, Teddy Boy, Two Of Us, Maggie Mae, Dig It, Let It Be, The Long and Winding Road and Get Back (Reprise). And so it might have been. The Get Back album, says Wikipedia, was intended for release in July 1969, but this date was delayed to coincide with a planned television special and “theatrical film” about the making of the album. But it was delayed again till December, as the Beatles had just recorded Abbey Road and wanted to release it instead. By December, says Wikipedia, the album had been shelved. So the Lennon-McCartney instrumental, Rocker, never made it onto vinyl. But the quest to get the Get Back album out continued, with the Beatles asking Johns to use the Get Back tapes to make an album that matched the songs on the as yet unreleased Get Back film. By January 8, 1970, new mixes were ready. Teddy Boy, not in the film, was omitted – possibly also because McCartney wanted it for his upcoming McCartney album, says Wikipedia. It did, however, include Across The Universe, which was a “remix of the 1968 studio version”, which just shows how long that great song had been kicking around. Also included was I Me Mine, which totally excludes Lennon, who had “left the band by that time”, says Wikipedia. It had to be newly recorded as no multi-track recording was made for the film version. But the Beatles again rejected it. Clearly, this was the last splutterings of a great group which had reached the end of its natural life. So in March 1970, the session tapes were handed to US producer Phil Spector, “with McCartney’s reluctant agreement”, says Wikipedia. He compiled the eventually released album, now titled Let It Be. The album and film were released on May 8, 1970, after the Beatles had broken up. Wikipedia says the movie “captured on film the critical tensions within the band”. The last song performed on the rooftop, the last live Beatles performance, was Get Back. And in an incredible irony, it ends with Lennon remarking: “I’d like to say ‘thank you’ on behalf of the group and ourselves, and I hope we passed the audition.” This is how the album ends as well. Here, having dominated the pop music scene for nearly a decade, having pioneered the path for much of that time, Lennon was always able to see the dark humour in things. Wikipedia tells us that the recording sessions dished up several songs which were released as singles in different versions to those on the album. These include Get Back/Don’t Let Me Down and Let It Be. Lennon’s Across The Universe, we learn, was “added to pad out his sparse contributions to the album, having previously been released as part of the World Wildlife Fund charity album No One’s Gonna Change Our World”. On that album the song was speeded up, and on Let It Be it was slowed down. It took until the Let It Be … Naked album in 2003 before it appeared at its original speed. Aside from those three songs mentioned earlier that were recorded live on the rooftop, Two Of Us, Dig It and Maggie Mae were from the live studio sessions. The rest, however, all featured “editing, splicing and overdubs”, says Wikipedia, apart from Across The Universe, which as noted earlier was slowed down. It was only rehearsed at Twickenham and not professionally recorded on multi-track tape. So what got up McCartney’s nose? Well it had to be his own stuff that he was unhappy with. Wikipedia says he was “deeply dissatisfied” with Spector’s treatment of some songs, particularly The Long And Winding Road . He had conceived it as “a simple piano ballad”, but Spector had dubbed in orchestral and choral accompaniment. I have to confess, on listening to it again recently, that I did find the orchestration rather over the top, but then that’s how the song had always been, so one never questioned it. In fact, many of McCartney’s subsequent solo songs would receive similar treatment, such as Live And Let Die. Wikipedia says McCartney in fact tried unsuccessfully to halt release of Spector’s version of the song. He was happy with the orchestra, but wanted the harp and choir excised. Wikipedia says his “bitterness over this was a contributing factor to his public announcement that he was leaving the Beatles shortly thereafter”. However, Wikipedia quotes Lennon, in a Playboy interview 10 years later, as saying Spector had made something out of “the shittiest load of badly recorded shit with a lousing feeling to it ever”. Which, I fear, was typical Lennon hyperbole, and a bid to dis McCartney. When the album was released in the UK , it was in a lavish boxed set that included a book featuring stills from the film. A few months later it was reissued as a standard LP, without the book. And did you know the Beatles won an Academy Award? Yeah, Wikipedia says in 1970 they won for the Best Original Song Score for the songs in the movie. While four Oscars were presented, only McCartney was on hand to accept. Was the album as “shitty” as Lennon claimed, and were McCartney’s reservations justified? I suspect there was so much animosity flying about at the time, and for years to come, that both were prejudiced views. The fact is this is the last original Beatles album to be released. It was solo stuff from here on. As such, whatever the problems in producing it, it is a part of rock history. And, frankly, it is an interesting and most enjoyable slice of the Beatles. I particularly enjoy the use of the banter and chat between and even during songs. This certainly does not sound like a group about to slit each other’s throats. Indeed, the sense of humour which George Martin so admired all those years earlier, though often sardonic, remains at the core of the Beatles’ work. That and a singular Britishness that, I believe, flows from the massive sacrifices that country made during the Second World War, and which influenced the characters of those who grew up in the wake of that conflict, such as the Fab Four. So don’t slag off this album. It is still a beauty, no matter what anyone says. The album opens with a bit of Beatles chatter before bass and acoustic guitars launch McCartney’s Two Of Us, one of those recorded live. A somewhat muted vocal performance, he is ably backed by typical Beatles harmonies as this rollicking rock number gathers momentum as drums and lead guitar join in. “Two of us riding nowhere / Spending someone’s / Hard earned pay / You and me Sunday driving / Not arriving / On our way back home / We’re on our way home / We’re on our way home / We’re going home.” I have to confess, again, that is the first time I’ve really actually digested what was being sung, despite having heard this song scores of times. “Two of us sending postcards / Writing letters / On my wall / You and me burning matches / Lifting latches / On our way back home / We’re on our way home / We’re on our way home / We’re going home.” McCartney had a knack for writing catchy songs, and I don’t doubt this was largely his baby. There is a nice change of pace as his voice, which somehow changed and became more mature as the 1970s started, intones: “You and I have memories / Longer than the road that stretches out ahead.” Then it’s back to these snapshots of a life shared. “Two of us wearing raincoats / Standing so low / In the sun / You and me chasing paper / Getting nowhere / On our way back home / We’re on our way home / We’re on our way home / We’re going home.” The chorus and last verse are repeated, before the song ends with “We’re going home / Better believe it”, and some chatter, during which the word “goodbye” is heard. Then follows another live track, Dig A Pony. Again, there is a bit of chatter, before a single electric guitar note sounds, followed by a “hold it!”. Fast-paced, tight rock then slows for a typical Lennonesque, “ah, a-ha-ha, a-ha-ha”. Then, with acoustic guitar prominent, Lennon’s voice comes through crisp and clear: “I dig a pony / Well you can celebrate anything you want / Well you can celebrate anything you want / Ooh.” What the song was about, is anyone’s guess. “I do a road hog / Well you can penetrate any place you go / Yes you can penetrate any place you go / I told you so, all I want is you. / Ev’rything has got to be just like you want it to / Because …” And then there is more bizarre imagery, this next verse possibly inspired by the lunar landing of 1969 and earlier Soviet missions to put a dog in space. “I pick a moon dog / Well you can radiate ev’rything you are / Yes you can radiate ev’rything you are … / Ooh.” And what was a stoney? I recall as teens who virtually lived on the Bonza Bay beach, there was talk that under males’ nipples a hardness formed called a stoney. Whatever. “I roll a stoney / Well you can imitate ev’ryone you know / Yes you can imitate ev’ryone you know / I told you so, all I want is you. / Ev’rything has got to be just like you want it to / Because …” The song, which features some rollicking lead guitar and what sounds like electric piano, is another typically whimsical piece of Lennon magic. He seemed to love the elements. “I feel the wind blow / Well you can indicate anything you see / Yes you can indicate anything you see … / Ooh.” Sometimes it was pure stream of consciousness stuff. “I dug a lorry / Well you can syndicate any boat you row / Yes you can syndicate any boat you row / I told you so, all I want is you. / Ev’rything has got to be just like you want it to Because …” Again, the song ends in a bit of chatter and a few guitar notes. Now I’m not one of those technically savvy souls who insist on their music being pure and pristine. So it matters not to me whether the next track, Across The Universe, was not recorded on a multi-track tape, or whatever the problem was. The fact is it’s a classic, featuring some superb slide acoustic guitar and string arrangements, which add to the swirling, undulating sensation. In fact, the sparseness only emphasises that sense of being thrust out into space, a desolate sense of dislocation. Interestingly, Wikipedia tells us that David Bowie did a cover of this on the 1975 album, Young Americans, which I have not heard. And it features Lennon on vocals and guitar. Now that’s worth looking out for. But what was he singing about? Because to me this has always been one of those Lennon songs which set him apart as a truly great songwriter. Anyway, as that guitar slips and slides, he lays it on us. “Words are flying out like / endless rain into a paper cup / They slither while they pass / They slip away across the universe / Pools of sorrow waves of joy / are drifting thorough my open mind / Possessing and caressing me.” Brilliant! Words are a Lennon thing. Here they become tangible objects, yet impossible to pin down amidst that swirl of emotions. But what of that chorus? I naively always heard something like “What, a new day”. But now I discover it goes, “Jai guru deva om / Nothing’s gonna change my world / Nothing’s gonna change my world / Nothing’s gonna change my world / Nothing’s gonna change my world.” He was quite insistent about that, but what of those first four words? Well the danger of the Internet is the more you probe, the more information becomes available. There is no way I can analyse each song to the extent available. There are dozens, possibly hundreds of sites which dwell on this song alone. But I’ll rely on Wikipedia’s objectivity. Firstly, they say Lennon came up with the opening lines about words flowing after hearing then-wife Cynthia chatting on and on about something. He later “turned it into a sort of cosmic song” and began writing the rest of the lyrics before going to bed and forgetting about them. The next day he began putting chords on the piano to the song. Wikipedia says the song’s flavour is heavily influenced by the Beatles’ short-lived interest in transcendental meditation in late 1967 and early 1968. As a result he “added the mantra Jai guru deva om” as a link to the chorus. “The Sanskrit phrase is a sentence fragment whose words could have many meanings, but roughly translate to ‘Victory to God divine’, ‘hail to the divine guru’, or the phrase commonly invoked by the late Maharish Mahesh Yogi, ‘All Glory to Guru Deva’, then the mystic syllable om, which is theoretically the cosmic sound of the universe and used by monks during meditation”. Of course it was the Moody Blues who would latch onto that in a big way. Wikipedia says in a 1970 interview with Rolling Stone, Lennon said the song had perhaps the best, most poetic lyrics he had written. And of course the song did indeed go across the universe. Wikipedia says on February 4, 2008, Nasa transmitted it in the direction of the star Polaris, 431 light years from Earth. This was done using a 70m antenna at the Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex using an X band transmitter radiating into the antenna at 18 KW. It was done to mark the 40th anniversary of the song, the 45th of the Deep Space Network and 50th of Nasa. So Lennon’s voice singing these words might still be floating around out there in deep space: “Images of broken light which / dance before me like a million eyes / That call me on and on across the universe / Thoughts meander like a / restless wind inside a letter box / they tumble blindly as / they make their way across the universe.” After the incantation and chorus, the final verse. “Sounds of laughter shades of life / are ringing through my open ears / exciting and inviting me / Limitless undying love which / shines around me like a million suns / It calls me on and on across the universe.” The chorus and mantra are then repeated as this absolute classic soars off into the ether. As noted earlier, Lennon wasn’t even around when I Me Mine was recorded. It was another case of Harrison coming into his own amidst daunting company. The acoustic guitar is again prominent, along with some bold opening lead guitar and organ notes. “All thru’ the day I me mine, I me mine, I me mine. / All thru’ the night I me mine, I me mine, I me mine. / Now they’re frightened of leaving it / Ev’ryone’s weaving it, / Coming on strong all the time, / All thru’ the day I me mine.” Now I’ve no idea what that’s about, but it does give one a taste of Harrison’s own penchant for wordplay, which would come into its own big time during his solo years. Thudding drum beats herald a change in temp. “I-I-me-me mine, / I-I-me-me mine, / I-I-me-me mine, / I-I-me-me mine.” Then back to that lovely laid-back, soothing Harrison sound. “All I can hear I me mine, I me mine, I me mine. / Even those tears I me mine, I me mine, I me mine. / No-one’s frightened of playing it / Ev’ryone’s saying it, / Flowing more freely than wine, / All thru’ your life, I me mine.” Unlike on earlier Beatles albums, I found it notable that McCartney’s bass is not nearly as prominent on most of the songs here. That’s possibly another reason he was upset. But to compensate the acoustic guitar adds a different bit of texture which is most enjoyable. All four Beatles are credited with composing the bit of fun that is Dig It, a 49-second bit of English frivolity, which, with Lennon singing, bears all the hallmarks of his sense of humour. The song opens quietly before building up a head of steam before getting quite heavy. And of course it is one of those quirky precursors to a real classic, Let It Be, which are imprinted on the minds of Beatlephiles. So here is Lennon having fun. “Like a rolling stone / A like a rolling stone / Like the FBI and the CIA / And the BBC – BB King / And Doris Day / Matt Busby / Dig it, dig it, dig it / Dig it, dig it, dig it, dig it, dig it, dig it, dig it, dig it.” As the guys again break into chatter, a high-pitched male voice, almost certainly Lennon, says: “(That was ‘Can You Dig It’ by Georgie Wood. And now we’d like to do ‘Hark The Angels Come’.” And that, naturally, is the sign for everyone to shut up and listen to a bit of McCartney genius. He liked nothing better than laying down a melody on the piano and then letting his voice do the business of turning words, lyrics, into a brilliant song. And so the anthem-like melody is short before these words to Let It Be pour forth: “When I find myself in times of trouble, mother Mary comes to me, / speaking words of wisdom, let it be. / And in my hour of darkness she is standing right in front of me, / speaking words of wisdom, let it be.” The chorus, sung by a chorus of voices, couldn’t be simpler, or more effective. “Let it be, let it be, let it be, let it be. / Whisper words of wisdom, let it be.” This song also has a message and, as the second verse starts, so does McCartney’s well-rounded bass flesh the whole thing out beautifully. The drums also get progressively heavier. “And when the broken hearted people living in the world agree, / there will be an answer, let it be. / For though they may be parted there is still a chance that they will see, / there will be an answer, let it be.” With the next chorus, the organ becomes more insistent, and a serious bit of brass can also be heard. After that famous daa-da-da-daa-da-da-daa-daa-daa, played on lead guitar and organ, and a short sharp lead guitar solo, the final verse. “And when the night is cloudy, there is still a light, that shines on me, / shine until tomorrow, let it be. / I wake up to the sound of music, mother Mary comes to me, / speaking words of wisdom, let it be.” As the words, “Let it be, let it be” are sung alongside some further robust lead guitar, large, dramatic chords finally bring the song to an end. McCartney was singing about the “broken-hearted” and “parted” people of the world, but may just as easily have been singing about the band itself. In the end he is philosophical. What will be, will be. And it was. It was one of the all-time Beatles classics. The Beatles could always be counted on to offer up something completely different. And so it was that all four are credited with the arrangement of a traditional song, Maggie Mae, all 41 seconds of it, which concludes Side I. Again, it is a folk acoustic guitar which launches this quick-paced bit of fun. Backed by bass and drums, it sound like a drunken pub song, with Lennon using his zaniest accent. “Oh dirty Maggie Mae they have taken her away / And she never walk down Lime Street any more / Oh the judge he guilty found her / For robbing a homeward bounder / That dirty no good robbin’ Maggie Mae / To the port Liverpool / They returned me to / Two pounds ten a week, that was my pay.” Side 2, you get the feeling, is McCartney feeling his way into a solo career. It starts with the live recording of his I’ve Got A Feeling, a straight rock song rich in piano and bluesy lead guitar. “I’ve got a feeling, a feeling deep inside / Oh yeah, Oh yeah. (that’s right.) / I’ve got a feeling, a feeling I can’t hide / Oh no. no. Oh no! Oh no. / Yeah! Yeah! I’ve got a feeling. Yeah!” At this stage it is pretty much a nothing song, lyrically. “Oh please believe me, I’d hate to miss the train / Oh yeah, yeah, oh yeah. / And if you leave me I won’t be late again / Oh no, oh no, oh no. / Yeah Yeah I’ve got a feeling, yeah. / I got a feeling.” It was McCartney at pretty much his blandest. “All these years I've been wandering around, / Wondering how come nobody told me / All that I was looking for was somebody / Who looked like you.” Of course, as a Beatles song, it was still impeccably packaged, but the lyrics are really weak. “I’ve got a feeling that keeps me on my toes / Oh yeah, Oh yeah. / I’ve got a feeling, I think that everybody knows. / Oh yeah, Oh yeah, Oh yeah. / Yeah! Yeah! I’ve got a feeling. Yeah!” Now I don’t know precisely what the division of labour was in writing this song, but as the mood changes and Lennon takes over the vocals, there’s suddenly an injection of fun and poetry. “Ev’rybody had a hard year. / Ev’rybody had a good time. / Ev’rybody had a wet dream. / Ev’rybody saw the sunshine.” McCartney can then be heard singing: “Oh yeah, Oh yeah. Oh Yeah.” “Ev’rybody had a good year. / Ev’rybody let their hair down. / Ev’rybody pulled their socks up. (yeah.) / Ev’rybody put their foot down. / Oh yeah. Yeah! WOOOOHOO!” They then sing their separate parts, allowing each to collide, sorry harmonise, with each other as the song unwinds. At one point someone says, “Oh my soul...it’s so hard.” Lennon’s stamp seems to be all over One After 909, another live recording. A fast-paced rock and roll song, this has echoes of Chuck Berry and harks back to the early 1960s, when the Beatles were first starting out on their journey. “My baby says she’s trav’ling on the one after 909 / I said move over honey I’m travelling on that line / I said move over once, move over twice / Come on baby don’t be cold as ice.” The lyrics are by no means memorable, but this is another well-executed song, which winds down amidst more frivolity, during which a voice (Lennon’s) is heard to sing “Oh Danny boy…”. Again, Spector, or whoever was responsible, got it spot-on, because this joviality then settles for another of the album’s great moments, McCartney’s The Long And Winding Road. As noted earlier, McCartney had serious reservations about the treatment given to his song. I haven’t heard Let It Be … Naked yet, so can’t compare this version to how he’d have liked it. But this is one we grew up with, heavy orchestration or not. It opens with his singing those opening words, “The long and winding road …” before the dramatic chords (CLUNG GLUNG) which then subside… “That leads to your door / Will never disappear / I’ve seen that road before / It always leads me here / Leads me to your door.” Make no doubt about it, this was a moment of inspired song-writing. “The wild and windy night (CLUNG GLUNG) / That the rain washed away / Has left a pool of tears / Crying for the day. / Why leave me standing here? / Let me know the way.” McCartney’s songs always have a somewhat sentimental touch, which I believe endeared him to the female fans. But it does mark the big difference between him and the more cynical Lennon, who clearly didn’t suffer fools. But McCartney was a melody maker par excellence. Here he switches to another key. “Many times I’ve been alone / And many times I’ve cried, / Anyway you’ll never know / The many ways I’ve tried.” There’s no escaping it, it’s soppy and sentimental. But it was a Beatles song and it has become one of the most famous songs of all time. “And still they lead me back / To the long, winding road / You left me standing here / A long, long time ago / Don’t leave me waiting here / Lead me to your door.” This is an iconic ballad, but possibly Spector did get a bit carried away with the choral backing and orchestration. But who could blame him? And those of us who grew up with this song will always enjoy it in the original, no matter what old Paul might say. And it took George Harrison to prick the sentimental bubble with a song which is sparseness personified. No one could accuse Spector of over-embellishing For You Blue, which is a lovely acoustic blues with slide guitar of the sort the Rolling Stones were taking to ever greater heights. Interestingly, it is not one of the live songs on the album, because it too starts with some chatter, and has a lazy, laid-back quality to it, as if it was recorded while Harrison and the others were all just sitting around jamming. The version of the lyrics I found says the song starts with the (no doubt spoken) words, “Queen says no to pot smoking FBI members”. Then follows this lovely bit of guitarwork, and Harrison ’s somewhat muted vocals. “Because you’re sweet and lovely girl I love you, / Because you’re sweet and lovely girl it’s true, / I love you more than ever girl I do. / I want you in the morning girl I love you, / I want you at the moment I feel blue, / I’m living ev’ry moment girl for you.” Additional chatter includes: “Bop. Bop, cat bop. Go, Johnny, Go. Elmore James’ got nothin’ on this baby! There go the 10 bar blues.” Then Harrison continues: “I’ve loved you from the moment I saw you, / You looked at me that’s all you had to do, / I feel it now I hope you feel it too. / Because you’re sweet and lovely girl I love you, / Because you’re sweet and lovely girl it’s true, / I love you more than ever girl I do. / I really love you.” And that is what “being in love” was like. Almost impossible to speak about coherently. How many all-time classics are on this album – songs that have survived, as young as ever, for nearly 40 years, and will do so for 100 years? Well the album closes with one of the greatest Beatles tracks of all, Get Back. It would be the last song on their last album, and it was recorded live. Fittingly, it starts with a bit of natter, with Lennon again sounding like the alpha male, as it were. A voice says, “Rosetta…”, then Lennon, I’m sure it is, launches into “Sweet Loretta Fart thought she was a cleaner / but she was a frying pan, yeah ...” According to my web-found lyrics, other words uttered include “Rosetta...” and “The picker! The picker! Picture the fingers burning! / Oo-wee!” Then Lennon says: “OK? / 1,2, 1,2,3,4”, before the heavy, chunk-chunk chords set the wheel in motion. “Jojo was a man who thought he was a loner / But he knew it wouldn’t last / Jojo left his home in Tucson	i don't know
Reading down group 1 (alkali metals) on the periodic table, the symbols for elements 3 and 11 form the name of which Chinese tennis player?	Chapter 12 Elements and Their Properties This beautiful diamond is made up of atoms of the element carbon. Most matter can be described by the elements of which it is made. Each element has distinct properties. Elements arranged together on the periodic table have similar properties. Knowing the properties of elements allows us to use them in a variety of practical ways. This chapter will describe groups of elements and help you to learn how they are related. EXPLOREï¿½ ACTIVITY Some clues are in color. 1. Using tongs, carefully hold a clean paper clip in the hottest part of a lab burner flame until no additional color is observed. 2. Dip the hot paper clip into a solution of copper (II) sulfate. 3. Using the tongs, repeat step 1, observing any color change. 4. Repeat these steps using solutions of strontium chloride and sodium chloride. Observe: How can observation of color be used to identify elements in solutions? Based on your observations, devise a plan in your Science Journal to determine whether chlorine or strontium was giving the color you observed in a particular test. Previewing Science Skills In the Skill Builders, you will interpret scientific illustrations, make and use a graph, and map concepts. In the Activities, you will observe, compare, predict, infer, and build a model. In the MiniLABs, you will observe and draw conclusions 329 Describe the properties of a typical metal. Identify the alkali and alkaline earth metals. Differentiate among three groups of transition elements. Properties of Metals Have you ever seen very old jewelry or statues made of gold and copper? These were two of the first metals used thousands of years ago. The use of silver and tin soon followed. Then came iron. But aluminumï¿½the metal used in thousands of soft-drink cansï¿½wasn't discovered until a little more than 100 years ago. Gold, copper, silver, tin, iron, and aluminum are typical metals. What do these and other metals have in common? Most metals are hard, shiny solids. Metals are also good conductors of both heat and electricity. These properties make metals suitable for uses ranging from kitchen pots and pans to wires for electric appliances. Because metals reflect light well, they are also used in mirrors. Metals are malleable, which means they can be hammered or rolled into sheets. The gold leaf shown in Figure 12-1 is used for elaborate decoration. Metals are also ductile, which means they can be drawn into wires like the ones shown in Figure 12-2. The atoms of metals generally have from one to three electrons in their outer energy levels. Metals tend to give up electrons easily. Remember from Chapter 11 what happens when metals combine with nonmetals? The atoms of the metals tend to lose electrons to the atoms of nonmetals, and form ionic bonds. The second type of bond you studied is the covalent bond, which generally forms between atoms of nonmetals. Figure 12-1 Gold can be hammered into thin sheets. The sheets, called gold leaf, can be applied to many types of surfaces. What is this property of metals called? 330 Figure 12-2 Metals can be drawn into wires. This property is called ductility. The gauge of a wire is related to its thickness. A large number indicates a thinner wire. Bonding in Metals A third type of bonding, neither ionic nor covalent, occurs among the atoms in a metal. In metallic bonding, positively charged metallic ions are surrounded by a "sea of electrons." Outer-level electrons are not held tightly to their particular nucleus. Rather, the electrons move freely among many positively charged ions. The electrons form a cloud around the ions of the metal as shown in Figure 12-3. Figure 12-3 In metallic bonding, the moving outer electrons, depicted by the cloud, cover the rest of the atoms no matter where the electrons are in the metal. How does this differ from covalent bonding? Metallic bonding explains many of the properties of metals. For example, when a metal is hammered into a sheet or drawn into a wire, it does not break because the ions are in layers that slide past one another. And because the outer-level electrons are weakly held, metals are good conductors of electricity. Look at the periodic table on pages 286-287. How many of the elements in the table are classified as metals? Except for hydrogen, all the elements in Groups 1 through 12 are metals. You will learn about metals in some of these groups and others throughout this chapter. MiniLAB How can metallic bonding explain the flexibility of metals? Procedure 1. Using tongs, carefully hold two pieces of metal wire in a lab burner flame until they are glowing red-hot. 2. Quickly drop one of the hot wires into a beaker of cold water. Allow it to cool. 3. Allow the other hot wire to cool slowly. 4. Hold the ends of each piece of cooled wire and bend them. Analysis 1. What do you observe about the flexibility of the two cooled wires? 2. How can metallic bonding be used to help explain your observations? 331 The Alkali Metals The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are the alkali metals. Like other metals, Group 1 metals are shiny, malleable, and ductile. They are good conductors of both heat and electricity. The alkali metals are highly reactive metals. Figure 12-4 shows how reactive they are with water. As a result of their reactivity, why would you expect to find the alkali metals in nature only in the form of compounds? Each atom of an alkali metal has one electron in its outer energy level. This electron is given up when an alkali metal combines with another atom. The result is a positively charged ion in a compound such as sodium chloride, NaCI, or potassium bromide, KBr. Alkali metals and their compounds have many uses. You and other living things need potassium and sodium compoundsï¿½such as table salt, NaClï¿½to stay healthy. Doctors use lithium compounds to treat bipolar disorder. The operation of some photocells depends upon rubidium or cesium compounds. Francium, the last element in Group 1, is extremely rare and also radioactive. The nucleus of a radioactive element breaks down and gives off particles and energy. You will study radioactive elements later. Figure 12-4 Alkali metals are very reactive. Li, Na, K, and Cs react violently in water. Why wouldn't the reaction of francium be shown in the photo? 332 The Alkaline Earth Metals The alkaline earth metals make up Group 2 of the periodic table. Like the alkali metals, these metals are shiny, malleable, ductile, and so reactive that they are not found free in nature. Each atom of an alkaline earth metal has two electrons in its outer energy level. These electrons are given up when an alkaline earth metal combines with another element. The result is a positively charged ion in a compound such as calcium fluoride, CaF2. Bats, Batteries, and Beryls Emeralds and aquamarines are gemstone forms of beryl, a mineral that contains beryllium. Do you watch fireworks on the Fourth of July? The brilliant red in fireworks is produced by compounds of strontium. Magnesium can be made into a fine wire that burns so brightly that it is used in some photographic flashbulbs. Magnesium metal is also used in fireworks to produce brilliant white. Magnesium's lightness and strength account for its use in cars, planes, and spacecraft. Magnesium is also used to make such things as household ladders and baseball and softball bats, such as the one shown in Figure 12-5. Most life on Earth depends upon chlorophyll, a magnesium compound that enables plants to make food. Calcium is seldom used as a free metal, but its compounds are needed for life. Calcium phosphate in your bones helps make them strong. Marble and limestone are calcium carbonate. Figure 12-5 Alkaline earth metals are found in these objects. Which metals are represented here? 333 Some barium compounds are used to diagnose digestive disorders. The patient swallows a barium compound, which can absorb X rays. As the barium compound goes through the digestive tract, a doctor can study the X rays. Radium, the last element in Group 2, is radioactive. It was once used to treat cancers. Today, other radioactive substances are replacing radium in cancer therapy. Transition Elements An iron nail, a copper wire, and a silver dime are examples of objects made from transition elements. The transition elements are those elements in Groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table. Typical transition elements are metals and have one or two electrons in the outer energy level. These metals are less active than those in Groups 1 and 2. The gems in Figure 12-6 contain brightly colored compounds of transition elements. Brilliant cadmium yellow and cobalt blue paint pigments are made from compounds of transition elements. But cadmium and cobalt paints are so toxic that their use is now limited. Figure 12-6 The colors of these gems are due to compounds of transition elements. Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel Iron, cobalt, and nickel form a unique cluster of transition elements. The first elements in Groups 8, 9, and 10, respectively, are known as the iron triad. The elements of the triad are the only ones known to create a magnetic field. 334 Iron is second only to aluminum among the metals in abundance in Earth's crust. As the main component of steel, iron is the most widely used of all metals. Some steels also contain cobalt. Nickel is added to other metals to give them strength. Nickel is also often used to give a shiny, protective coating to other metals. Copper, Silver, and Gold Can you name the main metals in the coins in Figure 12-7 on page 336? They are copper, silver, and goldï¿½the three elements in Group 11. They are so unreactive that they can be found as elements in nature. For centuries, these metals have been widely used as coins. For this reason, they are known as the coinage metals. Copper is often used in electric wiring because of its superior ability to conduct electricity and 335 its relatively low cost. Can you imagine a world without photographs and movies? Because silver iodide and silver bromide break down when exposed to light, these compounds are used to make photographic film and paper. Much silver is also used in jewelry. The yellow color, relative softness, and rarity of gold account for its use in jewelry. Figure 12-7 Some Group 11 elements are used to make coins. (from page 335) USING TECHNOLOGY Metals with Memory What would a radio antenna in space have in common with your smile? They both benefit from nitinol. Nitinol is a metal alloy with a memory. Nitinol is the name given to the metal mixture, or alloy, made from the transition elements nickel and titanium. The alloy, which is made into a preset shape, can later be deformed into a new shape. Practical Uses So how is this used on teeth? The wire connecting brackets in braces is nitinol. If the teeth are not properly aligned, the wire will be deformed from its preset shape. Soon, the wire will attempt to return to its original shape, putting pressure on the bracketed teeth and moving them. Engineers also made use of nitinol when a large radio antenna was compactly folded during launch into space. Once in orbit, the metal with a memory absorbed heat and began to unfold into its original shape. This property of nitinol is also useful in eyeglass frames. Think Critically: Elements that can form shape-memory alloys, SMAs, are found in Groups 3 through 12 on the periodic table. List other properties of these elements in your Science Journal. Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury Zinc, cadmium, and mercury make up Group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc combines with oxygen in the air to form a thin protective coating of zinc oxide on the surface of the metal. Zinc is often used to coat, or plate, other metals, such as iron. Cadmium is also used in plating and in rechargeable batteries. Mercury is a silvery, liquid metal used in thermometers, thermostats, switches, and batteries. Mercury is poisonous, and mercury compounds can accumulate in the body. People have died of mercury poisoning that resulted from eating fish from mercury-contaminated water. Look at the periodic table on pages 286-287. Which elements do you think of as being typical metals? Transition elements are the most familiar because they occur in nature as elements. Group 1 and Group 2 metals are found in nature only in compounds. Metals in the Crust When we examine pictures of metals and their compounds, we are really seeing only half the story. Where are metals found? How do we obtain them? Earth's crust contains many compounds and a few examples of uncombined metals such as gold and copper. Metals must be dug, or mined, from Earth's hardened outer layer. 336 Due to varying conditions in different areas, some metals are deposited more in one place than in another. For example, most of the world's platinum is found in South Africa. Large amounts of cobalt can be found in Morocco, Zaire, and Canada. Chromium is important to the United States, but we must import most of it from South Africa, the Philippines, and Turkey. Ores: Minerals and Mixtures Metals in Earth's crust that are in a combined form are found in ores. Typically, an ore consists of a metal compound, or mineral, within a mixture of clay or rock. Lead metal is usually found combined with sulfur in the form of galena, or lead sulfide. After an ore is mined and brought from Earth's surface, minerals must be separated from the rock. Then the mineral is often converted to another chemical form. Galena is converted to lead oxide. This step involves heat and is called roasting. Finally, the metal is refined into a pure form. It may later be alloyed with other metals. Removing the waste rock can be very expensive. If the cost of removing the waste rock gets higher than the value of the desired material, the mineral will no longer be classified as an ore. USING MATH Several elements are present in Earth's crust. The approximate percentage of each element is as follows: Oxygen, 46.6 Potassium, 2.6 Magnesium, 2.1 Other elements include titanium, hydrogen, phosphorus, and manganese, which account for 1.5 percent. Make a circle graph of these data. Section Wrap-up Review 1. You are given a piece of the element palladium. How would you test it to see if it is a metal? 2. On the periodic table, how does the arrangement of the iron triad differ from the arrangements of the coinage metals and of the zinc group? 3. Think Critically: If X stands for a metal, how can you tell from the formulas XCl and XCl2 which compound contains an alkali metal and which contains an alkaline earth metal? Skill Builder Interpreting Scientific Illustrations Draw dot diagrams to show the similarity among chlorides of three alkali metals: lithium chloride, sodium chloride, and potassium chloride. If you need help, refer to Interpreting Scientific Illustrations in the Skill Handbook. Science Journal We encounter examples of metals nearly everywhere. In your Science Journal, write a paragraph describing how a specific metallic element has an effect in your life. Which group is that metal in on the periodic table? 337 12.2 TECHNOLOGY:ï¿½ New Elements, New Properties Science Words Distinguish among elements classified as lanthanides, actinides, and transuranium elements. Determine the uses of transuranium elements. Compare the pros and cons of making new elements. Elements Beyond 92 What if you made something that always fell apart? You might think you were not successful. Yet nuclear scientists are learning to do just that. By combining existing elements with fast-moving particles, they have been successful at creating elements not typically found on Earth. Except for one, the short-lived elements have more than 92 protons. All of these synthetic elements are unstable and fall apart quickly. Elements having more than 92 protons, the atomic number of uranium, are called transuranium elements. Additions to the Family If you look at the periodic table on pages 286-287, you will see breaks in periods 6 and 7. The first break includes a series of 14 elements with atomic numbers of 58-71. The elements in this series are known as the lanthanides. The second break includes elements with atomic numbers ranging from 90103. These elements are known as actinides. Ten synthetic elements are found in the actinide series. Where are the others placed on the periodic table? Technetium is element number 43. The newest synthetic elements are placed in period 7. Synthesis: A Smashing Success If atoms and other particles are smashed together with sufficient force, they will fuse to form a new identity. For example, neptunium, element 93, can be made by bombarding 338 uranium with neutrons. Atoms of neptunium do not stay together for long. Half of the synthesized atoms disintegrate in about two days. This may not sound useful, but when neptunium atoms fall apart, they form plutonium. This highly toxic element has been used in control rods of nuclear reactors, such as those shown in Figure 12-8, and in bombs. Plutonium can also be changed to americium, element 95. This transuranium element is used in some home smoke detectors such as the one in Figure 12-9. Figure 12-8 (from page 338) These fuel rods contain plutonium, element 84. How would plutonium be classified? Figure 12-9 Synthesis of elements has resulted in life-saving smoke detectors. Why make elements? By studying how the synthesized elements form and fall apart, we can gain an understanding of the forces holding other elements together. When these atoms fall apart, they are said to be radioactive. Technetium's radioactivity makes it ideal for many medical applications. At this time, many of the synthetic elements, once made, last only small fractions of seconds and can be made only in small amounts. However, further advances in technology may bring production up to larger amounts. The as-yet-undiscovered applications could prove to be more valuable than their costs. Section Wrap-up 1. How is an element classified as a transuranium element? 2. Where are the actinides located on the periodic table? interNET CONNECTION Some people are concerned about the use of radioactive elements such as americium in smoke detectors and other products. Visit the Chapter 12 Internet Connection at Glencoe Online Science, www.glencoe.com/sec/science/physical, for a link to more information about radioactive elements. 339 Recognize hydrogen as a nonmetal. Compare and contrast properties of the halogens. Describe properties and uses of the noble gases. Properties of Nonmetals Figure 12-10 shows that you're mostly made of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Calcium, a metal, and other elements make up the remaining four percent of your body's weight. Phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine are among other elements found in your body. These elements are classified as nonmetals. Look at the periodic table on pages 286 and 287. How many elements are nonmetals? Notice that most nonmetals are gases at room temperature. Several nonmetals are solids, and one nonmetal is a liquid. Figure 12-10 Humans are made up of mostly nonmetals. Attracting Electrons In contrast to metals, solid nonmetals are dull. Because they are brittle and powdery, they are neither malleable nor ductile. The electrons in most nonmetals are tightly attracted and are restricted to one atom. So, as a group, nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Most nonmetals form both ionic and covalent compounds. Examples of these two kinds of compounds are shown in Figure 12-11. When nonmetals gain electrons from metals, the nonmetals become negative ions in ionic compounds. An example of such an ionic compound is potassium iodide, KI, 340 which is often added to table salt. KI is formed from the nonmetal iodine and the metal potassium. On the other hand, when bonded with other nonmetals, atoms of nonmetals usually share electrons and form covalent compounds. An example is ammonia, NH3, the gas you can smell when you open a bottle of household ammonia. The noble gases, Group 18, make up the only group of elements that are all nonmetals. Group 17 elements, except for astatine, are also nonmetals. Several other nonmetals, found in Groups 13 through 16, will be discussed later. Except for hydrogen, all of the nonmetals are located on the right side of the periodic table. Figureï¿½ 12-11 Nonmetals form both ionic and covalent compounds. Which picture depicts which kind of bonding? Hydrogen Do you know that approximately 90 percent of all the atoms in the universe are hydrogen? Most hydrogen on Earth is found in the compound water. When water is broken down into its elements, hydrogen forms as a gas made up of diatomic molecules. A diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element. Thus, the formula for hydrogen gas is H2, shown in Figure 12-12. Small, But Active Hydrogen is highly reactive. A hydrogen atom has a single electron, which the atom shares when it combines with other nonmetals. Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water, H2O. In forming water, hydrogen shares electrons with oxygen. Hydrogen also shares electrons with chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride, HCl. Hydrogen may gain an electron when it combines with alkali and alkaline earth metals. The compounds formed are hydrides, such as sodium hydride, NaH. Figure 12-12 Hydrogen gas, which consists of diatomic molecules, combines with oxygen in an oxyhydrogen torch. 341 The Halogens Look how bright the high- tech lamp is in Figure 12-13. Its light and that of the head-lights of some cars are supplied by halogen lightbulbs. These bulbs contain small amounts of bromine or iodine. These elements, as well as fluorine, chlorine, and astatine, are called halogens and are found in Group 17. Because an atom of a halogen has seven electrons in its outer energy level, only one electron is needed to complete this energy level. If a halogen gains an electron from a metal, an ionic compound, called a salt, is formed. The word halogen means "salt former." In the gaseous state, the halogens form very reactive diatomic covalent molecules and can be identified by their distinctive colors, as shown in Figure 12-14. Fluorine is the most chemically active of all the elements. Hydrofluoric acid, a mixture of hydrogen fluoride and water, is used to etch glass and to frost the inner surfaces of light- bulbs. Other fluorides are added to toothpastes and to city water systems to prevent tooth decay. Does your community add fluorides to its water? Figure 12-13 The halogens bromine and iodine are used in the bulbs of halogen lamps. Figure 12-14 These are the gaseous halogens chlorine, bromine, and iodine. MiniLAB Can you detect chlorine in your drinking water? Procedure 1. In separate test tubes, obtain 2 mL of chloride standard solution, distilled water, and drinking water. 2. Carefully add five drops of silver nitrate solution to each and stir. CAUTION: Avoid contact with the silver nitrate solution. Analysis 1. Which solution will definitely show a presence of chloride? How did this result compare to the result with distilled water? 2. Which result most resembled your drinking water? CONNECT TO EARTH SCIENCE Compounds called chlorofluorocarbons are used in refrigeration systems. If released, these compounds destroy ozone in the atmosphere. Draw the electron dot diagram for CF2Cl2 in your Science Journal. 342 Uses of Halogens The odor near swimming pools is the odor of chlorine. Chlorine compounds are used to disinfect water. Chlorine, the most abundant halogen, is obtained from seawater. Household and industrial bleaches used to whiten flour and paper also contain chlorine compounds. Bromine, the only nonmetal that is liquid at room temperature, is extracted from compounds in seawater. Other bromine compounds are used as dyes in cosmetics, such as the lipsticks shown in Figure 12-15. Iodine, a shiny gray solid at room temperature, is obtained from seawater. When heated, iodine changes directly to a purple vapor. The process of a solid changing directly to a vapor without forming a liquid is called sublimation as shown in Figure 12-16. Recall that sublimation accounts for ice cubes shrinking in freezers. Iodine is essential in your diet for the production of the hormone thyroxin and to prevent goiter, an enlarging of the thyroid gland in the neck. Astatine, the last member of Group 17, is radioactive and rare. But it has many properties similar to those of the other halogens. Figure 12-15 Dyes in some cosmetics contain bromine compounds. What unique physical property does bromine have? Figure 12-16 Ice and dust form the body of a comet. The ice undergoes sublimation, forming the gases contained in the tail of the comet. This particular comet is Hale-Bopp, which was visible from Earth for several months in 1997. The Noble Gases Why are the noble gases called noble? It was known that these gases did not naturally form compounds. Thus, they were thought of as the nobility of elements because nobles did not mix with common folk. However, in the early 1960s, scientists were able to prepare some compounds of noble gases. 343 As you recall, each element in Group 18 is stable because its outer energy level is full. The stability of the noble gases plays an important role in their uses, such as those shown in Figure 12-17. Both the halogens and the noble gases illustrate that each element in a group has some similar properties but also has unique properties and uses. Figure 12-17 Noble gases are used to produce laser light shows. Section Wrap-up Review 1. What are two ways in which hydrogen combines with other elements? 2. Rank the following nonmetals from lowest number of electrons in the outer level to highest: Cl-, H+, He, H. 3. What property of noble gases makes them useful? 4. Think Critically: Why must hydrofluoric acid always be stored in plastic bottles? Skill Builder Interpreting Data Within the following compounds, identify the nonmetal and list its oxidation number: MgO, NaH, AlBr3, FeS. If you need help, refer to Interpreting Data in your Skill Handbook. Using Computers Graphing Prepare a bar graph comparing nonmetals and metals as solids, liquids, and gases at room temperature. 344 Activity 12-1 What type is it? Suppose you want an element for a certain use. You may be able to use a metal but not a nonmetal. Or maybe a nonmetal better meets your needs. In this activity, you will test several metals and nonmetals and compare their properties. Problem How can you use properties to tell metals from nonmetals? Materials samples of carbon, magnesium, aluminum, sulfur, and tin dishes for the samples Procedure 1. Prepare a table in your Science Journal like the one shown. 2. Observe and record the appearance of each element sample. Include its physical state, color, and whether it is shiny or dull. 3. Remove a small sample of one of the elements. Place it on a hard surface chosen by your teacher. Gently tap the sample with a hammer. The sample is malleable if it flattens when tapped and brittle if it shatters. Record your results. 4. Repeat step 3 for each sample. 5. Test the conductivity of each element by touching the electrodes of the conductivity tester to a sample, as shown in the photo. If the bulb lights, the element conducts electricity. Record your results. Analyze 1. Which elements showed properties of metals? 2. Which elements showed properties of nonmetals? 3. Which elements, if any, showed properties of both metals and nonmetals? Conclude and Apply 4. Locate each element you used on the periodic table. Compare your results with what you would expect from the location of each element. 5. Locate palladium, Pd, on the periodic table. Use the results of the activity to predict some of the properties of palladium. 6. Infer why some elements may show both properties of metals and properties of nonmetals. 345 allotrope Objectives Distinguish among metals, nonmetals, and metalloids in Groups 13 through l b of the periodic table. Describe the nature of allotropes. Recognize the significance of differences in crystal structure in carbon. Locating the Mixed Groups Can an element be both a metal and a nonmetal? In a sense, some elements are. They are the metalloids, and they have both metallic and nonmetallic properties. A metalloid may conduct electricity better than many nonmetals but not as well as some metals. In the periodic table, the metalloids are the elements located along the stair-step line. The mixed groups- 13, 14, 15, and 16ï¿½contain metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. The Boron Group Boron, a metalloid, is the first element in Group 13. If you look around your home, you may find two compounds of boron. One of these is boric acid, a mild antiseptic. The other is borax, which is used in laundry products to soften water. Less familiar are the boranes, which are compounds of boron used in fuels for rockets and jet airplanes. Aluminum, a metal, is also in Group 13. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in Earth's crust. Aluminum is used in soft-drink cans, foil wrap, and cooking pans. You may also see aluminum on the sides of buildings. And because aluminum is both strong and light, it is used to build airplanes. When you operate electronic equipment, such as the calculator shown in Figure 12-18, you may be using one of the other metals in Group 13. These metals are gallium, indium, and thallium, used to produce semiconductors. Semiconductors conduct an electric current under certain conditions. You will learn more about semiconductors in Chapter 23. Figure 12-18 Calculators contain semiconductors. What metals from Group 13 are used to produce semiconductors? 346 The Carbon Group Each element in Group 14, the carbon family, has four electrons in its outer energy level. But this is where much of the similarity ends. Carbon is a nonmetal; silicon and germanium are metalloids; tin and lead are metals. What do the diamond in a diamond ring and the graphite in your pencil have in common? It may surprise you to learn that they are both carbon. How can this be? Diamond and graphite are examples of allotropes. Allotropes are different forms of the same element having different molecular structures. Look at Figure 12-19. Graphite is a black powder that consists of hexagonal layers of carbon atoms. In the hexagons, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. The fourth electron of each atom is bonded weakly to the layer next to it. This structure allows the layers to slide easily past one another, making graphite an excellent lubricant. Figure 12-19 Two allotropes of carbon are graphite (A) and diamond (B). What geometric shapes make up each allotrope? 347 Problem Solving Waiting to Be Discovered In sports, the "Rookie of the Year" award typically designates a player who had an outstanding first year and shows great potential for continued achievement. Most of the selections live up to that expectation, but not all. At the beginning of the 1990s, Science magazine selected Buckminsterfullerene as the "Molecule of the Year." This allotrope of carbon was isolated by R.E. Smalley when some carbon materials were subjected to laser bursts. Later, the carbon condensed into unusual spherical elements. The tiny spheres were later shown to be made of 60 carbon atoms arranged in an open cage that could resemble a hollow soccer ball. Many new uses of this third allotrope were thought possible. Interesting medical applications were proposed to attach special disease-attacking components to the outside of the molecule. Another idea was to insert radioactive atoms inside the cage. They could then be injected inside a patient to arrive at a specific site. Another problem the new molecule could solve is the separation of mixtures. Buckminsterfullerene molecules, also called Buckyballs, can be packed into containers and used as separating sieves. Solve the Problem: 1. Use a tall cylinder of glass marbles to represent Buckminsterfullerene molecules, and a mixture of sand or salt and small BB pellets to represent a mixture of chemical compounds. 2. Pour the sand and BB mixture over the marbles. Think Critically: 1. How did the packing and spacing of the spherical marbles enhance the separation of your mixture? 2. How could Buckyballs be used to separate compounds? 3. Can you think of other potential uses for this molecule? USING MATH A tetrahedron is a polyhedron with four congruent faces, each of which is an equilateral triangle. Use the figure below as a pattern and make a tetrahedron out of paper. Tough Tetrahedrons A diamond is clear and extremely hard. In a diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms at the vertices, or corner points, of a tetrahedron. In turn, many tetrahedrons join together to form a giant molecule in which the atoms are held tightly in a strong crystal structure. This structure accounts for the hardness of diamond. Carbon occurs as an element in coal and in compounds in oil, natural gas, and foods. Carbon in these materials may combine with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, CO2. In the presence of sunlight, plants utilize CO2 to make food. In Chapter 13, you will study other carbon compoundsï¿½ many essential to life. 348 Silicon is second only to oxygen in abundance in Earth's crust. Most silicon is found in sand, silicon dioxide, SiO2, and in almost all rocks and soil. The crystal structure of silicon dioxide is similar to the tetrahedrons in diamond. Silicon occurs as two allotropes. One of these is a hard, gray substance, and the other is a brown powder. Both silicon and germanium, the other metalloid in the carbon group, are used in making semiconductors, which you'll learn about in Chapter 23. Tin and lead are typical metals. Tin is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion. Tin is also combined with other metals to produce bronze and pewter. Lead was once used widely in paints and antiknock gasoline. However, lead is poisonous, so it has been replaced in these materials. The Nitrogen Group The nitrogen family makes up Group 15. Each element has five electrons in its outer energy level. These elements tend to share electrons and to form covalent compounds with other elements. Each breath you take is about 80 percent gaseous nitrogen, in the form of diatomic molecules, N2. If you look again at Figure 12-10 on page 340, you'll see that nitrogen is the element fourth in abundance in your body. Yet you and other animals and plants can't use nitrogen as N2. The nitrogen must be combined into compounds, such as nitratesï¿½compounds that contain the nitrate ion, NO3-. Much nitrogen is used to make nitrates and ammonia, NH3, both of which are used in fertilizers. Figure 12-20 The carbon group includes lead and tin. A Most gasolines are no longer leaded. B Pewter contains tin and other metals. Why would dishes made of lead be dangerous? 349 Phosphorus is a nonmetal that has three allotropes. Uses of phosphorus compounds range from water softeners to fertilizers to match heads. Antimony is a metalloid, and bismuth is a metal. Both elements are used with other metals to lower their melting points. It is because of this property that the metal in automatic fire-sprinkler heads contains bismuth. The Oxygen Group The oxygen group makes up Group 16 on the periodic table. You can live for only a short time without the nonmetal oxygen, which makes up about 20 percent of air. Oxygen exists in the air as diatomic molecules, O2. During electrical storms, some oxygen molecules, O2, change into ozone molecules, O3. Do you notice that O2 and O3 are allotropes? Nearly all living things on Earth need free oxygen, as O2, for respiration. Living things also depend on a layer of ozone, O3, around Earth for protection from some of the sun's radiation, as you will learn in later chapters. The second element in the oxygen group is sulfur. Sulfur is a nonmetal that can exist in allotropes as different-shaped crystals and as a noncrystalline solid. In Figure 12-21, you see a magnified view of two different crystalline allotropes of sulfur. Sulfur combines with metals to form sulfides of such distinctive colors that they are used as pigments in paints. The nonmetal selenium and two metalloids, tellurium and polonium, are the other Group 16 elements. Selenium is the most common of these. This element is one of several that 350 you need in trace amounts in your diet. Many multivitamins contain this nonmetal as one of their ingredients. In Figure 12-22, you can read the label and find other elements present in vitamins. Selenium can be toxic if there is too much in your system. Figure 12-21 Sulfur is typically a bright yellow nonmetal. One allotrope of sulfur has eight-sided crystals. The other allotrope has a needlelike crystal. What is an eight-sided object called? Figure 12-22 Selenium is one of several elements needed by the body in trace amounts. Section Wrap-up Review 1. Why are Groups 14 and 15 better representatives of mixed groups than are Group 13 or Group 16? 2. How do the allotropes of sulfur differ? 3. Think Critically: Why is graphite a lubricant while a diamond is the hardest gem known? Skill Builder Concept Mapping Make a concept map for allotropes of carbon, using the terms graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene, sphere, hexagon, and tetrahedron. If you need help, refer to Concept Mapping in the Skill Handbook. Science Journal In your Science Journal, write a paragraph in which you discuss the term valuable when applied to an element. Consider rarity, usefulness, and durability. 351 Design Your Own Experiment Slippery Carbon Often, a lubricant is needed when two metals touch each other. For example, a sticky lock can sometimes work better with the addition of a small amount of graphite. What gives this allotrope of carbon the slippery property of a lubricant? PREPARATION Why do certain arrangements of atoms in a material cause the material to feel slippery? Form a Hypothesis Based on your understanding about how carbon atoms bond, form a hypothesis about the relationship of graphite's molecular structure to its physical properties. Objectives Make a model that will demonstrate the molecular structure of graphite. Compare and contrast the strength of types of bonding in graphite. Infer the relationship between bonding and physical properties. Possible Materials Use care when working with scissors, sharp toothpicks, and spaghetti. 352 PLAN THE EXPERIMENT 1. As a group, agree upon a logical hypothesis statement. 2. As a group, sequence and list the steps you need to test your hypothesis. Be specific, describing exactly what you will do at each step to make a model of the types of bonding present in graphite. 3. Remember that graphite consists of rings of six carbons in a flat hexagon. These rings are interconnected. In addition, the flat rings in one layer are weakly attached to other flat layers. 4. Make a list of possible materials you plan to use. Check the Plan 1. Read over the entire experiment to make sure that all steps are in logical order. 2. Will your model be constructed with materials that show both weak and strong attractions? 3. Make sure your teacher approves your plan and that you have included any changes suggested. DO THE EXPERIMENT 1. Have you selected materials to use in your model that demonstrate both weak and strong attractions? 2. Once your model has been constructed, write down any observations that you make and include a sketch for your Science Journal. Analyze and Apply 1. Compare your model with designs and results of other groups. 2. How does your model illustrate two types of attractions found in the graphite structure? 3. How does the bonding in graphite explain graphite's lubricating properties? Write your answer in your Science Journal. Go Further Oils are used on bike chains, engine parts, and other areas where metals touch. Find out how these lubricants work. 353 Science and Art Pottery and Clay In this chapter, you found out that the element hydrogen makes up nearly 90 percent of the universe. However, 82 percent of Earth is made up of oxygen, silicon, and aluminum. The clays formed by these three elements have been used by people for nearly 7000 years. Pottery clay is approximately 40 percent aluminum oxide, 46 percent silicon oxide, and about 14 percent water. The presence or absence of impurities in clay creates the wide variety of pottery from delicate, porcelain Chinese teacups to Hopi earthenware pots. Stains and Glazes Prehistoric potters did little to change or enhance the colors of their works of art. Glazes, or glassy coatings, appeared about 2700-2100 B.C., when Persian and Egyptian potters made pastes of quartz and sand mixed with either copper or manganese. Copper glazes left the ceramics turquoise, and manganese glazes made them violet or purple. Today, many artists use metal oxides to enhance or even alter the basic color of the clay. Wedgwood jasperware gets its blue color from an oxide of cobalt. Iron oxides, often present in clay, provide the earthy red and brown tones common among Native American pottery. Firing Firing is the application of heat to a piece of pottery. In oxidized firing, a kiln, or oven, rich in oxygen allows the combination of metals within the clays and the glazes through combustion. This results in clean, unspotted pottery. Reduction firingï¿½firing with no oxygen presentï¿½takes place in a kiln fueled by natural gas, wood, or oil, and leaves a characteristic speckled look. Different colors can be obtained from the same glazes. Reduction firing of copper oxide glazes will produce a deep, blood-red color. When the same glazes undergo oxidized firing, various shades of green are produced. Science Journal Design a simple piece of pottery and describe in your Science Journal the methods and glazes you would use to produce your finished look. 354 Summary 12-1: Metals 1. A typical metal is a hard, shiny solid thatï¿½ due to metallic bondingï¿½is malleable, ductile, and a good conductor. 2. Groups 1 and 2 are the alkali and alkaline earth metals, which have some similar and some contrasting properties. 3. The iron triad; the coinage metals; and the zinc, cadmium, and mercury group are among the transition elements, which make up Groups 3-12 on the periodic table. 12-2: Science and Society: New Elements, New Properties 1. The lanthanides and actinides have atomic numbers 58-71 and 90-103, respectively, whereas transuranium elements have atomic numbers greater than 92. 2. The making of synthetic elements with rio immediate practical use is controversial. 12-3: Nonmetals 1. As a typical nonmetal, hydrogen is a gas that forms compounds by sharing electrons with other nonmetals and also with metals. 2. All the halogens, Group 17, have seven outer electrons and form both covalent and ionic compounds, but each halogen has some properties unlike the others. 3. The noble gases, Group 18, are elements whose properties and uses are related to their chemical stability. 12-4: Mixed Groups 1. Groups 13 through 16 of the periodic table include metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. 2. Allotropes are forms of the same element having different molecular structures. 3. The properties of three forms of carbonï¿½ graphite, diamond, and buckminsterfullereneï¿½depend upon the differences in their crystal structures. Key Science Words a. allotropeï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. diatomic molecule c. ductileï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ d. malleableï¿½ e. metallic bondingï¿½ï¿½ f. radioactive element Choose the word or phrase that completes the sentence or answers the question. 1. When magnesium and fluorine react, what type of bond is formed? a. metallicï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. ionic c. covalentï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ d. diatomic 2. What type of bond is found in a piece of pure gold? a. metallicï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. ionicï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. covalent d. diatomic 3. Because electrons move freely in metals, metals areï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ a. brittleï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. hardï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. dull 4. The _____ make up the most reactive group of all metals. a. iron triadï¿½ï¿½ b. coinage metals 5. The most reactive of all nonmetals is a. fluorineï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. uraniumï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. hydrogen 6. The element _____ is always found in nature combined with other elements. a. copperï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. goldï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. magnesium 7. The least magnetic of these metals is a. cobaltï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. ironï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. nickel d. titanium 8. When neptunium atoms fall apart, they formï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ a. ytterbiumï¿½ Understanding Concepts Answer the following questions in your Science Journal using complete sentences. 11. Reading from top to bottom on the periodic table, metallic properties of elements increase; reading from left to right, metallic properties decrease. Which element is the most metallic of all? Explain your answer. 12. The most abundant elements in Earth's crust are a nonmetal, a metalloid, and two metals. List the four elements. 13. Why do oxygen and nitrogen occur in the air as diatomic molecules, but argon, neon, krypton, and xenon occur as single atoms? 14. Explain why hydrogen, a nonmetal, is on the metal side of the periodic table. 15. Name three metals used to coat other metals. Why is one metal used to coat another? Thinking Critically 16. Why was mercury used in clinical thermometers, and why is it no longer used for that purpose? 17. The density of hydrogen is so low that it can be used to fill balloons to make them lighter than air. Why is helium used more frequently? 18. Why is aluminum used instead of steel in building airplanes? 19. Why are silver compounds used in photography? Name two nonmetals extracted from seawater that are also part of these compounds. 20. Like selenium, chromium is poisonous but is needed in trace amounts in your diet. How does this information apply to the safe use of vitamin-mineral pills? 356 Developing Skills If you need help, refer to the Skill Handbook. 21. Making and Using Tables: Use the periodic table to classify each of the following as a lanthanide or actinide: californium, europium, cerium, nobelium. 22. Comparing and Contrasting: Aluminum is close to carbon on the periodic table. Explain why aluminum is a metal and carbon is not. 23. Observing and Inferring: You are shown two samples of phosphorus. One is white and burns if exposed to air. The other is red and burns if lit. Infer why the properties of two samples of the same element differ. 24. Recognizing Cause and Effect: Plants need nitrogen compounds. Nitrogen fixing changes free nitrogen into nitrates. Lightning and legumes are both nitrogen fixing. What are the cause and effect of nitrogen fixing in this example? 25. Concept Mapping: Complete the concept map below for some common metals. You may use symbols for the elements. Performance Assessment 1. Analyzing the Data: The model you made in Activity 12-2 on pages 352-353 helps explain the lubricating ability of graphite. Use that same model to explain how the graphite in a pencil is able to leave a mark on a piece of paper. 2. Investigating an Issue Controversy: Research the pros and cons of using nuclear energy to produce electricity. Prepare a report that includes data as well as your informed opinion on the subject. If several class members do research, conduct a debate on the issue. 3. Newspaper Article: Research the source, composition, and properties of asbestos. What properties made it suitable for use in construction in the past? How did these same properties cause asbestos to become a health hazard, and what is being done now to eliminate the hazard? Write a newspaper article that shares your findings with the public. 357	Li Na
Who was the father of Edward the Elder, the Anglo-Saxon King from 899 to 924?	Chapter 12 Elements and Their Properties This beautiful diamond is made up of atoms of the element carbon. Most matter can be described by the elements of which it is made. Each element has distinct properties. Elements arranged together on the periodic table have similar properties. Knowing the properties of elements allows us to use them in a variety of practical ways. This chapter will describe groups of elements and help you to learn how they are related. EXPLOREï¿½ ACTIVITY Some clues are in color. 1. Using tongs, carefully hold a clean paper clip in the hottest part of a lab burner flame until no additional color is observed. 2. Dip the hot paper clip into a solution of copper (II) sulfate. 3. Using the tongs, repeat step 1, observing any color change. 4. Repeat these steps using solutions of strontium chloride and sodium chloride. Observe: How can observation of color be used to identify elements in solutions? Based on your observations, devise a plan in your Science Journal to determine whether chlorine or strontium was giving the color you observed in a particular test. Previewing Science Skills In the Skill Builders, you will interpret scientific illustrations, make and use a graph, and map concepts. In the Activities, you will observe, compare, predict, infer, and build a model. In the MiniLABs, you will observe and draw conclusions 329 Describe the properties of a typical metal. Identify the alkali and alkaline earth metals. Differentiate among three groups of transition elements. Properties of Metals Have you ever seen very old jewelry or statues made of gold and copper? These were two of the first metals used thousands of years ago. The use of silver and tin soon followed. Then came iron. But aluminumï¿½the metal used in thousands of soft-drink cansï¿½wasn't discovered until a little more than 100 years ago. Gold, copper, silver, tin, iron, and aluminum are typical metals. What do these and other metals have in common? Most metals are hard, shiny solids. Metals are also good conductors of both heat and electricity. These properties make metals suitable for uses ranging from kitchen pots and pans to wires for electric appliances. Because metals reflect light well, they are also used in mirrors. Metals are malleable, which means they can be hammered or rolled into sheets. The gold leaf shown in Figure 12-1 is used for elaborate decoration. Metals are also ductile, which means they can be drawn into wires like the ones shown in Figure 12-2. The atoms of metals generally have from one to three electrons in their outer energy levels. Metals tend to give up electrons easily. Remember from Chapter 11 what happens when metals combine with nonmetals? The atoms of the metals tend to lose electrons to the atoms of nonmetals, and form ionic bonds. The second type of bond you studied is the covalent bond, which generally forms between atoms of nonmetals. Figure 12-1 Gold can be hammered into thin sheets. The sheets, called gold leaf, can be applied to many types of surfaces. What is this property of metals called? 330 Figure 12-2 Metals can be drawn into wires. This property is called ductility. The gauge of a wire is related to its thickness. A large number indicates a thinner wire. Bonding in Metals A third type of bonding, neither ionic nor covalent, occurs among the atoms in a metal. In metallic bonding, positively charged metallic ions are surrounded by a "sea of electrons." Outer-level electrons are not held tightly to their particular nucleus. Rather, the electrons move freely among many positively charged ions. The electrons form a cloud around the ions of the metal as shown in Figure 12-3. Figure 12-3 In metallic bonding, the moving outer electrons, depicted by the cloud, cover the rest of the atoms no matter where the electrons are in the metal. How does this differ from covalent bonding? Metallic bonding explains many of the properties of metals. For example, when a metal is hammered into a sheet or drawn into a wire, it does not break because the ions are in layers that slide past one another. And because the outer-level electrons are weakly held, metals are good conductors of electricity. Look at the periodic table on pages 286-287. How many of the elements in the table are classified as metals? Except for hydrogen, all the elements in Groups 1 through 12 are metals. You will learn about metals in some of these groups and others throughout this chapter. MiniLAB How can metallic bonding explain the flexibility of metals? Procedure 1. Using tongs, carefully hold two pieces of metal wire in a lab burner flame until they are glowing red-hot. 2. Quickly drop one of the hot wires into a beaker of cold water. Allow it to cool. 3. Allow the other hot wire to cool slowly. 4. Hold the ends of each piece of cooled wire and bend them. Analysis 1. What do you observe about the flexibility of the two cooled wires? 2. How can metallic bonding be used to help explain your observations? 331 The Alkali Metals The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are the alkali metals. Like other metals, Group 1 metals are shiny, malleable, and ductile. They are good conductors of both heat and electricity. The alkali metals are highly reactive metals. Figure 12-4 shows how reactive they are with water. As a result of their reactivity, why would you expect to find the alkali metals in nature only in the form of compounds? Each atom of an alkali metal has one electron in its outer energy level. This electron is given up when an alkali metal combines with another atom. The result is a positively charged ion in a compound such as sodium chloride, NaCI, or potassium bromide, KBr. Alkali metals and their compounds have many uses. You and other living things need potassium and sodium compoundsï¿½such as table salt, NaClï¿½to stay healthy. Doctors use lithium compounds to treat bipolar disorder. The operation of some photocells depends upon rubidium or cesium compounds. Francium, the last element in Group 1, is extremely rare and also radioactive. The nucleus of a radioactive element breaks down and gives off particles and energy. You will study radioactive elements later. Figure 12-4 Alkali metals are very reactive. Li, Na, K, and Cs react violently in water. Why wouldn't the reaction of francium be shown in the photo? 332 The Alkaline Earth Metals The alkaline earth metals make up Group 2 of the periodic table. Like the alkali metals, these metals are shiny, malleable, ductile, and so reactive that they are not found free in nature. Each atom of an alkaline earth metal has two electrons in its outer energy level. These electrons are given up when an alkaline earth metal combines with another element. The result is a positively charged ion in a compound such as calcium fluoride, CaF2. Bats, Batteries, and Beryls Emeralds and aquamarines are gemstone forms of beryl, a mineral that contains beryllium. Do you watch fireworks on the Fourth of July? The brilliant red in fireworks is produced by compounds of strontium. Magnesium can be made into a fine wire that burns so brightly that it is used in some photographic flashbulbs. Magnesium metal is also used in fireworks to produce brilliant white. Magnesium's lightness and strength account for its use in cars, planes, and spacecraft. Magnesium is also used to make such things as household ladders and baseball and softball bats, such as the one shown in Figure 12-5. Most life on Earth depends upon chlorophyll, a magnesium compound that enables plants to make food. Calcium is seldom used as a free metal, but its compounds are needed for life. Calcium phosphate in your bones helps make them strong. Marble and limestone are calcium carbonate. Figure 12-5 Alkaline earth metals are found in these objects. Which metals are represented here? 333 Some barium compounds are used to diagnose digestive disorders. The patient swallows a barium compound, which can absorb X rays. As the barium compound goes through the digestive tract, a doctor can study the X rays. Radium, the last element in Group 2, is radioactive. It was once used to treat cancers. Today, other radioactive substances are replacing radium in cancer therapy. Transition Elements An iron nail, a copper wire, and a silver dime are examples of objects made from transition elements. The transition elements are those elements in Groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table. Typical transition elements are metals and have one or two electrons in the outer energy level. These metals are less active than those in Groups 1 and 2. The gems in Figure 12-6 contain brightly colored compounds of transition elements. Brilliant cadmium yellow and cobalt blue paint pigments are made from compounds of transition elements. But cadmium and cobalt paints are so toxic that their use is now limited. Figure 12-6 The colors of these gems are due to compounds of transition elements. Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel Iron, cobalt, and nickel form a unique cluster of transition elements. The first elements in Groups 8, 9, and 10, respectively, are known as the iron triad. The elements of the triad are the only ones known to create a magnetic field. 334 Iron is second only to aluminum among the metals in abundance in Earth's crust. As the main component of steel, iron is the most widely used of all metals. Some steels also contain cobalt. Nickel is added to other metals to give them strength. Nickel is also often used to give a shiny, protective coating to other metals. Copper, Silver, and Gold Can you name the main metals in the coins in Figure 12-7 on page 336? They are copper, silver, and goldï¿½the three elements in Group 11. They are so unreactive that they can be found as elements in nature. For centuries, these metals have been widely used as coins. For this reason, they are known as the coinage metals. Copper is often used in electric wiring because of its superior ability to conduct electricity and 335 its relatively low cost. Can you imagine a world without photographs and movies? Because silver iodide and silver bromide break down when exposed to light, these compounds are used to make photographic film and paper. Much silver is also used in jewelry. The yellow color, relative softness, and rarity of gold account for its use in jewelry. Figure 12-7 Some Group 11 elements are used to make coins. (from page 335) USING TECHNOLOGY Metals with Memory What would a radio antenna in space have in common with your smile? They both benefit from nitinol. Nitinol is a metal alloy with a memory. Nitinol is the name given to the metal mixture, or alloy, made from the transition elements nickel and titanium. The alloy, which is made into a preset shape, can later be deformed into a new shape. Practical Uses So how is this used on teeth? The wire connecting brackets in braces is nitinol. If the teeth are not properly aligned, the wire will be deformed from its preset shape. Soon, the wire will attempt to return to its original shape, putting pressure on the bracketed teeth and moving them. Engineers also made use of nitinol when a large radio antenna was compactly folded during launch into space. Once in orbit, the metal with a memory absorbed heat and began to unfold into its original shape. This property of nitinol is also useful in eyeglass frames. Think Critically: Elements that can form shape-memory alloys, SMAs, are found in Groups 3 through 12 on the periodic table. List other properties of these elements in your Science Journal. Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury Zinc, cadmium, and mercury make up Group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc combines with oxygen in the air to form a thin protective coating of zinc oxide on the surface of the metal. Zinc is often used to coat, or plate, other metals, such as iron. Cadmium is also used in plating and in rechargeable batteries. Mercury is a silvery, liquid metal used in thermometers, thermostats, switches, and batteries. Mercury is poisonous, and mercury compounds can accumulate in the body. People have died of mercury poisoning that resulted from eating fish from mercury-contaminated water. Look at the periodic table on pages 286-287. Which elements do you think of as being typical metals? Transition elements are the most familiar because they occur in nature as elements. Group 1 and Group 2 metals are found in nature only in compounds. Metals in the Crust When we examine pictures of metals and their compounds, we are really seeing only half the story. Where are metals found? How do we obtain them? Earth's crust contains many compounds and a few examples of uncombined metals such as gold and copper. Metals must be dug, or mined, from Earth's hardened outer layer. 336 Due to varying conditions in different areas, some metals are deposited more in one place than in another. For example, most of the world's platinum is found in South Africa. Large amounts of cobalt can be found in Morocco, Zaire, and Canada. Chromium is important to the United States, but we must import most of it from South Africa, the Philippines, and Turkey. Ores: Minerals and Mixtures Metals in Earth's crust that are in a combined form are found in ores. Typically, an ore consists of a metal compound, or mineral, within a mixture of clay or rock. Lead metal is usually found combined with sulfur in the form of galena, or lead sulfide. After an ore is mined and brought from Earth's surface, minerals must be separated from the rock. Then the mineral is often converted to another chemical form. Galena is converted to lead oxide. This step involves heat and is called roasting. Finally, the metal is refined into a pure form. It may later be alloyed with other metals. Removing the waste rock can be very expensive. If the cost of removing the waste rock gets higher than the value of the desired material, the mineral will no longer be classified as an ore. USING MATH Several elements are present in Earth's crust. The approximate percentage of each element is as follows: Oxygen, 46.6 Potassium, 2.6 Magnesium, 2.1 Other elements include titanium, hydrogen, phosphorus, and manganese, which account for 1.5 percent. Make a circle graph of these data. Section Wrap-up Review 1. You are given a piece of the element palladium. How would you test it to see if it is a metal? 2. On the periodic table, how does the arrangement of the iron triad differ from the arrangements of the coinage metals and of the zinc group? 3. Think Critically: If X stands for a metal, how can you tell from the formulas XCl and XCl2 which compound contains an alkali metal and which contains an alkaline earth metal? Skill Builder Interpreting Scientific Illustrations Draw dot diagrams to show the similarity among chlorides of three alkali metals: lithium chloride, sodium chloride, and potassium chloride. If you need help, refer to Interpreting Scientific Illustrations in the Skill Handbook. Science Journal We encounter examples of metals nearly everywhere. In your Science Journal, write a paragraph describing how a specific metallic element has an effect in your life. Which group is that metal in on the periodic table? 337 12.2 TECHNOLOGY:ï¿½ New Elements, New Properties Science Words Distinguish among elements classified as lanthanides, actinides, and transuranium elements. Determine the uses of transuranium elements. Compare the pros and cons of making new elements. Elements Beyond 92 What if you made something that always fell apart? You might think you were not successful. Yet nuclear scientists are learning to do just that. By combining existing elements with fast-moving particles, they have been successful at creating elements not typically found on Earth. Except for one, the short-lived elements have more than 92 protons. All of these synthetic elements are unstable and fall apart quickly. Elements having more than 92 protons, the atomic number of uranium, are called transuranium elements. Additions to the Family If you look at the periodic table on pages 286-287, you will see breaks in periods 6 and 7. The first break includes a series of 14 elements with atomic numbers of 58-71. The elements in this series are known as the lanthanides. The second break includes elements with atomic numbers ranging from 90103. These elements are known as actinides. Ten synthetic elements are found in the actinide series. Where are the others placed on the periodic table? Technetium is element number 43. The newest synthetic elements are placed in period 7. Synthesis: A Smashing Success If atoms and other particles are smashed together with sufficient force, they will fuse to form a new identity. For example, neptunium, element 93, can be made by bombarding 338 uranium with neutrons. Atoms of neptunium do not stay together for long. Half of the synthesized atoms disintegrate in about two days. This may not sound useful, but when neptunium atoms fall apart, they form plutonium. This highly toxic element has been used in control rods of nuclear reactors, such as those shown in Figure 12-8, and in bombs. Plutonium can also be changed to americium, element 95. This transuranium element is used in some home smoke detectors such as the one in Figure 12-9. Figure 12-8 (from page 338) These fuel rods contain plutonium, element 84. How would plutonium be classified? Figure 12-9 Synthesis of elements has resulted in life-saving smoke detectors. Why make elements? By studying how the synthesized elements form and fall apart, we can gain an understanding of the forces holding other elements together. When these atoms fall apart, they are said to be radioactive. Technetium's radioactivity makes it ideal for many medical applications. At this time, many of the synthetic elements, once made, last only small fractions of seconds and can be made only in small amounts. However, further advances in technology may bring production up to larger amounts. The as-yet-undiscovered applications could prove to be more valuable than their costs. Section Wrap-up 1. How is an element classified as a transuranium element? 2. Where are the actinides located on the periodic table? interNET CONNECTION Some people are concerned about the use of radioactive elements such as americium in smoke detectors and other products. Visit the Chapter 12 Internet Connection at Glencoe Online Science, www.glencoe.com/sec/science/physical, for a link to more information about radioactive elements. 339 Recognize hydrogen as a nonmetal. Compare and contrast properties of the halogens. Describe properties and uses of the noble gases. Properties of Nonmetals Figure 12-10 shows that you're mostly made of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Calcium, a metal, and other elements make up the remaining four percent of your body's weight. Phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine are among other elements found in your body. These elements are classified as nonmetals. Look at the periodic table on pages 286 and 287. How many elements are nonmetals? Notice that most nonmetals are gases at room temperature. Several nonmetals are solids, and one nonmetal is a liquid. Figure 12-10 Humans are made up of mostly nonmetals. Attracting Electrons In contrast to metals, solid nonmetals are dull. Because they are brittle and powdery, they are neither malleable nor ductile. The electrons in most nonmetals are tightly attracted and are restricted to one atom. So, as a group, nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Most nonmetals form both ionic and covalent compounds. Examples of these two kinds of compounds are shown in Figure 12-11. When nonmetals gain electrons from metals, the nonmetals become negative ions in ionic compounds. An example of such an ionic compound is potassium iodide, KI, 340 which is often added to table salt. KI is formed from the nonmetal iodine and the metal potassium. On the other hand, when bonded with other nonmetals, atoms of nonmetals usually share electrons and form covalent compounds. An example is ammonia, NH3, the gas you can smell when you open a bottle of household ammonia. The noble gases, Group 18, make up the only group of elements that are all nonmetals. Group 17 elements, except for astatine, are also nonmetals. Several other nonmetals, found in Groups 13 through 16, will be discussed later. Except for hydrogen, all of the nonmetals are located on the right side of the periodic table. Figureï¿½ 12-11 Nonmetals form both ionic and covalent compounds. Which picture depicts which kind of bonding? Hydrogen Do you know that approximately 90 percent of all the atoms in the universe are hydrogen? Most hydrogen on Earth is found in the compound water. When water is broken down into its elements, hydrogen forms as a gas made up of diatomic molecules. A diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element. Thus, the formula for hydrogen gas is H2, shown in Figure 12-12. Small, But Active Hydrogen is highly reactive. A hydrogen atom has a single electron, which the atom shares when it combines with other nonmetals. Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water, H2O. In forming water, hydrogen shares electrons with oxygen. Hydrogen also shares electrons with chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride, HCl. Hydrogen may gain an electron when it combines with alkali and alkaline earth metals. The compounds formed are hydrides, such as sodium hydride, NaH. Figure 12-12 Hydrogen gas, which consists of diatomic molecules, combines with oxygen in an oxyhydrogen torch. 341 The Halogens Look how bright the high- tech lamp is in Figure 12-13. Its light and that of the head-lights of some cars are supplied by halogen lightbulbs. These bulbs contain small amounts of bromine or iodine. These elements, as well as fluorine, chlorine, and astatine, are called halogens and are found in Group 17. Because an atom of a halogen has seven electrons in its outer energy level, only one electron is needed to complete this energy level. If a halogen gains an electron from a metal, an ionic compound, called a salt, is formed. The word halogen means "salt former." In the gaseous state, the halogens form very reactive diatomic covalent molecules and can be identified by their distinctive colors, as shown in Figure 12-14. Fluorine is the most chemically active of all the elements. Hydrofluoric acid, a mixture of hydrogen fluoride and water, is used to etch glass and to frost the inner surfaces of light- bulbs. Other fluorides are added to toothpastes and to city water systems to prevent tooth decay. Does your community add fluorides to its water? Figure 12-13 The halogens bromine and iodine are used in the bulbs of halogen lamps. Figure 12-14 These are the gaseous halogens chlorine, bromine, and iodine. MiniLAB Can you detect chlorine in your drinking water? Procedure 1. In separate test tubes, obtain 2 mL of chloride standard solution, distilled water, and drinking water. 2. Carefully add five drops of silver nitrate solution to each and stir. CAUTION: Avoid contact with the silver nitrate solution. Analysis 1. Which solution will definitely show a presence of chloride? How did this result compare to the result with distilled water? 2. Which result most resembled your drinking water? CONNECT TO EARTH SCIENCE Compounds called chlorofluorocarbons are used in refrigeration systems. If released, these compounds destroy ozone in the atmosphere. Draw the electron dot diagram for CF2Cl2 in your Science Journal. 342 Uses of Halogens The odor near swimming pools is the odor of chlorine. Chlorine compounds are used to disinfect water. Chlorine, the most abundant halogen, is obtained from seawater. Household and industrial bleaches used to whiten flour and paper also contain chlorine compounds. Bromine, the only nonmetal that is liquid at room temperature, is extracted from compounds in seawater. Other bromine compounds are used as dyes in cosmetics, such as the lipsticks shown in Figure 12-15. Iodine, a shiny gray solid at room temperature, is obtained from seawater. When heated, iodine changes directly to a purple vapor. The process of a solid changing directly to a vapor without forming a liquid is called sublimation as shown in Figure 12-16. Recall that sublimation accounts for ice cubes shrinking in freezers. Iodine is essential in your diet for the production of the hormone thyroxin and to prevent goiter, an enlarging of the thyroid gland in the neck. Astatine, the last member of Group 17, is radioactive and rare. But it has many properties similar to those of the other halogens. Figure 12-15 Dyes in some cosmetics contain bromine compounds. What unique physical property does bromine have? Figure 12-16 Ice and dust form the body of a comet. The ice undergoes sublimation, forming the gases contained in the tail of the comet. This particular comet is Hale-Bopp, which was visible from Earth for several months in 1997. The Noble Gases Why are the noble gases called noble? It was known that these gases did not naturally form compounds. Thus, they were thought of as the nobility of elements because nobles did not mix with common folk. However, in the early 1960s, scientists were able to prepare some compounds of noble gases. 343 As you recall, each element in Group 18 is stable because its outer energy level is full. The stability of the noble gases plays an important role in their uses, such as those shown in Figure 12-17. Both the halogens and the noble gases illustrate that each element in a group has some similar properties but also has unique properties and uses. Figure 12-17 Noble gases are used to produce laser light shows. Section Wrap-up Review 1. What are two ways in which hydrogen combines with other elements? 2. Rank the following nonmetals from lowest number of electrons in the outer level to highest: Cl-, H+, He, H. 3. What property of noble gases makes them useful? 4. Think Critically: Why must hydrofluoric acid always be stored in plastic bottles? Skill Builder Interpreting Data Within the following compounds, identify the nonmetal and list its oxidation number: MgO, NaH, AlBr3, FeS. If you need help, refer to Interpreting Data in your Skill Handbook. Using Computers Graphing Prepare a bar graph comparing nonmetals and metals as solids, liquids, and gases at room temperature. 344 Activity 12-1 What type is it? Suppose you want an element for a certain use. You may be able to use a metal but not a nonmetal. Or maybe a nonmetal better meets your needs. In this activity, you will test several metals and nonmetals and compare their properties. Problem How can you use properties to tell metals from nonmetals? Materials samples of carbon, magnesium, aluminum, sulfur, and tin dishes for the samples Procedure 1. Prepare a table in your Science Journal like the one shown. 2. Observe and record the appearance of each element sample. Include its physical state, color, and whether it is shiny or dull. 3. Remove a small sample of one of the elements. Place it on a hard surface chosen by your teacher. Gently tap the sample with a hammer. The sample is malleable if it flattens when tapped and brittle if it shatters. Record your results. 4. Repeat step 3 for each sample. 5. Test the conductivity of each element by touching the electrodes of the conductivity tester to a sample, as shown in the photo. If the bulb lights, the element conducts electricity. Record your results. Analyze 1. Which elements showed properties of metals? 2. Which elements showed properties of nonmetals? 3. Which elements, if any, showed properties of both metals and nonmetals? Conclude and Apply 4. Locate each element you used on the periodic table. Compare your results with what you would expect from the location of each element. 5. Locate palladium, Pd, on the periodic table. Use the results of the activity to predict some of the properties of palladium. 6. Infer why some elements may show both properties of metals and properties of nonmetals. 345 allotrope Objectives Distinguish among metals, nonmetals, and metalloids in Groups 13 through l b of the periodic table. Describe the nature of allotropes. Recognize the significance of differences in crystal structure in carbon. Locating the Mixed Groups Can an element be both a metal and a nonmetal? In a sense, some elements are. They are the metalloids, and they have both metallic and nonmetallic properties. A metalloid may conduct electricity better than many nonmetals but not as well as some metals. In the periodic table, the metalloids are the elements located along the stair-step line. The mixed groups- 13, 14, 15, and 16ï¿½contain metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. The Boron Group Boron, a metalloid, is the first element in Group 13. If you look around your home, you may find two compounds of boron. One of these is boric acid, a mild antiseptic. The other is borax, which is used in laundry products to soften water. Less familiar are the boranes, which are compounds of boron used in fuels for rockets and jet airplanes. Aluminum, a metal, is also in Group 13. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in Earth's crust. Aluminum is used in soft-drink cans, foil wrap, and cooking pans. You may also see aluminum on the sides of buildings. And because aluminum is both strong and light, it is used to build airplanes. When you operate electronic equipment, such as the calculator shown in Figure 12-18, you may be using one of the other metals in Group 13. These metals are gallium, indium, and thallium, used to produce semiconductors. Semiconductors conduct an electric current under certain conditions. You will learn more about semiconductors in Chapter 23. Figure 12-18 Calculators contain semiconductors. What metals from Group 13 are used to produce semiconductors? 346 The Carbon Group Each element in Group 14, the carbon family, has four electrons in its outer energy level. But this is where much of the similarity ends. Carbon is a nonmetal; silicon and germanium are metalloids; tin and lead are metals. What do the diamond in a diamond ring and the graphite in your pencil have in common? It may surprise you to learn that they are both carbon. How can this be? Diamond and graphite are examples of allotropes. Allotropes are different forms of the same element having different molecular structures. Look at Figure 12-19. Graphite is a black powder that consists of hexagonal layers of carbon atoms. In the hexagons, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. The fourth electron of each atom is bonded weakly to the layer next to it. This structure allows the layers to slide easily past one another, making graphite an excellent lubricant. Figure 12-19 Two allotropes of carbon are graphite (A) and diamond (B). What geometric shapes make up each allotrope? 347 Problem Solving Waiting to Be Discovered In sports, the "Rookie of the Year" award typically designates a player who had an outstanding first year and shows great potential for continued achievement. Most of the selections live up to that expectation, but not all. At the beginning of the 1990s, Science magazine selected Buckminsterfullerene as the "Molecule of the Year." This allotrope of carbon was isolated by R.E. Smalley when some carbon materials were subjected to laser bursts. Later, the carbon condensed into unusual spherical elements. The tiny spheres were later shown to be made of 60 carbon atoms arranged in an open cage that could resemble a hollow soccer ball. Many new uses of this third allotrope were thought possible. Interesting medical applications were proposed to attach special disease-attacking components to the outside of the molecule. Another idea was to insert radioactive atoms inside the cage. They could then be injected inside a patient to arrive at a specific site. Another problem the new molecule could solve is the separation of mixtures. Buckminsterfullerene molecules, also called Buckyballs, can be packed into containers and used as separating sieves. Solve the Problem: 1. Use a tall cylinder of glass marbles to represent Buckminsterfullerene molecules, and a mixture of sand or salt and small BB pellets to represent a mixture of chemical compounds. 2. Pour the sand and BB mixture over the marbles. Think Critically: 1. How did the packing and spacing of the spherical marbles enhance the separation of your mixture? 2. How could Buckyballs be used to separate compounds? 3. Can you think of other potential uses for this molecule? USING MATH A tetrahedron is a polyhedron with four congruent faces, each of which is an equilateral triangle. Use the figure below as a pattern and make a tetrahedron out of paper. Tough Tetrahedrons A diamond is clear and extremely hard. In a diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms at the vertices, or corner points, of a tetrahedron. In turn, many tetrahedrons join together to form a giant molecule in which the atoms are held tightly in a strong crystal structure. This structure accounts for the hardness of diamond. Carbon occurs as an element in coal and in compounds in oil, natural gas, and foods. Carbon in these materials may combine with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, CO2. In the presence of sunlight, plants utilize CO2 to make food. In Chapter 13, you will study other carbon compoundsï¿½ many essential to life. 348 Silicon is second only to oxygen in abundance in Earth's crust. Most silicon is found in sand, silicon dioxide, SiO2, and in almost all rocks and soil. The crystal structure of silicon dioxide is similar to the tetrahedrons in diamond. Silicon occurs as two allotropes. One of these is a hard, gray substance, and the other is a brown powder. Both silicon and germanium, the other metalloid in the carbon group, are used in making semiconductors, which you'll learn about in Chapter 23. Tin and lead are typical metals. Tin is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion. Tin is also combined with other metals to produce bronze and pewter. Lead was once used widely in paints and antiknock gasoline. However, lead is poisonous, so it has been replaced in these materials. The Nitrogen Group The nitrogen family makes up Group 15. Each element has five electrons in its outer energy level. These elements tend to share electrons and to form covalent compounds with other elements. Each breath you take is about 80 percent gaseous nitrogen, in the form of diatomic molecules, N2. If you look again at Figure 12-10 on page 340, you'll see that nitrogen is the element fourth in abundance in your body. Yet you and other animals and plants can't use nitrogen as N2. The nitrogen must be combined into compounds, such as nitratesï¿½compounds that contain the nitrate ion, NO3-. Much nitrogen is used to make nitrates and ammonia, NH3, both of which are used in fertilizers. Figure 12-20 The carbon group includes lead and tin. A Most gasolines are no longer leaded. B Pewter contains tin and other metals. Why would dishes made of lead be dangerous? 349 Phosphorus is a nonmetal that has three allotropes. Uses of phosphorus compounds range from water softeners to fertilizers to match heads. Antimony is a metalloid, and bismuth is a metal. Both elements are used with other metals to lower their melting points. It is because of this property that the metal in automatic fire-sprinkler heads contains bismuth. The Oxygen Group The oxygen group makes up Group 16 on the periodic table. You can live for only a short time without the nonmetal oxygen, which makes up about 20 percent of air. Oxygen exists in the air as diatomic molecules, O2. During electrical storms, some oxygen molecules, O2, change into ozone molecules, O3. Do you notice that O2 and O3 are allotropes? Nearly all living things on Earth need free oxygen, as O2, for respiration. Living things also depend on a layer of ozone, O3, around Earth for protection from some of the sun's radiation, as you will learn in later chapters. The second element in the oxygen group is sulfur. Sulfur is a nonmetal that can exist in allotropes as different-shaped crystals and as a noncrystalline solid. In Figure 12-21, you see a magnified view of two different crystalline allotropes of sulfur. Sulfur combines with metals to form sulfides of such distinctive colors that they are used as pigments in paints. The nonmetal selenium and two metalloids, tellurium and polonium, are the other Group 16 elements. Selenium is the most common of these. This element is one of several that 350 you need in trace amounts in your diet. Many multivitamins contain this nonmetal as one of their ingredients. In Figure 12-22, you can read the label and find other elements present in vitamins. Selenium can be toxic if there is too much in your system. Figure 12-21 Sulfur is typically a bright yellow nonmetal. One allotrope of sulfur has eight-sided crystals. The other allotrope has a needlelike crystal. What is an eight-sided object called? Figure 12-22 Selenium is one of several elements needed by the body in trace amounts. Section Wrap-up Review 1. Why are Groups 14 and 15 better representatives of mixed groups than are Group 13 or Group 16? 2. How do the allotropes of sulfur differ? 3. Think Critically: Why is graphite a lubricant while a diamond is the hardest gem known? Skill Builder Concept Mapping Make a concept map for allotropes of carbon, using the terms graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene, sphere, hexagon, and tetrahedron. If you need help, refer to Concept Mapping in the Skill Handbook. Science Journal In your Science Journal, write a paragraph in which you discuss the term valuable when applied to an element. Consider rarity, usefulness, and durability. 351 Design Your Own Experiment Slippery Carbon Often, a lubricant is needed when two metals touch each other. For example, a sticky lock can sometimes work better with the addition of a small amount of graphite. What gives this allotrope of carbon the slippery property of a lubricant? PREPARATION Why do certain arrangements of atoms in a material cause the material to feel slippery? Form a Hypothesis Based on your understanding about how carbon atoms bond, form a hypothesis about the relationship of graphite's molecular structure to its physical properties. Objectives Make a model that will demonstrate the molecular structure of graphite. Compare and contrast the strength of types of bonding in graphite. Infer the relationship between bonding and physical properties. Possible Materials Use care when working with scissors, sharp toothpicks, and spaghetti. 352 PLAN THE EXPERIMENT 1. As a group, agree upon a logical hypothesis statement. 2. As a group, sequence and list the steps you need to test your hypothesis. Be specific, describing exactly what you will do at each step to make a model of the types of bonding present in graphite. 3. Remember that graphite consists of rings of six carbons in a flat hexagon. These rings are interconnected. In addition, the flat rings in one layer are weakly attached to other flat layers. 4. Make a list of possible materials you plan to use. Check the Plan 1. Read over the entire experiment to make sure that all steps are in logical order. 2. Will your model be constructed with materials that show both weak and strong attractions? 3. Make sure your teacher approves your plan and that you have included any changes suggested. DO THE EXPERIMENT 1. Have you selected materials to use in your model that demonstrate both weak and strong attractions? 2. Once your model has been constructed, write down any observations that you make and include a sketch for your Science Journal. Analyze and Apply 1. Compare your model with designs and results of other groups. 2. How does your model illustrate two types of attractions found in the graphite structure? 3. How does the bonding in graphite explain graphite's lubricating properties? Write your answer in your Science Journal. Go Further Oils are used on bike chains, engine parts, and other areas where metals touch. Find out how these lubricants work. 353 Science and Art Pottery and Clay In this chapter, you found out that the element hydrogen makes up nearly 90 percent of the universe. However, 82 percent of Earth is made up of oxygen, silicon, and aluminum. The clays formed by these three elements have been used by people for nearly 7000 years. Pottery clay is approximately 40 percent aluminum oxide, 46 percent silicon oxide, and about 14 percent water. The presence or absence of impurities in clay creates the wide variety of pottery from delicate, porcelain Chinese teacups to Hopi earthenware pots. Stains and Glazes Prehistoric potters did little to change or enhance the colors of their works of art. Glazes, or glassy coatings, appeared about 2700-2100 B.C., when Persian and Egyptian potters made pastes of quartz and sand mixed with either copper or manganese. Copper glazes left the ceramics turquoise, and manganese glazes made them violet or purple. Today, many artists use metal oxides to enhance or even alter the basic color of the clay. Wedgwood jasperware gets its blue color from an oxide of cobalt. Iron oxides, often present in clay, provide the earthy red and brown tones common among Native American pottery. Firing Firing is the application of heat to a piece of pottery. In oxidized firing, a kiln, or oven, rich in oxygen allows the combination of metals within the clays and the glazes through combustion. This results in clean, unspotted pottery. Reduction firingï¿½firing with no oxygen presentï¿½takes place in a kiln fueled by natural gas, wood, or oil, and leaves a characteristic speckled look. Different colors can be obtained from the same glazes. Reduction firing of copper oxide glazes will produce a deep, blood-red color. When the same glazes undergo oxidized firing, various shades of green are produced. Science Journal Design a simple piece of pottery and describe in your Science Journal the methods and glazes you would use to produce your finished look. 354 Summary 12-1: Metals 1. A typical metal is a hard, shiny solid thatï¿½ due to metallic bondingï¿½is malleable, ductile, and a good conductor. 2. Groups 1 and 2 are the alkali and alkaline earth metals, which have some similar and some contrasting properties. 3. The iron triad; the coinage metals; and the zinc, cadmium, and mercury group are among the transition elements, which make up Groups 3-12 on the periodic table. 12-2: Science and Society: New Elements, New Properties 1. The lanthanides and actinides have atomic numbers 58-71 and 90-103, respectively, whereas transuranium elements have atomic numbers greater than 92. 2. The making of synthetic elements with rio immediate practical use is controversial. 12-3: Nonmetals 1. As a typical nonmetal, hydrogen is a gas that forms compounds by sharing electrons with other nonmetals and also with metals. 2. All the halogens, Group 17, have seven outer electrons and form both covalent and ionic compounds, but each halogen has some properties unlike the others. 3. The noble gases, Group 18, are elements whose properties and uses are related to their chemical stability. 12-4: Mixed Groups 1. Groups 13 through 16 of the periodic table include metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. 2. Allotropes are forms of the same element having different molecular structures. 3. The properties of three forms of carbonï¿½ graphite, diamond, and buckminsterfullereneï¿½depend upon the differences in their crystal structures. Key Science Words a. allotropeï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. diatomic molecule c. ductileï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ d. malleableï¿½ e. metallic bondingï¿½ï¿½ f. radioactive element Choose the word or phrase that completes the sentence or answers the question. 1. When magnesium and fluorine react, what type of bond is formed? a. metallicï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. ionic c. covalentï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ d. diatomic 2. What type of bond is found in a piece of pure gold? a. metallicï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. ionicï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. covalent d. diatomic 3. Because electrons move freely in metals, metals areï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ a. brittleï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. hardï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. dull 4. The _____ make up the most reactive group of all metals. a. iron triadï¿½ï¿½ b. coinage metals 5. The most reactive of all nonmetals is a. fluorineï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. uraniumï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. hydrogen 6. The element _____ is always found in nature combined with other elements. a. copperï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. goldï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. magnesium 7. The least magnetic of these metals is a. cobaltï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ b. ironï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ c. nickel d. titanium 8. When neptunium atoms fall apart, they formï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ï¿½ a. ytterbiumï¿½ Understanding Concepts Answer the following questions in your Science Journal using complete sentences. 11. Reading from top to bottom on the periodic table, metallic properties of elements increase; reading from left to right, metallic properties decrease. Which element is the most metallic of all? Explain your answer. 12. The most abundant elements in Earth's crust are a nonmetal, a metalloid, and two metals. List the four elements. 13. Why do oxygen and nitrogen occur in the air as diatomic molecules, but argon, neon, krypton, and xenon occur as single atoms? 14. Explain why hydrogen, a nonmetal, is on the metal side of the periodic table. 15. Name three metals used to coat other metals. Why is one metal used to coat another? Thinking Critically 16. Why was mercury used in clinical thermometers, and why is it no longer used for that purpose? 17. The density of hydrogen is so low that it can be used to fill balloons to make them lighter than air. Why is helium used more frequently? 18. Why is aluminum used instead of steel in building airplanes? 19. Why are silver compounds used in photography? Name two nonmetals extracted from seawater that are also part of these compounds. 20. Like selenium, chromium is poisonous but is needed in trace amounts in your diet. How does this information apply to the safe use of vitamin-mineral pills? 356 Developing Skills If you need help, refer to the Skill Handbook. 21. Making and Using Tables: Use the periodic table to classify each of the following as a lanthanide or actinide: californium, europium, cerium, nobelium. 22. Comparing and Contrasting: Aluminum is close to carbon on the periodic table. Explain why aluminum is a metal and carbon is not. 23. Observing and Inferring: You are shown two samples of phosphorus. One is white and burns if exposed to air. The other is red and burns if lit. Infer why the properties of two samples of the same element differ. 24. Recognizing Cause and Effect: Plants need nitrogen compounds. Nitrogen fixing changes free nitrogen into nitrates. Lightning and legumes are both nitrogen fixing. What are the cause and effect of nitrogen fixing in this example? 25. Concept Mapping: Complete the concept map below for some common metals. You may use symbols for the elements. Performance Assessment 1. Analyzing the Data: The model you made in Activity 12-2 on pages 352-353 helps explain the lubricating ability of graphite. Use that same model to explain how the graphite in a pencil is able to leave a mark on a piece of paper. 2. Investigating an Issue Controversy: Research the pros and cons of using nuclear energy to produce electricity. Prepare a report that includes data as well as your informed opinion on the subject. If several class members do research, conduct a debate on the issue. 3. Newspaper Article: Research the source, composition, and properties of asbestos. What properties made it suitable for use in construction in the past? How did these same properties cause asbestos to become a health hazard, and what is being done now to eliminate the hazard? Write a newspaper article that shares your findings with the public. 357	i don't know
Costa Coffee and Premier Inn are owned by which company?	Our Brands Our Brands BRANDS THAT MAKE EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES SPECIAL. At Whitbread we love people and food. Our hotels, coffee shops and family-friendly restaurants serve customers throughout the UK and beyond. WHITBREAD MAKING EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES SPECIAL Whitbread is the UK's largest hotel, restaurant and coffee shop operator with 50,000 employees who are passionate about making everyday experiences special for our millions of customers around the world. COSTA THE NATION’S FAVOURITE COFFEE SHOP. Costa, the home of irresistable coffee, is the largest and fastest growing coffee shop chain in the UK and also spans globally, operating in 31 countries. PREMIER INN THE UK’S BIGGEST BUDGET HOTEL CHAIN. Award-winning Premier Inn is the UK’s biggest hotel brand, offering quality accommodation at affordable prices. HUB BY PREMIER INN SPACE EFFICIENT, FULLY INTEGRATED DIGITAL ROOMS Introducing hub by Premier Inn, a new generation of smartly designed hotels in the beating heart of the city. BEEFEATER GRILL 3 MILLION STEAKS SOLD EVERY YEAR. We’ve been welcoming guests for almost 40 years, since the first one opened in 1974 at the Halfway House in Dunstable. BREWERS FAYRE CLASSIC PUB FOOD WITH FAMILY AND FRIENDS. Our comfortable, relaxed atmosphere provides the perfect setting for any occasion from a snack with friends in the bar to a Sunday Roast with the family. TABLE TABLE PUB CLASSICS WITH A MODERN TWIST. A relaxed and friendly atmosphere, with consistently excellent service, makes Table Table the perfect place for family gatherings and meeting friends alike, whatever the occasion.	Whitbread
Barbara Havers is the assistant to which Scotland Yard detective in the novels of Elizabeth George?	Costa Coffee boosts Whitbread's sales - BBC News BBC News Costa Coffee boosts Whitbread's sales 21 June 2016 Close share panel Image copyright Reuters Rising sales at the Costa Coffee chain have helped to boost trading at parent company Whitbread. Like-for-like sales at Costa, which strip out the impact of new stores, rose 2.6% in the 13 weeks to 2 June. It helped to lift like-for-like sales across the Whitbread group - which includes Premier Inn hotels - by 1.8%. Whitbread said Premier Inn gained market share despite a "weaker than expected" hotel market, particularly in London. Like-for-like sales at Premier Inn were up 2.1% over the period. Whitbread chief executive Alison Brittain said: "Although it is early in our new financial year and despite current market conditions, with the benefit of our cost efficiency programme we remain confident of making good progress for the full year." The company said it remained on target to open between 230-250 Costa Coffee stores worldwide and to provide an extra 4,000-4,500 new hotel rooms in 2016-17. Revenue per room available - an indicator of financial performance in the hospitality sector - at Premier Inn fell by 0.5% on a like-for-like basis, and was down 1.2% overall. The company said this reflected the "soft" market environment and the "dilution" effects of adding 3,600 new rooms in the final quarter of last year.	i don't know
With which musical instrument is Dame Myra Hess (1890-1965) associated?	Hess, Myra Dame 1890-1965 [WorldCat Identities] Two hands by Leon Fleisher( Recording ) 6 editions published between 2004 and 2015 in No Linguistic content and English and held by 579 WorldCat member libraries worldwide 47 editions published between 1926 and 2006 in 3 languages and held by 575 WorldCat member libraries worldwide For guitar ; originally scored for choir, trumpet, violin, optionally oboe, viola, and basso continuo The art of the piano = L'art du piano = El arte del piano = Āto ofu piano by Christian LABRANDE( Visual ) 8 editions published between 1999 and 2011 in English and held by 519 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Explores the worlds of the piano's greatest exponents through performance footage taken from film and television archives; includes commentary by Piotr Anderszewski, Daniel Barenboim, Schuyler Chapin, Cilin Davis, Gary Graffman, Evgeny Kissin, Zoltan Kocsis, Stephen Kovacevich, Paul Myers, Gennadi Rozhdestvensky, György Sandor & Tamás Vásáry Bach : a strange beauty by Johann Sebastian Bach( Recording ) 2 editions published between 2010 and 2011 and held by 359 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Encore! by Midori( ) 5 editions published in 1992 in Undetermined and No Linguistic content and held by 292 WorldCat member libraries worldwide 4 editions published in 1993 in 3 languages and held by 275 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Hess by Myra Hess( ) 8 editions published between 2000 and 2006 in No Linguistic content and English and held by 272 WorldCat member libraries worldwide Myra Hess by Myra Hess( Recording ) 1 edition published in 1999 and held by 260 WorldCat member libraries worldwide	The Piano
Who founded the eponymous fashion label DVF?	Dame Myra Hess \| Jewish Women's Archive by Ruth Rosenfelder One of the most potent symbols representing the spirit of war-torn Britain during World War II must be the series of concerts at London’s National Gallery which continued throughout the war. Within a month of hostilities being declared, the National Gallery was closed and its paintings safely stored outside the capital. Cinemas, theaters and concert halls were all dark; Myra Hess, by then an established concert pianist, was concerned about the effect of this cultural blackout on the lives of Londoners. Towards the end of September 1939, she approached the Director of the Gallery, Kenneth Clark, with the idea of mounting lunchtime classical concerts. Clark shared her concerns and swiftly obtained government approval for the scheme. On Tuesday, October 10, the first lunchtime concert was staged; a resounding success, it was the first of an uninterrupted succession that continued for six and a half years until April 10, 1946, 1,698 concerts later. Julia Myra, the youngest of four children, was born in London on February 25, 1890. Her paternal grandfather, Samuel Hess (1824–1905), arrived in England from his native Alsace and set up his own textile firm in London’s East End in 1847. He married English-born Alice Cantor and moved into an elegant Islington home and, an Orthodox Jew, regularly attended Dalston Synagogue. Frederick Solomon, Myra’s father, was the oldest of his seven children, three boys and four girls. Frederick joined his father in the expanding family firm and in 1884 married Lizzie Jacobs (“Lizzie” is the name that appears on the marriage register) at Bayswater Synagogue. Myra’s character was essentially a paradox. She was serious and disciplined, as was her father, but she also inherited her mother‘s sense of fun, as well as her mother’s small feet and hands; Myra’s hands were so small that her teacher at the Royal Academy of Music created a device to develop her hand span. However, her penchant for Rabelaisian stories, vulgar jokes and smoking in public was in part, according to her biographer, Marion McKenna, a reaction towards a restricting upbringing, which included an adherence to Orthodox Jewish practice. Frederick and Lizzie Hess’s idiosyncratic interpretation of traditional Jewish practice included eating any meat so long as it was not pork or ham, while at the same time prohibiting all forms of vehicular travel on the Sabbath, including riding a bicycle, which the children found irksome. Frederick would go to synagogue with his sons on Friday evening and return to a traditional Sabbath meal; even at the end of her life, Myra could chant the kiddush , the somewhat lengthy benediction over wine that precedes the Sabbath meal. Her attitude to religion was complex. She rejected any level of Orthodox Judaism, recognizing that it was incompatible with the life of a professional musician. She became increasingly drawn to Christianity through the teachings of the American Episcopalian Theodore Parker Ferris, whose circulated sermons she began to read in 1942. However, although she discussed baptism, she did not convert to Christianity, believing the act could be construed as desertion of her fellow Jews. When she was five, Myra Hess began to take lessons in piano and ‘cello, but soon abandoned the latter instrument. At seven, she was admitted to Trinity College of Music and was the youngest pupil to receive the Trinity College Certificate. Following her time at Trinity, she went to the Guildhall School of Music where she studied theory and piano under Julia Pascal and Orlando Morgan, composers who subsequently dedicated works to her. However, she objected to any reference to herself as a child prodigy, stating, “I’m glad I didn’t have to begin the life of an artist as a child. … At twenty they are saying, ‘She was not such a good artist as she was at ten.’” She made her début in 1907, aged seventeen, with a recital at the Aeolian Hall. While at school she met the pianist Irene Scharrer. The two became virtually inseparable and formed a piano duo; however, they were not cousins, as is widely believed. When she was twelve, Hess won the Ada Lewish scholarship to study with the renowned teacher Tobias Matthay at the Royal Academy of Music. Scharrer was also a pupil of his, and he remained an important figure in both their lives. Even after his death Hess commented, “He is always beside me when I play.” Hess, who never married, made abiding friendships with women such as Irene Scharrer and men such as Howard Ferguson, whom she met during her time at the Royal Academy. Always nervous before a performance and subject to periods of depression, she claimed, “When I listen to myself play, I feel I am going to my own funeral,” but was saved by her sense of humor and fund of common sense. She was also happier performing in small halls rather than large auditoria, but the success of the National Gallery concerts made her an international star, encouraging such idols as Arturo Toscanini to invite her to perform a Beethoven concerto with him and his orchestra during her first postwar tour of America. Her favored programmers, however, were uncompromising recitals of works such as the demanding late Beethoven Sonatas. The honor of Commander of the British Empire was conferred upon her in 1936, followed by Dame of the British Empire in 1941. During the 1960s, increasing bouts of ill health forced her to abandon the concert platform in favor of teaching. She died in London on November 25, 1965. For pianists, a lasting legacy is her transcription of the Bach Chorale Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring, and although she was reluctant to enter the recording studio, there remains for all a body of recorded performances that includes invaluable examples of her radio broadcasts. Bibliography Ewen, David. “Myra Hess, a Poet in Tones.” The American Hebrew (October 1929): 688; Grove, George, Stanley Sadie, John Tyrell (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. New York: 2001; McKenna, Marion. Myra Hess. London: 1976; Scharrer, Irene. “A Unique Friendship.” Myra Hess: By Her Friends. Edited and compiled by Denise Lassimonne and introduced by Howard Ferguson. London: 1966.	i don't know
North Foreland and South Foreland are chalk headlands in which English county?	Foreland, North, and South Foreland \| Article about Foreland, North, and South Foreland by The Free Dictionary Foreland, North, and South Foreland \| Article about Foreland, North, and South Foreland by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Foreland%2c+North%2c+and+South+Foreland Foreland, North, and South Foreland Foreland, North, and South Foreland, headlands of Kent, SE England, forming parts of the boundary of The Downs (a roadstead). South Foreland is 4 mi (6.4 km) NE of Dover, and North Foreland is near Margate. Both are chalk cliff formations, and both have lighthouses. The defeat (1666) of the Dutch under De Ruyter off the Forelands was an important battle in the history of British seapower. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page:	KAZZ (AM)
Moise Tshombe was President of which province when it declared independence from the Congo in 1960?	South Foreland Heritage Coast South Foreland Heritage Coast BY DAVID ROSS , EDITOR Description An extension of the more famous "White Cliffs of Dover" to the southwest, the South Foreland coast is an area of high chalk cliffs that stretch from Dover halfway to Deal. The area is largely undeveloped, despite its proximity to the busy port at Dover, and the Saxon Shore Way follows the cliffs along St. Margaret's Bay. The South Foreland Lighthouse in St. Mary's Bay is a Victorian lighthouse used by Marconi for the very first radio contact. The lighthouse sits on top of the cliffs and retains the original light mechanism. Excellent views can be had from the top. Area Countryside Attractions Dover-Folkestone Heritage Coast The heritage coast covers the area of the White Cliffs of Dover, renown of song and calendar photos. Jackdaws and swallows are abundant, and orchids grow along the cliff-tops. More ... North Downs Way This national trail begins in the chalk hills of the Surrey Hills AONB and passes through the Kent Downs AONB before ending quite close to the White Cliffs at Dover. More ... Kent Downs AONB	i don't know
Swimmers Cameron van der Burgh and Chad le Clos won gold medals and athlete Caster Semenya won a silver medal for which country at the 2012 Olympics?	South Africa swells with pride at London 2012 success \| World news \| The Guardian South Africa South Africa swells with pride at London 2012 success Growing Olympics excitement across South Africa as country already wins three gold medals after paltry silver in Beijing South Africa celebrates winning gold in the lightweight men's four final. Photograph: Lindsey Parnaby/EPA Thursday 2 August 2012 16.25 EDT First published on Thursday 2 August 2012 16.25 EDT Close This article is 4 years old Life came to a standstill at the University of Pretoria's high performance centre on Thursday. Staff and students were transfixed by TV pictures from London showing four of its finest rowing the race of their lives. "People were saying, 'They can get bronze,' then 'they can get silver,' then 'they can get gold!" said Emile Smith, an executive at the centre. "It echoed through the building." Gold it was, leaving South Africa in a pleasant state of disbelief. In the Beijing Olympics the team won a paltry silver medal ; in London it has three golds already. The lightweight men's four followed swimmers Cameron van der Burgh winning the 100m breaststroke in world record time and Chad le Clos edging out Michael Phelps in the 200m butterfly. Perhaps South Africa's biggest cheerleader is the sports minister, Fikile Mbalula. An official statement released on his behalf was almost incoherent with excitement: "We don't want to sound like a broken record, what welcomed us in Britain, has phenomenon, victory was certain. We are proud of the four young men, who made our flag to rise above all and our national anthem to be sang louder." The rowers' success was the top story on national TV news. Matthew Brittain, Sizwe Ndlovu, John Smith and James Thompson came from behind to snatch the title from favourites Britain and Denmark. Ndlovu, 31, South Africa's sole black winner in London so far, is a former police reservist who worked for the Pretoria flying squad, according to sports journalist Neal Collins's blog. Born in Johannesburg, Ndlovu was inspired to take up rowing in 1997 by his headteacher. "He was actually the one who saw the potential in me and encouraged me to row," he told the Sport 24 website. "He used to pick me up in the mornings at 5am, make me train before classes, then go to school and also train in the afternoons. That was Tom Price, what a great man. He passed away in 2006." The team has six-hour training sessions three times a day. The team members are struggling to balance their sporting careers, which yield little financial reward, with studying or work. South Africa is no sporting minnow and recently toasted Ernie Els' victory in the Open and its cricketers' first Test thrashing of England. But the country has never before won Olympic gold in rowing or male individual swimming. Smith of the high performance centre, which also coached van der Burgh, said government intervention had led to more specialisation and concentration on training. "There's been a progressive element in South African sport. The 2010 football World Cup provided an impetus," he said. South Africa's team is also smaller than it was in Beijing and may be more focused. Sports journalist Carlos Amato added that this time: "The resources have been concentrated on medal contenders." The victories would boost national morale, he added. "It matters hugely. It's funny how we take it more seriously than we should. To have a multi-racial rowing team winning gold really matters. It's sentimental but it's true." This being South Africa , race matters too. Amato said: "There's been large black interest and celebration of the success of the white athletes. But the team is still way too white. You saw that in the opening ceremony which wasn't very different from the first team that was readmitted to the Olympics in 1992. A lot of Olympic disciplines are still for the elite who have access to facilities and resources." Runners Oscar Pistorius and Caster Semenya are still to come and, perhaps one day, a bid to host the Olympics. Following Rio in 2016, Africa will be the only continent still waiting its turn.	South Africa
How are Felix Ungar and Oscar Madison described in the title of a play by Neil Simon?	SA Plastics, Composites & Rubber by SA Plastics, Composites & Rubber (page 46) - issuu issuu Issuu on Google+ FEATURE Plastics power Olympic performance from start to ﬁnish WITH 26 different Olympic sports at the London 2012 Olympic Games, an estimated 10 million Olympic enthusiasts marvelled at what took place on the ﬁeld of play. As athletes prepped for play and fans settled into their seats, international and domestic polymer companies could take pride in knowing they contributed to the durability, comfort and key playing surfaces of some of the London 2012 most highly trafﬁcked venues. SA at the 2012 Summer Olympics The South African Olympic Committee sent 134 athletes to the Games in London, 70 men and 64 women, to compete in 17 sports. Field hockey and women’s football were the only team events in which the nation had its representation in these Olympic Games. After the nation’s dismal performance in the Beijing Olympics, South Africa regained the team’s success in London by winning three gold medals, two of them were from swimming, and the other from rowing. Swimmers Cameron van der Burgh and Chad le Clos won the gold medals in the men’s 100 m breaststroke, and the surprising men’s 200 m butterﬂy. Furthermore, le Clos was able to beat the reigning Olympic champion Michael Phelps in the butterﬂy event. Four days later, he earned the silver medal in the men’s 100 m butterﬂy, an event in which Phelps won the gold medal. Van der Burgh, on the other hand, did not only 44 OCTOBER / NOVEMBER 2012 Wrapped up! Dow also provided the Wrap for the Olympic stadium at the London 2012 Olympic Games. The Wrap is made up of 306 individual panels – each approximately 25 metres high and 2.5 metres wide – stretching from the concourse ground to the upper tier of the outer stadium. The Wrap also features directional signage and shield exposed elements of the stadium from sight. The Wrap panels are made up of more than 50 solid colours that bear the ofﬁcial ‘Colours of the Games’. The Wrap textile is a new and innovative solution - a lightweight polyester fabric with a polyoleﬁn elastomer-based coating. This material allows the Wrap to meet the stringent sustainability requirements while ensuring the appropriate ﬁre protection and printability needed for stadium and stage venues. The compound that coats the polyester fabric contains highly efﬁcient ﬂame win the gold medal, but also broke both the Olympic record and the world record in the men’s 100 m breaststroke event. In athletics, two South African stars became in the highlight in the Games, Oscar Pistorius and Caster Semenya. Pistorius, a four-time Paralympic champion, made the Olympic history in the track and ﬁeld by becoming the ﬁrst double-leg amputee to participate in the Games. Semenya won the silver medal in the women’s 800 metres. SA Plastics, Composites & Rubber Follow publisher Unfollow publisher Be the first to know about new publications.	i don't know
"Who plays Joey LaMotta, Jake's brother and manager in the 1980 film ""Raging Bull""?"	Joey LaMotta (Middleweight) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News Joey LaMotta Male Born Apr 27, 1925 Giuseppe "Joey" LaMotta is the brother and one time manager of former world middleweight boxing champion, Jake LaMotta. LaMotta was played by Joe Pesci in Raging Bull, the 1980 film that portrayed his brother's turbulent life and career. LaMotta also boxed for a short time in 1945 and 1946. His record was 32 wins (22 KOs), 5 losses (1 KO), and 2 draws. LaMotta currently lives in Florida.… Read More related links El 'toro Salvaje' Cumple 90 AÃ±os Revista Cinemania Google News - Jul 10, 2011 'Tras el Ã©xito (crÃtico, que no de pÃºblico) de Toro salvaje, LaMotta ha seguido conviviendo con la tragedia: dos de sus tres hijos varones murieron en 1998, uno de cÃ¡ncer y el otro en un accidente aÃ©reo. Su hermano <mark>Joey LaMotta</mark>, encarnado por Joe Pesci' Contest Giveaway: 'raging Bull' Photo Signed By Martin Scorsese & Robert De Niro Indie Wire (Blog) Google News - Jun 28, 2011 '3. What movie did Robert De Niro notice Joe Pesci in, prompting him to suggest the actor as a candidate for <mark>Joey LaMotta</mark>? The EPIX Movie Free-for-All powered by Verizon FiOS runs June 30 to September 12 in Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens' How Not To Blow The Oscar Speech NYTimes - Mar 26, 1995 'WINNING AN OSCAR causes people to do strange things in public. It inspires honorees to perform one-armed push-ups, to kiss statuettes while giving indiscriminate thanks and to lose not only their shoes but their heads on the way to the podium. Few have truly mastered the art of the acceptance speech, hitting just the right balance of grace, wit,' Sports Of The Times; Honesty And Culpability: A Bribe Is A Bribe NYTimes - Jul 04, 1993 'SUPPOSE, just suppose, that Jesse Ferguson had splashed into the tank after Ray Mercer offered him $100,000 to lose. If Ferguson suddenly had flopped around like a hooked trout in the late rounds of their Feb. 6 heavyweight bout, if whispers of a fix had surfaced, if the Manhattan District Attorney\'s office had investigated, if a grand jury had'	Joe Pesci
The words 'FLOREAT SALOPIA' appear on the crest of which English football club?	View All Critic Reviews (61) Audience Reviews for Raging Bull Superbly directed, edited and acted, this top-notch boxing drama is a fascinating character study centered on an aggressive, insecure man overcome by intense jealousy and paranoia. A haunting film crafted with a lot of honesty and unpretentious realism. Carlos Magalhães Super Reviewer While shooting "The Godfather Part II", Robert DeNiro found himself reading the book "Raging Bull: My Story", based on the life of 1950's middleweight boxer Jake LaMotta. It was a story he felt very passionate about bringing to the screen and took it to his good friend, Martin Scorsese. Scorsese was, at first, reluctant to do a boxing movie as "Rocky" had recently been released to massive success and he, himself, was going through a personal crisis at the time due to the failure of their previous collaboration "New York, New York" and his spiralling addiction to cocaine and lithium - leaving him hospitalised with internal bleeding. They brought in screenwriter's Mardik Martin ("Mean Streets") and Paul Schrader ("Taxi Driver") and the film eventually went ahead. It became a form of therapy for Scorsese and has since been lauded as a cinematic tour-de-force and voted - in numerous polls - as the best film from the 1980's. Italian-American, middleweight boxer, Jake LaMotta (Robert DeNiro) has inner demons and is prone to obsessive rage and sexual jealousy which threatens to destroy his relationship with his wife Vickie (Cathy Moriarty) and brother/trainer Joey (Joe Pesci). In the ring, he a prizewinner but it's outside it, that he seems to lose everything. On the surface, Raging Bull could be seen as just another boxing biopic, much like Denzel Washington's portrayal of Ruben "Hurricane" Carter, Russell Crowe's Jim "The Cinderella Man" Braddock or Will Smith's Muhammad "Ali". Scorsese and DeNiro's vision is an altogether different one, though. It's not their intention to glamourise LaMotta or deliver a conventional film about pugilism. Their intentions lie in exposing the man beyond the ring - where his real fights took place. The biggest opponent for "The Bronx Bull" was actually himself and his struggle with a raging, psychosexual insecurity and his propensity for self-destruction. It's here that DeNiro fully takes centre stage in what is, unequivocally, his finest moment (and that's saying something) throughout an illustrious career of exceptionally strong performances. His transformation is near miraculous; while researching and preparing for the role, De Niro actually spent the entire shoot with LaMotta so he could portray him accurately and went through extensive physical training, entering into three genuine Brooklyn boxing matches and winning two of them. According to La Motta, De Niro had the ability to be a professional fighter and that he would have been happy to have been his manager and trainer. Following this, production was stopped for two months so DeNiro could pile on 60 pounds to portray LaMotta in his older years. His commitment to the role (and project) has now become legendary and highly respected amongst his peers. Quite simply, DeNiro's smouldering (and deservedly Oscar winning) display is an absolute masterclass in the profession. Scorsese's skills manifest in his operatic approach; he's less interested in cranking up the tension or theatrics of the bouts and more focused on the punishing brutality of the sport. He employs the use of flashbulbs, and several different sound effects - like smashing glass and squelching watermelons - to achieve an overall crunching effectiveness. He's aided immeasurably by Thelma Schoonmaker's sharp editing technique and Michael Chapman's sublime, monochrome, cinematography which serves the film as a whole in it's mood and noir-ish atmosphere. If the bouts in the ring are claustrophobic then the same could be said for the 'quieter' moments outside it; LaMotta's personal life is uncomfortably scrutinised in his abuse towards his wife Vickie and brother Joey. There are very personal scenes of fraught and jealous conversations that are unbearably tense, and fully depict how much of a brute this man really was. It's testament to the commitment of the entire cast and crew that this highly unappealing individual can make such compelling viewing. A truly searing, cinematic classic, that addresses the unflinching, animalistic, behaviour of a man in need of absolution and redemption. It also happens to possess one of cinema's most breathtaking and riveting performances. On this evidence, there's no question that Robert DeNiro is a master of his craft and it's arguably Martin Scorsese's finest work as well. Mark Walker Mark Walker	i don't know
Which river flows through Hobart in Tasmania - there are English rivers of the same name in Cumbria, Derbyshire and Yorkshire?	Full text of "Questions and answers on geography, the globes, and astronomy" See other formats This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world's books discoverable online. It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover. 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Do not assume that just because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe. About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at \|http : //books . google . com/ ^?' 1^^ DE LA VOTE'S LARGE TYPE FBENCH AND ENGLISH DICTIONAET. Just Published, at the reduced Price of 4s. 6d. (1100 pages), a Now ]£dition of a New FEENCn AND ENGLISH AND ENGLISH AND ERENCn DICTIONARY, BY MARIN G. DE LA VOYE. T\\e New Edition of De La Voye's LAEGE TYPE Frcncli Pictionary is ofrerod &s tlio cheapest ever published. The ibllowmg are a few of the prineipal useful features of the work. It is printed in LARGE TYPE. If a student has to look for a Noun, he is furnished witli the sii^nifit-Mt ions of that noun not only in a Literal but in a Miittanj, Nfiuyi- cal and Commercial point of view, whenever the wortl re- lates to the Army, the ^i'avy, or to Trade in its vnrious branches. If it bo a Verb -zhieh tlie leariier ^i-oks to understand, ho will find every Person, Mood and Tkvse belonpjing to ALL the verbs in the lanf/uar/e inserted in alphabetical order. Tlierc are ui)wards of 4i00 French Verbs, multiply these verbs by 49 ortliographical niodiliea- tions necessary for tlio conjugation of each, tlie vast number of fl^W/7/owa/ words embodied in lliis work will at oneo ])c obtained. Adjectivi:3 have often their plural in addition to ihcir feminine terminations, and so arranged as to faeili- tato considerably their furination. Besides the several meanings, therefore, of all the Parts of Speech m the Freneh Language (including ail the Mvxiv- JAM and Ikrkgular Verhs, itc, &c.), such \i> they are found vrrition whatever their Offc'a,s/ona/ Orthography maybe, liio public and the student may expect to lind in .tlio present work more general infonnation and moro words by many thousan ds than in a ny Dictionary of tho size ever pub- lished. ^ ZONIJ )XFORD STREET. ^ r.\o.2.) \ (.^ W. SMITH'S OSADTIATED GOPT-BOOES. Just Published^ W. SMITH'S GRADUATED COPY-BOOKS, A BDCFLE, EASY AlfD PUACTICAL METHOD OV TEACHING WEITINQ IK ▲ BAPID AND SUOllT FEBIOD. POST SIZE, printed on extra thick cream wove post, published at 6d. each. No. 1. First LesBOiu. 2. Letters of the Alphabet. 3. Words of 1, 2, 8, and 4 Letters. 4. Bound and Text (short Words). 5. Capitals and Figures, 5\|. 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Nos. 1 to 13 are printed in Faint Ink for Ihe Pupil to Tvrite over, and then to carefully imitate it. The remaining Nos. are printed in Black Ink, and serve as ordinary Copies. LONDON: T. J. ALLMAN, 40^, O'XSO^Xi ^^^^:^^. '<;• QUESTIONS ANB ANS'W:eRS ov GEOGRAPHY, THE GLOBES, Am) ASTRONOMY. WITH A SHORT ACCOUNT OT THE WINBS, TIDES, AIE, &c. BY h h HOOKli;. LONDON: S!. J. ALLMAN, 463, OXFOBD STEEET. 1867. taiyif^ fob PREFACE. The following Historical Geography, fecj has been compiled in the form of Question and Answer, from the writer's feeling persuaded that there is no better way of imparting knowledge to the young. The Answers are given in as concise a form as possible, and in a style calculated to make Im impression on the mind of the pupil; and every subject ihtroduced has been I thoroughly elucidated, with a view to save the mastel: the trouble of explanation. With these observations, the compiler commits his book to the scholastic pro* fession, in the hope that it will receive that approbjltion, of which Tae lasia ^fem^Ti io lender it i f QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS GEOGRAPHY, THE GLOBES, AND « ASTRONOMY. What is geography ? A description of the surfieiee of the e«th or globe which we inhabit. * The term geography is derived from the Greek words, "6e" the earth, and "Grapho,'* to write or describe. Of how many parts does geography consist ? Two, viz. political and physical geography ; the former relat^ to the division of the earth, as it has been divided by man ; and the latter treats of its natural divisions, as oceans, mountains, continents, islands, &c. What is the area of the earth's surface ? It is estimated to contain about 197 millions of English square miles, of which the water occupies 145^ millions; and the land 51^ millions. There may be other tracts of land not yet discovered, especially within the vicinity of the poles; but this is only conjecture. There is more land in the northern, than in the southern hemisphere ; and in. the eastern than in the western bieim&p^^te. \ Name the natural divisions of the land. Continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, pro- montories, capes, and shores. Describe these divisions. A continent is a vast tract of land containing many countries, as Europe. An island is a portion of land surrounded by water, as Great Britain. A peninsula is a tract of land which is nearly sur- rounded by water, as the Morea in Greece. An isthmus is a piece of land joining two countries, and separating two seas, as the Isthmus of Panama. A promontory is a part of the land projecting into the sea, the extreme point of Which is called a capa as the Cape of Good Hope. A shore is that part of the land which is washed by the sea. How is the water divided ? Into oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, straits, lakes, and rivers. How are these divisions defined ? An ocean is a vast extent of salt water not divided by land, as the Atlantic Ocean. A sea is a smaller collection of water than an ocean, as the Black Sea. A gulf is a part of the sea running up into the land, as the gulf of Genoa. A bay is a gulf of less extent, but having a wider opening. A small bay is called a creek, or harbour, or cove. A strait is a narrow part of salt water separating two countries, and join- ing two seas, or the opposite to an isthmus, as the strait of Dover. A lake is a portion of water entirely surrounded by land, being the reverse of an island, as the lake of Geneva. A river is a body of fresh water rising in the land and flowing into the sea, as the Thames. Where a river rises is called its source, and its mouth is where it empties itself into the sea. The bed of a river is the channel it flows through ; and its basin is that part of a country through which it flows^ and by which it is drained. A river's banks is that part of the land^ on both sides of it, which is washed by its waters. What is the shape of the earth ? It is nearly rounds and therefore does not form a perfect globe or sphere. It is an oblate spheroid. What is a globe or sphere ? A body everywhere perfectly round. The half of a globe is a hemisphere. The fourth part of a circle is called a quadrant, and consists of 90^. How many kinds of globes are there ? Two, the terrestrial and the celestial. The former is an artificial globe, on which the surface of the earth is delineated, with its continents, oceans, mountains, rivers, towns, &c. A celestial globe is an inverted representation of the starry Heavens. Why do you call it an inverted representation ? Because as we look at the Heavens they appear hollow or concave, whereas, on an artificial globe, they are made to have a convex appearance. In order to have a correct representation of the Heavens, it would be necessary to procure a globe sufficiently large to allow of our getting inside, and having the stars and planets marked therein. What are the north and south poles 7 The extreme ends of the earth's axis, which is an imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth from north to south, and on which it is said to turn. What is the equator ? An imaginary hne passing round the middle of the earth from west to east, and dividing it into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemi* spheres. The equator is 90° from each pole. What are meridian lines ? Meridian lines, or lines of longitude, are semi- \— ^ 4 circles, or half circles, cutting the equator at right angles, and extending from pole to pole. What is an angle ? The inclination or opening between two straight lines. Angles are of three kinds; acute^ obtuse^ and right angles. How are these angles defined ? One straight line standing upon another straight line, making the adjacent angles equal, each of them is a right angle, thus J. 90°. An acute angle is less than a right angle, thus / . An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle, thus \ • You have been speaking of lines, what is a line ? That which has length and breadth, but no thick- ness. A straight line is one that lies evenly between its two points; or the nearest road between two points. A crooked line is one that lies unevenly between its two points. What is a great circle ? A line encircling the earth, and dividing it into two equal parts, as the equator. A small circle is one which divides it into two unequal parts, as the tropics, and polar circles. What is a circle ? A space enclosed by one line, called the circum- ference^ all parts of which are equally distant from a given point called the centre. A point is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. What are the tropics ? Two small circles encircling the earth, and run- ning parallel with the equator. The northern is called the tropic of Cancer ; and the southern the tropic of Capricorn. They are 231° from the equator. Why are they called tropics ? From the Greek word, '' Trepo " I turn, because when the sun reaches either of them^ it apparently turns back. It must be borne in mind that the sun is stationary^ and that it is the earth which moves. When does the sun reach the tropic of Cancer ? The 21st June^ which is our longest day; and when it is over the tropic of Capricorn^ it is our shortest day, the 21st December. How often does the sun cross the equator ? Twice in a year, the first time is on the 21st March, which is called the vernal equinox; and again on the 21st of September, which is the autumnal equinox. On these occasions the days and nights are equal all over the world. When is the sun nearest to the earth, in winter or summer 7 In winter ; but it is colder to us because the rays of the sun are then more oblique or slanting. Is the northern or southern hemisphere the colder? The southern, which is occasioned by there being more water in the south than in the north; for water absorbs heat. Captain Parry sailed within 9° of the north pole ; but Captain Weddell could ap- proach no nearer than 15^ to the south pole ; both being prevented proceeding farther on account of the ice which impeded them. What are polar circles ? Two small circles which encircle the earth, being 23^^ from the poles, or the same distance from the poles, as the tropics are from the equator. You stated the earth was round, give some proof that such is the case. If a ship start from a port, and always keep her head in the same direction, she will come back to the point whence she started, plainly demonstrating that she has made a circuit. If you stand on the sea shore, and watch a ship in the distance CQ\si\\i^ \— ^ towards you, you will observe the tops of the roasts first, and then gradually the lower parts as she comes Dearer. Why is the hull of the ship hidden from your view ? In consequence of the rotundity of the water be- tween the vessel and yourself. Have you any other proof that the world is round ? Yes, this is convincingly shewn by an eclipse of the moon, which is occasioned by the earth's shadow falling upon the moon, which shadow is observed to be round, and therefore the earth itself must be round, for no other than a round body can cast a round shadow. How can the earth be round considering the inequalities on its surface ? Because the mountains, valleys, &c., on the earth's surface, do not lessen its spherical form, any more than fhe inequalities on the rind of an orange detract from its roundness. What is the distance round the world called ? Its circumference, which is 860^, or nearly twenty- five thousand miles. All circles, however, large or small, are divided into the same number of degrees. What is meant by the earth's diameter ? Its distance through the centre, which is nearly eight thousand miles : it is either polar or equatorial diameter. Describe the difference between them. By polar diameter is meant the distance through the centre of the earth from north to south, or from pole to pole; and by equatorial diameter, the like measurement from west to east. The equatorial exceeds the polar diameter by about twenty-six miles. This difference is caused by the flatness of the poles. Has the earth any motions ? It has two motions ; one round its own axis, and tlie other round the sun ; the former is called its diurnal or daily motion^ and the latter its annual or yearly motion. How long is the earth rotating on its axis ? Twenty-four hours, and by this motion day and night, or light and darkness are produced. What effect has this motion in the heavens ? It causes them to appear to move from east to west^ or in a contrary direction to what the earth does. Give some proof whereby this can be more fully understood. When a person is travelling on the railroad, the trees, and rails, and everything which he passes, appear to move in a contrary direction to himself. Give an interesting proof that the earth rotates on its own axis. If you place two upright poles in the ground, and another across them, and in this fix a swivel which turns within itself, and fasten a weight to it with a cord, with a short piece of string hanging from it, and allow it to trail on a table covered with sand, and keep it constantly in motion, the line which is made at first straight, will change its direction as the day advances, though the table has, apparently, remained constantly in the same position. How are light and darkness occasioned by the rotation of the earth ? The sun is stationary, and when the meridian of any place, not within the polar circles, comes under the sun, it is then noon, or mid-day at that place, and it is midnight at a place on the opposite side of the earth; and as the earth continues its motion, that place, which was opposite to the sun at noon, gradually recedes, and when it has progressed 90°, it is then six o'clock in the evening ; and 90° more brings it to midnight, or to that sijot ^\vv^\^ "^^^^a^ 8 opposite to it twelve hours before, and thus the relative positions of the two places are reversed.* How long is the earth revolving round the sun ? 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 57 seconds, 39 thirds, which is the length of our solar year. By this motion the seasons are produced. How far is the sun from the earth ? Ninety-five millions of miles; and the earth revolves round it at the rate of nineteen miles in a second. Why is this rapid motion not perceptible ? Because every thing that we see is moving at the same rate. This is exemplified in the case of a person riding in a railway carriage, for he will not feel the motion, how fast soever it may be going, provided he exclude from his view all external objects. If the earth is moving so rapidly, why is not everything on its surface hurled off ? Because the centripetal is greater than the cen- trifugal force. Explain this. The earth, as it revolves round the sun, has the desire, so to speak, to throw everything from it ; but, at the same time, it possesses within itself a superior power of attracting things to its centre, and conse- quently they remain stationary. What is this power called ? The attraction of gravitation. There is also the attraction of cohesion, by which the component parts of a solid body cleave to each other, and there is also the attraction of adhesion, by which one thing sticks or attaches itself to another. There is like- wise capillary attraction, by means of which water ascends a tube no larger than a hair above its level ; — capillus is the Latin for a hair. * It must be remembered that only half of a round body can be illuminated at a time by one light. What is latitude ? The distance of a place north or south of the equator. The greatest latitude that a place can have is 90°, the distance from the equator to the poles. How is the diflference of the latitude of two places determined ? If one is north and the other souths their latitudes roust be added ; but when they are both norths or both souths it is necessary to subtract them. What is longitude ? The distance of a place east or west from the first meridian^ which is reckoned in degrees on the equator. The greatest longitude that a place can have is 180°, or half the circumference of the globe; 180° is both east and west longitude. This can be understood by passing the hand half round the head from one ear to the other^ which can be accomplished by going either towards the right or the left. What is the first meridian ? That place from which a country reckons its longitude. Every place has its own meridian, though twenty-four are generally drawn upon the globe, answering to the twenty-four hours of the day, be- cause as the earth turns on its own axis, 15° of the earth's surface pass under the sun in one hour, and therefore in twenty-four hours the whole surface of the earth must have passed under the sun. 15° X 24 = 360° the circumference of the globe. Does not a difierence in longitude cause a difier- ence in time ? Yes, 15° makes a difference of one hour, and consequently one degree makes a difference of four minutes. 60 min. -f- 15 = 4 min. What is the length of a degree on the equator ? Sixty-nine-and-a-half English miles, equal to sixty geographical miles. 10 Is a degree of longitude the same length all over the world ? No, the further we go north and south of the equator, the shorter becomes a degree of longitude. The length of a degree of longitude at London is 43 miles. Give an example of a difference in longitude causing a difference in time. St. Petersburgh is 30° east of London, conse- quently when it is eight o'clock in the morning in London, it is ten o'clock at St. Petersburgh ; and at a place 30° west of London, it would be six o'clock. How is it that two persons who meet after having sailed round the world find that there is a difference of two days in their calculation of the time ? Because the one who sails east would have to put his watch one hour in advance every 15° that he went ; whilst the other going west would have to put it back one hour every 15° he sailed ; and consequently one would gain, and the other would lose an hour ; and as 15° is contained 24 times in 360°, one will gain and the other lose a day. What is the Ecliptic ? The imaginary path of the sun round the earth. The Zenith is that part of the heavens immediately over our head ; and the Nadir is that part beneath our feet. What is the Zodiac ? That part of the heavens extending eight or nine degrees on each side of the Ecliptic, in which the motions of the moon and the principal planets are performed. Repeat the signs of the Zodiac. Aries : the Ram. Taurus : the Bull. Gemini : the Twins. Cancer : the Crab. Leo : the Lion. Virgo : the Virgin. 11 lAbra : the Balance. Scorpio : the Scorpion. Saffittarius: the Archer. Capricomus: the He Goat. Aquarius : the Water- Pisces : the Fishes, bearer. Why were these signs so named ? Prom a similarity between these things and cer- tain groups of stars which the ancients imagined they could perceive. Who are said to have invented these signs ? The Egyptians. Some ascribe the invention to Anaximander 560 B.C. What is meant by the sun being in Aries ? The sun is said to be in Aries, when it is in that part of the heavens opposite to that sign of the Zodiac. What are the equinoctial points ? Those two points of the Ecliptic at the greatest distance from the Equator. The Solstitial points are those two points where the Ecliptic and the Equator intersect each other. The Zones. * What is a Zone ? A belt or girdle ; it is a term derived from the Latin word " Zona.^^ There are five zones, viz., one torrid, two temperate, and two frigid. Where is the Torrid Zone ? It occupies that part of the earth lying between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, and which is sometimes called the Tropics ; it is so called from the Latin word '' Torridus'' hot. The Torrid Zone is 47° in breadth. Where are the Frigid Zones ? The north Frigid Zone lies round the north pole, and is 23 1° in breadth ; and the south Frigid Zone lies round the south pole, and is of the same extent. They take their name from "Fr\^\d\xa" >Jsi'fc\i^\sjL 12 for cold. The former is bounded by the North Pole and the Arctic Circle, and the latter by the South Pole and the Antarctic Circle. Antarctic signifies opposite the Arctic. " Ante," opposite to. Where are the Temperate Zones ? The North Temperate lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer; and the South Temperate is between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle, the breadth of each of these zones is 46° 56'. Temperate signifies neither too hot nor too cold. Map of the World. Name the great divisions of the world. Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australasia and Polynesia — of these Europe is the smallest ; America the largest; Africa the most uncivilised, and the least known ; whilst Asia is the quarter that was first peopled ; Australasia signifies Southern Asia ; and Polynesia means " Many Islands,'^ a term de- rived from the tWb Greek words ^^Polus,'* many, and "Nesos,^^ ifcknd. What great quarters are comprised in the eastern hemisphere ? Europe, Asia, and Africa ; which taken together form what is called the Old World. What quarter is comprised in the western hemi- sphere ? America; this is sometimes named the New World, in consequence of its not having been known so long as the other. By whom was America discovered ? By Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa in Italy, A.D. 1492, in the reign of Henry VII., who gained the throne of England by defeating Richard III., at the battle of Bosworth Fields a.d. 1485. 13 What people discovered America ? The Spaniards^ during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella^ who furnished Columbus with three ships when he went on hb voyage of discovery. After whom is America named ? Amerigo Vespuccio, a native of Florence in Tus- cany, formerly a dukedom of Italy^ but now a por- tion of the king of Italy's dominions. What part of America is named after Columbus ? Columbia, a country situated in the north-western part of South America. How many oceans are there ? Five; the northern or Arctic; the southern or Antarctic ; the Atlantic; the Indian, and the Pacific ; but all of these, being united, form properly one ocean. Why are the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific so named ? The Atlantic takes its name from the Atlas moun- tains in the north of Africa. The Pacific was so named by the Spaniards, who found it much calmer than the Atlantic after doubling Cape Horn; and the Indian is so named from its proximity to India, a country in the south of Asia. Which is the largest of these oceans ? The Pacific, which occupies about one half of the surface of the globe. The Indian and Atlantic oceans are three thousand miles across. Where are these oceans situated ? The Arctic ocean lies round the North Pole, and is north of Europe, Asia and America. The Antarc- tic lies round the South Pole. The Indian ocean is to the south of Asia, and east of Africa. The Atlantic ocean separates America from Europe and Africa, being to the east of the former, and west of the latter. The Pacific ocean divides Asia from America, being to the east of the former, and west of the lattet. % 14 Europe. What is Europe ? Europe is the smallest of the four great quarters of the globe ; it is in the eastern hemisphere, and lies to the north of Africa, and west of Asia. It is preeminent for its civilization, power, wealth and knowledge. From whom does Europe derive its name ? From Europa, who is supposed to have lived .about 1552 B.C. It is said to have been first peo- pled by the descendants of Japheth, the eldest son of Noah. How is Europe bounded ? Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean; on the south by the Mediterranean sea, which separates it from Africa ; on the west by the Atlantic ocean, which divides it from America ; and on the east by the Archipelago ; the straits of Dar- danelles or Hellespont; the sea of Marmora; the straits of Constantinople or the Bosphorus; the Black sea ; the straits of Kaffa, Kertch or Zenekale, and the sea of Azof; the Caspian sea, the Ural mountains, the Ural river, and Asia. Why is the Mediterranean sea so called ? It is so named from its being situated between two countries or land. Its name is composed of two Latin words, "medius,^^ middle, and "terra,^ land. In Scripture history it is known under the name of the Great Sea. What was the original signification of the term Archipelago ? It signified ' chief sea,' and was applied by the Greeks to the sea surrounding their own country. Its name is derived from two Greek words, " archos ' and ^pelagos.'' 15 What is the present meaniDg of the term Archi- pelago ? It is a name given to a part of the sea studded with numerous islands. Why was the Hellespont so called ? From Helle, who, it is fabulously said, when fleeing from the cruelty of her mother-in-law, Ino, passed over this part of the sea on a golden ram, but becoming giddy she fell off; from this circumstance it was said to have been called by the ancients, " Hellespont/' What is the breadth of the Dardanelles ? In its broadest part it measures about a mile and a-half across, and in its narrowest half-a-mile. What is the derivation of the term " Bosphorus V It is derived from two Greek words, " bous," an ox, and " poros,'' a ford ; it was so named because an ox could wade across it. These straits are about half-a-mile broad at the narrowest part. Why is the Black Sea so named ? ^ Prom the dark misty fogs which often cover it. The ancient name of this sea was the Euxine. It has no tides. What is the Caspian Sea properly ? A great lake, the largest in the world, since it has no communication with any other sea: its water is not salt, but somewhat brackish. This sea has been sup- posed by some to have an underground communica- tion with the Black Sea; but this is impossible, seeing it is at a lower elevation, the Black Sea being 83 feet higher than the Caspian. Where is the North Sea or German Ocean ? It lies betiveen Britain and Denmark; it is also north of Belgium, Holland, and a part of Hanover. Where is the Zuyder Zee ? It is a portion of the German Ocean running u!j 16 into Holland. It signifies the south sea^ and is very shallow^. Where is the bay of Biscay ? It is to the west of France, and north of Spain. This bay is a part of the Atlantic ocean, and is very stormy. Where is the gulf of Venice or Adriatic sea ? It lies between Italy and Turkey, being to thq east of the former. It is an oflFset of the Mediterranean* Where is the Western or Grecian Archipelago ? It lies to the south-east of Greece, and is a part of the Mediterranean sea. The Levant is the most easterly part of this sea. Where is the White sea? In the north of Russia ; it is an offset of the Arctic ocean. It is covered with ice for three or four months in the year. Where is the Baltic sea ? To the north of Prussia, to the west of Russia, and east of Denmark and Sweden. In its western part the Baltic is not more than fifty feet in depth, and is only one-third as salt as sea- water in general, in consequence of its receiving so many rivers ; it like- wise has no tides. Name three gulfs branching off from the Baltic sea. Bothnia, lying between Sweden and Finland; and Riga and Finland, which run up into the western side of Russia. Mention three narrow straits leading into the Baltic sea. The Sound, between Zealand and Sweden ; this is the most frequented passage into the Baltic, and is 2J miles broad. The Great Belt, between the islands of Zealand and Funen ; and the Little Belt, which separates Funen from the peninsula of Jutland. 17 These straits are generally frozen over from the middle of December to April; and the Baltic sea itself is often wholly or partially frozen over. Where are the gulfs of Lepanto or Corinth^ and Taranto? Lepanto lies between the Morea and the rest of Greece ; and Taranto runs up into the south of Italy. That part of the Mediterranean sea to the west of Greece is named the Ionian sea. • Where is the Tyrenean sea ? It is that part of the Mediterranean lying between the island of Elba on the norths the islands of Corsica and Sardinia on the west^ the island of Sicily on the souths and Italy on the east. Where are the gulfs of Lyons and Genoa ? The gulf of Lyons is in the south of France, and Genoa is on the western side of Italy. Both of these gulfs are offsets from the Mediterranean. Where are the straits of Gibraltar ? Between Spain and Africa; they lead from the Atlantic ocean into the Mediterranean sea, and are 13 miles wide in their naiTOwest part. A strong current sets into the Mediterranean through these straits; but the evaporation from this sea is sufficiently great to carry off the large quantity of water that is being constantly poured into it, and this great evapo- ration is the cause of this sea being so salt ; it is about 2 per cent. Salter than sea- water in general. What was the ancient name of the straits of Gibraltar ? The Pillars of Hercules ; they were so called from two lofty mountains, Abyla in Africa, and Calpe in Spain, which are about 18 miles apart. The Straits of Gibraltar take their name from the fortress of Gib- raltar in the south of Spain, which was taken by the 2—3 » 18 English^ under Sir Gtflrge Rook and Sir Cloudesley Shovel^ in the fcig^^if Queen Anne^ a.d. 1704. When did tbp 'l^^i«(ds endeavour to retake Gibraltar ? ' In the reign of Gedi^e III. ; they besieged it from July, 1779, to February, 1783 ; but all their attempts failed in consequence of the bravery of the garrison, who were commanded by Sir John Elliot. Red-hot shot was first employed on this occasion ; it was used by Elliot to- bum the flat-bottomed boats of the Spaniards before they could succeed in coming under the guns of the fortress. What use do the English make of this place ? It serves them as an entrepot of the Mediterranean trade, and as a naval station in the time of war ; it likewise gives them the key to this sea. What is the derivation of the word Gibraltar ? It takes its name from ^' Gibel,^^ the first Moorish general who set up his standard in Spain, and "taric,** which signifies a rock in the Moorish language — Gibel's rock. Where are the straits of Dover ? Between France and England ; they lead from the English channel into the German ocean. These straits are 21 miles in breadth. Calais in France, and Dover in England, are the two ports the nearest to each other. What English king took Calais ? Edward III., after a siege of 11 months, a.d. 1347. It was retaken by the Duke of Guise in the reign of Queen Mary, ad. 1557. Where are the straits of Bonifacio and Messina ? The former are between Corsica and Sardinia, two islands in the Mediterranean sea, to the west of Italy ; and the latter separates the island of Sicily from the south of Italy. I • - ^. . . What whirlpool and rock, Jhngerous to ancient navigators^ were situated in thevtilrttils ? Scylla and Charybdis. ., .-' > ; .^V- Where is the North cape ? To the north of Norway. The Naze is to the south of this country. Where is cape La Hogue ? In the north of France. Gi^s Ortegal and Finisterre are in the north-west of Spain. Cape Roca^ in the west of Portugal, is the most westerly point of the continent of Europe. Where is cape St. Vincent ? In the south-west of Portugal. A naval engage- ment was fought here between the Spaniards and the English under Sir John Jervis, when the former were defeated, February 14th, a.d. 1798. Where is cape Trafalgar ? In the south-west of Spain. It was here that the French were defeated in a naval engagement, by Lord Nelson, who lost his life in the hour of victory, October 21st, 1805. Cape Tarifa to the south of Spain is the most southerly point of Europe. Where are capes Spartivento, Fassaro, and Mata- pan? Spartivento is to the south of Italy ; Fassaro, to the south of the island of Sicily; and Matapan is the most southerly point of Greece. Mention some capes in the British isles. Land's End and Lizard Point in Cornwall ; Start Point and Hartland Point in Devonshire ; the north and south Foreland in Kent; Beachy Head in Sussex; Flamborough Head in Yorkshire; cape Wrath in the north-west of Scotland; St. David's Head in Pembrokeshire; and cape Clear in the south of Ireland. Mention some islands in the Arctic Ocean. . ' * 20 Nova Zembla, and Spitzbergen, the most northerly land known, and which is much visited by Danish and Norwegian whalers. The Lofoden isles are off the north-west coast of Norway. Name some European islands in the Atlantic ocean. Iceland, the capital of which is Skalholt; this island is famous for its volcano, named Hecla, and its boiling springs, called Geysers; and the Faroe isles, both of which belong to Denmark. The Azores or Western isles, the chief of which is St. MichaeFs, famous for its oranges : these islands belong to Portugal, from which country they are distant about 800 miles. Mention some other islands in the Atlantic ocean belonging to Europe. Great Britain and Ireland ; the Hebrides to the west of Scotland ; the Orkney isles to the north of Scotland, from which they are separated by the Pentland Frith ; and the Shetland isles,' to the north of the Orkneys. Name the principal island in these groups. Mainland is the largest of the Shetland isles, in which is Mount Eona, 1470 feet high. Mainland, or Pomona is the largest of the Orkney isles, the chief towns of which are Kirkw^all and Stromness. The Hebrides are divided into two groups, the inner and outer Hebrides : the principal islands of the inner Hebrides, are Jura, Islay, Mull Skye, and Staffa ; in the last of which is the famous and beautiful basaltic cavern called FingaPs cave. In the island of Mull, is Ben More, 3166 feet high. The principal of the outer Hebiides are Lewis, Harris, and north and south Uist. Name two islands in the Frith of Clyde* Arran and Bute. 21 Where is the isle of Anglesey ? Off the north-west coast of Wales, opposite Caernarvonshire, from which it is separated by the Menai straits, over which there is a tubular suspen- sion bridge, 560 feet in length, constructed by Mr. Telford. What was the ancient name of Anglesey ? Mona ; it was the chief seat of the Druids, the greater part of whom were put to death by the Roman general Paulinus. The chief towns of An- glesey are Beaumaris and Holyhead, the last of which is the usual port whence passengers embark for Ireland. Where is the isle of Man ? In the Irish sea; its chief towns are Castletown, Douglas, Ramsey and Peele. Snea-fell in this island has an elevation of 2004 feet. This island formerly belonged to the Earls of Derby. Where is the isle of Wight ? In the English channel, opposite Southampton in Hampshire. The anchorage of Spithead is between this island and Portsmouth ; and the Solent is on the north-western side of the island. The chief towns are Cowes, Newport, and Ryde. Where are the Scilly isles ? Off the coast of Cornwall. They are famous for their tin mines, which have been wrought ever since the birth of Christ. The Phoenicians traded here. Mention some islands off the east coast of North- umberland. Earn, Coquet, and Holy isle. Thanet and Sheppey are in the German ocean, off the coast of Kent. Margate, Ramsgate, and Broadstairs are in the isle of Thanet, and are famous watering places. What three countries form the island of Great Britain ? 22 Scotland^ which occupies the north part of the island j England the south and east; and Wales the west. What hills, river, and frith are between England and Scotland 7 The Cheviot hills, the river Tweed, and the Solway frith. A frith is a narrow arm of the sea ; it is derived from the Latin word " Fretum,'^ a narrow sea. Name some hills in Scotland. The Pentland hills, the Grampian hills, and the Lammer Muir. Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Britain, is in Scotland, in Invernesshire, as is also Ben Lomond. What Roman general defeated Galgacus on the Grampian hills ? Agricola, a general under Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 10th, 11th, and 12th emperors of Rome. It was Agricola who first discovered Britain to be an island. Name some rivers in Scotland. The Forth, which rises in Perthshire ; the Tay, between the highlands and lowlands ; the Dee and the Don, both in Aberdeenshire, and famous for their salmon fishery ; the Spey in Invernesshire, and the Clyde. Mention some lakes in Scotland. Loch Lomond, the largest in Britain ; it measures 23 miles in length, by 9 in breadth ; Loch Tay ; Loch Fine ; and Loch Awe. Into what two parts is Scotland divided ? Into the Highlands and the Lowlands. The inha- bitants of the former were formerly called Scots, and of the latter Ficts. The language spoken by the highlanders is called '* Erse,^^ and is much the same as that spoken by the lower class of Irish. 23 How many counties is Scotland divided into 7 Thirty-three. Name the universities of Scotland. Edinburgh^ Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews. What is the capital of Scotland ? Edinburgh, on the frith of Forth, the port of ^hich is Leith, by which it is connected by means of L road, a mile in length. Glasgow on the Clyde is ' he second city of note in Scotland. Name some manufacturing towns in Scotland. Glasgow, Greenock, and Paisley ; at this last place ine shawls are made. Dundee and Dunfermline, loted for their linen manufactures ; and Caron and yiontrose, both of which are engaged in the iron :rade. What celebrated moor is situated near Inverness ? Culloden Moor; it was here that the Duke of Cumberland defeated the rebel forces of the Young Pretender, a.d. 1746, in the reign of George 11. Name the principal town in the north of Scotland. Perth, on the river Tay ; this city was formerly the metropolis of Scotland. What is the established religion of Scotland ? The Presbyterian, as established by John Knox^ A.D. 1560. When were England and Scotland united under the same king ? In the year 1603, when James VI. of Scotland became king of England, under the title of James I. He came to the throne by the right of his great- grandmother, Margaret, the eldest daughter of Henry VII. of England. They were united under the same government in the reign of Queen Anne, a.d. 1707. Shew in what way James was heir to the English throne. Henry VIII. had three children, eacJa. ol HiWsiQ^ 24 became successively sovereigns of England ; but iu consequence of their dying without issue, it is necessary to go back to the monarch preceding Henry VIII., who was his father, Henry VII., whose eldest daughter named Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland, who had a son, named James v., who left a daughter, named Mary Stuart, who had a son by Lord Darnley, named James VI. of Scotland'and I. of England. What was the ancient name of Scotland ? Caledonia, hence the Scots were sometimes called Caledonians. What two English kings were great enemies of Scotland ? Edward I. and his grandson Edward III. Sir William Wallace and Robert Bruce opposed the former, and David Bruce was king of Scotland during the reign of Edward III. Wallace was betrayed into the hands of Edward I., by whom he was hanged; and David Bruce was taken prisoner at the battle of Nevil's cross in Durham, by Philippa, the wife of Ed- ward III., whilst he was besieging Calais in France. England. How is England bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Scotland, the river Tweed, the Solway Frith, and the Cheviot Hills ; on the south by the English channel, which separates it from France; on the west by Wales, and the Irish sea, which divides it from Ireland ; and on the east by the North sea, which separates it from Denmark, Holland, and Belgium. What is the extent of England ? From Berwick-upon-Tweed to Lizard Point in Cornwall, it is 423 miles in length; but a line drawn between these two points crosses the British channel. And it is 320 miles broad between Land^s End and the South Foreland in Kent. What is the derivation of the word England ? It is 80 called from ^'Anglen/^ a village in Saxony, whence a great number of the Saxons who settled in England came, and "Land^' the Saxon for country ; it was originally called Angleland, now corrupted into England. What was the ancient name of England ? Albion, so called from its white chalky cliflFs. The name is derived from " Albus/' the Latin for white. Some say that it took its name from Albion* a king who once reigned in England, but this is somewhat mythical. How many counties is England divided into ? Forty, and these were classed into six circuits by Henry II. It was Alfred who divided England into hundreds and tithings. Which is the most northerly county of England ? Northumberland. Suffolk is the most easterly; Lowestoffe is the most easterly town in this county. Cornwall is the most southerly and westerly county of England. Yorkshire, which is divided into North, East and West Ridings, is the largest county, and Rutland is the smallest ; Middlesex, Cheshire, Durham, and Lancashire, are counties Palatine, having distinct courts of their own. What is the capital of England ? London, on the Thames ; this was a flourishing place during the time of the Romans, and a great part of it was burnt to the ground by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, the inhabitants of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire. Name some of the chief trading ports of England. Liverpool, on the Mersey, in Lancashire; this town ranks next to London as a port, it tx^ds.% 26 principally with Ireland^ the West Indies, and America. Hull, in Yorkshire ; this port is engaged in the whale fishery, which is carried on chiefly hy the British and Americans. The whale is valuable for its oil and bone. Bristol, the third port in England, is on i^ie Lower Avon, about 8 miles from its mouth ; it is partly in Gloucestershire, and partly in Somerset- shire. It trades considerably with Ireland. Newcastle on the Tyne, in Northumberland ; this port is famous for the shipment of coal, and also for pickled salmon. North and South Shields, and Tynemouth are likewise busy towns on the Tyne. Sunderland, in Durham, is also a port for the ship- ment of coal. Name some smaller ports of England. Whitehaven, in Cumberland; Poole, in Dorset- shire ; Falmouth, in Cornwall ; Lynn and Yar- mouth, in Norfolk ; this place is of some note for the curing of herrings ; Southampton, which is in Hampshire, is rapidly rising in importance. Which are the chief naval dock-yards or arsenals ? Portsmouth, in Hampshire ; Plymouth, in Devon- shire; Deptford and Woolwich, on the Thames; Chatham and Sheerness, on the Medway ; these last four are in Kent. Opposite Plymouth harbour is Eddystone lighthouse. Name some of the principal inland watering places in England. Bath, in Somersetshire; Cheltenham, in Glou- cestershire; Tunbridge, in Kent; Harrowgate, in Yorkshire ; and Leamington, in Warwickshire. Which are the principal sea-bathing places ? Brighton, in Sussex ; this town owes its elevation to the patronage of George IV., with whom it was 27 a favourite summer residence; Margate^ Ramsgate, and Broadstairs in the Island of Thanet^ opposite Kent; Scarborough, in Yorkshire; Weymouth, in Dorsetshire ; and Torquay, in Devonshire ; Bognor, Worthing, and Hastings, all of which are in Sussex, are also sea-bathing places. What towns are famous for the manufacture of linen and cotton ? Manchester, on the Irwell ; Preston^ Bolton, and Blackburn, all in Lancashire; and Stockport, in Cheshire. Above a million-and-a-half of people are engaged in the manufacture of linen and cotton. What towns are engaged in the woollen manu- facture ? Leeds, Huddersfield, and Halifax, in Yorkshire ; and Exeter, in Devonshire. Wool was the early staple commodity of England. By whom was the silk manufacture introduced into England ? By the persecuted French Protestants, who left France on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, during the reign of Louis IV., a.d. 1685, under whose government France was in a most flourishing condition. What was the Edict of Nantes ? A free toleration grafted by Henry IV., of France, to the French Protestants. What towns are engaged in the manufacture of silk? Spitalfields, in London ; Coventry, in Warwick- shire ; and MaCclesfield, in Cheshire. Where are hosiery and lace made ? At Derby, Nottingham, and Leicester. Where is Birmingham ? In Warwickshire; it is noted for its hardware manufactures. Warwickshire is the m\dV«xi^ ^<^\xxiX^ 28 of England. Kenil worthy the seat of the famous earl of Leicester, the favourite of Queen Elizabeth ; and Stratford-upon-Avou, the birth-place of Shake- spere, are in this country. What towns are noted for the manufacture of cutlery ? Sheffield in Yorkshire ; the mayor of this town is styled the " Master Cutler/' Wolverhampton, Walsall, Dudley, and Wednesbury, all which places are in Warwickshire, and are likewise engaged in the same manufacture. Where is earthenware manufactured ? In Staffordshire, it was established at Burslem by Mr. Wedgewood. This and the adjacent towns are called the Potteries. What counties afford the chief supply of coal ? Northumberland, Durham and Staffordshire. In what counties is iron chiefly found ? Staffordshire and Derbyshire. Whence do we get lead ? From Derbyshire and Cumberland. The supply of lead for the making of lead-pencils has been ex- hausted. Where is tin found ? In Cornwall. Name the universities of England. Oxford, Cambridge, London and Durham. Ox- ford contains twenty colleges, and five halls ; and Cambridge has seventeen colleges, and four halls ; London has two colleges, King^s College, and Uni- versity College ; Durham has one college, St. Bee's. Oxford is on the river Isis or Thames ; and Gam- bridge is on the Cam. Which are the principal rivers of England ? The Thames, the Severn, the Trent, the Ouse, the Avon, the Tyne, the Mersey, and the Medway. 29 \ -. Where does the Thames rise ? In the Gotswold Hills in Gloucestershire^ and falls into the German Ocean^ after a course of 215 miles. It receives the Kennet, Wye, Mole, Medway, and Darent. Where the Thames rises, it is known under the name of the Isis. It takes the name of the Thames, near Oxford, where it receives the Thame. Where does the Severn rise ? In Montgomeryshire, in Wales ; thence it runs to Shrewsbury, Gloucester and Bristol, and empties itself into the Bristol channel. This river is famous for its salmon fishery. Is there more than one river of the name of the Avon ? There are several, there are three principal ones ; the first flows through Salisbury in Wiltshire, and empties itself into the English channel ; the second flows past Bath and Bristol into the Bristol channel, and is called the Lower Avon ; and the third, called the Upper Avon, flows past Warwick and Stratford into the Severn. Where is the Trent ? It flows through the Midland counties by Notting. ham. This river and the Little Ouse form the estuary of the H umber, between Yorkshire and Lincoln- ' shire. The Great Ouse falls into the Wash, which is between Lincolnshire and Norfolk. Where is the Tyne ? In Northumberland ; it consists of two branches, the North and South Tyne, the former rises in the Cheviot Hills, and the latter in the Cross Fell, a mountain of the Pennine range. Where are the Mersey, and the Medway ? The Mersey is in Lancashire, and empties itself 3—3 30 A^ .., 1^'' into the Irish sea; and the MedwaP^iB in Kent, and runs into the Thames. Name the chief lakes in England. Windermere in Westmoreland, it 'is lOJ miles in length, and one mile in breadth. [UUeswater in Cumberland is eight miles in length, and three- quarters of a mile broad ; and Coniston lake in Lan- cashire is 5\| miles in length, and nearly half a mile broad. Name the chief mountains in Europe. The Cheviot hills, between England and Scot- land, Ingleborough and Whamside in Yorkshire, Wendle in Lancashire, Skiddaw and Helvellyn in Cumberland, the Cotswold hills in Gloucestershire, the Malvern hills in Worcestershire, the Mendip hills in Somersetshire, the Wrekin in Shropshire and the Peak in Derbyshire ; this last is the highest hill in England. To whom does Cornwall give the title of duke ? To the Prince of Wales : he is also earl of Chester. Which is reckoned the second city in England ? York, situated on the Ouse, the Roman Emperor Severus died here. This city is famous for its fine cathedral, called York Minster, it is built in the Go- thic style of architecture, it has likewise an ancient castle. Not far from York is Marston Moor, where Charles I. was defeated by the Parliamentary army ; and also the village of Towton, where a battle was fought between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians. Which of these two houses had the better right to the English throne ? The Yorkists, seeing they were descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III., whereas the Lancastrians were descended from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, fourth son of the same king. Where is Eton ? 31 In Buflkin^niHlkBliire ; it is famous for its college^ founded by Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., by his third wife Lady Jane Seymour. Where is St. Albans ? In Hertfordshire. This town is said to have been built before Christ, its ancient name was Verulum ; it was the capital of the Trinobantes, a people who lived in Hertfordshire, Essex and Middlesex. Julius Caesar advanced as far as this island, upon his second landing in Britain, b.c. 54. Where is Winchester ? In Hampshire: it is noted for its college, and cathe- dral ; it was at one time the capital of England. Where is Windsor ? In Berkshire, on the river Thames ; here is one of the royal residences, called Windsor Castle, which stands in Windsor forest. Where is Norwich ? In Norfolk ; it is famous for the manufacture of woollen stuflFs, which was introduced here by a body of Flemmings, in the reign of Henry I. Worsted stockings were first made at a place near Norwich, called Worstead, from which circumstance they took their name. How many archbishops and bishops are there in England ? There are two archbishops, Canterbury and York ; and twenty- six bishops, including the four Welsh Which of the archbishops takes the precedence ? Canterbury, he is styled the " Primate of all En- gland,'' and the Archbishop of York is styled the " Primate of England.'' The former ranks next to the princes of the blood royal, and the latter has the same rank, but gives place to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lord Chancellor of England. They are both styled " Your Grace." 32 How do the bishops rank ? They take precedence of all temporal peers. Amongst themselves the Bishop of London ranks firsts Durham next^ and Winchester third ; the others rank according to the length of time they have been bishops. How are the bishops addressed ? "Your Lordship/ and are styled "Right Re- verend Father in God.' What Bishops have not a seat in the House of Lords ? The Bishop of Manchester, and the Bishop of Sodor-and-Man. Who is considered the head of the established church f The sovereign, who is styled " Defender of the Faith.' This title was given to Henry VIII., by Pope Leo X., for writing a tract against Luther, who was bom at Isleben in Germany, and was one of the first reformers. He was a monk of the order of St. Augustine. What is the parliament ? It is an assembly of the peers and gentlemen of Great Britain and Ireland, who meet together to make laws, levy taxes, and settle the affairs of the nation. Who meets the parliament upon their assembling together ? The sovereign, or his representative. Without this there could be no parliament. The sovereign alone has the power of dissolving the parliament ; but he must call a new one within 40 days. Of what does the House of Lords consist ? Of the lords spiritual, who are the a rchbishops and bishops, with four bishops from Ireland, and of the peers of England, Scotland and Ireland. The 33 peers of Engkmd are hereditary ; those of Ireland sit for life, and the peers of Scotland until parlia- ment is dissolved. By whom are the members of the House of Commons chosen 7 By the voters of the counties, boroughs, and cities of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. How many members are there in the House of Commons ? 658:— For England, 471. For Scotland, 53. For Wales, 29. For Ireland, 105. What is the form of government in England ? Monarchical,) and aristo-democratical. The government consists of three distinct parts; the sovereign; the peers; and the commons; and these being a check upon each other, the government of Great Britain surpasses that of any other in the world. Wales. Where is Wales ? It joins England on the west ; and is separated from Ireland by the St. George^s channel ; its southern counties are washed by the Bristol channel. What was the ancient name of Wales ? Cambria. The Welsh are descended from the early Britons, many of whom fled into Wales rather than submit to the Saxons. What English king conquered Wales ? Edward I., who annexed it to the English crown, A.D. 1282; opposing whom, the Welsh prince Llewellyn was slain. Edward II., was born at Caernarvon in this cQjintry, and was the first prince of Wales, A.D. 1284. 3i Into how many counties is Wales divided ? Twelve — Six in the north and six in the south. Is Wales a mountainous country ? .YeSy its principal mountains are Snowdon, in Caemarvonshirey the highest in Wales ; being 3^571 feet high ; Gader Idris in Merionethshire ; Plynlimmon^ on the borders of Cardiganshire and Montgomeryshire. Which are the principal rivers in Wales ? The Severn, already mentioned^ which flows into the Bristol channel ; and the Dee. Where is Swansea ? In Glamorganshire, in South Wales ; it is a famous watering place. In this county is Cardiff Castle, where Robert, Duke of Normandy was imprisoned by his brother, Henry I., who invaded his dukedom, and took him prisoner at the battle of Tinchebray, a.d. 1106. Where is Milford Haven ? In Pembrokeshire, in the south west of Wales ; it is one of the best ports in Britain. Pater dock- yard is situated here. Where are the chief mines of Wales f At Merthyr Tydvil, in Glamorganshire, the largest town in the principality. A very large supply of iron comes from Wales. Has Wales any college ? Yes, one at Lampeeter. Ireland. Where is Ireland ? To the west of Great Britain, being separated from Scotland by the North channel, from England by the Irish sea; and from Wales by the St. George's channel. Ireland is bounded on the north, south, and west by Jihe Atlantic ocean. Its . 35 iDcient name was Hibemia. Its mean length is 220 miles^ and its mean breadth 140 miles. What English king conquered Ireland 7 Henry 11.^ the son of Maud^ or Matilda^ daughter of Henry I., his father was Geoffrey Plantaganet^ Count of Anjou, a.d. 1172. What title did Henry II. then assume ? That of " Lord of Ireland/* which his successors continued to bear until the time of Henry VIII., who made himself king of Ireland. How is Ireland governed ? By a viceroy or lord lieutenant, appointed by the English government. Till what year had Ireland a parliament of its own? Until the year 1801, when it was abolished. The Irish send to the British parliament, 28 peers, 4 of whom are likewise peers of England, together with 105 members to the House of Commons. How is Ireland divided ? Into four provinces, viz., Ulster in the north ; Munster in the south ; Leinst^r in the east ; and Connaught in the west. These are subdivided into 32 counties. What is the established religion of Ireland ? The church of England^ though four-fifths of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics. In whose reign was the English church reformed ? In the reign of Henry VIII. By the Reformation is meant the reforming of the Christian reUgion from the errors of popery, and reducing it nearer to its original purity. Name some of the early reformers. Martin Luther, Melancthon, Calvin, and John Knox. 36 What was the cause of Luther's taking so promi<* nent a part in the Reformation ? Luther was a monk of the order of St. Augustine to which order Pope Leo X. had granted the privi- lege of selling indulgences; hut suspecting these monks kept back part of the profits accruing there-» from, he transferred this right to the Dominican friars. When Luther found he no longer derived any profit from this nefarious traffic he determined to expose the inutility and sinfulness of Indulgences ; together with many other absurdities existing in the Bomish Church. How many archbishops are there in Ireland ? Four, viz., Armagh, Dublin, Cashell, and Tuam. The Archbishop of Armagh is styled ^ Primate of all Ireland;^' and the Archbishop of Dublin is styled " Primate of Ireland.^' What regulation has been made respecting the Irish bishops? The archbishops are to be reduced to two ; and the bishops to ten; so when any of the present bishops of those sees which are to be done away with die, no others will be appointed in their place. Name the chief rivers of Ireland ? The Shannon, which is the largest, being 224 miles long ; it is famous for its Salmon Fishery, and falls into the Atlantic ocean. The Barrow and the Suir which form Waterford Harbour. The LiflFey which falls into Dublin Bay. The Blackwater and the Boyne. For what is the river Boyne famous in history ? For a battle fought near it, between the Irish Catholics, under James II., and the forces of William III., when the latter was victorious. What relation was William III. to James II. ? He was his nephew, and son-in-law ; being the 37 son of Mary^ Jameses sister, and he was married to Mary, the eldest daughter of this monarch. What is this period in English history called ? The Bevolution, because the EngUsh rebelled against the government of James II., and compelled him to abdicate the throne; when they invited over William, Prince of Holland, and bestowed the crown upon him conjointly with his wife Mary. What led to the revolution ? James's love of despotic power^ and his foolish attempt to re-establish the Roman Catholic religion, at a time when not one-hundredth part of the people of England and Scotland were favourable to such a change. Where did James II. die ? At St. Germains in France, where he lived after his abdication, upon the bounty of Louis XIY., A.D. 1700. Name the chief lakes in Ireland. Earn; Neagh; Foyle; Derge; and the lakes of Eillamey. In Ireland the lakes are called " Loughs.^' Whicn ar&the principal mountains iu Ireland? The Moume mountains, in the County Down. Which is the most northerly cape of Ireland ? Malin Head. Cape Clear is the most southerly cape of this island. What is the capital of Ireland ? Dublin, on the river Liffey. This city possesses a university, called Trinity College, which is confined exclusively to Protestants. Are there any other universities in Ireland ? Yes, one called Queen's College, where all sects, without regard to religion, can prosecute their studies. It embraces the colleges of Cork, Belfast, and Galway. There is also a college at Maynooth, in the county of Kildare, for the education of persons 38 who are intended for the Roman Catholic priesthood. It was endowed by Sir Robert Feel in 1845. Where is Londonderry ? It is a town in the county of the same name^ and is famed in history for the siege which it sustained against the forces of James II. Which are the principal ports in Ireland ? Cork, on the river Lee, in the county of the same name. On an island in the harbour is Queenstown, which was called the Cove of Cork, till the visit of her Majesty in 1849. Londonderry, already men- tioned. Limerick, on the Shannon, is a place of some considerable trade, and has manufactures of linen, wool, cotton and paper. Belfast, on the river Logan ; this town has a considerable foreign trade, and manufactures of linen and cotton. Waterford, on the river Suir. This is the nearest port in Ireland to Milford Haven, in Wales. Drogheda, north of Dublin, is one of the chief corn-markets of Ireland. Mention some other towns in Ireland. Galway, Kilkenny, Downpatrick, Carricfergus, Coleraine, Sligo, Kinsale, Wexford, Armagh, and Enniskillen. France. Where is France ? It is in the western central part of Europe, and it is bounded on the north by the English Channel, Belgium, and Germany ; on the south by the Pyre- nees and the Mediterranean; on the east by the Alps, the Jura mountains and the Rhine; and on the west by the Bay of Biscay. What was the ancient name of France ? Gallia or Gaul; it was conquered by the Romans under Julius Csesar, B.C. 56. 39 1 was France formerly divided ? • provinces; but since the revolution of 1789, 3een divided into 86 departments. The num- first was only 83, but three others have since ided. ) was King of France at the time of the ion? is XVI. who with his queen, Marie Antoinette, ut to death by the National Convention, fhat year were they put to death ? king was beheaded January 21st, 1793, and leen suffered the same fate on the 26th of ir in the same year. > eventually obtained the supreme power in ? oleon Bonaparte, who was bom in the island dca, which now forms one of the French de- nts. He made himself Emperor of France LS crowned by the Pope. ) succeeded Napoleon after his final defeat at oo? is XVIII., brother to Louis XVI. He was led by his brother Charles X., who was de- i in 1830, in consequence of his attempting ige the constitution. ) succeeded Charles X. ? is Philippe, duke of Orleans, who was de- i in February, 1 848, when France was declared )lic, and Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Bona was chosen president, and afterwards pro- l emperor in December, 1852. le the chief rivers of France. Rhone and the Saone, which unite at Lyons, [1 into the gulf of the same name, being an f the Mediterranean sea ; the Graronne and which run into the bay of Biscay ; and the 40 Seine and the Somme which fall into the English Channel. Where does the Rhone rise ? The Rhone, together with the Rhine, rises in Mount St. Bernard, in Switzerland. The Rhone enters the lake of Geneva, at the north end, which is called lake L6man, and continues its course from the south j when, after flowing some miles further, it completely buries itself under the ground; here it is called the " Perte du Rhone," the " Loss of the Rhone ;' it again becomes visible as it runs farther south. At Geneva, in consequence of there being a fall in the river, it is designated the "Chute du Rhone.'' Which is the principal canal in France ? Languedoc, which opens a communication between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic by means of the river Garonne. Name the chief mountains of France. The Alps, which divide it from Italy; the Pyre- nees, which separate it from Spain ; the Jura moun- tains, a boundary between it and Switzerland ; the Cevennes in Languedoc ; and the Yosges in the de- partment of the same name. Name some islands to the north of France. Jersey, Guernsey, Aldemey, and Sark. Aldemey is famous for a fine but small breed of cows. These islands are called the Channel Islands, and belong to the British ; they are the remnants of the Norman possessions. What do you mean by the remnants of the Nor- man possessions ? They belonged to William Duke of Normandy when he conquered England in 1066, and conse- quently became a part of the English dominions^ and have remained so ever since. 41 iVhat people inhabit these islands ? Chey are a mixed race^ and speak a language iposed of English and French. The capital of sey is St. Heliers^ and of Gaernsey St. Pierre. SVhere is the Race of Alderney ? [t is a channel between the island of Alderney 1 cape la Hogue in France, nrhatj is the established religion of the Channel inds? Che English Church; they are in the see of nchester ? [n what part of France is Normandy ? [n the norths it was anciently called ''North- ndy/^ and the inhabitants '' northmen,'' because y originally came from the north of Europe. Its lital is Rouen. Ssme some other islands off the coast of France. [Jshant^ opposite the port of Brest; Belle Islcj ^ron^ and Rhe in the bay of Biscay. Who headed an expedition against the isle of Rh6 ? rhe Duke of Buckingham in the reign of Charles but it entirely failed. This nobleman was after- rds stabbed at Portsmouth by an Irishman named Iton. What is the capital of France ? Paris on the river Seine. It is surrounded by Us which are fortified, and is entered by 56 gates barriers. The church of Notre Dame situated on island in the Seine is a magnificent gothic build' ;. The National Library in Paris is the larges( the worlds containing eight hundred thousand umes, besides manuscripts. The British Museum London contains but five hundred thousand umes. The Seine is crossed by 22 bridges, out twelve miles from Paris is Versailles, noted 4—^ 42 for its splendid palace and gardens^ and picture gallery. Where is Cherbourg ? It is a fortified port in the south of France^ opposite the Isle of Wight. Where is Rheims ? In the department of Champagne ; it was at this place that the French kings were formerly crowned. It is in this department that the wine called cham- pagne is made. Mention some towns in the north of France. Caen, Dieppe^ and Havre de Grace^ all of which are upon the sea coast. Name some seaport towns on the west coast of France. Brest, Lorient, Nantes, Rochelle, Rochefort, and Bordeaux. This last is famous for its wine called claret. Name two sea port towns on the Mediterranean. Marseilles and Toulon. Marseilles is a very ancient city, it was founded by the Greeks, 539 B.C. Where is Orleans ? In the centre of France on the Loire. This town is the birth-place of Joan of Arc, who compelled the English to raise the siege of ^ this place a.d. 1428, during the reign of Henry VI. Charles VII. reigned at that period in France. What became of J oan of Arc ? She was taken prisoner by the duke of Burgundy, at Compeign, whilst heading a sortie made by the inhabitants of that town against the English^ who were besieging it, and afterwards purchased by the. duke of Bedford, regent of England, and being tried for witchcraft at Rouen, she was condemned to be burnt alive, which sentence was most inhumanly carried out. 43 ere is Bretagne or Brittany ? I in the north of France, and takes its name he Britons who settled there> when driven out ;land by the Saxons in the fifth century, ere is Burgundy ? he coast of France^ it is famous for its wine Burgundy, ere is Lyons ? he south of France, at the confluence of the Rhone and Saone. It is famous for its silk actures. ere is Poictiers ? ) in the department of Vienne, and is famous victory gained by the Black Prince^ the son rard III., over the French, when John, king 3ce, was taken prisoner, a.d. 1356. 3re is Dauphin^ ? he department of Drome ; it gave the title o£ in to the eldest son of the king of France, gre is Limoges ? he department of Upper Vienne. It was here ichard Coeur de Lion, king of England, was whilst besieging the castle of Chains, a.d« ere is Amiens ? he north of France ; it was formerly the capi- ?icardy. It was at this place that a treaty of vas signed between the French and English in ign of George III., a.d. 1802. A little • north is Cressy, famous for a victory gained English over the French in 1346. ;re is Agincourt ? ;he north-east of France, a few miles to the of Abbeville. It was here that Henry V. d Charles VI. of France, who was a weak, e monarch, a.d. 1415. Hetwc^ N»\ftam<t^ 44 Catherine, the daughter of Charles, and was declared Regent of France and heir to the French throne. After his death Catherine married Sir Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, who was the grandfather of Henry VII. Where is Strasburgh ? On the river 111, about a mile from the Rhine ; it is a strongly fortified city in the east of France, and formerly belonged to Germany : it is famous for its magnificent Gothic cathedral, which has a clock of remarkably ingenious construction. From whom does France take its name ? From the Franks, a tribe of German emigrants, who completed the foundation of the present king- dom under Clovis, about the year 470 ; a few years later was the period when Christianity was introducd into France. What is the climate of France ? Mild and salubrious; the soil is exceedingly fertile, and produces in great abundance all the necessaries and a great many of the luxuries of life. France exports fruits, and silks which are manufactured at Lyons, wines and brandy ; this last, known under the name of cognac, is distilled at Charente. What is the established religion of France ? Roman Catholic; but all others are tolerated. The population of France is about 36 millions. The French are gay, lively, and inventive ; possessing a great amount of politeness ; but they are vain, frivo- lous, and selfish. Spain. Where is Spain ? In the south-west of Europe; it is bounded on the north by the Pyrenees and the bay of Biscay ; on the south by the Mediterranean, the Atlantic 45 Ocean, and the straits of Gibraltar; on the east by the Mediterranean; and on the west by Portugal and the Atlantic. What was the ancient name of Spain ? It was formerly known under the names of Iberia, Hispania, and Hisperia, which likewise included the kingdom of Portugal. These two countries taken together form a peninsula. Name the various people by whom Spain has at different periods been possessed ? The Celta, a people of Oaul, were its first inhabit- ants. It was afterwards possessed by the Phoeni- cians, who founded many cities in it. The Greeks were its next masters. It then became subject to the Carthaginians, a people of Africa, between whom and the Romans it was long a source of con- tention ; but a few years before the birth of Christ it became dependent upon the Roman empire. What people took possession of Spain after the fall of the Roman empire ? The Goths, who, under their king, Alaric, founded the Spanish monarchy. These were invaded by the Moors^ a people of Africa, who held possession of the country until about the year 1475, when they were driven out by Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain. How was Spain formerly divided ? Into 13 provinces; but, in 1833, the country was re-divided into 47 provinces. The Balearic isles and the Canary isles have since been added, making the number of provinces forty- nine. Name the chief rivers of Spain ? The Ebro, which falls into the Mediterranean sea ; the Tagus, the Douro, the Guadalquiver, and the Guadiana, all of which run into the Atlantic ocean. Which are the principal mountains of Spain ? 46 The Pyrenees, which separate it from France ; the Cantabrian mountains, which are a continuation of the Pyrenees ; the Sierra de Toledo, and the Sierra Nevada. What is the religion of Spain ? Roman Catholic, no other being tolerated. The government is monarchical. Name four islands in the Mediterranean belonging to Spain ? Majorca, Minorca, Iviga, and Fromentari. The island of Minorca has a famous harbour, named Port Mahon, one of the largest in the world. It was at the island of Minorca that Admiral Byng neglected to engage the French fleet, for which he was shot, A.D. 1757. Where did Spain, at one time^ have immense possessions? In America; but now it has not any on the conti- nent ; it only possesses a few islands, of which Cuba is the principal. What is the capital of Spain ? Madrid, on the Manzanares, a branch of the Tagus. It is about eight miles in circuit, and is surrounded by walls. The Prado, a handsome pro- menade two miles in length, is the favourite resort of the inhabitants. The palace of the Escurial, about thirty miles from the capital, contains the tombs of many of the Spanish kings, it has likewise a library, and a fine collection of pictures. Where is Saragossa ? It stands on the Ebro, in the province of Arragon. It is famous for the bravery which its inhabitants displayed during two sieges by the French, in 1808 and 1809, during the Peninsula War. Where is Cadiz ? It is on a narrow strip of land^ being part of an 47 island, between Gibraltar and the mouth of the Guadalquiver, On the eastern side of the bay of Cadiz is Santa Maria, the port for the shipment of sherry wine, which is made in the island of Xeres^ a short distance from it. Where is Badajoz ? On the Guadiana^ in the north of Spain. It was taken bySoult, one of Napoleon's generals, in 1811, and was retaken by Wellington in the April of the following year. Albuera, about 13 miles distant from Badajoz^ is where the French were defeated in 1811 by the allied English and Spanish armies. Where are the towns of Barcelona^ Malaga^ and Valencia? They are all situated in the Mediterranean ; the former is famous for its nuts ; and the other two are noted for raisins. Barcelona is a very ancient city, having been founded upwards of 200 years before Christ. Where is Seville? On the river Guadalquiver, in the south of Spain. It has a fine cathedral, and is famous for the immense quantity of oranges which it exports. Where is Granada ? On the river Douro ; it is situated at an elevation of 2312 feet above the sea. It contains many remains of Moorish grandeur ; among others the palace of the Alhambra, which was begun by the Moorish king Mohamed Abu Alimar. Name some other towns in Spain ? Cartagena, on the Mediterranean; it has a fine Wbour and arsenal. Alicant, a little to the north, is famous for the wine called Tent. St. Sebastian, on the confines of France, is famed for the siege ^hich it sustained in 1813 against the English, when It was taken by assault. Salamanca, once celeVst^"^^ for its university, is an ancient city, auA. cow\«vas^ \)aa 48 remains of Roman works. And Ciudad Rodrigo, about fifty miles from Salamanca, was taken by the French in 1810, and by the English in 1812. What is the climate of Spain ? It is mild and salubrious in the north ; but hot and unhealthy in the south. The soil is fruitful near the sea. Its population is about 12 millions. The Spaniards are grave^ pompous^ revengeful^ bigoted, and indolent. Portugal. Where is Portugal ? It joins Spain on the west, by which country it is bounded on the north and east^ and on the south and west by the Atlantic. What was the ancient name of Portugal ? Lusitania. This country, like Spain, was held by the Moors ; it was afterwards taken possession of by Spain, and became an earldom of that country. What prince threw off the Spanish yoke ? Alonzo I., A.D. 1139, and his descendants held Possession of the kingdom till the year 1580, when 'hilip II., king of Spain, who was the son of the emperor Charles V., made himself master of Portugal, and it remained an appendage of Spain till 1640, when the Portuguese threw off their allegiance to Spain, and elected the duke of Braganza for their king, who assumed the title of John IV., since which time it has remained an independent kingdom. What celebrated war was carried on in Spain and Portugal ? The Peninsula war, when the English, under Wellington, and the French, under the generals of Bonaparte, contended for the mastery in this penin- sula ; the French strove to take possession of it, and the English assisted the inhabitants to prevent their doing so. 49 What was the issue of this war ? The English succeeded in driving the French out of the peninsula^ and also followed them up in their own country, when Napoleon, being: defeated at Leipsic in Saxony, and finding his affairs hopeless, abdicated, and returned to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, where he remained but a short time, A.D. 1814. What English commander was killed during this war? Sir John More, he fell at Corunna, a.d. 1809. He was beloved by his soldiers, but he was inadequate to the command of the great undertaking in which the English were then engaged. What were the Portuguese the first to discover ? A passage to the East Indies by way of the cape of Good Hope, a.d. 1498. Henry VII. was king of England at that time. What is the religion of the Portuguese ? Roman Catholic. The government is monarchical, and their language greatly resembles that of the Spaniards. Name the chief rivers of Portugal. The Tagus, the Douro, the Minho, the Mondejo, and the Ouadiana. All these rivers, except the Mondejo, in some part of their courses, form a boundary between Spain and Portugal. What is the capital of Portugal ? Lisbon, near the mouth of the Tagus ; this city, like Borne, is built on seven hills. In 1755, during the reign of George II., it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. What city in Portugal ranks next to Lisbon ? Oporto, on the Douro. It carries on a great trade m the wine called port wine, which is made in the provmces of Entre-Douro-e-Minho and Tras-os- Montes. ^ 50 How many kinds of port wine are made ? Three ; one of which is drunk exclusively in the country; the second is used for making up other wines ; and the third is exported to foreign countries. What is the population of Portugal ? Nearly four millions. The Portuguese are dark in their complexion^ and^ like the Spaniards^ are very indolent ; but they do not possess the refine- ment and mental elevation of their neighbours. Belgium. How is Belgium bounded ? On the north by Holland, on the south by Prance, on the east by Prussian Germany^ and on the west by the North Sea. To whom did Belgium at one time belong ? To Philip II., king of Spain ; it joined the Dutch in a revolt against this king ; but was subdued by the prince of Parma. It remained in the possession of Spain till the year 1706 ; wKen, after the battle of Kamilies, gained by the duke of Marlborough in the reign of Queen Anne, it became united to Austria. What nation overran Belgium in 1794 ? France, when it became part of the dominions of that country; but in 1814 it was combined with Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands. Did these countries continue long united ? No, in 1830 Belgium revolted, and formed itself into a separate kingdom, and chose for its king Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg. Whom did he marry ? The princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV., and queen Caroline. After her death he espoused the daughter of Louis Philippe, late king of the French. Leopold died in 1865. Name the chief rivers of Belgium. The Maese or Meuse and the Scheldt. What is the capital of Belgium Brussels, on the Senne, a tributary of the Scheldt. This city is noted for the manufacture of carpets and lace. Which is the chief seat of trade in Belgium 7 Antwerp, on the Scheldt. After the Dutch had thrown off their allegiance to Spain, they attempted to ruin the commerce of Antwerp by sinking vessels laden with stones at the mouth of the Scheldt. The cathedral at Antwerp is a magnificent gothic build- ing 446 feet high. Name some other ports in Belgium. Ghent, Bruges, and Ostend ; the latter, though an inland town, carries on a large trade by means of canals. Liege on the Meuse, and Spa, are inland towns of Belgium ; the latter is the resort of number-^ less visitors, on account of its mineral waters. Where is Waterloo ? In Belgium, about ten miles south of Brussels. It is famous for a battle which was fought here be- tween the British under Wellington, and the French headed by Napoleon, when the latter met his final overthrow, Sunday, June 18th, 1815. What became of Napoleon ? He endeavoured to escape to America ; but find- ing the attempt fruitless, he surrendered himself up to the captain of the Bellerophon, and was sent by the allies to the island of St. Helena, in the Pacific ocean, where he died of a cancer in his stomach, A.D. 1821. What is the population of Belgium ? About five millions. The established religion is the Roman Catholic ; but other sects are tolerated. Holland, or the Netherlands. How is Holland bounded ? 52 It is bounded on the north and west by the North Sea ; on the south by Belgium ; and on the east by Germany. Part of the provinces of Limburgh and Luxemburgh belong to Holland^ which last is sepa- rated from it by Belgium, to which country the remaining portion of these provinces belongs. To what country did Holland formerly belong ? To Spain^ but it revolted during the reign of Philip II., and formed itself into an independent republic, under the name of the Seven United Provinces. By whom were these provinces overrun ? By the French in 1795, when they were formed into the Batavian Republic, and afterwards, into the kingdom of Holland, by Napoleon, who made his brother Louis king ; but in 1814 it was joined to Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands. What is remarkable in the situation of Holland ? A great portion of it lies below the level of the sea, which is prevented from overflowing it by means of dykes or banks of earth ; the tops of which serve as roads. Which are the chief rivers of Holland ? The Rhine, which rises in Switzerland and flows through that country, Germany and Holland, into the North Sea, and the Meuse and the Scheldt. By what means are the towns both in Holland and Belgium connected ? By canals ; these two countries are almost inter- sected by them, and nearly the whole of the inland trade of Holland is carried on by this means. What is the capital of Holland ? Amsterdam, on the estuary of the Y, at the mouth of the river Amstel, a branch of the Rhine. The houses in Amsterdam are built upon wooden piles, the ground not being sufiSciently firm to allow of anj other foundation. 53 Where is Saardam ? It is in Holland^ north-west of Amsterdam. Ship- bailding is carried on here to a very great extent. It was here that Peter the Oreat^ emperor of Russia^ worked as a shipwright^ which he did likewise at Deptford in Kent. Where is Haarlem ? To the west of Amsterdam. The village of Camp is not far distant from here^ where the battle of Camperdown was fought in 1797, in the reign of George III., when the Dutch fleet, commanded by De Witt, was vanquished by Admiral Duncan. Where is Leyden ? In the south of Holland ; it is famed in history for the defence which it made against the Spaniards ia 1574, when the Dutch inundated the Spanish camp by opening their sluices. Leyden is also noted for its university. Where is the Hague ? In Holland. It was here that William III., of England, Stadtholder of Holland, was bom. The Hague is the seat of government in this country. Name some other towns in Holland. Utrecht, on the Rhine, the seat of a university, Zatphen in Ouelderland^ where Sir Philip Sidney Was killed in 1586, during the reign of Elizabeth. Luxemburg, the capital of the province of the same name, Bergen-op-Zoom, and Flushing. Was not Holland at one time very powerful by sea ? Yes, it made both England, under Charles II., and the French, during the reign of Louis XIV., acknowledge its superiority. During the reign of Charles II., the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, ^vhen the city was entirely at the mercy of the Dutch admiral ; who, after sinking and destroying upwards of twenty ships, thought proper to retire. 54 What is the religion of Holland ? There is no established religioTi ; but the great majority of the people are Calvinists. The popula- tion is about three-millions-and-a-half. The Dutch are slow and heavy ; but remarkable for their clean- liness^ frugality and industry. They are the best gardeners in Europe, Name some islands off the coast of Holland. Texel, north and south Beveland, and Walcheren. In the reign of George III., a.d. 1809, the En- glish sent an armament of a hundred thousand men, under the command of the earl of Chatham, to oc- cupy a situation commanding the navigation of the Scheldt; but having disembarked on this island, they were swept off in thousands by disease, so that the expedition was retarded^ and eventually failed. Denmark. Of what does Denmark consist ? Of Zealand and Funen, and some other islands in the Baltic : Iceland, Greenland and Faro in the Northern ocean, and the province of Zutland. How is Denmark bounded ? It is bounded on the north by the channel of the Skager Rack ; on the south by Germany ; on the east by the Baltic sea, and the channel of the Cattegat ; and on the west by the North sea. Of what ancient people was Denmark the country? The Goths, who, with the Vandals, Huns^ and other barbarous nations, overran Rome. Until when was the crown of Denmark elective ? Until the year 1661, when the people made a formal surrender of their liberties to Frederick III. What Danish king married into the British royal family ? Christian VII., a.d. 1766 ; he married the young- 55 est daughter of George III.^ and, in 1772, she was imprisoned, and afterwards banished the kingdom. She died at Zell in Grermany, a.d. 1775. The prime minister of Denmark, and the queen's physician, were arrested at the same time and beheaded for treason. Has Denmark any river ? The only two of any note are, the Eyder which flows into the North sea ; and the Trave which falls mto the Baltic, a short distance below Lubeck. What is the capital of Denmark ? Copenhagen, which is situated on the western side of the island of Zealand. What English admiral attacked Copenhagen ? Lord Nelson, in March 1801, when he compelled the Danes to surrender all their stores and ships. By means of this the armed confederacy was de- stroyed. It was again bombarded and taken in 1807, and the Danish fleet of 18 sail of the line and 15 frigates were brought to England. What was the reason that Britain acted in this manner ? It was suspected that the Danish fleet was to be made over to the French, to be employed against England, and therefore the English seized it to pre- vent any such thing happening. Name some other towns in Denmark. Altona, on the Elbe ; Kiel in the Baltic, which has a university, and Bendsburg. What is the established religion of Denmark ? The Lutheran. The population is about two millions. Norway. Where is Norway ? In the north-west part of Europe, having Sweden on the east^ the Atlantic on the Y^e^t, tXi^ Ki^>^\^ 56 ocean on the north ; and the Skager Rack on the South. What is the capital of Norway ? Christiana. Name some towns of Norway in the Atlantic. Bergen, and Drontheim, the ancient capital. Hammerfest, on the island of Qualoe, exports oil, fish and skins. Frederickshall in Norway is the town where Charles XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon ball in 1718. When did Charles XII. come to the throne ? In 1695 ; he was a very warlike prince, and in his first campaign, at the age of seventeen, he hum- bled the power of Russia, Poland and Denmark, which countries had united in a league to seize his dominions. In what manner did Charles XII. accomplish this? He first laid siege to Copenhagen, and in six weeks compelled the Danish king to purchase the safety of his kingdom, by laying down his arms. He then hastened into Ingria, which was being in- vaded by Peter the Great ; and, in the battle of Narva, defeated an army of sixty thousand Russians, taking thirty thousand prisoners. In what way did he humble Poland ? He invaded th^t country, and took the cities of Warsaw and Cracow ; he then assembled the states general, and deposed Augustus, the Polish king, and placed Stanislaus, one of his own dependants, upon the throne of Poland. What was the next step of Charles ? He invaded Russia with an army of forty-five thousand men, and marched through the Ukraine, i,e,f the south-western part, in the middle of winter ; being instigated to do so by a treacherous promise of aid from the Cossacks ; in consequence of this, ^Jiis Army became wasted by fatigue and famine. 57 What was the result of this ? Being encountered by the Gzar^ he was easily conquered^ losing nine thousand in killed^ and fourteen thousand taken prisoners^ a.d. 1709. What followed this defeat ? Augustus remounted the throne of Poland ; and Peter the Great took possession of Finland^ and Livonia^ on the eastern coast of the gulf of Bothnia. What became of Charles XII. ? He retired with 1800 men into the Turkish do- minions ; but was soon after obliged to quit them, and return to his own country. He then^ at the instigation of his prime minister^ Gortz^ entered into a scheme to dethrone George I.^ and place the Pre- tender on the throne of England. What other parties entered into this scheme ? Alberoni^ the prime minister of Philip V., king of Spain^ and the Czar of Russia, who had made peace with Sweden ; but an unforeseen event frus- trated their designs, which was the death of Charles, as before described, a.d. 1718. What mountains are between Norway and Sweden? The Dovre-field mountains. Off the north-west coast of Norway is the Maelstrom, a dangerous whirlpool, and also the* Lofoden isles, chiefly famous for the quantity of fish caught near them. To whom was Norway formerly subject ? To Denmark ; but it was united to Sweden in 1815, by the treaty of Kiel. The government of these countries is a limited monarchy. The esta- Uisbed religion is the Lutheran. The population of Sweden is about three-millions-and-a-half, and of Norway, one-and-a-half-million. Sweden. How is Sweden bounded ? It is bounded on the north by t\ve XxeXvi ^^^«si\ 58 on the south by the Gattegat and the Baltic sea ; on the east by the Baltic sea^ the gulf of Bothnia^ and Lapland ; and on the west by Norway and the Skager-Rack. How is Sweden divided ? Into Sweden Proper, Gothland, and West Bothnia. What people were the ancient inhabitants of Sweden ? The Goths. To what country was Sweden formerly united ? To Denmark, a.d. 1887, and continued so until A.D. 1523, when Oustavus Yasa expelled the Danes; since which period it has remained an independent kingdom. What king of Sweden was assassinated in 1792? Gustavus III., who was succeeded by his son, Gustavus Adolphus, who was deprived of his crown in 1809 by his uncle the Duke of Sudermania ; and this monarch was succeeded by Bemadotte, one of Napoleon^s generals ; whose title was recognised by the Allies in 1818. What did Norway and Sweden form a part of? The ancient kingdom of Scandinavia. Have Norway and Sweden any rivers ? Yes; but few of them are navigable, in con- sequence of the falls and rapids which impede their course. The Gloramen is the largest river in Norway ; and the Gota is the principal stream in Sweden. Mention some lakes in these countries. Wetter, Wener, and Maelar are in Sweden ; and lake Miosen is the largest in Norway, being about sixty- three miles in length. What is the capital of Sweden ? Stockholm ; this city is built upon a number of small iaianda which are comiectedL^^ v?oo^eii\w\d.'^iaa^ 59 and on the adjoining mainland, near the entrance of the lake Maelar. Name some other towns in Sweden. Gk>ttenbarg, a considerable trading port ; Upsal, famoua for its university; and Carlscrona, the principal naval port and arsenal. What two islands has Sweden in the Baltic ? Gotland and Atland : the Aland isles formerly belonged to Sweden, but they have been ceded to Russia. Name a celebrated botanist of Sweden. linnseus, who classified all plants and animals. Lapland. It lies to the north-east of Sweden, and is situated in the most northern part of Europe; it belongs partly to Sweden and Russia. For how long is the sun absent in the northern part of Lapland during the winter ? For seven weeks, and during the summer it never sets for the same period ; this is the case with all countries in the same latitude. The farther north we go in the Polar Regions, the longer the sun is absent in winter, and consequently, in summer the the longer it continues shining without setting ; and at the poles there is only one day and night in the year. What is the cause of there being continual dny or night, at certain periods in the year, within the Polar Circles ? The sun always shines 90° every way, and when it is vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, it must shine 23i^ beyond the north pole, and consequently there can be no night to the people living in that circle ; and when the sun is over the equatOT, \\.% twj^ \\'^\. reach the north pohj and since the ^xxu V& xvatSSa. ^l 60 the equator for six months in the year, there must be constant light for that period at the north pole ; and six months' night at the south pole. When the sun is in the southern hemisphere, the reverse is the case. What is the capital of Lapland ? Tomea, it stands at the northern extremity of the gulf of Bothnia. What is there peculiar respecting the Laplanders? They are a very diminutive race, scarcely ever exceedmg five feet in height. Wliat constitutes the chief wealth of the Lap- landers ? Their reindeer, which supply them with all the necessaries of life, and it is by means of these animals that they travel, in sledges drawn by them, often at the rate of two hundred miles a day. Russia. How is Russia situated ? It occupies all the eastern part of Europe, and the northern part of Asia. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean ; on the south by the Black sea, and the Caucasus mountains; on the east by the Caspian sea, the Ural river, and the Ural mountains ; and on the west, by Swedish Lapland, the Baltic sea, and Prussia, Austria, and Turkey. What is the size of the Russian empire ? It is the largest in the world. Russia in Europe is 1600 miles in length from the most southern point of the Crimea to the Arctic ocean, and rather more than that in breadth from west to east. What were the emperors of Russia formerly called ? Czars of Muscovy ; Czar is an abbreviation of the word Csesar. 61 When does the history of Russia commence to be authentic ? About the year 1540, when John Basilowitz reconquered it from the Tartars, to which people it had been subject for many years. It was about this time that Russia conquered Siberia. When did Russia become an empire ? In the year 1721, during the reign of Peter the Great, the son of Alexis Michaelowitz ; he set aside the claims of his elder brother, and became master of the whole empire in 1689. When did Peter the Great die ? In 1725, and was succeeded by his wife Catharine I» Had Peter the Great no children ? Yes, an only son, named Alexis Petrowitz, who was condemned to death for treason; but the manner of his death was never known ; it is sup- posed that he was privately executed. What empress of Russia deposed her consort in 1762. Catharine II., the wife of Peter III. This emperor was preceded by John, who was dethroned whilst an infant. He was kept in close confinement till 1764, when a feint being made to release him, he was slain by the officer of the guard. In what estimation was the empress Catharine held ? She was the admiration of all Europe ; but her putting to death the emperors John and Peter III., cast a shade over her most illustrious actions. She has been styled the " Semiramis of the north .^' When did Catharine II. die? In 1796, and was succeeded by her son Paul Petrowitz, who was assassinated in 1801, and was succeeded by his son Alexander I. The late empe- ror Nicholas, who was the son of Alexander, ascended 62 the throne after his death. The present emperor is Alexander 11.^ the eldest son of Nicholas, who died in the year 1855. How is Russia divided ? Into 49 governments, not reckoning the province of Finland, which is divided into 8 governments ; and Russian Poland, which consists of 5 govern- ments. The division of Russia into 49 provinces took place under Catharine II. What is the capital of Russia ? St. Petersburgh, built by Peter the Great, in the year 1703, in the reign of Queen Anne. It stands partly on some marshy islands and the mainland at the mouth of the Neva, at the extremity of the gulf of Finland. A few miles from St. Peters- burph is the fortress of Cronstadt. What was the ancient capital of Russia ? Moscow ; it is connected with St. Petersburgh bv means of a canal made by Peter the Great. It resembles an Asiatic, rather than an European city. What happened to Moscow some years since ? It was burnt bv order of the government, to prevent Napoleon wintering there when he invaded Russia in 1812. It would seem, by the occurrences of the late Crimean war, that this is the policy- generally pursued by the Russians to prevent any of their towns falling into the hands of an enemy, without considering the wishes and feelings of the inhabitants. Name some sea ports of Russia. Archangel, on the White sea, at the mouth of the Northern Dwina ; some of the largest line-of-battle ships are built here ; but the harbour is frozen up for nine months during the year. Riga, at the extremity of the gulf of the same name. Revel, at 63 the entrance of the gulf of Finland. Odessa and Cherson on the Black sea; at the former place, which stands near the mouth of the Dnieper^ immense quantities of corn are shipped for foreign countries. Helsingfors^ in Finland^ of which it is the capital^ at the extremity of the gulf of the same name, and near which^ is the fortress of Sveaborg, which was bombarded by the French and EngUsh in 1855. Abo, the former capital of Finland, which has a university; and Warsaw, in Russian Poland. Where is the Crimea ? In the south of Russia ; it is a peninsula between the Black sea and the sea of Azov. It is one of the most fruitful districts in Europe. The capital is Simferopol. What fortress is in the Crimea ? Sebastopol, the chief naval station of Russia in the Black sea; the southern portion of which was destroyed by the allied forces of England and France during the Crimean war, but it has since been rebuilt. Name the principal rivers of Russia. The Volga, the largest in Europe, being about 2000 miles in length, and which falls into the Caspian sea. The Don, which empties itself into the sea of Azov. The Dnieper aud the Dniester running into the Black sea ; and the Dwina, which discharges itself into the White sea. Name the principal lakes in Russia. Ladoga and Onega, the former being the largest in Europe, measuring 123 miles in length. Name the chief mountains in Russia. The Ural mountains, which separate European Russia from Siberia, the Olonetz chain near the White sea, and the Caucasus mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. ft— ^ 64 For what is Russia conspicuoos ? For its immense tracts of uncoltiyated land called '^ steppes/^ and its large forests^ which are estimated to cover two-fifths of its surface. With what country does Russia carry on a large overland trade ? With China. What is the religion of Russia ? That of the Greek church. The government is despotic ; the Emperor is styled Czar, or Autocrat of all the Russias. The population of Russia in Europe is about sixty-five millions. What is the climate of Russia f Extremely various, in consequence of its great extent. The extremes of heat and cold are greater than in the same latitudes on the western side of the European continent. Has Russia any canals ? Yes ; the chief, besides the one already mentionedi is that which connects the Baltic with the Caspian sea. What are the chief exports of Russia ? Timber, hemp, tallow, hides, tar, and flax. Where is Finland ? It joins Russia on the west. The Fins make excellent sailors. Hanover. Where is Hanover ? In the north-western part of Grermany; it ia bounded on the north by the North sea, on tne south by the Prussian dominions, on the east by Prussia and the Elbe, and on the west by Holland. With what country was Hanover united in 1714? With Great Britain ; George I., Elector of Hano- ver, becoming king of England, the two oountriea n 65 were united under one sovereign, George I. acquired the throne of England by the right of his mother, Sophia, granddaughter of James I. He was the nearest Protestant heir. Is Hanover at the present time a part of the British possessions ? No ; in Hanover, the Salique law, which prohibits a female from reigning, is in force ; and consequently, the present queen of England, when she came to the throne, was excluded from holding any jurisdiction over that kingdom ; and, therefore, her uncle, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the son of George III., became king of Hanover. He was succeeded by his son Ernest II., who was deposed by the Prussians in 1866. What is the capital of Hanover ? Hanover, on the Leine, a tributary of the Weser. Name the chief seaports of Hanover ? Emden and Stade on the river Ems ; and Gottin- gen, with a Protestant university. Osnaburgh, in this country, gave the title of bishop to the late duke of York. What mountains are in Hanover ? The Hartz mountains, which extend along the south-eastern border; their highest summit^ the Brocken, is in Prussia. Prussia. How is Prussia bounded ? It is bounded on the north by the Baltic sea, Mecklenbtirg and Hanover, though this last now forms part of the dominions of Prussia ; on the south by France, Saxony, several German states and Austria ; on the east by Russia and the former king- dom of Poland ; and on the west by the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. ft— "i I 66 Of what does Prussia consist ? Of Prussia proper^ and several minor Germaii states, and a large part of Poland. By whom was Prussia conquered in 1230 ? By the (German knights of the Teutonic order, upon their return from the Crusades or Holy wars^ of which there were eight : the first was undertaken during the reign of William 11., and the last in the reign of Henry III., by his son Prince Edward. What was the object of the crusaders ? Their design was to recover the Holy Land, and more especially Jerusalem, out of the hands of the Saracens, who were the followers of Mahomet, a false prophet, who was bom towards the close of the sixth century. Till when did Prussia remain in possession of the Teutonic knights ? Until 1525, when Albert, the last grand-master of this order, was acknowledged duke of the eastern portion of this country, and for this reason it was called Ducal Prussia. He was a fief of Poland. Under whom did Ducal Prussia become inde- pendent ? Under Frederick William, sumamed the Great. In 1701 it was raised into a kingdom by Frederick; the son of Friederick William. What is the capital of Prussia ? Berlin on the Spree, a small river flowing into a tributary of the Elbe ; it has a museum and a uni- versity, and manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen goods^ and porcelain. Potsdam, 18 miles from Berlin, contains the palace of Sans Souci. What was the ancient capital of Prussia ? Konisberg on the Pregel ; it has a university. Where is Dantzic ? 67 In Prussia^ on the Vistula; it is noted for its great trade in com. Where is Pomerania ? It stretches along the shores of the Baltic sea^ its capital is Stettin. Where is Silesia ? It is a province of Prussia conquered horn Austria; its capital is Breslau on the Oder. Where is Magdeburg ? In Prussian Saxony, of which it is the capital ; it itands on the Elbe, and is one of the strongest brtresses in Europe. Halle in the same territory is ;he seat of a university ; and Isleben^ a few miles listant^ was the birth-place of Martin Luther. This lerritory is famed for its fine wool. Where is Westphalia ? It is a detached portion of the western Prussian lominions. Its capital is Munster^ on the river Sms. This province is famed for its hams. Of how many parts do the Rhenish provinces onsist ? Of two ; the first includes the provinces of Juliers, Aleves, and Berg; the other is known under the lame of the lower Rhine. They are watered by the Elhine and the Moselle. For what are these provinces noted ? For Rhine wine^ known under the name of Hock ind Moselle. What is the capital of the Rhenish provinces ? Cologne on the Rhine; it is the centre of the iteam navigation of the Rhine. From this town is )rocured the scent^ callecT Eau-de-Cologne. A few niles from Cologne^ is Bon, the seat of a university. Where is the town of Aix-la-Chapelle ? In Rhenish Prussia, near the confines of Belgium, rhis city was the capital of Charlemagne, one of the 68 early kings of France, he was the son of Pepin le 13rcf, who first gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction; he died in 768. It was at this place that a treaty of peace was signed bet^'een the English and French in 1748. When did Charlemagne die ? In the year 814. Ue was succeeded by his son Lewis le Debonaire, or ^ good-tempered.^' Where is Dusseldorf ? On the Rhine ; it is noted for its picture gallery. Where is Coblentz ? In Prussia, at the junction of the rivers Rhine and Moselle. Opposite to it, on the other side of the Rhine is the strong fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. Where is Frankfort-on-the-Oder ? . On the Oder, it is famous for its three annual fairs, which are attended by dealers from all parts of Germany, as well as from foreign countries. Where is Posen ? In Prussia, it is the capital of the province of the same name. What rivers run through Prussia ? The Oder, Vistula, Rhine, Weser, Niemen, and Elbe. What is the population of Prussia ? Including its lately acquired territories, 1866, of Hanover, Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-onthe Maine, it is about twenty-five millions. Poland. Where is Poland ? In the centre of Europe ; it is bounded by Russia on the east, and by Prussia on the north and west. Poland was the country of the Vandals, one of the barbarous nations that invaded the Roman empire. When was Poland raised to a kingdom ? 69 In the year 1000. The first Polish king was ^olislaus I.; the title of king was conferred on dm by Otho III., emperor of Germany. By what countries has Poland been dismembered ? By Russia^ Prussia^ and Austria. The first dis- Demberment took place in 1772 ; and in 1795, a otal partition of the kingdom was effected. What two empresses took part in the unjust spolia- ion of Poland ? Catharine II. of Russia, and Maria Theresa, impress of Austria, daughter of the emperor Charles 71. : she is likewise known as the queen of Hungary. \he was the mother of Marie Antoinette, the unfor- unate wife of Louis XVI. What parts of Poland were taken by each of these jowers? Russia took all the eastern part, which is by far he largest division. Austria seized that portion K)rdering upon Hungary; and Prussia took pos- ession of that part of the country lying near the Baltic sea. What is the capital of Poland ? Warsaw on the Vistula, this city is now included a Russia. The ancient capital was Cracow, on the ame river. Where is Oalicia ? It now forms a part of the Austrian dominions ; mt was formerly a portion of. the kingdom of Poland. '.t contains some very large salt mines; those of ^ielicza are the largest in the world. What mountains lie between Hungary and Poland? The Carpathian mountains. Austria. How is Austria bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Poland, Prussia, and Saxony ; on the south by Italy^ the Adriatic sea, and Turkey; on the east by Turkey and Russia; and on the west by Bavaria^ Switzerland, and Sardinia. What was the sovereign of Austria formerly called? Emperor of Germany and king of the Romans. Napoleon compelled the emperor of Austria to re- nounce this last title, and to content himself with that of emperor of Austria. Until the late war between Austria and Prussia, 1866, these two powers took the lead in the Germanic confederation; but the former no longer does. How was Austria compensated for the loss of Belgium ? She received Venetia in lieu thereof; but has 8U^ rendered it to Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, a.d. 1866. What are the possessions of Austria in Germany? Austria so called, Bohemia, and Moravia. Out of Germany it possesses Hungary, Transylvania, and Galicia, and the mountain districts of Styria, Carin thia, Camiola, Istria, and the Tyrol. Austria like- wise possesses a portion of Silesia with Dalmatia. How does Hungary lie with respect to Austria ? To the east of it. This country, with Transylvania^ Croatia, Dalmatia, and Sclavonia, constitute the Hungarian countries. In what part of Germany are Bohemia and- Moravia ? In the centre. The capital of Bohemia, is Prague^ and of Moravia, Bmnn. Twelve miles from Brunn is the village of Austerlitz, where Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1805. f When did the Hungarians attempt to throw oflT their allegiance to Austria ? In 1848 ; but tkey failed in consequence of the n Qce rendered by Russia to Austria to subdue at are the capitals of Hungary? [a and Pesth, on opposite sides of the Danube. try is famed for a wine called Tokay. ere is Styria ? ween upper Austria and Hungary. ere are Corinthia^ Garniola, and Istria ? y extend south from Styria to the Adriatic These districts are reckoned under the name of whom does Sclavonia belong ? Austria ; it lies between the Danube^ and the nd the Drave^ these two are tributaries of the '. Croatia and Dalmatia also belong to Austria. a is between the Drave and the coasts of the ic; and Dalmatia is between the Dinaric Alps^ e eastern co^st of the Adriatic sea. at is the capital of all Austria ? una; it stands upon an arm of the Danube; it as the palace of the Belvedere^ and the church Stephen^ a magnificent Gothic structure. r opposite to Vienna, on the other side of the ^, is Wigram^ the scene of some of Napoleon^s at victories, at famous castle is in Lower Austria ? castle of Diemstein ; it is about 40 miles from a and stands on the Danube. It was here that •d I. was confined on his return from the Holy when he was taken prisoner by the duke of a, who delivered him up to. Henry VI. emperor west, A.D. 1194. Saladin, emperor of the ^as contemporary with Richard I. Qre is the town of Gratz ? Styria, of which it is the capital. It is the seat liversity. 72 Where is Trieste ? In Illyria, on the Adriatic sea ; it is the chief port of Austria. Ship-building is carried on here to a great extent. Where is Innsbruck ? It is the capital of the Tyrol^ and stands on the river Inn. In this province is situated Trent, where an ecclesiastical council was held, called the Council of Trent, from 1545 to 1563. Where is Feterwaradein ? In Hungary, on the Danube; it is strongly forti- fied. Name two lakes in Hungary. Balaton and Neusiedler. What is the religion of Austria? Roman Catholic is the prevalent religion, three- fourths of the inhabitants being of that persuasion. The population is about forty millions. There are more illegitimate children in Austria than in any other country in Europe, Turkey perhaps excepted. The government is almost an absolute monarchy. Name the chief rivers of Austria. The Danube, flowing through Germany, Austria, and Turkey, into the Black sea ; the Save, the Drave, the Theiss, and the Inn. Smaller German States. What is Germany ? A large country in central Europe, extending from the shores of the Baltic sea in the north, to the Adriatic in the south ; and from France, Belgium, Holland, and the North sea, on the west, to Poland, Galicia, and Hungary on the east. Mention the principal rivers in Germany ? « The Danube and the Rhine, already mentioned; the Elbe, flowing through "Etxxssva^, ^«ssyK^> wid 73 lanover into the North sea ; the Oder, which flows hrough Silesia and Brandenburg^ the Weser flowing hrough Westphalia; and the Mayn or Main^ onning through Franconia into the Rhine. Which is the largest lake of Germany ? Constance^ which lies between this country and Iwitzerland. Where is the Black Forest ? In Baden ; it contains the source of the Danube. Where is Saxony ? In the north-western part of Germany. It was reated into a kingdom by Napoleon^ who annexed it the duchy of Warsaw in Poland^ of which it was leprived after the defeat of Napoleon. Name the capital of Saxony. Dresden, on the Elbe ; it is famous for the manu- icture of china ware. Very fine cloth is made in laxony. Where is Leipsic ? In Saxony. It was near this town that Napoleon offered a severe defeat in 1813. This place is cele- •rated for its great fairs which are held annually^ and t which a vast number of books are sold. Which is the smallest kingdom of Germany ? Wurtemberg ; it was created into a kingdom by fapoleon. Its capital is Stutgard. What state in Germany ranks next to Prussia and Lustria ? Bavaria. It was raised into a kingdom by Napo- »n in 1805. Bavaria is intersected by the Danube X)m west to east, and is also watered by the Mayn. Where is Blenheim ? In Bavaria; it was here that the French and lavarians were defeated by the English and Impe- alists under the duke of Marlboro\3L^\i ^xiAi ^^w^'^i'^ ugene^ in the reign of queen Anne, A.n* VIQ\% T 74 Where is Baden ? In Germany, on the confines of France and Swit- zerland ; it is a grand duchy. What famous watering place is in Baden ? Baden-Baden. Carlsruhe, Mannheim, and Hei- delberg are in Baden. Where are Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt ? They are in Germany ; but, consisting of detached portions, it is difScult to describe with accuracy their correct positions ; the former, together with Nassau, has been seized by Prussia. Name a town in Hesse-Darmstadt. Mentz or Mayence, on the Rhine. Gutenberg, the inventor of printing, was born here. Worms, also on the Bhine^ is famed in history for a diet held there in 1521, at which Luther was present. Where is Brunswick ? In Lower Saxony ; it was formerly celebrated for the bravery of its dukes. The present royal family of England is descended from the house of Brunswick. Its capital is Brunswick. Where is Saxe Weimar ? In central Germany. Jena, in this territory, i^ the place where Napoleon defeated the Prussians in- 1806. Where is Nassau ? It lies to the east of the Bhine, in Westphalia ; it^ has been taken possession of by the Prussians, 1866^ Where is Wiesbaden ? In Nassau ; it is famous for its baths. What German state has given two queens to^ England ? Mecklenburgh Strelitz. In what manner is Saxe Coburg Gotha distin^ gttkhed ? By its connection with many ot \Xi^ xo^^ i«m^vt^ 75 of Europe. The late Prince Albert was the second son of the late prince of this territory. Name the four free cities of Germany ? Hamburg, Frankfort, lately seized by the Prus- sians, 1866, Lubeck, and Bremen. It is at Frank- fort-on-the-Maine where the diet assembles. On what river is Hamburg ? It standson the Elbe, about 60 miles above itsmouth. It is a place of great trade, and has some consider- able manufactures. It is in the Duchy of Holstein. In 1813 it was occupied by the Russians, and after- wards by the Danes, and then by the French, who were driven out by the Allies in 1814. Of what towns was Lubeck the capital ? Of the Hanse Towns, another name for the free cities. It is situated in Holstein. Where is Bremen ? In Hanover, at the mouth of the Weser. What is the extent of Germany ? It is about 670 miles in length, and 600 in breadth. Italy. Where is Italy ? In the south of Europe. It is bounded on the north, and north east, and north west, by the Alps, which separate it from Switzerland, France, and Germany ; and by the Mediterranean on the west and south ; and by the Adriatic, or gulf of Venice, on the east. Italy is a peninsula ; being about 700 miles in length, and terminating in the Capes Spartivento, and Di Leuca. From whom does Italy take its name ? From Italus, an ancient king of that country. What mountains are in Italv'J The Apennioea, which extend from north to south, and divide into two branches towards the south. What volcano is in Italy ? Mount Vesuvius^ near Naples. By an eruption of this volcano^ about 1800 jrears ago, the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were overwhelmed; during which Pliny the naturalist lost his life. Name some rivers of Italy. The Po and the Adige, which fall into the Adriatic sea; and the Amo and the Adige, which empty themselves into the Mediterranean. Which are the chief lakes of Italy ? Maggiore; Como and Garda south of the Alps; Perugia and Bracciano in the Papal States ; Albano, near Rome, and Averno, not far from Naples. Mention some gulfs in Italy. Genoa, on the north west coast ; Taranto, which runs up into the southern part of the peninsula; the bay of Naples on the west ; the gulf of Salerno to the south of it ; and the gulf of Venice already mentioned. In what part of Italy is Lombardy ? In the north-eastern part; this territory, with Venice, until lately belonged to Austria, and was known under the name of the Lombardo- Venetian territory. The Ticino, a branch of the Po, separates this district from Sardinia. Where is Milan ? In Lombardy ; it was the capital of Napoleon's kingdom in Italy : he was crowned king of Italy here in 1805. Where is the town of Venice ? It stands upon seventy islands in the gulf of Venice: it was begun to be built in the fourth century, by some of the inhabitants of this country jsho fled to these islands when the Huns ravaged 77 Italy. At one period Venice was very powerful by sea, and was governed by a chief magistrate, called the Doge. It formerly belonged to Austria; but now forms part of the king of Italy^s dominions^ 1866. Where is Savoy ? To the north of the Alps; it consists of^ mountains covered with snow, and Alpine valleys. The inhabitants of this district suffer very much from a diseased swelling in the neck, called " Goitre.' It is sometimes as large as a man's fist. Savoy belongs to the king of Italy. Name three former dukedoms in Italy, but which now belong to the king of Italy. Tuscany, Modena, and Mantua. The capital of Tuscany was Florence, now the capital of the king of Italy's dominions ; it is situated on the Arno. Giotto, the painter, Dante, the poet, Amerigo Tespuccio, the navigator, and Pope Leo X. were torn here. Galileo, Machiavel, and Michael Angelo are buried here. What are the capitals of Modena and Mantua ? They have capitals of the same name. What poet was born at Mantua ? Virgil, 70 B.C. ; he was greatly favoured by Augustus Caesar, who restored him his lands, which liad been confiscated after the battle of Philippi. To whom did Parma and Placentia formerly belong ? To Maria Louisa, the widow of Napoleon ; but npon her death, which happened in 1847, they became a part of the Austrian dominions; at the present time they belong to the king of Italy. For what was Parma once noted ? For its cheese, known by the name of Parmesan cheese ; it is now made in the Milanese territory. 7—i 78 Where are the towns of Pisa and Leghorn ? In Tuscany. Pisa is on the river Amo ; it has a fine cathedral, the belfry of which is a leaning circular tower. Leghorn is on the Mediterranean; it is the most commercial city of Italy^ and is famous for the manufacture of straw hats and bonnets. Why does not the leaning tower at Pisa fall ? Because it is not out of the line of direction. So long as the end of a cord suspended from the centre of a leaning body remains within its base^ so long will it continue standing. In what part of Italy are the Pope's dominions? In the middle ; they are situated in the centre of what was formerly the Roman Empire ; they extend from the Mediterranean on the western side^ to the Adriatic on the east. What are the Pope's dominions sometimes called? The Papal States ; the capital of which is Some, on the Tiber. Rome was built by Romulus^ 753 years B.C.; his brother's name was Remus^ they were the sons of Rhea Sylvia^ the daughter ci Numitor^ the son of Procas^ king of the Latins. What does Rome still contain ? Many noble ruins, and monuments of its ancient grandeur. Name two celebrated buildings at Rome. The Pantheon^ a temple raised to all the gods; and the Church of St. Peter's, which surpasses in beauty, magnificence, and richness of design, every other building in the world. It was begun by Leo X., in 1508, and finished in 1621. It is 730 feet in length, and 520 feet in breadth, and 450 feet high. Name some of the designers of this cathedral. Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Bramanti. Where is Ancona ? 79 It is the chief port of the Papal States in the Adriatic ; it was taken by the French in 1796, who sarrendered it to the Austrians in 1799. Where is Civita Vecchia ? It is a port of the Papal States, and stands on the Mediterranean. Where is Bologna ? It is the second city of note in the Pope^s domi- nions ; it stands on the Po, and is famed for the sausage which bears its name. Ravenna, and Perugia are towns in this territory. Where is San Marino ? It is the smallest republic in the world. It extends along the shores of the gulf of Venice, and has preserved its independence for more than 1300 years. In what part of Italy is Naples ? In the south. Naples, its capital, is one of the most beautiful cities in the world ; it stands on the bay of Naples. The Lazzaroni, a lazy and vagabond class, who live by begging and roguery, are very numerous here. Where is the island of Sicily ? To the south of Italy, from which it is separated by the strait of Messina. This island was formerly called Trinacria, from its triangular shape. It was 80 fertile, that it was called one of the granaries of Rome. The Carthaginians, a people of Africa, took possession of this island ; but were driven out by the Romans during the Punic wars. Name the three principal towns in Sicily. Palermo, Messina, and Syracuse. The first-men- tioned of these towns is the present capital, whilst Syracuse was the ancient capital. Hiero, king of Syracuse, at first sided with the Carthaginians, but 80 eventually joined the Romans^ of whom he became the firm and attached ally. Name two celebrated tyrants of Syracuse. Dionysius the elder^ and Dionysius the younger ; the latter was expelled from Syracuse, and went to Corinth in Greece, where he is said to have opened a school, ^f) Name a celebrated mathematician of Syracuse? Archimedes ; it was this man who invented the screw of that name, and which is in use at the present time. He was slain by a soldier under the Roman consul Marcellus, who besieged Syracuse, 212 B.C. Name a volcano in Sicily. Mount ^tna. It is two miles in perpendicular height ; it measures 180 miles in circumference at the base, and its crater 3 J miles. This volcano is known to have been in a state of eruption at various times for the last three thousand years. Catania is a town situated at the foot of this mountain. Sicily belongs to the king of Italy. Where is Malta ? It is an island in the Mediterranean sea to the south of Sicily ; the capital of which is Valetta. The ancient name of this island was Melita, where St. Paul was wrecked in his voyage from Csesarea, a port of Judea, to Rome, being a prisoner at the time, after having appealed to Caesar, who was the emperor Nero. To what religious order of soldiers did this island at one time belong ? To the knights of St. John of Jerusalem ; it was given them by Charles V. emperor of Germany, after they were driven out of Rhodes by the Turks. What nation at a later period took possession of this island ? D 81 le French; but they were deprived of their lest by the Enghsh in 1800, who still retain ssion of it. Gozo is an island lying to the -west of Malta, bere are the Lipari islands ? the north of Sicily. Stromboli, the most erly, and Volcano, the most southerly of this ), have volcanoes which are constantly burning, bere are the islands of Corsica and Sardinia ? the Mediterranean sea, to the west of Italy, are separated by the strait of Bonifacio. Cor- the more northerly of these islands, belongs to ;e; and Sardinia, which is the larger, is in ssion of the king of Italy, bat is the capital of these islands ? gliari is the capital of Sardinia, and Bastia of ea. At Ajaccio, in this island, was born Napo- Buonaparte, a.d. 1769, in the same year as ngton and Nelson, lere is the island of Elba ? the Mediterranean sea, between Corsica and It was here that Buonaparte resided after his ation, from May 3rd, 1814, to the 26th of lary in the following year. The island of Ischia ) the south of Elba, near the bay of Naples, lat is the population of Italy ? ;lusive of Savoy it is about 26 millions ; the >n is the Roman Catholic, and the climate is , dry and healthy ; in the northern and elevated snow is sometimes seen as well as ice. Switzerland. lere is Switzerland? is entirely an inland country in the centre of )ej being bounded on the north and east by 82 Germany, on the soutli by Italy, and on the west by France. What was the ancient name of Switzerland ? Helvetia ; this country was subdued by the Romani under Julius Caesar. The inhabitants were called Helvetii. To whom were the Swiss some time subject ? To the Burgundians and Austrians, till about the thirteenth century, when they revolted. What caused the Swiss to revolt ? The tyranny of the Austrian governor, Geder, during the reign of Albert I., emperor of Austria. Who first offered any resistance to Gesler? William Tell, who, being condemned to be hanged by him, was rescued by his countrymen ; they then attacked, and defeated Gesler, who was slain by Tell, and, shortly after, the independence of the Swiss cantons was effected. Who conquered the Swiss in 1797 ? The French, under Napoleon, when a new republic was formed under the name of the Helvetic Confe- deracy. What is the present government of Switzerland? Bepublican ; each canton, of which there are 2% is independent of the others; but, as it respects foreign nations, they all constitute one body called the Swiss republic. What is the capital of Switzerland ? Berne, on the river Aar ; but Geneva, on the lake of the same name, is the largest town in this country. It is divided into two parts by the river Rhone, which, in its course, forms an island here. Name some other towns in Switzerland. Basle or Bale, Fribourg, Zurich, Lucerne, Soleure, St. Gall, and Neuchatel ; the last of which towns^ until lately, belonged to the king of Prussia. 83 ne some mountains in Switzerland. J Alps ; the highest of which are Mont Blanc ^oy, and Monte Rosa the highest in Switzer- :he Shreckhorn, and the Jungfrau, and Mounts >emard and Gothard ; the Jura mountains lie sn this country and France, lat is the height of Mont Blanc ? 000 feet, or nearly three miles above the level i sea. Mount St. Bernard at one time had a ;tery on its summit, 8,000 feet above the level sea. ne some lakes in Switzerland, leva, sometimes called lake Leman; Lucerne, mce, Neuchatel and Zurich; part of lake lore is in the Swiss territory. ne some towns on the north part of the lake of a. isanne, Vevay, Villeneuve, and Montrenu, they noted for their picturesque scenery, lat celebrated castle is on this lake ? \ Chateau Chillon ; it was here that Bonivard infined, who was the subject of Byron^s beautiful " The prisoner of Chillon.''' ne the chief rivers of Switzerland. J Rhine and the Rhone, which have their sources the Aar, and the Reuss ; the Inn, a tributary Danube, is in Switzerland, as is also the source Ticino. lat is the religion of the Swiss? •testant and Roman Catholic, lat language do the Swiss speak? nch, German, and Italian, according to their on with respect to these countries. The Swiss igal, and industrious and great lovers of their •y; they are in general poor and proud, and er themselves superior to other nations, and 84 flatter themselves that they enjoy a larger share of liberty, fancying that where there is a supreme ruler, there must be a certain amount of oppression. Greece. Where is Greece ? In the south of Europe ; it is bounded on the north by the Turkish provinces of Thessaly and Albania^ and on the south^ east^ and west by the Mediterranean sea. For what were the ancient Greeks remarkable? For the great advancement they made in the arts and sciences^ and for their military and naval ex- ploits^ and also for their famous statesmen^ generals; and orators. What first brought the Greeks into notice ? The Argonautic expedition under Jason^ 1263, B.C. They likewise obtained much glory in the war with Troy, which city they took after a siege of ten years. With what Asiatic power were the Greeks often compelled to contend ? With Persia, by which power it was twice invaded, under Darius and his son Xerxes. Greece afterwards in its turn invaded, and completely subdued that country, under Alexander the great, son of Philip II., king of Macedon, and grandson of Amyntas, 334-330 years B.C. Who was king of Persia when it was invaded by the Greeks ? Darius Codromanus, who was the last king; there were three kings of the name of Darius, viz. : Darius Hystaspes ; Darius Nothus ; and Darius Codromanus. What people had possession of Greece after the successors of Alexander the Great ? The Romans who treated the Greeks with great 85 apect. After the Romans, the Turks held them in slavish subjection for more than 300 years ; but eir tyranny and oppression at last drove the Greeks revolt against their oppressors. Who aided the Greeks to gain their independence ? The christian powers of Europe, and in 1829 the irks acknowledged the independence of Greece, )rd Byron assisted the Greeks in their struggle ainst Turkey. He died at Missolonghi^ a.d. 124, in the reign of George IV. What naval engagement was fought during this uggle? The battle of Navarino, in which the Turkish and cyptian tieet were defeated by the combined forces England, France, and Russia, under Sir Edward idrington, a.d. 1827. Navarino is in the south- st of Greece. Whom did the Greeks elect for their king? Otho, a Bavarian prince, a.d. 1833, in the reign William IV., brother of George IV., both of lom were sons of George III. Otho was deposed 1864. The present king is George, son of the ig of Denmark, and brother to the princess of ales, whose sister married the son of Ale3cander , emperor of Russia. What constitute the kingdom of Greece ? rhe Morea, or the ancient Peloponnesus, with tica and Thebes, as far north as the gulfs of Arta 1 Volo ; it also includes the islands of Negropont^ dra, and the Cyclades, together with the Ionian nds. IVhat is the capital of Greece ? Athens ; this city was likewise the capital of the lient kingdom of Greece. It contains the remains lumerous works of art. Here is Mars hill, at the tern end of which is Areopagus, the chief judicial % 86 court of Athens. It consisted of 70 of the wisest old men. What apostle preached here ? St. Paul^ who disputed with the Areopagi, and endeavoured to convince them that the " Unknown Grod/' to whom they had raised an altar^ was the one true Grod. When and by whom was Athens founded ? It was founded 1556 b.c.^ by Cecrops and an Egyptian colony. The territory, of which Athens was the capital, has been called at various times Ionia, Attica, and Cecropia. Name some other famous cities of ancient Greece. Thebes, Corinth, and Sparta. Of what was Thebes the capital ? Boeotia. It was begun to be founded by Cadmus, 1519 B.C. It was demolished by Alexander the Great, and afterwards repaired by Cassander, the son of Antipater, one of his generals. Where is Corinth situated ? In the centre of Greece, on the isthmus of Corinthi which joins the Morea to the rest of Greece. It was founded by Sisyphus, 1383 B.C. It took its name from Corinthus, the son of Pelops. Of what was Sparta the capital ? Of Laconia; it was sometimes called Lacedsemon. It was called Sparta after Sparta, who married Lacedsemon. What Spartan king opposed Xerxes at the strait of Thermopylae. Leonidas, who with 300 men, opposed the Per- sians for three days ; when a detachment of the enemy was conducted by a treacherous Trachinian by a secret path up the mountains, and falling sud- denly upon the Spartans, there slew them all with the exception of two^ who tied from the field of 87 tie; one of whom^ unableto bear the reproaches of countrymen for his cowardice^ killed himself; the er retrieved his honour at the battle of Platsea, ween the Persians under Mardonius^ and the Lace- monians and Athenians under Fausanias^ on the le day that the battle of Mycale was fought, ) B.C. ^fame a famous Spartan general. Lysander ; it was he who completely ruined the ver of Athens. Name a noted Athenian general. Miltiades ; he defeated the Persians at the battle Marathon, 490 B.C. Miltiades was afterwards justly condemned by his countrymen to pay a ivy fine, which being unable to do, he was thrown prison, where he died. Name a distinguished Theban general. Epaminondas; this man freed Thebes from the Ner of the Lacedaemonians, and was killed at the ;tle of Mantinea, 863 B.C. Name some modern towns of Greece. Tripolezza, Navarino, Patras, and Missolonghi. Where is the isthmus of Corinth ? It joins the Morea to the rest of Greece. The )rea is the southern part of this country. On this bmus stands the ancient citadel of Acro-Corinthus. Where is the gulf of Lepanto ? It runs up between the Morea and the northern rt of Greece, it is sometimes called the gulf of rinth. Where is cape Matapan ? It is the most southerly cape of Greece. Where are the Ionian islands ? In the west of Greece ; in that part of the Mediter- lean, called the Ionian sea; there are seven of jm, viz. : — Corfu, Santa Mora, Cephalonia, Ithaca, 88 Zante^ Cerigo^ and Paxo ; until lately* these islands were under the protection of Great Britain^ bat in 1864 they became a part of Greece. Name a famous ancient king of Ithaca. Ulysses^ he rendered himself famous at the siege of Troy. For what is Zante famous ? For currants^ which it produces in great abon- dance. They are called currants because they first came from Corinth in Greece. Where are the Cyclades ? In the ^gean sea^ to the east of Greece; the principal are^ Delos^ Ceos^ Naxos, Paxos, Mdos; Seriphos, and Tenedos. The greater part of these islands encircle Delos. Name some other islands belonging to Greece. Negropont, Hydra, Spezzia^and Egina; all which are near the mainland. What is the religion of Greece ? The Greek church. The population is about one million two hundred thousand. The climate is mild and most agreeable. Mention some mountains in Greece. The Pindus chain, which is also in Turkey; and mount Parnassus. What league existed among some of the states of north Greece? The Achsean league'; it consisted of twelve states which bounded themselves together for mutual pro- tection. The whole country was called Achaia by the Romans. Turkey in Europe, How is Turkey bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Hungary and Russia ; on the south by the sea of Marmora^ the Archipelago and Greece ; on the east by the Black sea ; and on the west by the Austrian provinces of Dalmatian Croatia^ the Adriatic sea^ and the Medi- terranean. Who were the Turks originally ? They were a warlike race who inhabited that im- mense tract of country known to the ancients under the name of Scythia, and at the present day of Tartary ; at a later time they were called Saracens. Under what other name is Turkey known ? The Ottoman empire; it was established by Ossman L, about the year 1300. When did the Turks begin to establish them- selves in Europe ? About the year 1352 ; soon after this^ Amurath fixed his empire at Adrianople, «. e., the city of Adrian. By degrees they subdued the eastern em- perors, and in 1453 they took Constantinople, i. e,, the city of Constantine — who was the first Christian emperor of Rome — when the eastern empire may be said to have come to an end; and since that time the Turks have been regarded as an European nation. What is the government of Turkey ? Despotic, the whole authority of the state is vested in the Sultan or Grand Signior. To whom are the affairs of the Turkish govern- ment intrusted ? To the Grand Vizier. It is the policy of the Turkish government, to have such ofiicers of state, as are entirely at the command of the Sultan, whom he can destroy without danger to himself. What is the religion of the Turks ? Mahometanism, as established by Mahomet, whom they consider greater than Jesus Christ. The book by which they profess to regulate their lives is the Koran^ which was written by Mahomet ; parts of 8— a 90 wbich were distributed at different times^ in order that he might r^nlate his policy according to the chain of events. Which are the chief mountains of European Turkey ? The Hoemus or Balkan chain ; Findus and Olym- pus in Thessaly^ and Mount Athos; this last over- shadows the island of Lemnos^ though at a distance of 24 miles. What is the height of mount Olympus ? It is a mile and a half high^ and is famous for being the place where the ancients believed the gods of the heathen mythology resided^ and where Jupiter held his court. Mention the chief provinces of European Turkey. Bulgaria^ and Rumelia; this last includes the ancient Macedonia^ Thessaly and Albania. Name some other provinces of Turkey. Moldavia, Wallachia, Bosnia, and Servia; but these last are nearly independent, or under the in- fluence of Russia. What is the capital of Turkey ? Constantinople on the Bosphorus. Constantine the Great removed the seat of government from Bome to this city, which before, was called Byzantium; it then became the capital of the eastern, as Rome was of the western empire. The Roman empire being thus divided, was one of the causes which greatly tended to accelerate its downfall. Scutari on the Asiatic coast, is considered a suburb of Constanti"' nople. Name some buildings in Constantinople. The Seraglio, or palace, which is washed by the ]posphorus and the Golden Horn, an offset of the former; and the church of St. Sophia, which was built by the emperor Justinian in the sixth centuryt 91 Which is the second city in Turkey ? Adrianople^ near the river Maritza. This city was the capital of the Ottoman empire before the Turks took Constantinople. Where is Salonika ? In the south of Turkey, on the shores of the Archipelago. Its ancient name was Thessalonica. Name some fortified places in Turkey. Schumla, Nicopolis, Belgrade, Varna on the Black Sea, and Silistria. It was at the last-named place that the Russians were frequently repulsed with great slaughter, upon their attempting to take it during the late Crimean war, a.d. 1855. Where is Sinope ? On the Black Sea; it was here that the Russians inhumanly destroyed the Turkish fleet before war had been formally declared. Where is Bukharest ? In Wallachia, on a tributary of the Danube. Where is Jassy ? It is the capital of Wallachia, and stands on a tributary of the Pruth. Name some islands of Turkey. Lemnos, at the entrance of the Dardanelles; 'Hgina, where money is said to have been first coined 5 Candia in the Archipelago, together with Mytilene, Shodes, Cos, Samos, Chios, and Cyprus. What was the ancient name of Candia ? Crete ; this island at one time contained a hundred cities, and it was at this island that St. Paul advised the master of the ship in which he was a prisoner to Borne from Csesarea, to winter. Mount Ida is in this island. Where is Rhodes ? ; In the Levant, the most easterly port of the Medi- 02 terrean; this island, with Cyprus and the other islands mentioned, belong properly to Turkey in Asia. For what was Rhodes famous r For an immense brazen statue of Apollo, called Colossus, which was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. It was 105 feet in height ; its legs stretched from one side of the harbour to the other, and ships were able to sail under it. Who was the designer of this statue ? Chares ; it was begun 300 B.C., and was 12 years in the course of construction ; 56 years after it was erected, it was partly destroyed by an earthquake. In 672 it was sold by the Saracens to a Jew, for 86,000 pounds, who loaded 900 camels with the brass of which it was composed. Where is Cyprus ? In the Levant, to the west of Syria. Pliny states that it was originally joined to the mainland. The capital is Nicosia. The apostle Barnabas was bom in this island. What is the population of Turkey in Europe ? About fifteen millions. The climate of Turkey is varied, according to the elevation of the district ; near the lower Danube the extremes of heat and cold are felt. Name the chief rivers of Turkey in Europe. The Danube, the Pruth, the Save, and the Maritza. In European Turkey there are several lakes, the chief of which is Skutari. Asia. From whom are the Asiatics descended ? From Shem, the son of Noah. In which hemisphere is Asia ? In the eastern hemisphere ; it lies to the east of Europe; to the north-east of Africa ; and to the west of America, from which it is separated by the Pacific 98 ocean ; it is bounded on the north by the Arctic or Frozen ocean. In what does Asia surpass the other divisions of the globe ? In the fecundity of its soil, the mildness of its air^ the delicious flavour of its fruits, the medicinal qualities of its plants, its gums, and spices, and in the value of its gems and metals. ^ For what else is Asia remarkable ? It was here that our first parents were placed, and it was this quarter that was first peopled after the deluge, 2348 B.C. In Asia almost all the events recorded in the bible took place, and here also were situated the empires of Assyria, Media, Chaldea, and Persia, the last of which was conquered by Alexander the Great, king of Macedon. What European nation held possession of a great part of Asia ? The Romans; and after them the Saracens founded in Asia an empire larger than Persia under Gyrus, or Alexander, and even than the Romans. Who were the Saracens ? The successors of Mahomet were known under this name. Tamerlane the Great was the last of the Saracens who possessed any great sway in Asia. What is the peculiar form of government in Asia ? Despotism. What religion prevails in Asia ? Mahometanism. The Persians and Mahometans of India follow the sect of Uali, and the Arabians and Turks are of the sect of Omar. Where was Mahomet born ? At Mecca, and died at Medina, both which towns are in Arabia. He fled from Mecca to Medina in 622. The flight of Mahomet is called the He^\t^. What languages are spoken in Ami 94 The Russian^ the Persian^ which is considered the court language of Asia; the Turkish, the Arabic, the Malayan, the Chinese, the Japanese, iand the Tartarian. Name some seas to the east of Asia. The Chinese sea, to the south-east of China ; the Yellow sea, to the east of China ; the Japan sea, to the east of Mongolia or Chinese Tartary ; the sea of Okhotsk, to the east of Asiatic Russia ; the sea of Kamschatka, to the east of Siberia ; and the gulf of Tartary, between the island of Saghalien on the east, and Mongolia and Russia on the west. Of what ocean are all these seas part ? Of the Pacific ocean. Mention the seas to the west of Asia. The Red sea, which separates Arabia from Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia; the Mediterranean, the Black, and Caspian seas. Why is the Red sea so named ? From the'quantity of red coral found there. Coral is formed by innumerable insects. Where is the Persian gulf? Between Persia and Arabia. Where is the Arabian sea ? Between Arabia and Hindostan ; it is sometimes called the sea of Oman. Where is the bay of Bengal ? To the east of Hindostan, and west of the Burmese empire. Where is the gulf of Martaban ? To the south of the Burmese empire. Where are the gulfs of Siam and Tonquin ? The gulf of Siam is to the south of Siam ; and the gulf of Tonquin is to the south of China and Tonquioi between Cochin China and the island of Hainam. What isthmus joins Asia to Africa ? 95 The isthmus of Suez. The countries which it connects are Arabia and Egypt. * Where are the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb ? Between Arabia and Africa ; they connect the Red sea with the Arabian sea. Bab-el-Mandeb signifies the gate of tears. Where are the straits of Ormas ? Between Persia and Arabia. They connect the Arabian sea with the Persian gulf. Pearls are found in this gulf; which are a disease in the oyster. Where is Palk^s strait or passage ? Between Hindostan and the north-east coast of the island of Ceylon ; the gulf of Manaar separates it on the north-western side. Where are the straits of Malacca ? Between the peninsula of Malaya and the island of Snmatra. The straits of Sunda are between Sumatra and the island of Java. Where are the straits of Macassar ? Between the islands of Borneo and Celebes. Where are Torres straits ? Between the islands of Papua or New Guinea^ and Australia. Basses straits separate Australia from Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land. Where are Behring^s strait ? Between Asia and North America; these two continents make the nearest approach to each other it these straits. Where is Cape Comorin ? In the south of Hindostan. Name the countries in the south of Asia^ beginning n the south-west side. Arabia, Persia^ Beloochistan^ Hindostan^ the Bur- lese empire, Siam, Laos, Anam or Cochin China, id China. Name the countries in the east of Asia. 96 China, Chinese Tartary or Mongolia^ Asiatic Russia, Siberia, and Kamschatka. What countries are in the west of Asia ? Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Independent Tartary, and Asiatic Russia. Siberia occupies the northern part of the continent. In what country are Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor included ? In Asiatic Turkey, which lies to the north of Arabia. Where is Afghanistan ? North of Beloochistan, and south of Independent Tartary. It is sometimes called the kingdom of Cabool. Where is Thibet? To the north of Hindostan. Nepaul and Bhootan are two independent states in the north of India. Where is the peninsula of the Corea ? On the eastein coast of Asia; its eastern shores are washed by the sea of Japan. Turkey in Asia. How is Turkey in Asia bounded ? It is bounded on the nort^h by the Black sea, on the south by Arabia, on the east by Persia and Georgia, and on the west by the Mediterranean. Name the chief cities of Turkey in Asia. Smyrna in Asia Minor, situated on the Levant; it is the chief port of Asiatic Turkey. Damascus and Aleppo in Syria; the former is the oldest city in the world, and is famous for the manufacture of sword blades. Jerusalem in Palestine, and Bagdad on the river Tigris. Name some others. Tyre, Sidon, Acre, and Antvodv in Syria, the last of which ia where the fo\loN«et^ oi CtoeX^etfe^s^ 97 called CIiristiaDs; and Bassora or Basra^ on the Shat-el-Arab, the name given to the united streams of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is near the Persian golf. For what was Tyre famous ? For its purple dye. It was here that queen Dido lived before she founded the city of Carthage in Afirica. She was the grandmother of Jezebel^ the wife of Ahab, king of Israel. What two great conquerors took Tyre ? Nebuchadnezzar^ king of Babylon^ after a siege of 18 years^ when he destroyed it ; it was afterwards rebuilt on an adjacent island, and was taken by Alexander the Great. Of what was Jerusalem the capital ? Judaea, another name for Palestine, or the Holy Land ; it was sometimes called the Promised Land, because God promised it to the posterity of Abraham. Csesarea was the chief port of Judaea when a Roman province. In what year was Acre besieged by the French under Napoleon ? In the year 1799, during the reign of George III., when, aided by Sir Sydney Smith, it resisted the French for sixty-one days, who were obliged to raise the siege. What Egyptian took Acre ? Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Mehamet Ali, in 1832 ; he spent upwards of five months in besieging it ; but it was retaken by the combined fleets of England, Austria, and Turkey, under the command of Admiral Stopford. What ancient city is supposed to have been situated about 60 miles from Bagdad ? Babylon^ which was founded \>^ "Smw^^ «xA. greatly enlarged by his wife, Sem\t^.m\^\ ^^^ afterwards by Nebuchadnezzar. This city was the capital of the Chaldean Empire. The Chaldeans were the first people who studied astronomy. The town of Hillah stands among the ruins of Babylon. Who took Babylon ? Cyrus, the Persian, 538 B.C., when his uncle Cyaxares II. became king; he is better known under the name of Darius, the Mede. He was succeeded by Cyrus. How did Cyrus take Babylon ? By turning the waters of the Euphrates, which ran through it, into another channel, and his army marched into the city through the dry bed of the river. Belshazzar, the son of Evil Merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, was king of Babylon at this time ; and the prophet Daniel was living here, he came into favour with Darius and Cyrus. Name one of the chief works of art of Babylon. The hanging gardens, which were built by Nebuchadnezzar. What other ancient city was situated in Asiatic Turkey? Nineveh, on the Tigris, near where Mosul now stands. This city was the capital of the Assyrian* empire. What people destroyed Jerusalem ? The B/omans, under Titus, the son of Vespasian, tenth emperor of Rome, a.d. 70. Josephus, a converted Jew, has written an interesting account of the siege of Jerusalem, of which he was an eye- witness. What ancient city was situated in Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor ? '' The pupH must not confouiid Assyria with Syria. 99 Troy, wliich was destroyed by the Greeks, when Priam reigned over it, 11^ b.c. Name some of the most famous Greek leaders. Agamemnon, the commander-in-chief of the Greek forces ; Ajax, Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Nestor, and Neoptolemus. Mention some leaders on the side of the Trojans. Hector and Paris, the last of whom was the cause of the Trojan war, sons of Priam; Antenor, and J)ne^, a son-in-law of Priam. The last two are accused of having betrayed Troy into the hands of the Greeks. How was Troy taken ? By the stratagem of the Wooden Horse. — Vide firgil, ^n. Book II. What gave rise to the Trojan war ? Paris, one of the sons of Priam having persuaded Helen, the wife of Menelaiis, to leave her husband, and flee with him to his father's kingdom; the Greeks united their forces and besieged Troy. Name some mountains in Asiatic Turkey. Mount Taurus, in Asia Minor, Ararat, in that part of Asia Minor called Russian Armenia ; it is higher than Mont Blanc. It was here that the Ark rested after the flood, 2348 b.c. Hermon and Tabor^ in Palestine^ and Lebanon^ in Syria ; this last was famous for its cedar trees. To what age did the cedars of Lebanon live ? They were 700 years coming to perfection, and the same time falling to decay. According to M. Lamartine there are but seven of these trees ^maining. Name some mounts near Jerusalem. Mounts Zion^ Moriah, and Olives. Which are the principal rivers ot A.m^e^xsffeRTj'^ The Tigris and Euphrates, wlaicYi iiiXV \s^ ^^^ 9— ^ 100 mouth into the Persian gulf ; the Orontes and the Jordan ; the latter flows into the Dead sea^ and the former into the bay of Antioch. What was the ancient name of the country between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates ? Mesopotamia, a name which is derived from two Greek words, " Mesos/^ between, and '^ Potamos/^ a river. It is now called Al-jezireh. The lower district between these rivers is called Irak Arabi. Name some seas in Asiatic Turkey. Asphaltites or the Dead sea, the water of which is nine times heavier than the ocean ; and the sea of Tiberias, sometimes called the sea of Gralilee, or the lake of Gennesaret. Of what ancient cities was the Dead sea the site ? Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities of the Plain, which were overthrown when Lot lived in them. What is the religion of the Turks ? Mahometanism, What are the chief manufactures of Turkey ? Carpets and leather. Asiatic Russia and Siberia. Where is this country ? It occupies all the northern part of Asia, extend- ing from the western to the eastern side of the continent of Asia: the northern shores of Siberia are washed by the Northern ocean. What use does Russia make of Siberia ? As a place of banishment for their state prisoners. What countries bordering on the Caspian sea belong to Russia ? Astrachan, Georgia, and Circassia. What is the population of Asiatic Russia ? About seven millions. 101 Into what two governments is Siberia divided ? Irkutsk in the east^ and Tobolks in the west. What mountains are to the west of Asiatic Russia? I The UraUan mountains. Name the chief rivers of Siberia. The Obi, the Irtish, the Yenesei, and the Lena^ all of which run northward into the Arctic ocean. What large lake is in Asiatic Russia 7 Lake Baikal. What is the climate of Asiatic Russia and Siberia? The cold is excessively severe, especially in Siberia, cuid in some parts of the latter country the ground in summer remains unthawed at a depth of six inches. Name the chief towns. Tobolsk, which is reckoned the capital of Siberia, ^omsk, on the Tom; Omsk, on the river Irtish, Xrkutsk, Yakutsk, and Okotsk. Where is Kamtschatka ? In the north-eastern part of Asia; it is a pen- ^ioisula joining Siberia. Arabia. Where is Arabia? '^ It is a large country in the south west of Asia, liaving Turkey on the north ; the Arabian sea, and t;he sea of Bab-el-Mandeb on the south ; the Persian gulf and Turkey on the east ; and the Red •ea, and the isthmus of Suez on the west. Into how many parts is Arabia divided ? Three ; Arabia Felix, or the Happy, which extends along the shores of the Red sea ; Arabia Petrsea, or the Stony, in the north ; and Atabi.^ li^^^xXa.^ ^-^ the Desertj in the south and east. 102 Which are the chief towns of Arabia ? Mecca^ the capital ; Medina^ Mocha^ Sana, Mus- cat, Suez, and Aden. For what are Mecca and Medina famous ? The former for being the place where Mahomet was born, and tfcjp, latter where he was buried. Every Mahometan considers himself bound to go on pilgri- mage to Mecca once during his life. Jeddah is the port of Mecca. In what part of Arabia are Mocha and Aden ? In the south-west, near the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb. For what are they famous ? Mocha is famed for its coffee, the best in the world, and Aden is one of the stations for the ships engaged in the overland route to India. Who projected the overland route ? Lieutenant Waghorn, R.N. Name some mountains in Arabia. Sinai and Horeb in the north ; and Gabel-el-Ared in Arabia Felix. For what are Sinai and Horeb famous ? It was upon Sinai that God gave the ten command- ments to Moses; and God appeared to him in a burning bush in mount Horeb, when he kept the flocks of his father-in-law Jethro, priest of Midian. From whom are the Arabians descended ? From Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Agar. What was foretold of the posterity of Ishmael ? That they should be invincible, and that " their hand should be against every man, and every man's hand against them,' and their having remained un- subdued, even by the Greek, Roman, and Tartar conquerors, proves the divinity of the prediction, and the Arab, like the Jew, is a convincing proof that the writers of the Bible were divinely inspired. 103 What is the signification of Arab ? It means a robber^ and it is remarkable that the country has kept its name unchanged from the earliest period to the present time. What is the religion of the Arabs ? Mahometanism. Its population is twelve millions. Persia* How is Persia bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Georgia^ the Caspian sea^ and Independent Tartary ; on the east by Afghanistan and Beloochistan ; on the south by the Persian gulf and the gulf of Oman; and on the west by the Persian gulf and Turkey. Into how many provinces is Persia divided ? Seven, viz. : Arzerdbijan, Mazanderan, Irak- Ajami^ Khuzistan, Farsistan, Khorasan^ and Kirman. What are the chief towns of Persia ? Teheran the capital, Ispahan the former capital ; Shiraz, which was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake in 1853^ Ormuths and Gomberoon. Has Persia any considerable rivers ? No. The Araxes is in the north; but a very small portion of Persia is washed by it ; the largest river in the north of Persia is the Kizil Ozan ; it is bown in Scripture under the name of Gozan. The 8hat-el-Arab washes the western shores of Persia ; this river is a continuance of the Tigris and Eu- phrates after they unite, before falling into the Persian gulf. What is there remarkable in the Persian sheep ? The tails of some of them weigh thirty pounds. Is Persia an ancient kingdom ? Yes, it is one of the oldest in the world. It suc- ceeded the Assyrian or Babylonian empire. * The ancient name of Persia ^aa \iwi. 104 By whom was the Persian monarchy founded ? By Cyrus, about 550 years b.c. ; it came to an end when Darius was king, 329 b.c, who was con- quered'by Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, a country now included in Turkey in Europe. What is the religion of Persia ? Mahometanism, mixed with Brahmin superstitioD. Afghanistan and Beloochistan. How are these countries bounded ? On the north by Independent Tartary ; on the east by Indostan; on the south by the Arabian sea; and on the west by Persia. By what other name is the country of Afghanistan known. It is sometimes called the kingdom of Cabool. Of what ancient kingdom did Afghanistan fonii a part? Of the ancient Iran or Persia. What are the chief towns of Afghanistan ? Cabool the capital. Candahar, Ghuznee, and Herat. What is the capital of Beloochistan ? Kelat. What is the religion of these countries ? Mahometanism. Independent Tartary. Where is Independent Tartary ? It lies between the Caspian sea on the west, and the Chinese empire on the east, having Russia on the north and Persia and Afghanistan on the south. What are the chief towns of Independent Tartary? Bokhara the capital. Samarcand and Kokan. Name a large lake in Independent Tartary. Lake Aral, one of the largest m the world. What river flows througVi t\iA& eoxxnX.x^'^ 105 The Jihon or Oxus, which falls into lake Aral. To what race do the Tartars belong ? To the nomadic or wandering tribes. Indostan. Where is Indostan ? It is a large country in the south of Asia, being »unded by Afghanistan^ Beloochistan^ and the rabian sea on the west, by the bay of Bengal and urmah on the east, and by the Himalayan mountains I the north. How is Indostan politically divided ? Into those countries which are ruled by Great ritain, those whose princes are under her influence, id those which are still independent. What is the population of India ? 140 millions, nine-tenths of whom are either allies : Britain or subject to her. What is the derivation of the name Indostan )metimes spelt Indoostan ? It is of Persian origin, being derived from two 'orda, " indos,^' black, and '^ stan,^' a country, signi- j^ng the " black country," having reference to the omplexion of the inhabitants. Others believe it to aean the " country of the Indus,'' from the river ndus flowing through it Name the three British presidencies. Calcutta in the north-east, Madras in the south- east, and Bombay in the west. Name some mountains in Indostan. The Himalayah to the north, the eastern and irestem Ghauts, and the NelUghelly hills. Where are the chief rivers of Indostan ? The Indus, which flows into the Arabian sea ; the Ganges, the sacred river of India ; and the Burram- pooter, both which fall into the bay of Bengal. 106 Where do these rivers rise ? In Thibet. Name some of the provinces of India. The Punjaub in the north-west, the chief towns of which are Lahore and Monltan. This is the country of the Sikhs. Oude in the north-east, the capital of which is Lucknow ; this place was long besieged by the revolted Sepoys, and was at last relieved by Sir Colin Campbell.* Bengal in the north-east. Scinde near the mouth of the Indus. The Camatic in the south-east ; and the Mysore territory in the south- west. What is the signification of the term Punjaub T It signifies a country watered by five rivers. What is the capital of the Mysore ? Seringapatam, which was taken by Lord ComwalEs in the reign of George III., a.d. 1799, when Tippoo Saib, the son of Hyder All, both of whom were inveterate enemies of the British, was slain. Name some other towns in India. Agra, Delhi, Allahabad, Benares, the chief seat of Hindoo learning in India, and Patna ; all of which towns are situated in the northern part of India. 6oa, which belongs to the Portuguese, is on the west coast; Poonah, Hyderabad, Tatta, Ajmeer, Surat, and Arcot ; Cashmere is in the most northern part of Indostan, and is famous for the manufacture of shawls. Which is the capital of all British India ? Calcutta, on the river Hooghly, a branch of he Ganges ; it stands about a hundred miles inland. What settlements have the French in India ? Pondicherry and Chandemagore. What are the eastern and western coasts of India named ? * Afterwaida "Loxd CVj^e. 107 The western is called the Malabar, and the eastern lie Coromandel coast. What commodities are brought from India ? Gold, diamonds, indigo, opium, and drugs. What is a diamond ? Pare carbonic acid gas. How is the comparative value of diamonds deter- (lined ? Bv the squares of the differences of their weights. Give an example. If a diamond weighs 2 carats, and another weighs i, the latter is 3 times heavier than the former, and he square of 3 being 9, the diamond which weighs 6 arats is 9 times more valuable than the one which nly weighs 2 carats. How is a diamond polished ? By means of diamond dust ; the diamond is fixed 1 a piece of lead, and the dust being made to adhere a stone bv means of some sticky substance, it is ben ground or polished in the ordinary way. What is indigo ? A plant from which a blue dye is extracted. What is opium ? The thickened juice of the poppy. The Chinese nd some other nations are much addicted to the moking of it ; it produces a pleasing intoxication, lat is very injurious to the constitution, producing bbility and premature decay. Who are the priests of India ? The Brahmins ; they maintain that they are a more Dcient race than the Chinese, and that these are a dlony of them. Their sacred language is the anscrit, which is studied only by themselves. What animal is reverenced by the Hindoos ? The cow ; and they will not eat any animal food. 108 The Hindoos are divided into castes^ and the members of one caste will not associate with those of another. In whose reign were the East India Company granted an exclusive charter to trade with India ? In the reign of Elizabeth. Who greatly increased our possessions in India? Colonel CUve, in the reign of George II. What became of Clive ? He hanged himself; he had twice previously attempted to shoot himself. What was the character of Clive ? He was a restless, good-for-nothing boy when at school; a brave and skilful commander^ whom no difficulties, however great, could daunt ; but he was somewhat arbitrary in his dealings with the native princes, though he excused himself by saying that, '' he was obliged to meet rogues with roguery." Who was the first invader of India worthy of notice ? Alexander the Great, about 330 B.C. Who was the next ? Genghis Khan, a.d. 1220; he was followed by Tamerlane the Great, a.d. 1398, who exceeded ia cruelty all the conquerors that the world has produced, and established an empire extending from Asia Minor to the east of India. Who may be said to have been the founder of the Mogul empire in India ? Aurenzebe, a despotic tyrant, who died in the year 1707. Under whose government is India at the present time? The Queen's ; the East India Company has been abolished, and the Indian army has been amalga- mated with the other forces of her Majesty since the revolt of the sepoys in 1857. 109 What is the religion of Indostan ? Idolatry and Mahometanism. It is said that the natives have three hundred million gods. Where is Nepaul ? It is an independent state in the north of Indostan. What is the capital of Nepaul ? Khatmandoo. What is the religion of Nepaul ? Buddhism. Where is Bhotan ? To the east of Nepaul. What is the chief town of Bhotan ? Tassisudon. The Birmese Empire. Where is the Birmese Empire ?' To the east of Indostan, having Thibet on the norths and China and Siam to the east of it. Of what does this empire consist ? Of Birmah^ and the kingdom of Ava. What other states formerly constituted a part of this empire ? The kingdoms of Pegu and Aracan^ and the province of Tenasserim^ all which now belong to the British. What large river flows through Birraah ? The Irawaddy^ which rises in Thibet^ and falls into the gulf of Martaban in the south. What are the chief towns of Birmah ? Ava, which is the capital^ and Ammerapoora. What is the capital of Pegu ? The capital of Pegu, is Pegu, on the river Pegu, a branch of the Irawaddy. Rangoon is in Pegu. What is the capital of Ar^can ? Aracan, which is intersected by t\ie Kx^c^axiTO^^* What are the chief towns of Teua^^mm^ \0 110 Tavoy and Mergui. What river flows through Tenasserim ? The Tenasserim river. What is the religion of these countries ? Buddhism. In the late war between the British and the Bir- mese who were the aggressors ? The Birmese, who, in 1795, violating our territory in pursuit of some criminals, were quickly repelled; from that period, till 1824, there was a secret mis- understanding between the two powers, and in the latter year — in consequence of the arrest of some missionaries resident there, and the seizure of a dis- trict within our territory — war was declared against them, and, being defeated, they ceded to the British, the territories a&eady mentioned. In 1852 hostili- ties again commenced, when the British arms were once more successful; since which time the two countries have enjoyed the blessings of peace and commerce. The Peninsula of Malata. Where is Malaya ? In the south of Asia, to the north-east of the island of Sumatra, from which it is separated by the straits of Malacca. What is the chief town of Malaya ? Malacca. What is the character of the Malays ? They are a fierce and warlike race, and much ad- dicted to piracy, but, notwithstanding, their language is very harmonious ; it has been styled the ItaHan of the East. What people claim this peninsula ? The Siamese. Where are Siam, Laos, Cambodia, Anam,Tonquin, and Cochin China ? Ill They are all in the south of Asia. What is the capital of Siara ? Brankok on the river Meinam,which flows through Siam, into the gulf of Siam. What large river flows through Anam ? The Camboya, which falls into the gulf of Siam. What is the religion of these countries ? Buddhism. What is the climate of Malaya ? , It enjoys a perpetual summer. Thibet. Where is Thibet ? It is to the north of Indostan^ and to the west of China. What mountains are in the south of Thibet ? The Himalayah range. What rivers rise in Thibet ? The Irawaddy, and most of the large rivers of Indostan, and some which flow through China. What is the capital of Thibet ? For what is Thibet i-emarkable ? For the number of lakes that it has. Who is the object of worship in Thibet ? The Grand Lama^ who resides at Lassa^ in a "ace 120 yards high, and which contains ten thousand apartments. Who is the Grand Lama ? He is a person, who, the priests persuade the people, never gets old, and when appearances belie this, they despatch him, and substitute another in his place. China. Where is China ? It is a large country in the south-east of Asia. How is China proper bounded ? 112 It is bounded on the north by Mongolia ; on the east by the Yellow sea, and the Pacific ocean; on the south by the Chinese sea, the gulf of Tonquin, the countries of Siam, Laos, Auam,and Cochin China; and on the west by the Birman Empire and Thibet. Name the chief towns of China. Pekin the capital, Nanking, Canton, Shanghai, and Fou-Chow-fou. What is Nanking famous for ? For the manufacture of Nankeen, a species of light cotton. Name some of the rivers of China. The Hoang-ho, or Yellow river; the Yang-tse- kiang, or Blue river; both of which fall into the Yellow sea. These rivers have many tributaries equal in size to some of the largest rivers of Europe^ as the Peiho, or Peho, the Eu-ho, and the Si-kiang^ or Ta-si-kiang, which last empties itself into the sea.^ near Canton. "What two great works of art are in China ? The Imperial Canal, and the Great Wall. When was the Great Wall built 'C About two thousand years ago ; it was built by the Chinese to protect themselves from the Tartars. .For what plant is China remarkable ? For the tea-tree. When the tea-tree attains the age of three years, the leaves are fit to gather, and there are three gatherings in a year. There are seven kinds of black tea, and six of green tea ; bat green tea is often the black tea coloured by the Chinese to suit the taste of Europeans. A great quantity of tea that has been used in the tea-pots of the Chinese, undergoes a preparation, and is then exported to Europe. What nation at present rules in China ? TLe MoDgul Tartars, wlao coxic^vxet^^ \\. \ti\^AS^. 113 what manufactures are the Chinese famed ? celain and silk. The silk- worm was brought 3hina. at is the religion of China ? is a strange mixture of superstition and lat is the population of China ? IBS been variously estimated. Lord Macartney, 94, estimated it at 333,000,000, and Dr. jon, in 1825, at 353,000,000 nearly, at settlement have the Portuguese on the eastern coast of China ? cao : it is situated on an island named Heang- The Portuguese were the first European who traded with the Chinese; they visited at the commencement of the fifteenth century, lere is Chinese Tartary, or Mongolia ? ies to the north of China, lat large river flows through it ? J Amoor, or Saghalien, which empties itself le gulf of Tartary. ere is Manchouria ? is to the east of Mongolia, and is watered by ^moor: these two last mentioned countries ; to China. Japan. ivhat does Japan consist ? a number of islands in the Japan sea. The ; are Niphon and Jesso. oe the chief towns of Japan, igasaki, Osaka, Jedo, and Miaco. V is Japan governed ? a temporal, and a spiritual ruler, what are the Japanese famed 7 lacker- work ; but their unwillingness to trade 114 with Europeans, renders it almost impossible to pro- cure any of their best specimens of this manufacture. What is the religion of the Japanese ? There are three religious sects in Japan ; one of which, called Sinto, believe in a supreme being. Buddha is an object of worship here, as well as in China. In many things there is a great similarity between the Chinese and the Japanese. With what two European countries did the Japanese until lately only trade ? With the Dutch and the Portuguese. They formerly traded with the English; but at the instigation of the Dutch they ceased doing so.^ The Islands of Asia. Where is the island of Pherim ? In the Red sea, it belongs to the English, and has lately been strongly fortified. The Laccadive Islands. Where are the Laccadive Islands ? In the Indian ocean, to the south west of Indostan. These islands are very small and thinly inhabited. There are nineteen of them ; the two principal ones are Anderot and Cabarita. Of what origin are they ? Arabian, and they profess Islamism, or Mahome- tanism. Who discovered these islands ? Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator, a.p* 1498. They belong to the English. The Maldives. Where are the Maldives ? In the Indian ocean, to the south-west of Indostan; * A tre&ty of commerce TMk&\a\.f^^\)etTi<s«ii'^xi^^^\5«' tvFeen the English and Japanese. 115 Y are divided into seventeen groups j some of m are wasting away ; they are but slightly ele- Bd above the sea. Ceylon. SVTiere is the valuable island of Ceylon ? [n the Indian ocean^ to the south of Indostan^ n which it is separated by Falk's passage on the th-east side^ and the gulf of Manaar on the th-west. It belongs to the English. ^ame the chief towns of Ceylon. yolombo, the capital ; Kandi, and Trimcomale. ^hat berry is cultivated in Ceylon ? yoffee, which would be equal to the best kinds, e the growers more experienced in the art of cul- .ting it. The tea-tree^ and sugar cane have lately n introduced into this island. Vhat fishery is carried on in the gulf of Manaar ? ?he pearl fishery ; but it is not very profitable. /That animals are very numerous in Ceylon ? Slephants^ some of which are tamed and made to k. 8 Ceylon a flat or mountainous country ? t is very mountainous in the interior. Andaman and Nicobab. ¥here are the Andaman and Nicobar islands ? n the bay of Bengal^ the principal are Great and :le Andaman. They produce teak, iron-wood, ebony. Vhat is the character of the inhabitants ? 'hey are a very degenerate, cruel, and fierce race. Vhat is their only covering ? lud, which they put on their bodies to protect nselves from the noxious insects, which are very lerous here. 116 What nation endeavoured to establish a settlement here? The English, but owing to the ferocity of the natives, and the unhealthiness of the cUmate^ they were obliged to give it up. Where are the Nicobar islands ? In the bay of Bengal, the largest is Sambelong; like the Adaman islands, they are very unhealthy. Penang, or Pkince of Wales' Island. Where is the island of Penang, or Prince of Wales' island ? To the west of Malaya ; it belongs to the British. How did it come into their possession ? It was presented to them by an EngUshman who had it as his wife's dowry, being the daughter of the king of Keddah. What is the climate of this island ? Exceedingly healthy, so much so, that persons who have lost their health for many years in India, sooa recover their energy and strength in this island. What are the chief productions of this island ? Pepper, nutmegs, cofiee, sugar, and pine-apples. Almost all the ships engaged in the China trade touch at this island. Sumatra. Where is the island of Sumatra ? The large island of Sumatra is in the Indian ocean, to the south-west of Malaya, from which it is sepa* rated by the straits of Malacca. Is Sumatra a productive island ? Yes, fruits and flowers grow here spontaneously, to a fabulous size. There is a flower in Sumatra three feet in diameter. Some of the edible roots weigh four hundred pounds ; oaA. \Xiexe «xe %»^^ 117 liell fish so large that more than twenty men can me off one of them. Are there any wild animals here ? Yes, wild animals of almost every kind abound in his island. What large town is in Sumatra ? Bencoolen, in a district of the same name. The Dutch possess almost the entire trade of this island. Singapore. Where is the island of Sincapore ? To the south of Malaya; it belongs to the English; ts chief town is Sincapore. Java. Where is the island of Java ? In the Indian ocean, to the south-east of Sumatra, rom which it is separated by the strait of Sunda ; ie greater part of this island belongs to the Dutch. Name the chief towns in Java. Batavia, the capital of the Dutch settlements in he East Indies; Bantam, Cheribon, Tegal, and iemorang, each of which is the capital of a residency { the same name. Did this island ever belong to the English ? Yes, they took possession of it in 1811 ; and under heir government the island greatly improved; at a ater period it was restored to the Dutch, and in OQsequence of their avaricious policy the revenue as decreased. Borneo. Where is the island of Borneo ? In the eastern Archipelago, to the west of Celebes, "om which it is separated by the strait of Macassar. What is the size of this island ? 118 It is as large as Britain and France together; and^ next to Australia^ is the largest island in the world. What are the chief towns of Borneo ? Borneo, Banjamassin, and Ponteanak. What European nation possesses a large part of this island ? The Dutch. What peculiar custom regarding marriage exists in one part of the island of Borneo ? No man can marry unless he has cut off the head of an enemy : and a widower cannot marry again, unless he has slain an enemy in battle. What circle passes through Borneo and Sumatra? The equator. What animal is peculiar to these two islands f The ourang-outang. What European first visited Borneo ? Fernando Magellan, a Spanish navigator. Name some other islands in the eastern Arcbi- pelago. Celebes, Jilolo, and Ceram. What settlement have the Dutch in Celebes ? Macassar and Menado. What settlements have the Dutch in Ceram ? Wahdi. What is the policy of the Dutch in all these islands 7 To shut out the English from trading with them. Papua, or New Guinea. Where is New Guinea ? It is a large island in the Pacific ocean, north of Australia, from which it is separated by Endeavoor and Torres^ straits. Why i8 this island bo caWed.^ 119 Prom the similarity of the inhabitants to the people Guinea in Africa. Who discovered this island ? The Spaniards in 1528 ; but it is very imperfectly lown even at the present time. Australia, or New Holland. Where is Australia ? In the Pacific ocean ; it is the largest island in the }rld, and belongs to the British. This island^ with ew Guinea, New Zealand, and Tasmania, form the incipal group of islands in Australasia. What is the signification of Australasia ? Southern Asia. How many colonies have the English in Australia, id name them ? Four, viz. : New South Wales, South Australia, ^est Australia, and Victoria, or Port Philip. Name their chief towns. Sydney is the capital of New South Wales ; Ade- ide is the capital of South Australia ; Perth is the pital of West Australia — it is on the Swan river ; elboume is the capital of Victoria. Has Australia any rivers ? It has a great number, but all of them are incon- lerable in comparison with the size of the country. Name a few of the principal. Victoria river, the largest, in North Australia; the iverpool; and the Alhgator rivers; the Yarra- arra ; the Murray ; and the Swan river. Name some other towns in New South Wales. Brisbane, Bathurst, and Port Jackson. Where are Geelong and Port Philip ? In the colony of Victoria, which is the most uthern part of Australia. Where is Botany bay ? 120 On the east coast of Australia. Why is this place so named ? This name was given it by Captain Cook, its dis- coverer, from the number of plants unknown to Europeans, that were found to thrive there. What did the British once use this district for? As a place to transport convicts to; but it was discontinued in 1842. Van Diemen^s Land, or Tasmania. Where is this island ? To the south of Australia, from which it is sepa- rated by Basses strait. What is the capital of Tasmania ? Hobart Town ; Elizabeth Town is distant twenty- one miles from it. What are the principal rivers of Tasmania ? The Derwent and the Tamar. Has Tasmania any lakes ? Yes ; the principal is named Clarence. What animals are found here ? The kangaroo, the opossum, and the wild cat. Name two ports in Tasmania. Dalrymple and Launceston. To whom does this island belong ? To the English, who took possession of it in 1803, in the reign of George HI. New Zealand. Where is the island of New Zealand ? In the south Pacific ocean, to the south-east of Australia. Of what does it consist ? Of three islands, named New Munster, New Ulster, and New Leinster. Mention some towns in New Zealand. 121 Auckland, the capital, Nelson, Wellington, and Canterbury. To whom does New Zealand belong ? To the British, who took possession of it in 1840. Where is Chatham island? To the east of New Zealand. Where is Norfolk isle ? To the north-west of New Zealand. Philippine Islands. Where are these islands ? In the north Pacific ocean, to the south-east of Dhina ; they belong to the Spaniards. Name the chief of them. Luzon, Mindanao, and Palawan. What is the capital of these islands ? Manilla, in the island of Luzon ; it is famed for ts cigars. What is the structure of these islands ? Volcanic, many of the mountains being in a state >f constant eruption. They are also much subject o earthquakes, by which many of its towns have requently been laid in ruins. What nation took these islands from the Spaniards? The English, in 1761, but they restored them in .764, in the reign of George III. The Pelew Islands. Where are the Pelew islands ? In the north Pacific ocean ; they lie to the east of he Philippines. The inhabitants are Malays. Hainan. Where is the island of Hainan ? To the south of China. W 122 What is its capital ? Zeun-chu-fu, on the river Lemu. Hong-Kong. Where is the island of Hong-Kong ? To the south-east of China ; it stands at the en- i trance of the Canton river. ^ What is the signification of this name ? It means " Sweet Waters/^ The water of China in many parts is bad^ and has to be boiled before it is fit for drinking. To whom does this island belong ? To the British ; it was ceded to them in 1841 ; it is very hilly, and only a few acres are fit for cultiva- tion. What is the capital of Hong-Kong ? Victoria. Stanley is another town in this island. What is the chief export of this island ? Granite. What is granite ? It is the hardest of stone, and the lowest stratum in the earth to which we have gone. What are the component parts of granite ? Mica, felspar, and quartz. Gneis, or detritus, is pulverized granite, and forms the second lowest stratum. Next in order are the Silurian formations, which consist of coral. The next stratum is coal, and then chalk ; and lastly, the earth, or ground, which we cultivate. How is coral formed ? By insects. What is coal ? Wood acted on by moisture, heat, and time. Peat-moss is a coal-bed in its infant state, which jbas been indisputably proved to \i«in^ oxvc.^ V^^^xi wood. What is chalk ? 123 An accumalation of marine insects and shells. What are those strata of flint observed in chalk ? Petrified sponge^ caused by silicious matter per- colating through it. Flints have been discovered, in the inside of which has been found sponge. Formosa. Where is the island of Formosa ? In the Pacific ocean, east of China, to which country it is partly subject. Its chief town is Tayo- wan. What European nation first attempted a settle- ment here ? The Dutch, in 1634, but they were driven out of it by a Chinese pirate. The Loo-Choo Islands. Where are these islands ? In the Pacific ocean, east of China. Which is the largest of these islands ? Tanaxima, which, with several others, belongs to Japan ; the other islands forming this group are in- dependent. Where are the Ladrone or Marianne, and the Caroline islands 7 In the north Pacific ocean. Ladrone signifies a robber ; a name given these islands by the Spaniards, on account of the thieving propensities of the in- habitants. Saghalien. Where is the island of Saghalien ? It is to the north of the island of Jesso, one of the Japan islands. This island is adm\ta\A^ 'svV.wd.^.^^V^'c. giving aay European nation, wlio mi^X. iox\si ^ ^^V W— % 124 tiement here, the predominance over the eastern coast of Asia. Where are the Kurile isles ? To the north of the Japan islands. Where are the Aleutian isles ? To the east of Kamstchatka, in the Behring sea. Africa. What is Africa ? One of the four great continents ; it is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean sea, which sepa- rates it from Europe ; on the east by the isthmus erf Suez, and the Red sea, dividing it from Arabia, and by the Indian ocean ; on the south by the Southern ocean ; and on the west by the Atlantic ocean, which lies between it and America. Which are the chief rivers of Africa ? The Nile, the Niger, the Orange or Oliphant, the Senegal and the Gambia. Where does the Nile rise ? In the mountains of the Moon, in Abyssinia, it flows northward through this country, Nubia and Egypt, into the Mediterranean sea. How are the diflFerent parts of this river de- signated ? By the names of White Nile and Blue Nile ; at the confluence of these two streams the river takes the name of the Nile. What is the Delta of the Nile ? It is that part of Egypt lying between the branches of the Nile by which it empties itself into the Me- diterranean sea. It is called the Delta, from its re- sembling in shape that letter of the Greek alpha- betJ. What 18 there peculiar m t\via xYNet^ 125 It periodically overflows its banks; and in this manner fertilizes the land through which it flows. Where does the Niger rise ? In the Kong mountains^ about ten degrees north )f the equator : it empties itself by many mouths nto the the gulf of Benin^ and the Bight of Biafira, vhich are parts of the Atlantic ocean. Name some travellers who were sent to discover ;he sources of these rivers. Park, Denham, Clapperton and Lander. Where are the Senegal and Gambia rivers ? They flow through the western part of Africa into he Atlantic ocean. Of what river were these two streams long sup- )osed to be branches ? Of the Niger ; but Park proved this to be incor- rect. Where is the Orange or Oliphant river ? In the south-western part of Africa; it empties tself into the South Atlantic ocean. Is Africa joined to any other continent ? Yes, to Asia, by the isthmus of Suez, which is ;ixty miles across. Which are the principal mountains of Africa ? The Atlas range ; the mountains of the Moon ; Lud the Kong mountains. Where are the Atlas mountains ? They extend through the Barbary States, in the lorth of Africa. Where are the mountains of the Moon ? In the interior of Africa. The Kong mountains ire to the north of Guinea. Where is the Mozambique channel ? To the east of Africa, separating it from Mada- gascar. Where is the gulf of Guinea ? \\— ^ It is a part of the Atlanti^lii^eaii nmning npinto the western coast of Guinea.. Where is cape Guardafui, i.e., ^^ Beware ?" It is the inost easterljtcape fljf Africa. The cape of Good Hope is the m6st southerly ; and cape Verd is the most westerly; ^ipe Blanco is also on the western coast of Africa.^ What large lake is in Africa ? Lake Tchad, it is east of Bornou, in the interior of the continent. This lake was discovered by Clapperton and Denham. Where are the Barbary States ? and name them. In the north of Africa ; they are Morocco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Barca. Morocco. How is Morocco situated ? It is in the north-west part of Africa, being bounded on the north by the straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean sea, and on the west by the Atlantic ocean. What mountains are in Morocco ? The Atlas mountains. Has Morocco any rivers ? Yes, several ; the principal are the Seber and the Um-er-begh. Name some capes in Morocco ? Cape Blanco and cape Nun in the Atlantic, and cape Ceuta in the Mediterranean, Name two bays in Morocco. Tangier and Tetuar. Which are the chief towns of Morocco ? Mogadore, Tangier and Tetuan. To whom did Tangier once belong ? To Charles II., it was part oi \Xi^ ^10.^^5 ^^ VJ& wife Catharine of Portugal, log^Oci^t m\!«i ^^\^^l in the East Indies. jMll^er came into the possession of the English in 188^ but they gave it up in 1684. Which are the chief manufactures of Morocco ? Carpets^ leather^J^d mining. What ancient European power held possession of a part of Morocco ? The Romans^ and afteJ^tthem^ the Goths, and Greeks. What country in Europe did the Moors hold possession of for many years ? , Spain, in which country they landed in 1086, and defeated the Spaniards at the battle of Sala. What is the religion of Morocco ? Mahometanism. Where is Fez ? It joins Morocco on the north, of which empire it is a province. Name the chief towns of Fez. Fez, the capital, Mamora, and Mequinez. Name the chief rivers of Fez. The Sebu and the Bir Regreb. Who was the first sovereign of Fez ? Sidi Idris, in the eighth century. This was the first Mahommedan kingdom in the north of Africa. Algiers, or Algeria. Where is Algiers ? In the north of Africa; it is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean ; on the east by Tunis ; on the south by the great desert of Sahara ; and on the west by Morocco. What is the capital of Algiers? Algiers; Bona ia a town, and «l\ao «l 3Mk\.m\. \cl 4.1gier8, t 15» { Name some rivers of Algiewu j The Shellif, the Seibus, the Haratch^ and the ] Isser. ^ Has Algiers any lakes ? Yes, a great many; the chief is El-Ubeira. What mountains are in Algiers ? The Atlas mountains. To what were the Algerines at one time greatly addicted ? To piracy, and many expeditions have been sent against them. Charles V., emperor of Germany, father of Philip II., king of Spain, sailed against them in 1540, but in consequence of losing the greater part of his ships in a storm, he was obliged to retire without reducing them to subjection. The French, and after them, the English, and also the Venetians, made several attempts, with varied success, to force the Algerines to abandon these practices. In 1816 Lord Exmouth bombarded Algiers and laid the town in ruins. What good resulted from this ? The Algerines released all Christian slaves, to the number of more than twelve hundred ; and made restitution to those persons who had been ransomed. To whom does Algiers belong at the present time? To the French, who made themselves masters of of it in 1830 ; but they are still obliged, and prob- ably always will be, to maintain a large army there to keep the country in subjection. Tunis. How is Tunis bounded ? On the north by the Mediterranean ; on the west bjr Algiers ; on the 80ut\i ani ^u^-^v.^^. \i>j the desert of Sahara ; and on IYlc e«L^\.\>^ 'Irv^Oiv 129 Name the chief towns of Tunis. Tunis, the capital, and Tabarca. What rivers are there in Tunis ? The Mejerdah and the Wad-el-Quibir are the incipal. What ancient city was situated near where the wn of Tunis stands ? Carthage, which was founded by queen Dido, 19 B.C. ; who fled from Tyre to escape the tyranny her brother, PygmaUon. She was the grand- LUgbter of Jezebel. Of what other nation was Carthage long a rival? Of Rome, between whom and Carthage there were ree wars, called the Punic wars. Which of these two powers was at last vanquished ? Carthage, and the city was razed to the ground ' Scipio, the grandson of Scipio Africanus, [7 B.C. Name some celebrated Carthaginian generals. Amilcar, Annibal, and Asdrubal. What became of Annibal ? He poisoned himself to escape falling into the mds of the Romans, who ungenerously persecuted m from one country to another. Tripoli. Where is Tripoli ? In the north of Africa ; it comprises Barca and 3zzan, which is to the south of Tripoli. What is the signification of Tripoli ? It means the country of the "Three Cities," hich name was given it about the end of the first jntury. Name some towns in this district. Tripoli, the capital, Bengazi, Cyrene, Barca, and onandria. 130 To whom do these states, together with Tunis, owe a nominal sovereignty ? To the Sultan of Turkey. Egypt. Where is Egypt ? In the north-eastern part of Africa ; having tie Mediterranean sea on the north ; the Red sea and the isthmus of Suez on the east ; Nuhia on the south ; and the deserts of Libya and Barca on the west. Into how many parts is Egypt divided ? Into three ; Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypt, Name the principal towns in Egypt. Grand Cairo, the capital, Alexandria, Rosetta, and Damietta. What river flows through Egypt ? The Nile, which flows into the Mediterranean sea ; this river has already been described. Who built Alexandria ? Alexander the Great. The ancient city of Pelusium was situated near here. Is Egypt an ancient country ? It is one of the most ancient in the world ; and at one period the most civilized; it was the Egyptians who civilized the Greeks, so conspicuous in former times for the advancement they made in the arts and sciences. Are there any remains of ancient Egyptian monu- ments ? Yes, especially at Thebes andDendara. The pyra- mids of Egypt are the largest buildings in the world ; the two largest are near Cairo. By whom were they built ? The larger one was built by Cheops ; it stands on eleven acres of ground, and is five hundred feet high, 131 je feet square at the top, which can be reached ins of rude steps on one side. The smaller two was built by Cephrim, the brother of )S. • what purpose are they supposed to have been ? a burial place for their kings, hat strange custom existed in Egypt respecting >urial of the dead ? very man after death was tried, and if any wrong he had committed against his neighbour, for ch he had not made restitution, could be proved inst him, he was deprived of the rights of sepul- e ; the kings themselves were not exempt from 8 custom ; and it is said that the builders of these o pyramids were found guilty after death, and were iried without funeral rites. What other ancient monuments are found in ;gypt? Obelisks, which consist of one large stone, termi- ating in a point, with four sides ; Cleopatra's needle ; 'ompey's pillar ; and the sphynx, which consists of le head and shoulders of a woman hewn out of a )ck : it is thirty feet high. Were not the Egyptians famous for preserving leir dead ? Yes, and the process was called embalming. What is seldom seen in Egypt ? Rain ; the country is watered by the periodical ^erflowings of the Nile. The nilometer is an instru- lent used to measure the height of the waters of le Nile. Were not the Egyptians an extremely superstitious sople ? Very much so : they worshipped all animals that 132 could do them harm, in order to propitiate them; and also those which were serviceable to them. What bird and animal were particularly sacred among the Egyptians ? The Ibis, and the sacred ox called Apis. To whom has Egypt long been subject ? To the Turks, it was governed by a Pacha, ap- pointed by the Porte ; but the title has now become hereditary, although Egypt still pays him a yearly tribute. What were the ancient kings of Egypt called? Pharaohs, until the time of Cambyses, the sou of Cyrus the Great, who conquered Egypt, 520 b.c Eigypt continued from this period till the time of Alexander the Great, a part of the Persian Empire. Who became king of Egypt after the death of Alexander ? One of his generals, named Ptolemy; and his successors were called Ptolemies. Name a celebrated queen of Egypt. Cleopatra ; after her death Egypt became a Ro- man province, and continued so for seven hundred Name two Romans, between whom a celebrated naval engagement was fought off the Egyptian coast. Augustus Csesar,"^ and Mark Antony ; the latter of whom wa^ aided by Cleopatra. Which of the Ptolemies had the Old Testament translated into Greek. Ptolemy Philadelphus. This version is called the Septuagint, because seventy learned Jews were em- ployed in translating it. What is the religion of Egypt ? Mahometanism. Name the countries on the eastern side of Africa. Known, also uudet lYie xiMsie ol OcXw-v^aa. 183 Egjrpt, already mentioned^ Nubia^ Abyssinia^ Ajan, Zanzibar^ Mozambique and Caffraria. Nubia. Where is Nubia ? To the south of Egypt, having the Red sea on the east^ Abyssinia on the south, and the desert on the west. By whom was this country conquered ? By IbrahimPashaof Egypt, the son of Mehamet Ali. What river flows through Nubia ? The Nile. Name two towns in Nubia. Suakin^ a port on the Red sea^ and Shendi, on the Nile, What celebrated queen reigned here ? Candace,* queen of the Ethiopians. She had but one eye. She lived during the time of the Apostles. Abyssinia. Where is Abyssinia ? To the south-east of Nubia, on the eastern side of Africa ; the Red sea is to the east of it. What river rises in Abyssinia ? The Nile. What are the chief towns of Abyssinia ? Gondar the capital and Axum. What religion do the Abyssinian s profess ? The Christian religion, but they are a cruel people, and in some parts cut off slices from the living ox. Various Districts. What savage tribes live to the south of Abyssinia ? The Galla, who adorn themselves with the entrails of oxen. * The queens of Ethiopia, after her, were called Can- daces, in the same way as tlie succe&^OT^ ol ksi5s.QrKsss»& were for some time called Antouiuea. 134 Name some Portuguese settlements on tlie eastern coast of Africa. Mozambique, Sofala, and Quilimane. Where is CaflFraria ? It is on the south-eastern coast of Africa; it is sometimes called Cafferland^ and the inhabitants are named Gaffers. What was the original signification of this term; It had the same signification among the Mahom- medans, as " heretic" has at the present day with the Roman Catholics. Where is Port Natal ? To the south of Gaffraria; it belongs to tbe English. where is the colony of the Gape of Good Hope? It occupies the most southern part of Africa. To whom does Gape Golony belong ? To the English, to whom it was ceded by the Dutch in 1814, in the reign of George III. Name the chief towns in the colony of the Gape of Good Hope. Gape Town, the capital; Graham^s Town; and George Town. Name two bays here. Algoa bay on the south-eastern side ; and Table bay on the south-western coast. What mountain is in this colony ? Table mountain. What nation first sailed round the Gape of Good Hope? The Portuguese, during the reign of John II., King of Portugal. What river rises in Gape Golony ? The Orange river. Where is the country of ttie Hott^ivtots ? 185 On the south-westem side of Africa^ north of Cape Colony. Guinea. Where is Lower Guinea ? On the west coast of Africa. What countries does Lower Guinea comprise ? Loango^ Gongo^ Angola^ and Benguela. What European country has settlenients here ? The Portuguese. Name two rivers in Lower Guinea. The Zaire or Congo, and the Coanza ; the latter is nearly six hundred miles long. Where is Upper Guinea ? To the north of Lower Guinea, having Nigritia and Senegambia to the north of it. Name some maritime districts in Upper Guinea. Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Grain, Ivory, Gold, and Slave coasts, Benin, and Calabar. Mention some territories in the interior of Upper Guinea. Ashantee, Benin, Dahomey, Eboe, and Mandengoe. To whom does Sierra Leone belong ? To the British ; it is on the west coast of Africa ; all slaves taken by the English from slave vessels are sent to this settlement, of which the capital is Freetown. What other settlement have the EngUsh on the coast of Guinea ? Cape Coast Castle. To whom does Liberia belong ? To the Americans ; it is in the south-westem part of Guinea. What is the capital of Ashantee ? Komasi. The capital of Benm \& ^cclwjl* Q?l 136 Dahomey, Abomey. Of Eboe, Eboe. Of Man- dingoe^ Zamalia. Seneqambia. Where is Senegambia ? On the western side of Africa. How is it bounded ? On the north by the Sahara or Great Desert ; on the south by Upper Guinea ; on the east by Nigri- tia ; and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Name some rivers in Senegambia. The Senegal and Gambia, from which the country takes its name, and the Rio Grande. Mention two capes in Senegambia. ' Cape Verde and cape St. Mary. Central Africa. Mention some states in Central Africa. Soudan; Nigritia or Negroland; Timbuctou; Bor- nou; Houssa, and Dar-Fur. For what is Timbuctou famous ? For being the seat of the caravan trade. What lake is to the east of Bomou ? Lake Tchad. Name some towns in Bomou. Zouka, and New Birnie. How is Houssa divided ? Into seven provinces. What is the capital of Dar-Fur ? Cobbeh. Where are Dongola, Sennaar, and Kordosan ? To the south of Nubia. Where is the country of the Fellatahs ? In Central Africa. .187 The Islands of Africa. Where is the island of Socotra ? In the Arabian sea, to the north-east of cape Guardafui. Madagascar. Where is the island of Madagascar ? To the east of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique channel. What divides this island into two parts ? A chain of mountains extending from north to south. Name two large rivers in Madagascar. The Mangour and the Skropa. What is the capital of Madagascar ? Tananarivo sometimes called Antananarivo. What capes are in Madagascar ? Cape Ambro is in the north, and cape St. Mary is in the south of this island. The Comoro Isles. Where are the Comoro isles ? In the Mozambique channel, lying between Africa and Madagascar. How many of these islands are there? Four, the principal is Johanna Mayotta ; one of the Comoro isles belongs to the French. Mauritius. Where is the island of Mauritius ? In the Indian ocean, to the east of Madagascar ; it is sometimes called I'Isle de France. Name two ports in Mauritius. Port Louis, and Port Bourbon. T?ot\.liRW\^\&\k!k& capital of the island. 138 To whom does Mauritius belong ? To the British, to whom it was ceded by the French in 1814. Bourbon. Where is the isle of Bourbon ? ^ In the Indian ocean, to the south-west of Mau- ritius; it is sometimes called Reunion. What is the capital of Bourbon ? St. Denis; S^ Louis and St. Paul are likewise situated in this island. Which is the principal river of Bourbon ? The Mat; it is only thirty miles in length. To whom does Bourbon belong ? To the French; the English took possession of this island in 1810, but restored it in 1815. St. Helena. Where is the island of St. Helena ? Tn the south Atlantic ocean, to the west of Africa; it belongs to the English. What is the capital of St. Helena ? Jameses town. What celebrated man was banished to this island ? The Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, after the battle of Waterloo in 1815 ; he died here in 1821, of a cancer in his stomach. ^ What place was the residence of Napoleon in St. Helena ? Longwood. Who was the governor of the island during the time of Napoleon^s banishment ? Sir Hudson Lowe, whom Napoleon treated with ^eat disrespect^ and iu a most ungentlemanly manner. In what year were Napoleon's remains removed to Prance ? In 1840; Prince Joinville, son of Louis Philippe, ^^i command of the expedition which was sent of convey his body to Europe. Ascension. Where is the island of Ascension ? In the south Atlantic ocean, to the north-west of St. Helena, It is so named because it was dis- covered on Ascension day, a.d. 1501. To whom does Ascension belong ? To the English, it is naturally a barren island, but has been rendered somewhat fertile by cul- tivation. With what does Ascension abound ? With turtle, some of which are so large, that eighty men have dined oflF one of them. Where are the islands of St. Thomas, and Fer- iiando Po ? In the gulf of Guinea, to the west of Africa. Cape Verde Islands. Where are the Cape Verde islands ? In the north Atlantic ocean, to the west of Africa. Which is the largest of these islands ? St. Jago. The capital is St. Jago. To whom do the Cape Verde islands belong ? To the Portuguese. The island of Goree near Cape Verde belongs to the French. Under what name were these islands supposed to be known to the ancients ? The Hesperides. The Canary Islands. Where are the Canary islands ? 140 In the north Atlantic ocean^ off the north-west coast of Africa ; the largest are Teneriffe, Fuert% Ventura, and Grand Canary. Under what name were these islands known io the ancients ? Insulae Beatse, or the Fortunate isles. Name a large port in Teneriffe. Santa Crux. What celebrated mountain is in Teneriffe ? The Peak of Teyde, which is more than twelve thousand feet in height : it is in the form of a sugar- loaf. To whom do the Canaries belong ? To the Spaniards. The Madeira Isles. Where are the Madeira isles ? In the north Atlantic ocean, to the north of the Canaries. From what do these islands take their name ? From Madeira, which is the largest of the group; the capital of which is Funchal. To whom do the Madeira isles belong ? To the Portuguese. What is the climate of Madeira ? Very salubrious ; the average length of life here is one third longer than in most other parts of the world. What is the chief export of these islands ? Wine, called Madeira. The Azores, or Western Isles. Where are the Azores ? Jn the north Atlantic ocean ; they are nearly equidistant from Africa, Europe) and America. iVame these islands. 141 St. MichaePs, St. Mary's, Fayal, Pico, Graciosa, St. George's, and Terceiras, which is the principal though not the largest. What town is considered the capital of these is- lands ? Angra in Terceiras. Name two towns of St. MichaePs. Ponta del Gada, the capital, and Villa Franca. Of what fruit does St. Michael's export largj quantities ? Oranges. To whom do these islands bslong ? To the Portuguese. North America. What is America ? A large continent in the western hemisphere, laving the Arctic ocean on the north ; the Atlantic )cean on the east, which separates it from Europe md Africa ; and the Pacific on the west, dividing it rom Asia. By what are North and South America united ? By the isthmus of Panama or Darien. What other continent is nearest to America ? Asia, which is only fifty miles distant at Behriug's straits. What nations before the time of Columbus claim he discovery of America ? The Norwegians, a.d. 982. The Welsh maintain bat one of their princes, named Madoc, discovered t in the twelfth century : it is said that there is a :ribe of Indians living near the river Missouri, who jpeak a dialect of the Welsh language. And the Sermans maintain that Martin Behaim, a German, liscovered it in 1843, and made known his discovery bo Columbus. 143 Where is BaflSn^s bay ? To the west of Greenland. Where is Hudson's bay ? On the north-eastern side of North America ; the southern part is named James's bay. Where is the gulf of St. Lawrence ? Between the island of Newfoundland, and the eastern coast of North America. Where is the bay of Fundy ? Between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, on the eastern side of America. Where are Delaware and Chesapeak bays ? They run up into the eastern side of the United States, being inlets of the Atlantic ocean. Where is the gulf of Mexico ? To the south of the United States. Where is the bay of Honduras ? In Honduras, iu Central America. Where is the gulf of California ? Between California and Mexico. Where is Queen Charlotte's sound ? In British Columbia, on the western ' side of America. Where are Melville's sound, Lancaster sound, and the gulf of Boothia ? On the northern coast of North America. Where is Davis' strait ? It leads from the Atlantic ocean into Baffin's bay. Where is Hudson's strait ? It leads from the Atlantic ocean into Hudson's bay. Where is Behring strait ? Between Russian America and Asia. Name the chief mountains of North America. The Rocky or Stony mountains, which extend from north to south, on the western side of the 143 ; the Alleghany range, north of the river ; and the Appalachian range, south of the r ; they extend from south-west to north- some of the chief lakes of North America, or, the largest piece of fresh water in the Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, these between Canada and the United States; g, the Great Slave lake, and the Great Bear in British America, great cataract is between lakes Erie and lis of Niagara. connects lake Erie with Hudson river ? Jbany canal, the largest in America, the chief rivers of North America. It. Lawrence, which flows through Canada gulf of St. Lawrence; this river is one miles in breadth at its mouth, some tributaries of the St. Lawrence, 'ttawa, dividing Upper and Lower Canada, Connecticut. The Mississippi, the largest . America, and the Missouri which joins it ; ito the gulf of Mexico, on some other rivers in North America. Mackenzie, which flows into the Arctic le Hudson; the Delaware; the Susquehanna; mac, and the St. James's river ; all of which • the Atlantic ocean. 3 is cape Farewell ? 5 south of Greenland. 3 is cape Race ? B south of Newfoundland. 3 are capes Cod and Hatteras ? e eastern side of the United States. B is cape Sable ? 144 To the south of Florida, a territory of the United States. Where is cape Gracios a Dios, " Thank God ?" To the east of Honduras. Where is cape St. Lucas. To the south of California. Cape St. Lazarois also in California. To whom did the greater part of America once belong ? To Spain, who has now no possessions in it. Where is Russian America ? It is in the north-western part of North America; it also includes the Aleutian isles. What are the chief ports of Russian America ? New Archangel and Siatka. British America. Name the British possessions in North America. The Hudson^s Bay territory ; British Columbia; Canada ; New Brunswick ; Nova Scotia ; Labrador; the islands of Newfoundland; Cape Breton; and Prince Edward's Island. HuDsoN^s Bay Territory. Where is the Hudson's Bay territory ? It is a large tract of land lying to the west and south of Hudson's bay. In whose reign was a charter granted to tbe Hudson^s Bay Company ? J In the reign of Charles II., a.d. 1670. j What are the chief articles exported from this j territory ? \| Furs and skins, chiefly of the fox, the bear, the j beaver, the lynx, the martin or sable, the wolf, and f tbe otter ; a single skin ot l\ie ^^«i-Qtter is sometimes sold for as much as ioxty poxxu^^. S 145 Name the principal forts or stations whence these commodities are shipped to Europe. Port York, on Hudson's bay; Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia river, near the Pacific ocean, and Fort Moose, on James's bay. Canada. Where is Canada ? In the north-eastern part of North America, having Rupert's Land, a district of the Hudson's bay territory, and Labrador on the north; New Brunswick and a portion of the United States on the east ; and the lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, on the south. How is Canada divided ? Into Upper, or Western ; and Lower, or Eastern Canada. Which is the more southerly of the two ? Upper Canada, so called from its being nearer the source of the river St. Lawrence; it lies between James's bay on the north ; and the river Ottawa on the north-east ; and the lakes above mentioned on the south ; its western boundary is the Hudson Bay territory. Which are the chief towns of Upper Canada ? Ottawa, on the river Ottawa ; and Kingston and Toronto, both of which are on lake Ontario. Which are the chief rivers of Upper Canada ? The St. Lawrence, rising in lake Superior, under the name of the Cataraqui, and which takes the name of the St. Lawrence at the town of Montreal, in Lower Canada ; and the river Ottawa. By whom is Upper Canada peopled ? Its European inhabitants are chiefly of British origin. Where is Lower Canada ? \^ 146 It lies between Labrador on the north; New Branswick^ and the United States on the east and south j and Upper Canada on the west. Name the chief towns of Lower Canada. Quebec and Montreal, the latter- is built on an island of the same name ; both these towns are on the river St. Lawrence. Which are the chief rivers of Lower Canada ? The 8t. Lawrence, the Ottawa^ the Riviere au Lievres, and the Richlieu. How is Lower Canada peopled ? The inhabitants are mostly of French origin. What is the capital of the united provinces of Upper and Lower Canada ? Ottawa, which is also the seat of government; formerly each province had a separate govemment of its own. To whom did the Canadas formerly belong ? To the French; but in 1759, in the reign of George II., Quebec was taken by the English under General Wolfe, and Montreal capitulated in 1760, when all Canada came into the possession of the Bri- tish. What tarnished the glory of our; conquest of Canada ? The death of General Wolfe, who was slain in an engagement which took place before Quebec; the French General, M. de Montcalme, also lost his life in the same battle. New Bbunswick. Where is New Brunswick ? It is on the north-eastern side of America, lying between Canada and Nova Scotia. Which are the chief liveta oi "Jiew ^xmh^Vv^I The St. Johu's Tiver, rimnm^ VtvX;^ V!S!i^ Xiw^ ^\ 147 Fondy, and the Miramiclii, which flows into the golf of St. Lawrence. Which are the principal towns in New Bruns- wick? Frederickstown, the seat of government, and St. John^s^ both on the St. John's river^ and Newcastle on the Miramichi. Nova Scotia. Where is Nova Scotia ? On the eastern side of North America; it is a peninsula, being joined to New Brunswick by the I8thmtt9 of Chignecto. How is Nova Scotia bounded on the south and east? By the Atlantic ocean ; on the north it is sepa- rated from Prince Edward's island by the North- umberland strait. Name some rivers of Nova Scotia. The Shubenacadie, the Annapolis, the Avon, and the St. Croix, but none of them are of great extent. Which are the chief town? of Nova Scotia ? Halifax, the capital, with a fine harbour, and a university ; Annapolis, on the bay of Fundy ; and Windsor, with a college, founded in 1802, in the reign of George III. What is Annapolis famed for 7 As being the first English settlement in North America, being colonised in James I.'s reign, a.d. 1604. Annapolis signifies the city of Ann, so called in honour of Ann, the wife of James I. What is found in great quantities in Nova Scotia ? Coal. Who is said to have first visited Nova Scotia ? Sir John Cabot, in the reign pf Henry VII. ; he named it "Prima Vista,'' signifying "first seen,'' 148 this being the first land he saw after leaving Bristol, a town in the west of England^ situated partly ia Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. Labrador. Where is Labrador situated ? On the north-eastern side of North America, having its northern and eastern shores washed by the Atlantic ocean. How is Labrador situated as regards Lower Canada ? To the north-east of it. How is Labrador separated from Newfoundland? By the straits of Belle-isle. Under what name is this district sometimes known ? New Britain. What is the length of the winter in Labrador? Nine months; it lasts from the middle of Sep- tember, to the middle of June. Name three missionary settlements in Labrador. Okkak, Nain, and Hopedale. Newfoundland. What is Newfoundland ? Newfoundland is an island in the Atlantic oceaO; to the east of America, from which it is separated by Belle-isle strait, and the gulf of St. Lawrence. What is the capital of Newfoundland ? St. John's. Where are Conception and Fortune bays ? In Newfoundland. ^ For what is Newfoundland famous ? For its abundance of fish of all kinds, but more particularly of cod, which is caught with a hook. To what countries is the cod mo^\\^ «»^tiX.'^ ] 149 Spun, Portugal, Italy, and the West Indies. What is extracted from the liver of the cod ? Oil : the liver is allowed to decay in casks, when the oil is drawn off. Who discovered the island of Newfoundland ? Sir John Cabot, in 1497, in the reign of Henry ra. What nation often disputed with the English the possession of this island ? The French ; but the possession of it was con- firmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht.* The French are allowed to dry their nets on the northern shores of the island. What two small islands north of Newfoundland belong to the French ? St. Pierre and Miquelon. Cape Breton, Where is Cape Breton ? It is a small island in the Atlantic, to the south of Newfoundland, and north-east of Nova Scotia. It was formerly called by the French L'Isle Royale. What is the capital of Cape Breton ? Sydney ; it has a large and safe harbour. Mena- don, in this island, is a flourishing little village. From whom did the English take Gape Breton ? From the French, in 1758, in the reign of George II. What mineral is found here ? Coal. Prince Edward^s Island. Where is this island ? ^ To the east of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, from which it is separated by Northumberland strait. This island was formerly called 8t, 3oW^ \^^\A> * A.D. 1713. 150 but in 1789 its name was changed to Prince Ed- ward^s Island, in honour of the Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. What are the chief towns in this island? Charlotte town, the capital; George town, and Prince town. Where is the island of Anticosti ? In the gulf of St. Lawrence ; it is not inhabited. i The United States. ^ Where are the United States ? They occupy that part of North America which extends from British America, on the north, to the gulf of Mexico, on the south, and from the shores of the Pacific ocean and Mexico on the west, to the Atlantic ocean on the east. Which are the chief rivers of the United States ? The Missouri and the Mississippi, which fall into the gulf of Mexico. Are not these two rivers united ? Yes ; the Missouri joins the Mississippi eighteen miles from the town of St. Louis, and about 3,100 miles from its source. Name some tributaries of these rivers. The Platte, the Kansas, and the Arkansas, the Ohio, the Illinois and the Tenessee. Name some other rivers of the United States. The Mobile and the Alabama which flow into the gulf of Mexico. Mention some rivers of the United States which flow into the Atlantic ocean. The Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the St. James, the Savannah^ and the Potomac. Name some mountaiiva in. iTae United States. The Alleghany range, ox \J[ift K^Aw^\'mi \s\a\ar tains already described. The Stony or Rocky moun- tains are to the west of the United States. Mention some lakes lying entirely in the United States. Michigan and Champlain ; many of the large lakes of America are boundaries of, or are partly situated in these states. Of how many states did the United States ori- ginally consist ? Of thirteen, at present there are thirty-nine. What are the chief productions of the United States? Cotton, wheat, barley, rye, Indian corn, buck- wheat, hay, potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco, rice and sugar. Which are . the principal towns of the United States ? Washington, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, New Orleans, Charlestown, Cincinnati and Pittsburg. Which of these is the capital of the United States ? Washington, on the river Potomac. This town is the seat of government. After whom was this town called ? George Washington, the first president of the United States. What is the name of the residence of the pre- sident ? The White House. Which is the commercial capital of the United States ? New York ; it stands on Manhattan island, at the mouth of the Hudson river. What larg-e street runs through "S^ns Xq^1 152 Broad street. This town has a noble bay and harbour, and many public buildings and theatres. Of what state is Philadelphia the capital ? Pennsylvania ; this city is the second largest in the United States, and is situated on the Delaware. By whom was Philadelphia founded ? By William Penn a quaker ? What was Philadelphia once ? The seat of the federal government, until Wash- ington was made the capital. When did William Penu obtain the grant of a charter for this territory ? In 1681, in the reign of Charles II. His heirs sold their right to this territory, when the states en- gaged in a war to throw off their allegiance to Bri- tain in 1775, during the reign of George III. In what state is the town of Boston ? Massachusetts, of which it is the capital. Of how many parts does Boston consist ? Three, old Boston, and south and east Boston ; all of which are connected by means of bridges. When was Boston founded ? In 1630, during the reign of Charles I., son of James I. Boston was one of the first towns which engaged in the war of American Independ- ence. In what year was the port of Boston closed by act of parliament? In 1774. What two taxes imposed by the British parliament did the citizens of Boston oppose ? The stamp act, a.d. 1765 : and the duty on tea, A.D. 1773. What celebrated man was born in Boston ? Benjamin Franklin. Of what country is BaUimote >J^^ esK^v^fli^^ 153 altimore in the state Maryland ; it stands iver Fatapsco^ fourteen miles from the bay sipeake. •e is the town of New Orleans ? e state of Louisiana ; it stands on the river ppi^ and is nearly ninety miles from the gulf CO : New Orleans is the chief port in the the United States. bat state is Charlestown — sometimes called on — the capital ? •uth Carolina ; this is the largest town in the States on the Atlantic, hat does Charlestown stand ? neck of land formed by the junction of the md Cooper rivers. ; island is near Charlestown ? an's island. ; fort defends this island ? Moultrie, which repulsed the British fleet, ded by Sir Peter Parker in 1776, in the George III. bom was Charlestown partly peopled ? rench exiles after the revocation of the edict z. ; king of France revoked the edict of 1 XIV., of whom William III., king of Eng- as an inveterate enemy ; and to whom II. and James II. were mercenarily subject, hat country is Cincinnati the capital ? amilton in the state of Ohio, hat river is Cincinnati ? le Ohio. Cincinnati is the great emporium rest. has already been described, m \)si'& ^3tkK^\«t otL 154 Where is the town of Pittsburg ? In Pennsylvania, on the confluence of the rivers Alleghany and Monongahela^ which here take the name of the Ohio. What is Pittsburg sometimes called ? The Birmingham of America, on account of the numerous manufactories which it contains. Name some other towns in the United States ? Albany on the Hudson river; this town is the seat of legislation for New York state; Portland, the capital of the state of Maine ; Newport and Providence, the capitals of Rhode Island; New- haven^ the capital of Connecticut ; Louisville on the Ohio; this town is in the state of Kentucky, of which Frankfort is the capital; Richmond^ on the James river; this town is the capital of Virginia state ; Mobile, on a river of the same name in Ala- bama ; this town is on the Mexican gulf. Where is the town of Brooklyn ? On Long Island in the Atlantic ; this island forms part of the state of New York. * By whom were the United States originally peopled ? By emigrants from Britain and Ireland. When did the United States publish their Decla- ration of Independence ? On July 4th, a.d. 1776. Who was commander-in-chief of the American forces during the War of Independence ? George Washington, who was twice president of the United States. What two European nations aided the Americans in their rebellion against Britain ? The French and the Dutch. In what year did the "BtitiaYi fcpNcmxci^xi^. ^Vuow- ledge the independence oi t\ie^e «X«Xfc%1 / 155 A.D, ] 783, in the reign of George III. Which is the frontier state between Canada and the United States ? Maine. Where is Texas ? It is one of the United States of America adjoining Mexico, of which country it wjts formerly a territory, and subsequently an independent state. In what year was Texas admitted into union with the United States? In 1845. What is the government of the United States ? It is a republic^ and is governed by a president chosen every four years. Mexico. Where is Mexico ? It is situated to the west and south of the United States ; its western shores are washed by the gulf of CaUfornia and the Pacific ocean ; it is bounded on the south by Guatemala and the gulf of Mexico, and on the east by the same gulf and Texas. What is Mexico sometimes named ? New Spain. Name the chief rivers of Mexico. The Eio Bravo, or the Rio-Grande-del-Norte, signifying " the great river of the north '/^ it falls into the gulf of Mexico ; the San Jose running into the gulf of California ; and the St. Jago, which falls into the bay of San Bias on the Pacific. Name the largest lake in Mexico. Texcuco, by the overflowing of which, the city of Mexico has often been inundated. Name some mountains in Mexico. 3%e Rocky or Stony mountains. TlVv^ C»^xT<a- de-Sinpualtepcc is so Jiigh, that bot\\ Xi^^ MX-wx^ASi 156 and Pacific oceans can be seen from it. The summit of Popotacepetl, a volcanic mountain, covered with perpetual snow, is nearly 18,000 feet above the sea. Name the chief towns of Mexico. Mexico, the capital; Puebla; Acapulco; Vera Cruz ; and Guanaxuato. What did the town of Mexico formerly stand on? On some islands in a lake ; but the lake has long since retired. The present town is built on the site of old Mexico. In what part of Mexico is Vera Cruz ? It is on the gulf of Mexico^ and is the largest sea- port of this country. What is the climate of Vera Cruz ? It is one of the most unhealthy in the world ; the inhabitants have no water, except rain-water, which is preserved in tanks. Where is Old Vera Cruz ? It is situated fifteen miles from New Vera Criw; it was here Cortez, the Spanish conqueror of Ma- ico, landed. Where is Puebla ? In the south-east of Mexico ; it was the chief colony of Spain in this country. Where is Acapulco ? It is a town of Mexico, on the Pacific ocean, and has latterly risen into importance from the influx of emigrants from the United States to California. For what is Guanaxuato famous ? Its silver mine of Valenciana is the largest in the world. What metals are found in Mexico ? Gold, silver, and copper; it also produces dia- moada, amethysts, and turquoises; though the former are but rarely met. m\)[i. To whom did Mexico iorrcvetV^ \iAoxv^^ 157 To Spain, it was conquered by Fernando Cortez, a cruel tyrant, a.d. 1518, in the reign of Charles v., Emperor of Germany, father of Philip II. of Spain. What queen of England did Philip 11. marry ? Marjr, daughter of Henry VIII. by his first wife, Cathanne of Arragon, daughter of Isabella of Spain ; she was the widow of his brother Arthur ; and was divorced by Henry, in order that he might marry Anne Boleyn. Name two sovereigns of Mexico, who lived about this period. Gruatamozin and Montezuma ; the former of whom was roasted alive on a charcoal fire, to make him discover where he had concealed his riches ; and the latter was killed by the blow of a stone during an iosarrection. In what year did Spain make a last attempt to regain possession of Mexico ? In 1829 ; but the attempt failed. Where is the peninsula of Yucatan ? It is to the north of Guatemala and British Honduras ; it forms a part of Mexico. What settlement in Yucatan belongs to the English ? Belize. Central America. Where is Guatemala ? In Central America ; it is bounded on the north and west by Yucatan ; on the south by the Pacific ocean, and on the east by the state of Honduras. What is the capital of Guatemala ? Guatemala-la-nueva, or New Guatemala. To whom did Guatemala formerly \)e\oTvgi To Spain, bat it became independent m \?aV- 14. 158 Where is Honduras ? In Central America ; it is bounded on the north by the bay of Honduras ; on the south by Nicaragua and the Pacific ocean ; on the east by the Mosquito territory, and on the west by Guatemala. What is the capital of Honduras ? Comayagua; Truxillo is likewise in Honduras. To whom did Honduras formerly belong F To Spain. It is famous for mahogany. Where is Belize ? In Central America^ it is often called BritiBh Honduras, or British Yucatan. Under whose control is this territory f The governor of Jamaica. What is the capital of this territory ? Belize. Where is Nicaragua? In Central America ; it is bounded on the north by Honduras ; on the east by the Mosquito terri- tory ; on the south by Costa Rica; and on the west by the Pacific ocean. Name some towns in Nicaragua. Santiago -de - Managua ; Granada ; Nicaragoii sometimes called Rivas ; and Grey-town. Name a river of Nicaragua. San-Juan-del-Norte. What two large lakes are in Nicaragua ? Lakes Nicaragua and Managua^ the former is 120 miles long^ and 55 miles broad. What is the government of Nicaragua ? A republic. Where is the Mosquito territory ? In Central America, to the south-east of Honduras^ having the Caribbean sea to the east of it. What is the derivation oi t\ift •nwrk^'ilLci^c^AJwit 159 It 18 a corruption of Miskito^ the name by which the country is called by the inhabitants. Under whose protection is this territory ? The British ; this kingdom has for many centuries remained independent. What is the capital of the Mosquito territory ? Blewfields^ on a river of the same name; but irhich is sometimes called Escondito. Where is Costa Rica ? In Central America^ to the south of Nicaragua and the Mosquito territory; it is bounded on the east by the Caribbean sea. Name some towns in Costa Rica. San Jos4 the capital; Torrava; Boruca; and San- Juan-del-Norte, sometimes called Nicaragua. What people first had a settlement here ? The Spaniards; in 1821 Costa Rica declared itself independent. California. Where is California ? On the western side of North America, its western shores are washed by the Pacific ocean ; it is bounded on the east by Mexico^ and the gulf of California. How is California divided ? Into Upper and Lower California. Has Lower California any rivers ? Very few, and none of them are navigable ; the largest is San-Josef-del-Cabo. Name some towns in Upper California. San Francisco, and the Sacramento city on the Sacramento river. To .whom does Upper, or New California belong? To the United States. Name two rivers in Upper Ca\\£oxma. 14:— ^ 160 The Sacramento; the Rio-de-los-Angelos ; and the Rio-de-las-Plumas. What mountains extend along the western side of California ? The Sierra Nevada. What has rendered California famous during the last few years ? The great quantity of gold found there. British Columbia. Where is British Columbia ? On the north-western side of North America; it lies to the south of Russian America, and is washed by the Pacific ocean on the west. What river flows through this territory ? The Fraser river . What is the capital of British Columbia ? New Westminster. Name two forts in British Columbia. Fort Alexander and Fort Essington. What islands near Columbia belong to the English ? Queen Charlotte's island to the west, and Van- couver's isle to the south-west. By what is Vancouver's isle separated from British Columbia ? By the gulf of Georgia, and Queen Charlotte's sound. What island lies to the north of Queen Charlotte's island ? Prince of Wales' island, to the north of which are New Archangel, and Admiralty island. The Oregon Territory. Where is the Oregon Temlox^ 1 On the western side of North America^ it lies between Upper California and British Colambia. What river is in this territory ? The Columbia^ or Oregon; it flows into the Pacific ocean. Name some towns in Oregon. Linn city ; Maltnomah city ; and Oregon city. Name the chief American settlement in Oregon. The Williamette colony. By whom is the Oregon territory chiefly peopled? By Indians^ vfho have no knowledge of a Supreme ^eing. Name some islands in the Arctic ocean to the north of America. Melville, Bathurst, and Cockbum. They were discovered by Captain Parry. OrE£NLANI)4 Where is Greenland ? It is a large island to the north-east of America ; it is bounded on the west by Davis' straits and Baffin's bay. To whom does Greenland belong ? To the Danes. For what fishery is Greenland famous ? The whale fishery, which is carried on chiefly by the English and Americans. What is the most southerly point of Greenland ? Cape Farewell. The West Indian Islands. Where are these islands ? They lie beftween North and South America. Name these islands. The Bahamas, the Greater AntiWe^} ^xvdi ^iTti^Ai^^^^^ Antilles, \4^^ 162 Where are the Bahamas or Lucayos islands ? They lie between St. Domingo and the eastern coast of Florida. How many of these islands are there ? About 1,500, though not more than twelve of them are inhabited. Which is the largest of these islands ? Grand Bahama ; between this island and Florida the Gulf stream flows. What is the Gulf stream ? It is a current in the ocean, caused by the trade winds. Where does this current come from ? From the Pacific and Indian oceans; it coasts along Africa, and crosses the Atlantic near the equator towards America; it then passes through the Caribbean sea, skirting the gulf of Mexico, and proceeds along the United States, and as far north as Newfoundland, and then passes over the Atlantic again. What is the breadth of the Gulf stream ? About fifty miles. Is there any difierence between the water of the Gulf stream and that of the ocean ? Yes ; it is between seven and eleven degrees, ac- cording to its situation, warmer, and it does not sparkle in the dark. What is the average velocity of the stream ? About three miles an hour. What is the principal town in the Bahama islands? Nassau, in New Providence. The Greater Antilles. Name the islands comprised^under this name. Cubaj St. Domingo, Jamaica, aiid Porto Rico. Which is the largest oi tVicac v^wxSaI 163 I ; it belongs to Spain. it is the capital of Cuba ? anna^ in the northern part of the island; ;o-de-Cuba is the ancient capital; Santa :> and Trinidad-de-Cuba are in Cuba. le a range of mountains in Cuba. Sierra-del-Cobre. it nation took this island from the Spaniards ? English, in 1762, in George III/s reign, but stored it in the following year, in exchange ; Floridas^ a group of small islands to the /^est of Florida. St. Domingo. «rhat other name is St. Domingo known ? . sometimes called Hayti, o^' Hispaniola. 2re is Hayti ? he east of Cuba, from which it is separated Windward passage, it is the capital of Hayti ? ;-au-Prince; St. Domingo^ in the northern the island, is the chief town and port in the h quarters. le a spacious harbour in the north of Hayti 3 Fran9ois, sometimes called Cape Henry, vhom did Hayti formerly belong? he French and Spaniards ; but in consequence s^olt of the inhabitants, the island became in- ent under an emperor ; but the government ce changed, 1864, and the island has been der the protection of Spain. Jamaica. ere is Jamaica ? the south of Cuba ; it is t\v^ W^'k^X. ^\ ^^ West Indian islands. 164 Which are the chief towns of Jamaica ? Kingston^ the capital of the island ; SpanisbtowD; the seat of government, and Port Boyal. Has Jamaica any large rivers 7 Few of them are navigable; the diief is Black river. What mountains are in Jamaica ? The Blue mountains. What are frequent in this island ? Earthquakes and hurricanes. What are the chief exports of this island ? Sugar, rum, and coffee. When did Jamaica come into the possession of the English ? During the time of the Commonwealth under OUver Cromwell ; it was taken by Admirals Penn and Venables, a.d. 1655. What are the descendants of the Spaniards called ? Maroons. Porto Rico, or Puerto Rico. Where is Porto Rico ? To the east of St. Domingo, from which it is separated by the Mona passage. What is the capital of Porto Rico ? St. Juan-de-Porto Rico^ on the sea coast. To whom does this island belong ? To the Spaniards. The Lesser Antilles. Where are these islands ? They extend from Porto Rico to the northern coast of South America. Name some islands of this group belonging to Jbenmark, Santa, Crux, or Croix, Bt.1\iom«ji, wi^L^V.^'i^^i'v 165 /That do these islands form a part of ? ^hey form a part of the Virgin isles. St. Eusta- belongs to the Datch, and St. Bartholomew to iden. Mention some of these islands belonging to Bri- It. Christopher's or St. Kitt's^ Barbuda^ and :igua. Vhat is St. Kitt's famed for ? t was the first English settlement in the West ies. !'o whom do Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, badoes, Grenada, Tobago, and Trinidad belong ? ^hey are West Indian islands, belonging to Bri- Vhere are the Bermudas ? n the Atlantic ocean, about 880 miles from irlestown, in America ; they are called the Ber- ias after their Spanish discoverer. Jnder what other name are the Bermudas known ? lomers' islands, from an Englishman named lers, who was wrecked on them. fame two towns in these islands. {amilton^s and St. George's. Vhat West Indian islands belong to France ? Juadaloupe, Mariegalante, and Martinique. South America. low is South America joined to North America ? Jy the isthmus of Panama, or Darien. Vhat mountains run down the western side of ith America ? ?he Andes, or Cordelliras mountains. Vhat is the most easterly point of South America ? 3a/)e Branco; cape Fro ward \a tVie \x\o^\.^^vi^X!«;^'k 166 cape Gallinas the most northerly^ and cape Parina the most westerly. ; How is South America bounded ? ] On the north by the Caribbean sea and the Atlantic ocean ; on the east by the Atlantic ; on the west by the Pacific ; and on the south by the Southern ocean. Colombia. Where is Colombia ? In the north-western part of South America ; it is named after Colombus. How has Colombia lately been divided ? Into three districts, viz. : New Granada, Vene- zuela, and the Ecuador. Name the chief ports of Colombia. Cartagena, Panama, Porto Bello, Guyaquille, La Guayra, Cumana, and Maracaybo. Name some inland towns of Colombia. Bogota, formerly called Santa-fe-de Bogota; this is the capital of New Granada ; Quito, the capital of Ecuador ; and Caraccas, the capital of Venezuela. What mountains are in Colombia ? The Andes. Name two lofty peaks of the Andes in Colombia. Chimborazo, 21,600 ft. high, and Cotopaxi ; the latter is the largest volcano, or burning mountain in the world. Mention some rivers of Colombia. The Amazon and Orinoco which fall into the Atlantic ocean, and the Magdalena emptying itself into the Carribbean sea ; the Amazon, which is the largest river in the world, being 3500 miles long. What island north of Venezuela belongs to the Dutch ? Curagoa, it is in t\ie Cam\i\ifewx ^^^. Guiana or Guyana. Where is Guiana ? In the northern part of South America^ having the Atlantic ocean on the north and east^ the Ama- iqh on the souths and Colombia on the west. What foreign nations have possession of the greater part of Guiana ? The iQnglish^ Dutch^ French^ Spaniards^ and Bra- litians. What other name is Spanish Guiana known by ? Venezuelan Guiana. What is the capital of Spanish Guiana ? San Tom or Angostura. Which are the chief British settlements in Guiana? Demerara^ Berbice, and Essequibo. What is the capital of English Guiana ? Georgetown, on the Demerara river; the Esse- quibo fiver is also in British Guiana. What is the capital of Dutch Guiana ? Surinam^ or Paramaraibo, on the river Surinam. Name the capital of French Guiana. Cayennei on the Cayenne river, on an island of the same name. What pepper comes from French Guiana ? Cayenne pepper. Bbazil. Where is Brazil ? It occupies the north-eastern, and a large portion of the central part of South America. Name the chief towns of Brazil. Bio de Janeiro, the capital ; Bahia or San Salva- dor, and Fernambuco are the chief ports ; these towns are on the east coast. On what bay is San Salvador ? On All Saint a' bay ; bay de Todoa S^w\.c>%. What rivers are in Brazil ? 168 The Amazon orMaranon, the Araguay, the upper Paraguay, the Parana, the Uruguay and the Rio Francisco. For what is Brazil particularly noted ? For its immense forests, and the beautiful plumage of its many different kinds of birds. What valuable stone is found in Brazil ? Diamonds : a few years since Brazil furnished an immense amount of gold ; but latterly it has not yielded so much. What is the established religion of Brazil ? The Roman Catholic. To what European nation did Brazil formerly belong ? To Portugal ; but in 1822, the Brazilians pro- claimed their independence, and made Don Pedro emperor. Who was Don Pedro ? He was the son of Don John VI., king of Portu- gal. Who is the present emperor of Brazil ? ' Don Pedro II. What queen of Portugal was daughter of Don Pedro? Donna Maria da Gloria, who died in 1853. What English admiral assisted Donna Maria in the civil war between herself and her uncle Don Miguel ? Sir Charles Napier, as well as a body of English volunteers. Peru. Where is Peru ? It is a large country on the western side of South America, south of Ecuador ; the Pacific ocean is to the west of it. How is Peru divided? 169 > Upper and Lower Peru, the latter being the northerly. lat is the capital of Lower Peru ? oia^ situated about six miles from the sea. hat is the port of Lima ? allao. ^hat is seldom seen in Lima ? tain ; but it is very subject to earthquakes, and sequently the houses are built low. What was the ancient capital of Peru ? Cazgo^ or Cusco ; which town is situated eleven ousand feet above the sea. Pasco in Lower Peru famed for its silver mines. Name two other towns in Peru. Truxillo and Guamanga or Huamanga. Has Peru any rivers of importance ? No; the chief is the Paro. Most of its streams run into the river Amazon. What great lake is in Peru ? Titicaca, the largest lake in South America, being 170 miles long, and 70 broad ; it is on the frontiers of Upper and Lower Peru. What mountains extend through Peru ? The 'Andes. The Nevada-de-Sorata in this range is 25,400 ft. high. What is exported in great quantities from Peru ? Guano, properly called Huano. Where does the Peruvian Guano come from ? From the Chinchas islands, there are three islands, on which by far the largest supply is found. What other name has been given to Upper Peru ? Bolivia, from general Bolivar, who assisted the Peruvians to free themselves from the Spaniards, in 1823; he died in 1841. How is Bolivia situated ? To the south-east of Lowet "Peicvx^Vwfvw^ ^ \^ 170 , and La Plata on the south ; and Brazil on the north and east. ; What is the capital of Bolivia ? Chuquisaca^ on the Cachimayo. Name some other towns in Bolivia. Potosi, famous for its silver mines ; Chochabamba, or Oropeza, and La Paz. What is the signification of La Paz ? It signifies "Peace/^ so named^ because^ when Pizarro was conquered near this town^ peace was restored to the country for a time. Name two lofty peaks of the Andes in Bolivia. Sorato, which is 25,000 ft., and Ilimani, 24,000 ft. high. The given height of mountains cannot always be depended on ; but the most reliable calcu- lations have been chosen by some measurements, the peaks in Peru are much less high. Is there any large lake in Bolivia, beside Titicaca? No, but the inundations of some of the streams in Bolivia, which cover a great extent of country, have, by some geographers, been mistaken for a lake. Mention some rivers in Bolivia. The Rio Mamore, the Rio Blanco, and the Rio Beni, with several smaller ones ; the Paraguay is within the borders of Bolivia. What ancient line of kings reigned in Peru ? The Incas. What European nation long held possession of Peru ? The Spaniards ; but at the present time they have no influence either in Lower Peru or Bolivia. Chili. Where is Chili? It is a long narrow tract oi coxxxvtt'^ wv tJ\^ wes- tem side of South America, \^\vv2, Xivi'^^^^VL \i^^ Andes and the Pacific ocean ; it is to the south of Bolivia. What is the capital of Chili ? Santiago. Valparaiso, Conception, Valdivia, and Coquimbo are ports of Chili. Mention the principal rivers in Chili. The river Callocallo, or Valdivia; the Rio Maule, and the Bio Biobio. What mountains are in Chili ? The Andes, separating it from La Plata ; the peak of Aconcagua is 23,000 ft. high. To whom did Chili once belong ? To the Spaniards ; but it is now an independent republic. What is the religion of Chili ? Roman Catholic, which is the religion of all the countries of South America which were once under the dominion of Spain. Name some islands in the Pacific ocean opposite Chili. The Chiloean Archipelago, so named from Chiloe, the largest of them. Juan Fernandez, nearly 400 miles from Santiago, likewise in the Pacific, is noted for being the island on which Alexander Selkirk re- sided for some time alone. Where is Araucania ? To the south of Chili, between the Andes and the Pacific. La Plata. W^here is La Plata ? In South America ; it is south of Bolivia, east of the Andes, and west of Paraguay and Uruguay. By what other name is La Plata known ? The Argentine Republic. What 18 the capital of La P\at«i^ 172 Bajada-de-Santa-Fe, or Parana, on the Parana river. Name some other towns in La Plata. Mendoza^ which was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1861 ; Cordova, Santiago, Santa Fee, and San Juan de la Fontera. Where is Buenos Ayres ? It is a province in the south-east of La Plata, which separated from the Argentine Confederation in 1853 ; but was re-united to it in 1859. What is the capital of Buenos Ayres ? Buenos Ayres, on the Rio-de-la-Plata. Mention some rivers in La Plata. The Parana, the Uruguay, and the Paraguay. What are peculiar to La Plata ? Its immense plains, called Pampas. Uruguay. Where is Uruguay ? To the east of La Plata, from which it is separated by the river Uruguay ; it is bounded on the north by Brazil, on the west by the Atlantic, and on the south by the estuary of the Rio de la Plata. What other name has been given to Uruguay ? Banda Oriental. W^hat is the signification of this name ? It signifies the ^^ Eastern Boundary^'; this name was given it by the Spaniards, What are the chief towns of Banda Oriental ? Monte Video, the capital, and Colonia del Sacra- mento. What rivers are in Banda Oriental ? The Uruguay, and the Rio Negro. Parag\3x\. Where is Paraguay ? 178 It lies between Brazil and La Plata j being sepa- rated from Brazil by the Parana^ and from La Plata by the Paraguay river. TVhat is the capital of Paraguay ? Assumpcion : Villa Bica^ and Concepcion are like- wise in Paraguay, Patagonia. Where is Patagonia ? In the south of South America, having the At- lantic on the east, and the Pacific on the west, as far north as Araucania, What country is to the north of Patagonia? La Plata, the river Negro lies partly between them. Is much known of Patagonia ? Very little. Port Desire, and San Julian are in this country. What is there remarkable about the Patagonians ? They are a very tall race ; and in a state of bar- barism. . What islands are to the south of Patagonia ? Terra-del-Fuego, or the land of fire, so named from their volcanic structure : they are separated from the continent of America by the straits of Magellan. After whom are these straits named ? Fernando Magellan, who first sailed through them. What is peculiar respecting the inhabitants of these islands ? They are a very stunted and degraded race. What is the southern extremity of this island called ? Cape Horn. Name three islands off the 80ut\i-Yie^\.erft. ^Q'a.'^\. ^^ Patagonia. We/lington, Hanover, and AdfeUide VA^Jvaa. 174 Where are the Falkland isles ? In the Atlantic ocean^ to the south-east of Pata- gonia ; there are about two hundred of these islands ; but only two are of any size, East and West Falkland, they are separated by Falkland's Sound. Where are the New South Shetland isles ? About 600 miles south of Cape Horn, in the Ant- arctic ocean ; the principal of them are, Cornwallis, Clarence, Deception and Livingston. Polynesia. What is Polynesia ? It is a name given to several groups of islands in the Pacific ocean. Name the principal groups of these islands. The Sandwich, the Society, the Friendly, the Marquesas, the New Hebrides, the Fiji and the Navi- gator's islands. Which is the principal of the Sandwich isles ? 0- why-he or Hawaii ; it was here thajt Captain Cook was killed in 1779, in the reign of George III. Where is Honololu ? In the island of Oahu, one of the Sandwich isles* it is the seat of a bishopric. Under whose government are the Sandwich isles ? They are governed by a native king, and their in- dependence has been recognised by the principal of the European governments, and also by the United States. Which is the chief of the Society isles ? Tahiti or Otaheite ; this island is under the in- fluence of the French government. Why were the Friendly isles so called ? This name was given them by Captain Cook, in consequence of the friendly disposition of the na- tives. These islands are subject to one sovereign; 175 King George, who, with the greater part of the na- tives, has been converted to Christianity. To whom do the Marquesas belong ? To the French. The natives are the least sensible of all the inhabitants of the Polynesian isles to the influence of civilization; and they are said to be cannibals. The principal island of the Marquesas is Noukahiva. Which are the chief of the Fiji islands ? Great Fiji, and Tarkanava. The inhabitants are a warlike, cruel, and treacherous race above all the Polynesian tribes ; they are also cannibals. They believe that they will retain in the next world the body in the same state as at death ; for this reason, they put to death their aged relations as a friendly act ; and often kill themselves to prevent their dying decrepid or diseased. Why were the Navigators' islands so named ? They were so called by a French traveller, in con- sequence of the skill they displayed in the manage- ment of their canoes ; but it is inferior to that dis- played by the Friendly islanders. Savaii is the largest of the Navigators^ isles. Name some more islands of Polynesia. Cook^s islands, the Gambier islands, Easter island, Norfolk isle and Pitcairn isle. It was at this last, where the mutineers of the Bounty settled in 1789. The rest of the Polynesian islands have been de- scribed among the islands of Asia. ASTRONOMY. What is the derivation of the term astronomy ? It is derived from two Greek words " Aster,^' a '' star/' and " Nomos/' a "law/' What is astronomy ? The study of the heavenly bodies; or it is a science that treats of the classification, magnitudes^ and motions of the heavenly bodies^ and describes the laws by which these motions are regulated and maintained. How many stars are visible at one time ? About eight or nine hundred to the naked eye. How is it that they appear so numerous ? Because some of them are so far ofi^, that the rays of light from them are liable to countless reflections, which are mistaken by us for stars. How are the stars classed ? * • According to their magnitude, viz., 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th magnitude. Of what two things is the sun the source ? Of light and heat, which it supplies to the earth and other planetary bodies, of which it is the centre, and round^which they turn. What is the path of a planet round the sun called ? Its orbit What is the form of t\ie oibila oi ^i)cL^ ^«aR^.^1 177 An ellipsis^ or oval. What is the face of the sun or a planet called ? Its disc. At what distance is the sun from the earth ? Ninety-five millions of miles. What is the size of the sun compared with the earth ? Its diameter is 111^ times that of the earthy and its magnitude is 1^384^000 times greater. How do you find the difierence in bulk between two round bodies ? By squaring the diflference of their diameter. Explain this. If one is 2 feet in diameter, and another is 6 feeb, the latter's diameter is three times greater than the former^ and the square of 3 being 9^ the second is nine times greater than the first. How can you find the circumference of a body, when its diameter is known ? By multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. Has the sun any motion ? Yes ; it is supposed to turn on its own axis. How is this ascertained ? By the dark spots on its surface, which move across its disc, and then disappear, always returning at stated periods. What is that system called of which the sun is the centre ? The solar system ; it derives its name from the Latin word ^^ sol,^' the ^^ sun.^' Of what does the solar system consist ? Of the sun, with the planets, and their satellites, or moons. Name the planets. Mercury, Ven us, the Earth , Maia, S w^Vi^x j'^^^^x^xx^ , Vranus, and Neptune. 178 What four smaller planets are between Mars and Jupiter ? Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas; they are called the Asteriods. Which planet is nearest the sun ? Mercury, whilst Neptune is the farthest off. What are Mercury and Venus alternately ? The morning and evening star. They are called inferior planets, because their orbits are within the orbit of the earth. Which is the largest of all the planets ? Jupiter, which has four moons. Have the other planets any moons ? Uranus has six, and Saturn seven. What is there peculiar to Saturn ? It is surrounded by a luminous triple ring. What other name has Uranus ? It is sometimes called Herschel, after its dis- coverer, and sometimes Georgium Sidus, " George's Star/^ in honour of George III., in whose reign it was discovered. What are the Fixed Stars? Those stars which are so far off, that their posi- tions with respect to the earth never seem to alter, although they are a hundred and ninety millions of miles nearer to us at one time of the year than at another. Which is the nearest fixed star ? Sirius, or the Dog Star ; it cannot be less than nineteen billions— 19,000,000,000,000 — of miles from the earth. How far is the moon from the earth ? Two hundred and forty thousand miles. What 18 the size of Ite mooiv.? Its magnitude is one iott^-iivsi^ ^"^^ ^^ "^^ ^wsSa.. How long is the moon TeNoWm^xovsssA^^^^e^X 179 V7 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes. Sow is it that the outline of the moon is some- es visible, when only part of her illuminated side umed towards the earth ? Phe moon receives part of its light from the earth, 1 it is this light shining on it, which enables us ;race its outline at certain times. iiVhat things are wanting to the moon ? In atmosphere, and water. lYhat is the Zenith ? That part of the heavens immediately over our ds. ^hat is the Nadir? That part of the heavens which is opposite to our ^hat is the sensible Horizon ? Phe circle which bounds our view, or where the and earth seem to meet. THE WINDS. AT is wind ? lir put in motion. Vhat is this principally occasioned by ? ly heat ; when the air is heated it expands, and ^mes lighter, and consequently rises, and the ion of the cooler air rushing in to supply its e, causes the current which we call wind. The trie fluid in the air is the cause of the variable- 5 of the winds. how thdii such is the case. 'you bold a lighted candle a.t t\!Le >aQ>\X.wx!L ^'l ^ 180 door in a room where the fire is opposite to it, the flame will blow towards the inside ; but if it be held at the top of the door, the flame will then, be seen to blow outward, fully showing that the cold air is rushing towards the fire, and that the heated air is escaping. How many principal winds are there ? Four, viz. : the North, South, East, and West. From what do they take their names ? They derive their name from the four cardinal, or principal, points of the compass.* Which of these winds is the coldest to Europeans ? The north wind, because it comes from the North Frigid zone. Which wind is the hottest ? The south wind, because it come from the Torrid zone, and before it reaches us, it has to pass over the hot continent of Africa. Which wind is the wettest ? The west wind, seeing it has to pass over the Atlantic ocean, where it imbibes a large quantity of vapour, or moisture. Which of the winds is the driest ? The east wind, because it has to pass over the immense continent of Asia, which has but little water, and consequently loses its moisture before reaching us. What are the Trade Winds ? Winds that always blow in the same direction. How is this occasioned ? The sun is continually heating the air at the equator, which causes a current of wind from the north and south, and seeing the earth is always * There are 32 pomta to i\ie coTt\\>«A%, It ia said to have been invented by Giom, o^^a^\eft,'m\^^^* 181 turning eastwards^ it causes the current coming from the north to blow in a north-easterly direction. What ar^ the Monsoons ? They are winds which blow from the south-west, from the middle of Mar<jh to the middle of Sep- temberj ?^nd from the north-east for the rest of the year. At what rate does the wind move ? From one to a hundred miles an hour. What are land and sea breezes ? The sea breezes are winds which begin to blow from the sea to the land in the morning, with in- creasing force till noon, and then gradually subside as evening approaches, when they cease altogether; and then the breezes from the land towards the sea spring up, and continue till the iporning. What are the Simoons ? Hot pestilential winds, injurious to animal life, which blow over the deserts of Africa. The Air. What is the ftir ? A thin transparent fluid surrounding the ^arth on all sides to the height of about 45 miles. Of whfi^t is the air con^posed ? Atmospheric l^r consists of two gases, viz., oxygen and nitrogeuji in the proportion of 21 to 79 parts in 100. Is the air always as pure as this ? Never, there is always some carbonic acid gas, iQpre or )ess, mixed with it ; there is always more in the night than iu the day, and }ess in fine weather than the coi^trary. Which of these gases is e8sent\a\ to «.T\\»a\.\\i^'^ Oxygen; when we draw in a \>te^XX\ <A «vx/^^> \& 182 passes through the lungs, which retain the oxygen to support life ; and the nitrogen is expelled in the form of carbonic acid gas, which is a poison. If such is the case, how is it that the air does not become injurious to animal life ? Because, by a wise ordination of Providence, all vegetables and trees cannot live without carbonic acid gas, which they imbibe or suck up, so to speak, and give out oxygen gas in return. What is the weight of the air at the surface of the earth ? Fourteen and a half pounds upon every square inch ; the higher we ascend, the more rarefied, or less heavy does the air become. Exemplify this. The under part of a hay-stack must be more closely pressed than the upper, because the upper part bearing upon it presses it more firmly together; or, if you were to take twenty sacks, and fiU them with hay, and place them one on the other, the eighteenth would be more closely pressed than the nineteenth, and the seventeenth than the eighteenth; but the first would be the most compressed of all; in like manner is it with the air upon the surface of the earth, which, having to support the whole weight of the air, must be heavier than any other part ; and the higher the air is from the earth, the less weight . there is pressing upon it, and therefore the less dense it is. What effect has the pressure of the air upon the human body ? If the air inside us were removed, we should be crushed by the great weight of external air pressing upon our bodies ; and, on the other hand, if the pressure of the external ^it v«et^ XsJ&sa w?^'^^ our bodies would burst. 183 The Tides. What are the tides ? The constant motions of the sea, according to which it ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours. What do you mean when you say the tide is flowing ? When the tide is flowing, the water is then com- ing up towards the land, which it continues to do for about six hours ; when it remains at rest or in equilibrium for ten or fifteen minutes ; it then turns, and recedes from the land ; the tide is then said to be ebbing, which it continues doing for the same space of time as it was flowing. What two things have a great influence upon the tides ? The sun and the moon ; the latter raises the water nine feet, and the former two feet. When the sun and moon are both drawing in the same direction, what are they said to be ? In conjunction; at which periods the tides are raised eleven feet ; when they are acting upon the earth in a contrary direction, they are said to be in opposition ; the tides are then raised only seven feet. When are the tides greatest ? At new and full moon, which are called spring tides ; they are least when the moon is in her first and last quarter^ and then they are called neap tides. Eclipses. What are eclipses ? Partial, or total obscurations of the sun or moon. How is an eclipse of the moon occasioned ? It takes place when the earth com^% \i^\.^^^\5L C^^ sun and the moon ; the sun sVime^ \x^<iTv \!a^ ^"^xJ^^ and the earth's shadow falling upon \\i^ YCvowv,^«t- \?> — ^ 184 tially or totally obscures it, according to its position with respect to the earth. At what period of the moon does an eclipse happen ? At full moon. How is an eclipse of the sun occasioned ? By the moon coming between the earth and the sun, and thus hiding the sun from our view. Bain, Hail, Snow, Dew, &c. What is rain ? Kain is moisture drawn up from the earth in the form of vapour, and which, congregating in the air, forms clouds ; when these clouds become heavier than the atmosphere, which is occasioned by their passing through a colder region and becoming condensed, they fall in drops to the earth. What is hail ? Bain frozen as it falls to the earth. What is snow ? When a cloud passes through a region, colder than 32^ Fahrenheit, it is congealed, and then falls to the earth in the form which we call snow. What is dew ? Moisture drawn up from the earth by the sun during the day, and which returns again in the night, in consequence of its being condensed by a cooler atmosphere. Exemplify this. If you hold a cold plate to the spout of a boiling kettle whence the steam is issuing, the steam, as soon as it touches the plate, is condensed, and turned into water. How is lightning occasioned ? When two electric clouds approach each other, they ^ The moon is 240,000 mWea is^m IbA earth. 185 • . • have a tendency to equalise themselves^ that is^ the one that is overcharged gives out its electricity to the other until they are both equal ; and the passing of the electricity from one cloud to the other formt the lightning. What is thunder ? It is caused by the air rushing into the vacuum made by the lightning, and the noise is reverberated in the clouds. Why is it dangerous to walk by the side of a river during a storm ? Because water is a good conductor of lightning; and a man^s height is sufficient to attract the light- ning to him, provided there be no taller object near him. Which is the safest place during a storm ? In the middle of a room, covered with a carpet, or on a thick hearth-rug ; the fire-place should be avoided. When out of doors, the safest place is a few yards from a tall tree, as that is likely to attract the electric fluid should a discharge take place near you. Various Subjects. Why is it more dangerous to leap from a carriage, when it is in motion, than when it is stationary ? Because, when a person is riding, in a railway carriage for example, his body possesses a motion in common with the carriage, and consequently is moving with the same speed, and, when he leaps from the carriage, his body does not lose directly the progressive motion which was imparted to it by the moving vehicle ; and when his feet touch the ground, their onward motion is impeded; but it is not so with the upper parts of his body ; for they still have a tendency to go on ; but bdv\w Vvccvkx'^vL ^ • • '^186 from doing sO by the feet '^bmainlng stationary, the body topples over and thus the danger. . ••1? Does this yule apply to any other case ? > Yes ; for this same reason, a person, sitting in a vehicle with his back to the horses, falls forward as soon as the horses start, because his legs are, in a manner, dragged from under his body, almost in the same way as if some one had pulled his &et from behind him. The Thermometer. What is a thermometer ? An instrument to mark the changes in the air, as it regards heat and cold. From what is the word " thermometer" derived ? From two Greek words, "theirmos,' hedt> and " metron," a measure. How many kinds of theniiometers are! there ? Three, viz., the Farenheit^ so called frdm the name of the inventor, who was a Dane ; the Reaumur thermometer, and the Centigrade used by tbe Swedes. What is the difference between these thermo- meters ? Farenheit makes water freeze at 82^ and boil at 212°. Reaumur makes it freeze at 0° or feero, and boil at 80°; and in the Centigrade thermometer, water freezes at 0'', and boils at 100^ Why did Farenheit choose 32° for freezing point ? Because melting snow or ice mixed with salt, is 32 degrees colder than water just beginning to freeze. In what manner do heat and cold affect the quick- silver in a thermometer ? Tbe former causes it to e^iii^aad, aud the latter Contracts it Wbi^ is the difference ki the length of a degree '..^. on ftrenbfit^ and Reaumur's thermometer?* : « A degiii on Beautnur's thermometer eqaaB 2i degrees on Farenheit's. * Shew how this is. Between freezing and boiling poiht on Reaumur's* thermometer, there are 80°; and 180° on Farenheit's ; therefore 80° Reaumur equal 180° Farenheit ; and 80° is contained 2^ or -J times in 180°. How do you change Farenheit into Reaumur's scale? By multiplying the number of degrees above or below 32° by 4, and dividing by 9. Let us prove this: — ^What degree of Reaumur equals 122^ Farenheit ? 40°; for 122— 82 = 90 .-. 90x4^9=360^-9=: 40°. — Answer. How do you change Reaumurs scale into Farenheit's? By multiplying the number of degrees by 9^ and dividing bv 4, and then adding 32° to the quotient. We will prove this: — What degree Farenheit corresponds with 40° Reaumur ? 122°; for 40°x9-5-4 = 3eO°-5-4^90^ .-. 90°+ 32°= 122°.— Answer. What difference is there in the length of a degree between Farenheit and the Centigrade thermo- meter? A degree of Farenheit is \|- of -a degree Centigrade. How do you compare these two thermometers ? By the same rule as in the former case^ only it is necessary to substitute 6 for 4 in working any problem. The Barometeu. What 18 a barometer 7 188 An instrument used for measuring the weight of the air. How does the air act upon the quicksilver in the barometer ? If the air is dense, the quicksilver rises ; this is a •sign of fine weather; but if the air becomes lighter, the quicksilver falls, which is an indication of rain or snow. The Common Lever. What is a common lever ? A bar of wood or iron used to move heavy weights. What is the support on which you rest the lever called ? The fulcrum. What is the force employed to raise the weight named ? The power. What advantage is gained by using the lever in moving weights ? By how many times the length of the lever, between the power and the fulcrum, exceeds the length between the fulcrum and the weight, by so many times a less power is required to move it. Give an example. If the length of the lever between the fulcrum and the power is 12 feet, and between the fulcrum and the weight 2 feet, the former is six times greater than the latter ; therefore, if the weight is 72 lbs. a power or weight of 12 lbs. at the other end will balance it. Why does a ball, when rolled along the ground, stop erentually ? Because there are t\\te^ Wvvxi^ ^esL^xXxcL^ «a. influence upon it to cawae \t X.o ^o «i, ^'x'l^, ^'i. 189 attraction of gravitation^ Mrhich consists in the earth drawing it to it ; secondly^ the friction of the ground it passes over ; and thirdly^ the opposition it meets with from the air as it moves along; all these acting upon it at the same time^ eventually over- come the force or power that was employed to set it in motion. Is it possible to tell how high an arroVv goes when shot up into the air ? Yes; count the number of seconds that elapse from the time of the arrow^s leaving the bow, till it reaches the ground again ; then divide the number of seconds by 2, square the result^ and multiply it by 16. Why do you in the first instance divide by 2 ? Because a thing thrown up into the air, is always the same time falling that it was rising. Give the result of the following problem : — An arrow is 6 seconds before it touches the ground, after having been fired from a bow, how high did it go? 144 feet; for 6-^2=8 .'. 8X 16=3x8x16= 144. — Answer. Can this be proved another way ? It can ; a body falls* 16 feet the first second ; three times 16 the second second; five times 16 the third second; seven times 16 the fourth, and so on; al- ways multiplying 16 by the successive odd numbers ; therefore as the arrow was 8 seconds falling, it fell during the first second 16 feet ; during the next second it fell 16 feet X 3=48 feet, and during the third second it fell 16 feet X 5=80 feet .-i 16 feet +48 * 16iV feet 18 the exact distance a\ioa.^ ItiJ^^ ^xixoi^^viaa Brat second. 190 feet +80 feet =144 feet, the same as the previous answer. Will this rule apply to any other thing ? Yes ; in the same way the depth of a well can be ascertained ; though it will not be necessary to divide by 2 in the first instance.^ Why is it easier to move a body when in the water than otherwise ? Because when a body is in the water, as a ship for instance, it sinks until the bulk of water that is pressed out by the submerged part of the vessel, equals the whole weight of the ship, which then is in equilibrium, and therefore, only a power sufficient to overcome the opposition of the water is required to move it. How is sound occasioned ? When an elastic body is struck, its parts are made to vibrate, and corresponding vibrations are com- municated to the air, which falling upon the ear, produce the sensation which we call sound. What causes the difi^erence there is in sounds ? When a thing vibrates sharply, it produces a tenor sound ; and when it vibrates slowly, as a dram, it causes a bass sound. What is necessary to sound ? Air. At what rate does sound travel ? About 1130 feet in a second. How would you reckon the distance a ship was oflf by its firing a gun ? 1 should count the seconds elapsing between seeing the flash of the gun, and hearing the report, Count the seconds elapamw ?tom ^k^ ^tx^ne's leaving your hand, &nd hearing tue ft^^fta\iol '\^.l«J^\i^\u\ft'Oafc water, and proceed as before. 191 ' and multiply the number by 1130^ which would give the distance in feet. Are the flash and the sound produced together ? Yes, but as light travels at the rate of twelve mil- lions of miles in a minute^ we see the flash in- stantaneously. Can you tell the distance of anything else by the same rule ? Yes, of an electric cloud, by counting the number of seconds intervening between seeing the flash, and hearing the thunder. What causes an echo ? Sound striking against something, and being re« fleeted back in the same direction. What distance must there be between the reflected and the direct sound ? Not less than 70 feet, this distance will give an echo of onesyllable, and the number of echoes will be increased in proportion to the distance. Why cannot an echo be heard at a less distance than 70 feet? Because it would reach the ear before the im- pression of the direct sound had ceased. How often does Leap- Year happen ? Once every four years, it consists of 366 days. Why do we have a Leap-Year ? To make up for the hours and minutes over the 365 days which are in a year. Does this overplus amount to an entire day in four years ? No ; therefore every fourth year we are a trifle in advance of the right time. How is this error rectified ? By making every hundredth year, although it is divisible by 4, not a Leap-Year. Does tbia bring the reckomng xv^X.'l 19? Not exactly; by this ealculation we are a little behind the exact time^ so every four hundredth year is to be a Leap-Year; and the error, by this method of calculating, will not amount to a whole day in 5000 years. How much does the error by our computation amount to ? To 11 m. 11 8. in a year. What man undertoojc to rectify this error ? Gregory XIII., a.d., 1582, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; the error then amounted to ten days, and the 5th October was made 15th. In what year did the English adopt this com- putation ? A.D. 1752, in the reign of George II.; it is called the New Style. What other alteration was made in the same year ? The year was made to begin on 1st January, in- stead of 25th March, as it previously had done; so January, February, and March, to 24th, became part of the year 1753, instead of the last part of the year 1752. What is zoology? That part of natural history which describes animals. What is a quadruped ? An animal with four legs ; a biped is an animal with two legs. What are amphibious animals f Those animals which can live either on land or in water, as the crocodile, the alligator, &c. What are carnivorous animals ? Those that feed on flesh, as the lion, tiger, &c. What are graminivorous animals ? Those that feed on graa^ «l% \.\ifc otl, \.Vi^ W«ft, &c. How can you diBtingm&Yi ^ c«crKVNoxws& Vcwa. ^ g^raminivorom animals 193^ By the teeth; the former has sharp teeth for tearing; the other has flat ones for grinding, or bruising its food. To what class does man belong ? He combines both species. What are mammalia ? Those animals that suckle their young; the whale belongs to this class. What are oviparous animals ? Those that produce their young from eggs. What is ornithology ? That science which describes birds. How does a bird rise or drop when flying ? If it beat the air with its wings with a force greater than its own weighty it will rise ; but if with a less'power, it will faiU. VI GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Abbeville France Europe. Aberdeen Scotland Europe. Abo Finland Europe. Acapulco Mexico • • • c . > • • North America Adriatic sea, or gulf of Venice, between Italy & Turkey. . Europe. Adventure isle . • . .Pacific ocean . . Asia. Agra East Indies .... Asia. Ayr ..... Scotland Europe. Adrianople Turkey Europe. Aleppo Turkey Asia. Alexandretta Turkey Asia. Alexandria Lower Egypt . . Africa. Algiers Barbary Africa. Albany New York . . . . N. America. Amboyna « . .East Indies .... Asia. Amiens France Europe. Amsterdam Holland Europe. Amsterdam isle. • . . Pacific ocean. . . . Asia. Angra, in Terceira. .Azores^ Atlantic ocean. . Europe. Antigua Carib sea N. America. Antiocb Turkey Asia. Antwerp Belgium Europe. Archipelago Greece Europe. Archangel Uusaia ^\tt«^^. 195 Ascension isle . . . . S. Atlantic ocean. . Africa. Astracan Russia Asia. Athens . • Greece Europe. Ava Birmese empire . • Asia. Avignon France Europe, Bagdad Turkey Asia. Baltic sea, betw. Germany & Sweden .. Europe. Balasore East Indies Asia. Bay of Biscay . . , .East of France. . Europe. Bay of Bengal ... .East of India . . Asia. Balbec Turkey Asia. Barcelona Spain Europe. Barbuda isle Atlantic ocean . . N. America. Basil, or Basle .... Switzerland Europe. Baasora Turkey Asia. Bastia Island of Corsica. . Europe. Bath Somersetshire . . England. Belfast Antrim Ireland. Bayeux France Europe. Berlin Prussia Europe. Bermudas Atlantic ocean . . N. America. Bern Switzerland Europe. Berwick Scotland Europe. Belgrade Turkey Europe. Bencoolen, Sumatra, Eastern Archipelago. . Asia. Batavia Java, island Asia. Birkenhead Cheshire England. Bourdeaux France Europe. Bayonne France Europe. Boston Lincolnshire. . . . England. Boston New England . . N. America. Boulogne France Europe. Bologna Italy Europe. Bombay East Indies ksva., JBiIboa Spain '^vjl^'^^^^ Birmingham WarwicVsYvite . •^w^«cl\» \7— ^ 196 Bokhara • • • • Independent Tartary^ Asia. Breda • • Holland Europe. Brest -^ • • • • France Europe^ Bremen. . • Germany Europe. Bristoli partly in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. . England. Breslau • • • Bohemia Europe. Buenos Ayres . . . .Buenos Ayres . . S. America. Bukarest Turkey Europe. Black sea^ or Euxine, Turkey ih Europe and Asia. Bruges • .Belgium Europe. Brunswick Germany Europe. Buda .... Hungary Europe. Bourbon isle Indian ocean . . Africa. Cadiz •••...•.•. Spain Europe. Caen France Europe. Cagliari^ Sardinia isle^ Mediterranean .. Europe. Cairo Egypt Africa. Calais • • • • • France, Europe. Callao Peru S. America; Calcutta East Indies .... Asia. Cambray France Europe. Cambeltown •.•••• Scotland Europe. Cambridge • Cambridgeshire .England. . Canary isles Atlantic ocean . . Africa. Candia Mediterranean sea. . Europe. Camboja West of Siam ..Asia. Canterbury • Kent England. Canton China Asia. Carlscrona » Sweden Europe. Carthage Ruins 4 .Tunis Africa. Carthagena Colombia S. America. Carthagena Spain Europe. Carlisle. . • .Cumberland. . . . England. Cardigan .CardigaM\i\t^ . ."W A««^, Candi Ceylon Ksv^.. 197 Caspian sea. . South-east of Russia. .West of Tartary. Cassel Germany Europe. Cavan Cavan Ireland. Cayenne Guiana S. America. Chalons France Europe. Chandernagore .... East Indies .... Asia. Cherbourg France Europe. St.Christopher's isle Caribbean sea . . N. America. Civita Vecchia .... Italy Europe. Cologne Prussia Europe. Cape Clear South of Ireland. .Europe. „ Comoriu .... South of India . . Asia. ,, Finisterre, North-west of Spain. . Europe. „ St. Vincent. . South of Portugal. . Europe. „ of Good Hope . .South of Africa. „ Florida South of Florida. . N. America. ,, Verd West of Africa. . Africa. „ Horn, South of Terra delFuego, island..S. Amer. Cattegat sea, between Sweden and Denmark..Europe. Ceuta • Morocco Africa. Cherson Russia Europe. Chester Cheshire England. Charleston South Carolina. . N. America. Copenhagen Denmark Europe. Constantinople .... Turkey Europe. Cork Munster Ireland. Coventry Warwickshire . . England. Corinth Greece Europe. Cowes Isle of Wight • .England. Cracow Poland Europe. Cura9oa West Indies . . • • America. Damascus Turkey Asia. Dantzic Prussia •...••• .Europe. Delhi » East Indies .... Asia, Delft Holland •'^mxq^^. Dieppe . . » France ••%%%•* J^x^lo^^^ Yl— ^ Dijon ••••..;..; France ..• Etirope. Dominique isle. • • .West Indies. . . . Amcfrica Dover kk. . • Kent • i • » % .^.England. Derby Derbyshire • • • • England^ Derry Ireland Europe. Dresden ; Saxony Europe. Dundee; . ; Scotland Europe. Dublin Ireland iVx « • .Europe. Durham Durham ^^v.* .England. Dungeness Kent •••«•... England. Dunkirk • • France • • Europe. Dunbar Scotland • Europe. Dumfries Dumfriesshire • .Scotland. English Channel,between England &France..Etirope. Ephesus Turkey. . . . ; ; . .Asia. Easter isle Pacific ocean • .America. Edinburgh ....;. Scotland Europe. Embdeu ..;.;.;. Germany . . ^ . • .Europe. Eustatius isle .... West Indies. ; i .N. America. Evereux . i France Europe. Exeter . . . . 4 . . . « . Devonshire • . • .England. Falmouth ........ Cornwall England. Falkirk Scotland Europe. Fe2 ........ i .. . Barbary States. . Africa* Ferrara 4 ........ . Italy. . . ; Europe* Florence . 4 « ; . . . . Italy. Europe. Frankfort- on-the-Main^ Grermany . . Europe. Funchali ....;.... Madeira isle. . . .Africa. Geneva ; Switzerland . . .* Europe. George's St. isle . . Azores Africa. Genoa . > ........ Italy Europe. Gibraltar Spain .Europe. Ghent i ... i* ... .Belgium ; ....Europe. Olaagow • ; Lanarkshire • • • • Scotland; Ooa . . . i . i i ; . . . . India i 4 . % • . * .Ksaa.^ Ooree iek. i . . . . Ailantfe o«fe«a.M3W». 199 rottenberg Sweden Europe. rottigen y . . Hanover Europe. rranville France Europe. rratz Austrian dominions . . Europe. I^uadaloupe isle . . West Indies • • • .America. Tuildford Surrey .England. Uoucester Oloucestershire .England. Gombroon Persia Asia. Ireenock • Senfrewshire • . Scotland. ruam . . Ladrone^Jales^ Pacific ocean • • Asia. Tulf of Bothnia . . East of Sweden.. Europe. „ Finland . . West of Russia. . Europe. „ Venice, between Italy and Turkey^ • Europe. „ Persia, between Persia and Arabia. , Asia. „ California, between California and Mexico. N. America. „ St. Lawrence, between Labrador and Newfoundland. .N. America. „ Mexico, south of United States, • . N. America. 9ague Holland Europe. Hamburg Germany Europe. Hastings Sussex England. Halifax Nova Scotia N. America. Halifax Yorkshire England. Hanover ........ Germany ..... .Europe. Havannah Cuba isle . . . • • .N. America Havre-de-Grace . . France lSurope« Hellespont between Asia and Europe. Helena St. isle .... Atlantic ocean . . Africa. Haarlem Holland .•••.. Europe, Hogue la Gape .... France Europe. Hull Yorkshire England. Hudson Bay Coast of Labrador. . N. America. Jeddo Japan islett • % . • Ksasl. Jerusalem, .... Holy Land, Tuxke^. • K&ve.. ^obn'8 town, St. . ■. Newfouad\«ad . .^.-Kssmb^^ss^^ 200 Ispahan Persia Asia. Inverness Inverness-shire •. Scotland. Isthmus of Suez^ joins Egypt to Axabia,Africa&A8ia. Isthmus of Corinth . .Greece Europe. Isthmus of Panama^ joins North & South America. Irish sea, between England and Ireland. . Europe. Indian ocean East of Africa, South of Asia. Kamtschatka .... North-east of Siberia. . Asia Kinsale Munster •••••. Ireland. Kingston Surrey •••••.•• .England. Kingston Jamaica America. Koningsberg Prussia Europe. Lancaster Lancashire • • • .England. Levant, the ...... West of Sjrria • . Asia. Lausanne Switzerland • • . . Europe. Leeds Yorkshire • • • .England. Leicester Leicestershire • .England. Leipsic Saxony, Germany. . Europe. Leyden Holland Europe. Leith Edinburgh .... Scotland. Lahore India Asia. Linlithgow Linlithgowshire .Scotland. Lincoln Lincolnshire . . Scotland. Lima Lower Peru . . . . S. America. Liege Belgium . . . ; . .Europe. Limoges France Europe. Lille France Europe. Lisbon Portugal • . • . • .Europe. Lizard Point Cornwall England. Limerick Limerickshire • . Ireland. Litchfield Staffordshire • .England. London . • ^ Middlesex .... England. Londonderry Londonderry • . Ireland. Lubec ^Germany ..... .Europe. Luneville • France ....... .I^vrtci^^. Luxemburg Belgvxxm &c lio\\»B>SL% %^\a«^ 201 Lyons France Europe. Macao China Asia. Macassar isle Eastern Archipelago . . Asia. Madeira isle Atlantic ocean • .Africa. Madras East Indies • • ^ • Asia. Madrid Spain • • • • ... Europe. Mahon port Mediterr. sea . .Europe. Majorca Mediterr. sea • . Europe. Malacca Peninsula^ S. of Asia. Maloes, St France ........ Europe. Malta island Mediterr. sea • . Europe. Manilla. . Island of Luzon^ Philippine Is.% . Asia. Mantua Italy Europe. Maregalante^ isle ..Atlantic ocean ..S. America. Marseilles • • .France .Europe. St. Martin's isle . .West Indies. % . . America. Martinico isle • • • .West Indies « • . .America. St. Mary's isle . . . .Atlantic ocean . .Europe. Mauritius Indian ocean • • Africa. Mayence Germany Europe. Medina Arabia » • Asia. Mecca « Arabia % • Asia. Mediterranean sea, between Europe «nd Africa. Mequinez Barbary ..... .Africa. Messina Island of Sicily. . Europe. Mergui, Tenasserim, Birmese empire .. Asia. Mexico .......... Mexico. N. America. Milford haven . . . .Pembrokeshire. .Wales. St. Michael's isle . • Azores Europe. Milan Italy Europe. Mocha Arabia Asia. Modena Italy Europe. Montreal > Lower Canada . . N. America. Montpelier France '&>\\q'^^« Montrose Scotland . • . % » ."^xxxQi^^* Motttaerrat iale... .West Indies • • • • Nxassv^^* 202 Morocco Barbary Africa. Moscow Russia Europe. Munich Bavaria Europe. Munster Westphalia . . . .Europe. Munster Ireland Europe. Nanking China Asia. Namur •»..••.•• .Belgium Europe. Naples Italy Europe. Nantes France Europe. Naze cape S. Norway • . . .Europe. Nice Italy Europe. Newport Rhode isle . . . .N. America. Newport Isle of Wight . .Eng. Channel. Newport Monmouthshire Wales. New York New York • . . .N. America. Nineveh ruins . • . . Turkey Asia. Newcastle Northumberland. .England. Ningpo China Asia. Norfolk isle S. Pacific ocean. . Asia. North cape Norway Europe. Nottingham Nottinghamshire. . England. Northampton . • . .North am ptonsh. . England. Norwich Norfolk -. England. Nuremberg Germany Europe. Okotsk • • . . • Siberia Asia. Otaheite isle^ Society isles. South Pacific ocean. .Asia. Oleron isle France Europe. Oporto Portugal Europe. Orleans France Europe. Orleans, New .... Louisiana . . • . N. America. Ormus ..»••••.. .Persia Asia. Ostend .......... Belgium Europe. Oxford Oxfordshire . . . .England St Onier's ..... .France Europe. L^Orient port . . . .France ."^va^^^. Pacitic ocean Fast o? X«va . .^ .^"i kxc^^^ 203 Padua .Italy • • • Europe. Paisley Renfrewshire . . Scotland. Palermo Isle of Sicily • .Europe. Palmyra Turkey Asia. Panama Central America Palmerston's isle . . S. Pacific ocean. . Asia. Paris France Europe. Parma Italy .. t Europe. Patna East Indies . • . .Asia. Pau France Europe. Pegu Birmese empire. . Asia. Pekin China Asia. Pembroke Pembrokeshire . . Wales. Penzance Cornwall England. Perth Perthshire . . • .Scotland. Persepolis Persia Asia. Petersburg, St Russia Europe. Philadelphia Pennsylvania . .N. America. Pisa Italy Europe. Placentia Italy Europe. Plymouth Devonshire • • • .England. Plymouth West Indies . . • .N. America. Pondicherry India Asia. Porto Bello Columbia S. America. Port Royal Jamaica isle • • . • America. Portsmouth .•.••• Hampshire • • . • England. Portsmouth United states . .N. America. Prague Bohemia Europe. Potosi • • • • Upper Peru, or Bolivia. . S. America. Providence • r • • • .United States • .N. America. Preston Lancashire • . • .England. Presburg Hungary Europe. Quebec » .Lower Canada . .N. America. Quito Peru S. America^ Queen Charlotte^s isles, S. "Pacv&c ooeAXi. « Kn^KtNK^.. BSiBle Fraace •••%••• ."^xsxw^* 204 • ^ Ehode island ..•• The Levant ^^cvAsia. Riga • • « Russia ••Europe. ^ Bochelle France Europe.- Bochefort France Europe. 'V^""- Rome Italy Europe."';' Rotterdam Holland Europe. Rouen • . • • • France Europe* St. Domingo isle • .West Indies. • . • Amene. St. Jago . • • Chili S. America.. St. Salvador Brazil S. America. Samarcand • • Independent Tartary. . Asia. Salisburv Wiltshire England. Sandwich isles • • • .N. Pacific ocean. . Asia. Santa Fe New Mexico. . . .N. America. Savannah ....••«. Georgia N. America. St. George^s Chan- between England nel and Ireland • .Europe. Scarborough Yorkshire England. Scone . . • . • Perthshire . • • . Scotland. Sea of Azov between Europe and Asia. Sea of Marmora • .between Europe and Asia. Sea of Ochotsk, between Siberia and Kamptschatka. Senegal and Gambia rivers, Senegambia. • Africa. Siam East of Birmah. . Asia. Shrewsbury Shropshire • . • .England. Shields^ South • • • .Durham England. Sheemess Kent England. Seville Spain •••••* .Europe. Sidon • Syria^ Turkey , .Asia. Smyrna Asia Minor^ Turkey. . Asia. Southampton ••••Hampshire ••••England. Spa Germany Europe. Sound strait^ between Denmark & Zealand. Europe. Stafford Staffordshire • • England. Sterling • • StetVvngi&Vise » •%QiQk\\a.\A. Straaburgh Fraao© .^\««^^, 205 )ckhoIm •••••• Sweden Europe. ait8 of Dover^ betw. England and France. Europe, raits of Gibraltar between Europe and Africa, laita of Babel-mandedj between Africa and Asia, raits of Ormus^ between Persia and Arabia. Asia, raits of Malacca^ betw, Malacca and Sumatra. Asia, raits of Magellan^ between Terra del Fuego and Patagonia. .America, raits of Sunda between Sumatra and Java. .Asia, aumness Iceland. . • Europe. nderland Durham England. ' rinam Guiana. S. America, rat • . • East Indies • • • .Asia. racuse Sicily isle Europe. . urus^ mount • . • .Turkey. Asia. neriffe Canary isle •. ..Africa. rceira The Azores • • • . Europe. lebes Egypt Africa. lebes^ ancient^ and modern Thiva^ Greece, .Europe. . Thomas' isle . .Virgin isles • • • .America. lom W. Prussia • . . .Europe. tuan Barbary Africa. ibolsk Siberia Asia. »msk Siberia Asia. »ledo Spain Europe. ent Germany • • • . . .Europe. oy ruins Turkey Asia. )mea Lapland Europe. ipoli Barbary . . • • • .Africa. mis Barbary Africa. irin Italy Europe. rre Turkey — Syria. .Asia. psal Sweden Europe. shant isle France .«.•••, .'EkXi^'g^* trecht Holland • • . • « ^IkM'c^'^^. nice Italy. • • • '^^««^ 206 Vera Craz Mexico N. America. Verona Italy. • • Europe. Versailles France Europe; Vienna Austria Europe. Wakefield Yorkshire England. Warsaw ....... .Poland Europe. Warwick Warwickshire • .England. Waterford Munster Ireland. Whitehaven Cumberland • • • .England. Wells Somersetshire. • .England. Winchester Hampshire • • • .England. Worms Germany Europe. Worcester Worcestershire. .England. Wurtemburg .... Strasburgh— Germany. Europe. Yarmouth ..••••• .Norfolk • . • • . .England. Yellow Sea N.E. of China. . Asia. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C.1 The Creation 4004 Death of Abel 8875 The Deluge 2848 The Tower of Babel is built.... 2247 The kingdom of Aeayria commences under Ninus 2059 The Call of Abraham 1921 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed 1898 Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 Moses is bom 1578 The Israelites go out of Egypt 1491 The Commandments given nearly three months later 1491 Balaam lives 14-52 Troy taken by the Greeks 1184 Saul is made king 1095 Solomon's Temple built 1005 Elijah prophesies 910 Carthage built by Dido 869 End of the first Assyrian empire — Death of Sardanapalus . 820 Sennacherib invades Judah 726 Samaria taken by Salmanazar — Kingdom of Israel ends ... 720 Kome built by Komulus 758 Jehoiakin taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar 597 Esther, the queen of Ahasuerus, lives 464 The death of Socrates 400 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus 890 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon 828 Euclid lives about 290 The Septuagint translation 284 The first Punic war — Borne and Carthago 264 The Colossus of Rhodes thrown down by an earthquake, having stood 56 years 224 The second Punic war KSA Death of Archimedes 'fi^ End oi third Funic war— Carthage de«\aro^e^ \si ^c«^>a . ^ grandson of ScipioAfrioanxw , 208 B.O. The first triumvirate at Borne. Pompey, Cseiar, and Crassus 60 GflDsar iirvades Britain 55 CflBBar is murdered 44 A.D. Our Sayiour is crucified — Tiberius reigping 33 Cornelius sends for Peter 41 St. Paul preaches at Athens 54 Claudius comes into Britain — Caractacus 43 Joseph of Arimathflsa supposed to preach in Britain 64 Paul put to death at Borne by Nero 67 Jerusalem taken bj Titus, son of YespasianJ 70 Adrian's wall in Britain built .* 121 Beyerus builds a wall in Britain — ^Dies in Britain i ^n CoDstantine remoyes the seat of Gh>yemment to Constan-] tinople 828 The Bomans leaye Britain « 448 The Western Empire comes to an end 476 King Arthur dies 614 Augustine comes to England with 40 monks 596 The fiight of Mahomet— The Hegira 622 The Saxons expel the Britons .»... 685 Computing the time from Christ begins • 748 Charlemagne gives names to the winds and months 800 Egbert becomes King of England 828 Cambridge University founded , 916 Coronation oaths used in England 979 Figures of Arithmetic brought into Europe from Arabia • 991 Leo Ninth the first pope that maintains an army 1054 Battle of Hastings—Harold is slain 1066 Musical notes invented — ^William First 1070 Tower of London built— Do 1080 The first Crusade— William Second 1096 England divided into Circuits— Henry Second « 1176 < Bieu et Mon Droit" used aa royal motto— -Eichard First 1194 Magna Charta signed — John »..* 1215 The Commons summoned to Parliament — ^Henry Third ... 1264 First Prmce of Wales— Edward Second .:.. 1284 The mariner's compass invented by G-ioia — ^Edward Firtt 1801 Cannon first used, battt« of Crescy— Edward Third 1846 Order of the Charter instituted consisting of 26 knighta— Edward Third 1849 Coals brought to London — Edward Third 1357 John Wickhfie opposes the errors of Bome-Bdward Third about this time Cards inrented in France for CViaTW^vx\ik---^«Dx:s'!&^^^ \S9l Ooxutantiaople taken by t\io 1\ueVf lSi%aV«ctL'^m^>s» «iu^ V£% 209 A.D. Battle of Bosworth Field— Biobard Third slain 1486 America discovered by Columbus— Henry Seventh 1492 Battle of Flodden Field--JameB Fourth of Scotland slain— Henry Eighth » 1618 The Diet of Worms— Do 1621 ^Reformation by Martin Luther begun — ^Do Protestants protest at the Diet of Spiers, hence the name — Do... 1629 Council of Trent begins, and lasts 18 years 1646 Beformation in Scotland by John Knox — ^Elizabeth 1660 Massacre of St. Bartholomew — ^Do 1572 Sir Francis Drake first English Circumnavigator— Do. ... 1580 Spanish Armada fitted out by Philip Second of Spain — ^Do. 1688 Watches brought into England from Germany — Do 1697 Decimal arithmetic invented — Do. 1602 England and Scotland united under the same king, James First 1608 Gunpowder plot— Do 1605 Henry Fourth of France murdered by Bayaillao^Do. ... 1610 Baronets created in England— Do 1611 Circulation of the blood discovered by Harvey — ^Do 1619 Charles First beheaded 1649 Jamaica taken by Penn and Yenables— Cromwell 1656 Cromwell dies 1658 Plague of London— Charles Second 1666 Fire of London— Do 1666 St. James's Park laid out— Do 1668 Habeas Corpus Act passed — Do »« 1^8 William Penn colomzes Pennsylvania 1680 Duke of Monmouths rebellion — He is beheaded-^ames Second 1686 Bevocation of the Edict of Slants, by Louis FourteenUi— Do 1685 The Bevolution— James Seoond deposed 1688 Battle of the Boyne— James Second defeated W WiUiam Third 1690 Bank of England established— William and Mary 1698 Massacre of aiencoe— Do 1698 Peace of Byswick— Do .7 1696 James Second dies at St. Cbrmains— William Third 1700 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel— Do 1701 Gibraltar taken by Sir G. Booke and Sir C. Shovel— Anne 1704 Union of England and Scotland under one Parliament— Do* 1707 St. Paul's Cathedral finished by Sir C. Wren— Do 1710 Peace of Utrecht— Do "WA Louis Fourteenth dies— The Uat "Kmf^ olYtwiw^Vti ^"^^5.- ,^^^- oeeded hia Jbther, GeoT^ "E^nt ,....» 210 A.D. Bebellion in Scotland in fayoor of the OldPretender— Anne 1715 Septennial Parliament Act passed — ^Do 1T16 South Sea Bubble— Do 1719 Inoculation for the Small Fox first tried — Gkorge Second 1727 Battle of Dettingen in favour of Maria Theresa — Do. ... 1743 The Toung Pretender defeated at Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland— Do 1746 Peaceof Aix-la-Chapelle— Do 1748 New Style introduced September 5th, called 15th — ^Do. ... 1752 British Museum first established — ^Do 1753 General Wolfe killed at Quebec— Do 1759 George Third begins his reign 1760 Jesuits expelled from the Papal States — G^rge Third ... 1778 First skirmish between the king's forces and the Ame- ricans at Lexington 1775 Battle of B unkers Hill between the English and Americans — Gieorge Third 1775 Lieutenant- General Burgojne surrenders his army — ^Do. . 1777 Admiral Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet — Do 1780 Earl Cornwallis surrenders his army to General Wash- ington—Do 1781 Independence of America acknowledged by Britain — Do. . 1783 The first balloon ascent in England— Do 1784 Times newspaper commenced — Do 1786 The revolution in Prance under Louis Sixteen begins — Do. 1789 Louis Sixteen and his queen beheaded — Do 1793 Battles of St. Vincent and Camperdown— Do 1797 BattkoftheNUe— Do 1798 Bonaparte repulsed at Acre — Seringapatam^ in India, taken ——Do 1799 Naval engagement near Copenhagen — Emperor Paul of Russia dies — Do 1801 Peace of Amiens — ^Do 1802 Battle of Trafalgar— Death of Nelson— Do 1805 Bombardment of Copenhagen — Do 1807 Battle of Corunna— Death of Sir J. Moore— Do 1809 Bonaparte invades Russia — Do 1812 Allied sovereigns enter Paris — Bonaparte abdicates — ^Do. . 1814 Battle of Waterloo— f'inal defeat of Bonaparte— Do 1815 Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth — Do 1816 Princess Charlotte, daughter of Gteorge Pourth, dies — Do. 1817 George Third dies 1820 Cato Street conspiracy — ^Attempt to murder the Cabinet Ministers— George Fourth 1820 Disgusting trial of Queen Carolm©— Do 1820 Queen Caroline dies — Do .»» »••» \S2l Mechanics institutes founded— T>o. ,, ,,„,o, ».»»«»»»»— '^^'^ 211 A.D. Battle of Navarino—Gteorge Fourth 1827 Test and Corporation Acts imposed by Oharlei Second repealed— Do 1828 London University opened — Do 1828 Catholic emancipation — Do 1829 King's College, London— Do 1830 The Police Force introduced by Sir R. Peel— Do 1830 William Fourth reigns 1830 Revolution in France— Charles Tenth deposed — Do 1830 Reform Bill— Do 1832 Emancipation of Colonial slaves — Do 1834 Houses of Parliament destroyed— Do 1834 Queen Victoria begins her reign 1837 Rebellion in Canada 1838 The Queen married Prince Albert 1840 The Penny Post introduced 1840 War in China 1842 The Thames Tunnel opened 1848 Royal Exchange opened 1844 Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 Louis Philippe deposed 1848 Great Exhibition at Hyde Park 1851 Louis Napoleon chosen Emperor of the French 1852 Wellington dies 1852 War declared against Russia 1854 Battles of Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermann 1854 Indian Mutiny begins 1867 The Great Eastern launched 1868 Prince Albert died 1861 Atlantic Telegraph successfully laid 1866 TEB END. BltLTXa, PBIHTm, OmUyMVD, VSVKVl. ) DE LA VOTE'S FRENCH READING BOOKS. HEincES DOEEES BE LECTUBE ERAITCAISE A Collection of Historical Anecdotes, selected from the best Authors by MARIN a. DE LA VOYE. 2. Price Is. 6d. 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ALLMAN, 40^, O'XSO^Xi ^^^^:^^. '<;• QUESTIONS ANB ANS'W:eRS ov GEOGRAPHY, THE GLOBES, Am) ASTRONOMY. WITH A SHORT ACCOUNT OT THE WINBS, TIDES, AIE, &c. BY h h HOOKli;. LONDON: S!. J. ALLMAN, 463, OXFOBD STEEET. 1867. taiyif^ fob PREFACE. The following Historical Geography, fecj has been compiled in the form of Question and Answer, from the writer's feeling persuaded that there is no better way of imparting knowledge to the young. The Answers are given in as concise a form as possible, and in a style calculated to make Im impression on the mind of the pupil; and every subject ihtroduced has been I thoroughly elucidated, with a view to save the mastel: the trouble of explanation. With these observations, the compiler commits his book to the scholastic pro* fession, in the hope that it will receive that approbjltion, of which Tae lasia ^fem^Ti io lender it i f QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS GEOGRAPHY, THE GLOBES, AND « ASTRONOMY. What is geography ? A description of the surfieiee of the e«th or globe which we inhabit. * The term geography is derived from the Greek words, "6e" the earth, and "Grapho,'* to write or describe. Of how many parts does geography consist ? Two, viz. political and physical geography ; the former relat^ to the division of the earth, as it has been divided by man ; and the latter treats of its natural divisions, as oceans, mountains, continents, islands, &c. What is the area of the earth's surface ? It is estimated to contain about 197 millions of English square miles, of which the water occupies 145^ millions; and the land 51^ millions. There may be other tracts of land not yet discovered, especially within the vicinity of the poles; but this is only conjecture. There is more land in the northern, than in the southern hemisphere ; and in. the eastern than in the western bieim&p^^te. \ Name the natural divisions of the land. Continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, pro- montories, capes, and shores. Describe these divisions. A continent is a vast tract of land containing many countries, as Europe. An island is a portion of land surrounded by water, as Great Britain. A peninsula is a tract of land which is nearly sur- rounded by water, as the Morea in Greece. An isthmus is a piece of land joining two countries, and separating two seas, as the Isthmus of Panama. A promontory is a part of the land projecting into the sea, the extreme point of Which is called a capa as the Cape of Good Hope. A shore is that part of the land which is washed by the sea. How is the water divided ? Into oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, straits, lakes, and rivers. How are these divisions defined ? An ocean is a vast extent of salt water not divided by land, as the Atlantic Ocean. A sea is a smaller collection of water than an ocean, as the Black Sea. A gulf is a part of the sea running up into the land, as the gulf of Genoa. A bay is a gulf of less extent, but having a wider opening. A small bay is called a creek, or harbour, or cove. A strait is a narrow part of salt water separating two countries, and join- ing two seas, or the opposite to an isthmus, as the strait of Dover. A lake is a portion of water entirely surrounded by land, being the reverse of an island, as the lake of Geneva. A river is a body of fresh water rising in the land and flowing into the sea, as the Thames. Where a river rises is called its source, and its mouth is where it empties itself into the sea. The bed of a river is the channel it flows through ; and its basin is that part of a country through which it flows^ and by which it is drained. A river's banks is that part of the land^ on both sides of it, which is washed by its waters. What is the shape of the earth ? It is nearly rounds and therefore does not form a perfect globe or sphere. It is an oblate spheroid. What is a globe or sphere ? A body everywhere perfectly round. The half of a globe is a hemisphere. The fourth part of a circle is called a quadrant, and consists of 90^. How many kinds of globes are there ? Two, the terrestrial and the celestial. The former is an artificial globe, on which the surface of the earth is delineated, with its continents, oceans, mountains, rivers, towns, &c. A celestial globe is an inverted representation of the starry Heavens. Why do you call it an inverted representation ? Because as we look at the Heavens they appear hollow or concave, whereas, on an artificial globe, they are made to have a convex appearance. In order to have a correct representation of the Heavens, it would be necessary to procure a globe sufficiently large to allow of our getting inside, and having the stars and planets marked therein. What are the north and south poles 7 The extreme ends of the earth's axis, which is an imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth from north to south, and on which it is said to turn. What is the equator ? An imaginary hne passing round the middle of the earth from west to east, and dividing it into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemi* spheres. The equator is 90° from each pole. What are meridian lines ? Meridian lines, or lines of longitude, are semi- \— ^ 4 circles, or half circles, cutting the equator at right angles, and extending from pole to pole. What is an angle ? The inclination or opening between two straight lines. Angles are of three kinds; acute^ obtuse^ and right angles. How are these angles defined ? One straight line standing upon another straight line, making the adjacent angles equal, each of them is a right angle, thus J. 90°. An acute angle is less than a right angle, thus / . An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle, thus \ • You have been speaking of lines, what is a line ? That which has length and breadth, but no thick- ness. A straight line is one that lies evenly between its two points; or the nearest road between two points. A crooked line is one that lies unevenly between its two points. What is a great circle ? A line encircling the earth, and dividing it into two equal parts, as the equator. A small circle is one which divides it into two unequal parts, as the tropics, and polar circles. What is a circle ? A space enclosed by one line, called the circum- ference^ all parts of which are equally distant from a given point called the centre. A point is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. What are the tropics ? Two small circles encircling the earth, and run- ning parallel with the equator. The northern is called the tropic of Cancer ; and the southern the tropic of Capricorn. They are 231° from the equator. Why are they called tropics ? From the Greek word, '' Trepo " I turn, because when the sun reaches either of them^ it apparently turns back. It must be borne in mind that the sun is stationary^ and that it is the earth which moves. When does the sun reach the tropic of Cancer ? The 21st June^ which is our longest day; and when it is over the tropic of Capricorn^ it is our shortest day, the 21st December. How often does the sun cross the equator ? Twice in a year, the first time is on the 21st March, which is called the vernal equinox; and again on the 21st of September, which is the autumnal equinox. On these occasions the days and nights are equal all over the world. When is the sun nearest to the earth, in winter or summer 7 In winter ; but it is colder to us because the rays of the sun are then more oblique or slanting. Is the northern or southern hemisphere the colder? The southern, which is occasioned by there being more water in the south than in the north; for water absorbs heat. Captain Parry sailed within 9° of the north pole ; but Captain Weddell could ap- proach no nearer than 15^ to the south pole ; both being prevented proceeding farther on account of the ice which impeded them. What are polar circles ? Two small circles which encircle the earth, being 23^^ from the poles, or the same distance from the poles, as the tropics are from the equator. You stated the earth was round, give some proof that such is the case. If a ship start from a port, and always keep her head in the same direction, she will come back to the point whence she started, plainly demonstrating that she has made a circuit. If you stand on the sea shore, and watch a ship in the distance CQ\si\\i^ \— ^ towards you, you will observe the tops of the roasts first, and then gradually the lower parts as she comes Dearer. Why is the hull of the ship hidden from your view ? In consequence of the rotundity of the water be- tween the vessel and yourself. Have you any other proof that the world is round ? Yes, this is convincingly shewn by an eclipse of the moon, which is occasioned by the earth's shadow falling upon the moon, which shadow is observed to be round, and therefore the earth itself must be round, for no other than a round body can cast a round shadow. How can the earth be round considering the inequalities on its surface ? Because the mountains, valleys, &c., on the earth's surface, do not lessen its spherical form, any more than fhe inequalities on the rind of an orange detract from its roundness. What is the distance round the world called ? Its circumference, which is 860^, or nearly twenty- five thousand miles. All circles, however, large or small, are divided into the same number of degrees. What is meant by the earth's diameter ? Its distance through the centre, which is nearly eight thousand miles : it is either polar or equatorial diameter. Describe the difference between them. By polar diameter is meant the distance through the centre of the earth from north to south, or from pole to pole; and by equatorial diameter, the like measurement from west to east. The equatorial exceeds the polar diameter by about twenty-six miles. This difference is caused by the flatness of the poles. Has the earth any motions ? It has two motions ; one round its own axis, and tlie other round the sun ; the former is called its diurnal or daily motion^ and the latter its annual or yearly motion. How long is the earth rotating on its axis ? Twenty-four hours, and by this motion day and night, or light and darkness are produced. What effect has this motion in the heavens ? It causes them to appear to move from east to west^ or in a contrary direction to what the earth does. Give some proof whereby this can be more fully understood. When a person is travelling on the railroad, the trees, and rails, and everything which he passes, appear to move in a contrary direction to himself. Give an interesting proof that the earth rotates on its own axis. If you place two upright poles in the ground, and another across them, and in this fix a swivel which turns within itself, and fasten a weight to it with a cord, with a short piece of string hanging from it, and allow it to trail on a table covered with sand, and keep it constantly in motion, the line which is made at first straight, will change its direction as the day advances, though the table has, apparently, remained constantly in the same position. How are light and darkness occasioned by the rotation of the earth ? The sun is stationary, and when the meridian of any place, not within the polar circles, comes under the sun, it is then noon, or mid-day at that place, and it is midnight at a place on the opposite side of the earth; and as the earth continues its motion, that place, which was opposite to the sun at noon, gradually recedes, and when it has progressed 90°, it is then six o'clock in the evening ; and 90° more brings it to midnight, or to that sijot ^\vv^\^ "^^^^a^ 8 opposite to it twelve hours before, and thus the relative positions of the two places are reversed.* How long is the earth revolving round the sun ? 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 57 seconds, 39 thirds, which is the length of our solar year. By this motion the seasons are produced. How far is the sun from the earth ? Ninety-five millions of miles; and the earth revolves round it at the rate of nineteen miles in a second. Why is this rapid motion not perceptible ? Because every thing that we see is moving at the same rate. This is exemplified in the case of a person riding in a railway carriage, for he will not feel the motion, how fast soever it may be going, provided he exclude from his view all external objects. If the earth is moving so rapidly, why is not everything on its surface hurled off ? Because the centripetal is greater than the cen- trifugal force. Explain this. The earth, as it revolves round the sun, has the desire, so to speak, to throw everything from it ; but, at the same time, it possesses within itself a superior power of attracting things to its centre, and conse- quently they remain stationary. What is this power called ? The attraction of gravitation. There is also the attraction of cohesion, by which the component parts of a solid body cleave to each other, and there is also the attraction of adhesion, by which one thing sticks or attaches itself to another. There is like- wise capillary attraction, by means of which water ascends a tube no larger than a hair above its level ; — capillus is the Latin for a hair. * It must be remembered that only half of a round body can be illuminated at a time by one light. What is latitude ? The distance of a place north or south of the equator. The greatest latitude that a place can have is 90°, the distance from the equator to the poles. How is the diflference of the latitude of two places determined ? If one is north and the other souths their latitudes roust be added ; but when they are both norths or both souths it is necessary to subtract them. What is longitude ? The distance of a place east or west from the first meridian^ which is reckoned in degrees on the equator. The greatest longitude that a place can have is 180°, or half the circumference of the globe; 180° is both east and west longitude. This can be understood by passing the hand half round the head from one ear to the other^ which can be accomplished by going either towards the right or the left. What is the first meridian ? That place from which a country reckons its longitude. Every place has its own meridian, though twenty-four are generally drawn upon the globe, answering to the twenty-four hours of the day, be- cause as the earth turns on its own axis, 15° of the earth's surface pass under the sun in one hour, and therefore in twenty-four hours the whole surface of the earth must have passed under the sun. 15° X 24 = 360° the circumference of the globe. Does not a difierence in longitude cause a difier- ence in time ? Yes, 15° makes a difference of one hour, and consequently one degree makes a difference of four minutes. 60 min. -f- 15 = 4 min. What is the length of a degree on the equator ? Sixty-nine-and-a-half English miles, equal to sixty geographical miles. 10 Is a degree of longitude the same length all over the world ? No, the further we go north and south of the equator, the shorter becomes a degree of longitude. The length of a degree of longitude at London is 43 miles. Give an example of a difference in longitude causing a difference in time. St. Petersburgh is 30° east of London, conse- quently when it is eight o'clock in the morning in London, it is ten o'clock at St. Petersburgh ; and at a place 30° west of London, it would be six o'clock. How is it that two persons who meet after having sailed round the world find that there is a difference of two days in their calculation of the time ? Because the one who sails east would have to put his watch one hour in advance every 15° that he went ; whilst the other going west would have to put it back one hour every 15° he sailed ; and consequently one would gain, and the other would lose an hour ; and as 15° is contained 24 times in 360°, one will gain and the other lose a day. What is the Ecliptic ? The imaginary path of the sun round the earth. The Zenith is that part of the heavens immediately over our head ; and the Nadir is that part beneath our feet. What is the Zodiac ? That part of the heavens extending eight or nine degrees on each side of the Ecliptic, in which the motions of the moon and the principal planets are performed. Repeat the signs of the Zodiac. Aries : the Ram. Taurus : the Bull. Gemini : the Twins. Cancer : the Crab. Leo : the Lion. Virgo : the Virgin. 11 lAbra : the Balance. Scorpio : the Scorpion. Saffittarius: the Archer. Capricomus: the He Goat. Aquarius : the Water- Pisces : the Fishes, bearer. Why were these signs so named ? Prom a similarity between these things and cer- tain groups of stars which the ancients imagined they could perceive. Who are said to have invented these signs ? The Egyptians. Some ascribe the invention to Anaximander 560 B.C. What is meant by the sun being in Aries ? The sun is said to be in Aries, when it is in that part of the heavens opposite to that sign of the Zodiac. What are the equinoctial points ? Those two points of the Ecliptic at the greatest distance from the Equator. The Solstitial points are those two points where the Ecliptic and the Equator intersect each other. The Zones. * What is a Zone ? A belt or girdle ; it is a term derived from the Latin word " Zona.^^ There are five zones, viz., one torrid, two temperate, and two frigid. Where is the Torrid Zone ? It occupies that part of the earth lying between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, and which is sometimes called the Tropics ; it is so called from the Latin word '' Torridus'' hot. The Torrid Zone is 47° in breadth. Where are the Frigid Zones ? The north Frigid Zone lies round the north pole, and is 23 1° in breadth ; and the south Frigid Zone lies round the south pole, and is of the same extent. They take their name from "Fr\^\d\xa" >Jsi'fc\i^\sjL 12 for cold. The former is bounded by the North Pole and the Arctic Circle, and the latter by the South Pole and the Antarctic Circle. Antarctic signifies opposite the Arctic. " Ante," opposite to. Where are the Temperate Zones ? The North Temperate lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer; and the South Temperate is between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle, the breadth of each of these zones is 46° 56'. Temperate signifies neither too hot nor too cold. Map of the World. Name the great divisions of the world. Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australasia and Polynesia — of these Europe is the smallest ; America the largest; Africa the most uncivilised, and the least known ; whilst Asia is the quarter that was first peopled ; Australasia signifies Southern Asia ; and Polynesia means " Many Islands,'^ a term de- rived from the tWb Greek words ^^Polus,'* many, and "Nesos,^^ ifcknd. What great quarters are comprised in the eastern hemisphere ? Europe, Asia, and Africa ; which taken together form what is called the Old World. What quarter is comprised in the western hemi- sphere ? America; this is sometimes named the New World, in consequence of its not having been known so long as the other. By whom was America discovered ? By Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa in Italy, A.D. 1492, in the reign of Henry VII., who gained the throne of England by defeating Richard III., at the battle of Bosworth Fields a.d. 1485. 13 What people discovered America ? The Spaniards^ during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella^ who furnished Columbus with three ships when he went on hb voyage of discovery. After whom is America named ? Amerigo Vespuccio, a native of Florence in Tus- cany, formerly a dukedom of Italy^ but now a por- tion of the king of Italy's dominions. What part of America is named after Columbus ? Columbia, a country situated in the north-western part of South America. How many oceans are there ? Five; the northern or Arctic; the southern or Antarctic ; the Atlantic; the Indian, and the Pacific ; but all of these, being united, form properly one ocean. Why are the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific so named ? The Atlantic takes its name from the Atlas moun- tains in the north of Africa. The Pacific was so named by the Spaniards, who found it much calmer than the Atlantic after doubling Cape Horn; and the Indian is so named from its proximity to India, a country in the south of Asia. Which is the largest of these oceans ? The Pacific, which occupies about one half of the surface of the globe. The Indian and Atlantic oceans are three thousand miles across. Where are these oceans situated ? The Arctic ocean lies round the North Pole, and is north of Europe, Asia and America. The Antarc- tic lies round the South Pole. The Indian ocean is to the south of Asia, and east of Africa. The Atlantic ocean separates America from Europe and Africa, being to the east of the former, and west of the latter. The Pacific ocean divides Asia from America, being to the east of the former, and west of the lattet. % 14 Europe. What is Europe ? Europe is the smallest of the four great quarters of the globe ; it is in the eastern hemisphere, and lies to the north of Africa, and west of Asia. It is preeminent for its civilization, power, wealth and knowledge. From whom does Europe derive its name ? From Europa, who is supposed to have lived .about 1552 B.C. It is said to have been first peo- pled by the descendants of Japheth, the eldest son of Noah. How is Europe bounded ? Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean; on the south by the Mediterranean sea, which separates it from Africa ; on the west by the Atlantic ocean, which divides it from America ; and on the east by the Archipelago ; the straits of Dar- danelles or Hellespont; the sea of Marmora; the straits of Constantinople or the Bosphorus; the Black sea ; the straits of Kaffa, Kertch or Zenekale, and the sea of Azof; the Caspian sea, the Ural mountains, the Ural river, and Asia. Why is the Mediterranean sea so called ? It is so named from its being situated between two countries or land. Its name is composed of two Latin words, "medius,^^ middle, and "terra,^ land. In Scripture history it is known under the name of the Great Sea. What was the original signification of the term Archipelago ? It signified ' chief sea,' and was applied by the Greeks to the sea surrounding their own country. Its name is derived from two Greek words, " archos ' and ^pelagos.'' 15 What is the present meaniDg of the term Archi- pelago ? It is a name given to a part of the sea studded with numerous islands. Why was the Hellespont so called ? From Helle, who, it is fabulously said, when fleeing from the cruelty of her mother-in-law, Ino, passed over this part of the sea on a golden ram, but becoming giddy she fell off; from this circumstance it was said to have been called by the ancients, " Hellespont/' What is the breadth of the Dardanelles ? In its broadest part it measures about a mile and a-half across, and in its narrowest half-a-mile. What is the derivation of the term " Bosphorus V It is derived from two Greek words, " bous," an ox, and " poros,'' a ford ; it was so named because an ox could wade across it. These straits are about half-a-mile broad at the narrowest part. Why is the Black Sea so named ? ^ Prom the dark misty fogs which often cover it. The ancient name of this sea was the Euxine. It has no tides. What is the Caspian Sea properly ? A great lake, the largest in the world, since it has no communication with any other sea: its water is not salt, but somewhat brackish. This sea has been sup- posed by some to have an underground communica- tion with the Black Sea; but this is impossible, seeing it is at a lower elevation, the Black Sea being 83 feet higher than the Caspian. Where is the North Sea or German Ocean ? It lies betiveen Britain and Denmark; it is also north of Belgium, Holland, and a part of Hanover. Where is the Zuyder Zee ? It is a portion of the German Ocean running u!j 16 into Holland. It signifies the south sea^ and is very shallow^. Where is the bay of Biscay ? It is to the west of France, and north of Spain. This bay is a part of the Atlantic ocean, and is very stormy. Where is the gulf of Venice or Adriatic sea ? It lies between Italy and Turkey, being to thq east of the former. It is an oflFset of the Mediterranean* Where is the Western or Grecian Archipelago ? It lies to the south-east of Greece, and is a part of the Mediterranean sea. The Levant is the most easterly part of this sea. Where is the White sea? In the north of Russia ; it is an offset of the Arctic ocean. It is covered with ice for three or four months in the year. Where is the Baltic sea ? To the north of Prussia, to the west of Russia, and east of Denmark and Sweden. In its western part the Baltic is not more than fifty feet in depth, and is only one-third as salt as sea- water in general, in consequence of its receiving so many rivers ; it like- wise has no tides. Name three gulfs branching off from the Baltic sea. Bothnia, lying between Sweden and Finland; and Riga and Finland, which run up into the western side of Russia. Mention three narrow straits leading into the Baltic sea. The Sound, between Zealand and Sweden ; this is the most frequented passage into the Baltic, and is 2J miles broad. The Great Belt, between the islands of Zealand and Funen ; and the Little Belt, which separates Funen from the peninsula of Jutland. 17 These straits are generally frozen over from the middle of December to April; and the Baltic sea itself is often wholly or partially frozen over. Where are the gulfs of Lepanto or Corinth^ and Taranto? Lepanto lies between the Morea and the rest of Greece ; and Taranto runs up into the south of Italy. That part of the Mediterranean sea to the west of Greece is named the Ionian sea. • Where is the Tyrenean sea ? It is that part of the Mediterranean lying between the island of Elba on the norths the islands of Corsica and Sardinia on the west^ the island of Sicily on the souths and Italy on the east. Where are the gulfs of Lyons and Genoa ? The gulf of Lyons is in the south of France, and Genoa is on the western side of Italy. Both of these gulfs are offsets from the Mediterranean. Where are the straits of Gibraltar ? Between Spain and Africa; they lead from the Atlantic ocean into the Mediterranean sea, and are 13 miles wide in their naiTOwest part. A strong current sets into the Mediterranean through these straits; but the evaporation from this sea is sufficiently great to carry off the large quantity of water that is being constantly poured into it, and this great evapo- ration is the cause of this sea being so salt ; it is about 2 per cent. Salter than sea- water in general. What was the ancient name of the straits of Gibraltar ? The Pillars of Hercules ; they were so called from two lofty mountains, Abyla in Africa, and Calpe in Spain, which are about 18 miles apart. The Straits of Gibraltar take their name from the fortress of Gib- raltar in the south of Spain, which was taken by the 2—3 » 18 English^ under Sir Gtflrge Rook and Sir Cloudesley Shovel^ in the fcig^^if Queen Anne^ a.d. 1704. When did tbp 'l^^i«(ds endeavour to retake Gibraltar ? ' In the reign of Gedi^e III. ; they besieged it from July, 1779, to February, 1783 ; but all their attempts failed in consequence of the bravery of the garrison, who were commanded by Sir John Elliot. Red-hot shot was first employed on this occasion ; it was used by Elliot to- bum the flat-bottomed boats of the Spaniards before they could succeed in coming under the guns of the fortress. What use do the English make of this place ? It serves them as an entrepot of the Mediterranean trade, and as a naval station in the time of war ; it likewise gives them the key to this sea. What is the derivation of the word Gibraltar ? It takes its name from ^' Gibel,^^ the first Moorish general who set up his standard in Spain, and "taric,** which signifies a rock in the Moorish language — Gibel's rock. Where are the straits of Dover ? Between France and England ; they lead from the English channel into the German ocean. These straits are 21 miles in breadth. Calais in France, and Dover in England, are the two ports the nearest to each other. What English king took Calais ? Edward III., after a siege of 11 months, a.d. 1347. It was retaken by the Duke of Guise in the reign of Queen Mary, ad. 1557. Where are the straits of Bonifacio and Messina ? The former are between Corsica and Sardinia, two islands in the Mediterranean sea, to the west of Italy ; and the latter separates the island of Sicily from the south of Italy. I • - ^. . . What whirlpool and rock, Jhngerous to ancient navigators^ were situated in thevtilrttils ? Scylla and Charybdis. ., .-' > ; .^V- Where is the North cape ? To the north of Norway. The Naze is to the south of this country. Where is cape La Hogue ? In the north of France. Gi^s Ortegal and Finisterre are in the north-west of Spain. Cape Roca^ in the west of Portugal, is the most westerly point of the continent of Europe. Where is cape St. Vincent ? In the south-west of Portugal. A naval engage- ment was fought here between the Spaniards and the English under Sir John Jervis, when the former were defeated, February 14th, a.d. 1798. Where is cape Trafalgar ? In the south-west of Spain. It was here that the French were defeated in a naval engagement, by Lord Nelson, who lost his life in the hour of victory, October 21st, 1805. Cape Tarifa to the south of Spain is the most southerly point of Europe. Where are capes Spartivento, Fassaro, and Mata- pan? Spartivento is to the south of Italy ; Fassaro, to the south of the island of Sicily; and Matapan is the most southerly point of Greece. Mention some capes in the British isles. Land's End and Lizard Point in Cornwall ; Start Point and Hartland Point in Devonshire ; the north and south Foreland in Kent; Beachy Head in Sussex; Flamborough Head in Yorkshire; cape Wrath in the north-west of Scotland; St. David's Head in Pembrokeshire; and cape Clear in the south of Ireland. Mention some islands in the Arctic Ocean. . ' * 20 Nova Zembla, and Spitzbergen, the most northerly land known, and which is much visited by Danish and Norwegian whalers. The Lofoden isles are off the north-west coast of Norway. Name some European islands in the Atlantic ocean. Iceland, the capital of which is Skalholt; this island is famous for its volcano, named Hecla, and its boiling springs, called Geysers; and the Faroe isles, both of which belong to Denmark. The Azores or Western isles, the chief of which is St. MichaeFs, famous for its oranges : these islands belong to Portugal, from which country they are distant about 800 miles. Mention some other islands in the Atlantic ocean belonging to Europe. Great Britain and Ireland ; the Hebrides to the west of Scotland ; the Orkney isles to the north of Scotland, from which they are separated by the Pentland Frith ; and the Shetland isles,' to the north of the Orkneys. Name the principal island in these groups. Mainland is the largest of the Shetland isles, in which is Mount Eona, 1470 feet high. Mainland, or Pomona is the largest of the Orkney isles, the chief towns of which are Kirkw^all and Stromness. The Hebrides are divided into two groups, the inner and outer Hebrides : the principal islands of the inner Hebrides, are Jura, Islay, Mull Skye, and Staffa ; in the last of which is the famous and beautiful basaltic cavern called FingaPs cave. In the island of Mull, is Ben More, 3166 feet high. The principal of the outer Hebiides are Lewis, Harris, and north and south Uist. Name two islands in the Frith of Clyde* Arran and Bute. 21 Where is the isle of Anglesey ? Off the north-west coast of Wales, opposite Caernarvonshire, from which it is separated by the Menai straits, over which there is a tubular suspen- sion bridge, 560 feet in length, constructed by Mr. Telford. What was the ancient name of Anglesey ? Mona ; it was the chief seat of the Druids, the greater part of whom were put to death by the Roman general Paulinus. The chief towns of An- glesey are Beaumaris and Holyhead, the last of which is the usual port whence passengers embark for Ireland. Where is the isle of Man ? In the Irish sea; its chief towns are Castletown, Douglas, Ramsey and Peele. Snea-fell in this island has an elevation of 2004 feet. This island formerly belonged to the Earls of Derby. Where is the isle of Wight ? In the English channel, opposite Southampton in Hampshire. The anchorage of Spithead is between this island and Portsmouth ; and the Solent is on the north-western side of the island. The chief towns are Cowes, Newport, and Ryde. Where are the Scilly isles ? Off the coast of Cornwall. They are famous for their tin mines, which have been wrought ever since the birth of Christ. The Phoenicians traded here. Mention some islands off the east coast of North- umberland. Earn, Coquet, and Holy isle. Thanet and Sheppey are in the German ocean, off the coast of Kent. Margate, Ramsgate, and Broadstairs are in the isle of Thanet, and are famous watering places. What three countries form the island of Great Britain ? 22 Scotland^ which occupies the north part of the island j England the south and east; and Wales the west. What hills, river, and frith are between England and Scotland 7 The Cheviot hills, the river Tweed, and the Solway frith. A frith is a narrow arm of the sea ; it is derived from the Latin word " Fretum,'^ a narrow sea. Name some hills in Scotland. The Pentland hills, the Grampian hills, and the Lammer Muir. Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Britain, is in Scotland, in Invernesshire, as is also Ben Lomond. What Roman general defeated Galgacus on the Grampian hills ? Agricola, a general under Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 10th, 11th, and 12th emperors of Rome. It was Agricola who first discovered Britain to be an island. Name some rivers in Scotland. The Forth, which rises in Perthshire ; the Tay, between the highlands and lowlands ; the Dee and the Don, both in Aberdeenshire, and famous for their salmon fishery ; the Spey in Invernesshire, and the Clyde. Mention some lakes in Scotland. Loch Lomond, the largest in Britain ; it measures 23 miles in length, by 9 in breadth ; Loch Tay ; Loch Fine ; and Loch Awe. Into what two parts is Scotland divided ? Into the Highlands and the Lowlands. The inha- bitants of the former were formerly called Scots, and of the latter Ficts. The language spoken by the highlanders is called '* Erse,^^ and is much the same as that spoken by the lower class of Irish. 23 How many counties is Scotland divided into 7 Thirty-three. Name the universities of Scotland. Edinburgh^ Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews. What is the capital of Scotland ? Edinburgh, on the frith of Forth, the port of ^hich is Leith, by which it is connected by means of L road, a mile in length. Glasgow on the Clyde is ' he second city of note in Scotland. Name some manufacturing towns in Scotland. Glasgow, Greenock, and Paisley ; at this last place ine shawls are made. Dundee and Dunfermline, loted for their linen manufactures ; and Caron and yiontrose, both of which are engaged in the iron :rade. What celebrated moor is situated near Inverness ? Culloden Moor; it was here that the Duke of Cumberland defeated the rebel forces of the Young Pretender, a.d. 1746, in the reign of George 11. Name the principal town in the north of Scotland. Perth, on the river Tay ; this city was formerly the metropolis of Scotland. What is the established religion of Scotland ? The Presbyterian, as established by John Knox^ A.D. 1560. When were England and Scotland united under the same king ? In the year 1603, when James VI. of Scotland became king of England, under the title of James I. He came to the throne by the right of his great- grandmother, Margaret, the eldest daughter of Henry VII. of England. They were united under the same government in the reign of Queen Anne, a.d. 1707. Shew in what way James was heir to the English throne. Henry VIII. had three children, eacJa. ol HiWsiQ^ 24 became successively sovereigns of England ; but iu consequence of their dying without issue, it is necessary to go back to the monarch preceding Henry VIII., who was his father, Henry VII., whose eldest daughter named Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland, who had a son, named James v., who left a daughter, named Mary Stuart, who had a son by Lord Darnley, named James VI. of Scotland'and I. of England. What was the ancient name of Scotland ? Caledonia, hence the Scots were sometimes called Caledonians. What two English kings were great enemies of Scotland ? Edward I. and his grandson Edward III. Sir William Wallace and Robert Bruce opposed the former, and David Bruce was king of Scotland during the reign of Edward III. Wallace was betrayed into the hands of Edward I., by whom he was hanged; and David Bruce was taken prisoner at the battle of Nevil's cross in Durham, by Philippa, the wife of Ed- ward III., whilst he was besieging Calais in France. England. How is England bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Scotland, the river Tweed, the Solway Frith, and the Cheviot Hills ; on the south by the English channel, which separates it from France; on the west by Wales, and the Irish sea, which divides it from Ireland ; and on the east by the North sea, which separates it from Denmark, Holland, and Belgium. What is the extent of England ? From Berwick-upon-Tweed to Lizard Point in Cornwall, it is 423 miles in length; but a line drawn between these two points crosses the British channel. And it is 320 miles broad between Land^s End and the South Foreland in Kent. What is the derivation of the word England ? It is 80 called from ^'Anglen/^ a village in Saxony, whence a great number of the Saxons who settled in England came, and "Land^' the Saxon for country ; it was originally called Angleland, now corrupted into England. What was the ancient name of England ? Albion, so called from its white chalky cliflFs. The name is derived from " Albus/' the Latin for white. Some say that it took its name from Albion* a king who once reigned in England, but this is somewhat mythical. How many counties is England divided into ? Forty, and these were classed into six circuits by Henry II. It was Alfred who divided England into hundreds and tithings. Which is the most northerly county of England ? Northumberland. Suffolk is the most easterly; Lowestoffe is the most easterly town in this county. Cornwall is the most southerly and westerly county of England. Yorkshire, which is divided into North, East and West Ridings, is the largest county, and Rutland is the smallest ; Middlesex, Cheshire, Durham, and Lancashire, are counties Palatine, having distinct courts of their own. What is the capital of England ? London, on the Thames ; this was a flourishing place during the time of the Romans, and a great part of it was burnt to the ground by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, the inhabitants of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire. Name some of the chief trading ports of England. Liverpool, on the Mersey, in Lancashire; this town ranks next to London as a port, it tx^ds.% 26 principally with Ireland^ the West Indies, and America. Hull, in Yorkshire ; this port is engaged in the whale fishery, which is carried on chiefly hy the British and Americans. The whale is valuable for its oil and bone. Bristol, the third port in England, is on i^ie Lower Avon, about 8 miles from its mouth ; it is partly in Gloucestershire, and partly in Somerset- shire. It trades considerably with Ireland. Newcastle on the Tyne, in Northumberland ; this port is famous for the shipment of coal, and also for pickled salmon. North and South Shields, and Tynemouth are likewise busy towns on the Tyne. Sunderland, in Durham, is also a port for the ship- ment of coal. Name some smaller ports of England. Whitehaven, in Cumberland; Poole, in Dorset- shire ; Falmouth, in Cornwall ; Lynn and Yar- mouth, in Norfolk ; this place is of some note for the curing of herrings ; Southampton, which is in Hampshire, is rapidly rising in importance. Which are the chief naval dock-yards or arsenals ? Portsmouth, in Hampshire ; Plymouth, in Devon- shire; Deptford and Woolwich, on the Thames; Chatham and Sheerness, on the Medway ; these last four are in Kent. Opposite Plymouth harbour is Eddystone lighthouse. Name some of the principal inland watering places in England. Bath, in Somersetshire; Cheltenham, in Glou- cestershire; Tunbridge, in Kent; Harrowgate, in Yorkshire ; and Leamington, in Warwickshire. Which are the principal sea-bathing places ? Brighton, in Sussex ; this town owes its elevation to the patronage of George IV., with whom it was 27 a favourite summer residence; Margate^ Ramsgate, and Broadstairs in the Island of Thanet^ opposite Kent; Scarborough, in Yorkshire; Weymouth, in Dorsetshire ; and Torquay, in Devonshire ; Bognor, Worthing, and Hastings, all of which are in Sussex, are also sea-bathing places. What towns are famous for the manufacture of linen and cotton ? Manchester, on the Irwell ; Preston^ Bolton, and Blackburn, all in Lancashire; and Stockport, in Cheshire. Above a million-and-a-half of people are engaged in the manufacture of linen and cotton. What towns are engaged in the woollen manu- facture ? Leeds, Huddersfield, and Halifax, in Yorkshire ; and Exeter, in Devonshire. Wool was the early staple commodity of England. By whom was the silk manufacture introduced into England ? By the persecuted French Protestants, who left France on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, during the reign of Louis IV., a.d. 1685, under whose government France was in a most flourishing condition. What was the Edict of Nantes ? A free toleration grafted by Henry IV., of France, to the French Protestants. What towns are engaged in the manufacture of silk? Spitalfields, in London ; Coventry, in Warwick- shire ; and MaCclesfield, in Cheshire. Where are hosiery and lace made ? At Derby, Nottingham, and Leicester. Where is Birmingham ? In Warwickshire; it is noted for its hardware manufactures. Warwickshire is the m\dV«xi^ ^<^\xxiX^ 28 of England. Kenil worthy the seat of the famous earl of Leicester, the favourite of Queen Elizabeth ; and Stratford-upon-Avou, the birth-place of Shake- spere, are in this country. What towns are noted for the manufacture of cutlery ? Sheffield in Yorkshire ; the mayor of this town is styled the " Master Cutler/' Wolverhampton, Walsall, Dudley, and Wednesbury, all which places are in Warwickshire, and are likewise engaged in the same manufacture. Where is earthenware manufactured ? In Staffordshire, it was established at Burslem by Mr. Wedgewood. This and the adjacent towns are called the Potteries. What counties afford the chief supply of coal ? Northumberland, Durham and Staffordshire. In what counties is iron chiefly found ? Staffordshire and Derbyshire. Whence do we get lead ? From Derbyshire and Cumberland. The supply of lead for the making of lead-pencils has been ex- hausted. Where is tin found ? In Cornwall. Name the universities of England. Oxford, Cambridge, London and Durham. Ox- ford contains twenty colleges, and five halls ; and Cambridge has seventeen colleges, and four halls ; London has two colleges, King^s College, and Uni- versity College ; Durham has one college, St. Bee's. Oxford is on the river Isis or Thames ; and Gam- bridge is on the Cam. Which are the principal rivers of England ? The Thames, the Severn, the Trent, the Ouse, the Avon, the Tyne, the Mersey, and the Medway. 29 \ -. Where does the Thames rise ? In the Gotswold Hills in Gloucestershire^ and falls into the German Ocean^ after a course of 215 miles. It receives the Kennet, Wye, Mole, Medway, and Darent. Where the Thames rises, it is known under the name of the Isis. It takes the name of the Thames, near Oxford, where it receives the Thame. Where does the Severn rise ? In Montgomeryshire, in Wales ; thence it runs to Shrewsbury, Gloucester and Bristol, and empties itself into the Bristol channel. This river is famous for its salmon fishery. Is there more than one river of the name of the Avon ? There are several, there are three principal ones ; the first flows through Salisbury in Wiltshire, and empties itself into the English channel ; the second flows past Bath and Bristol into the Bristol channel, and is called the Lower Avon ; and the third, called the Upper Avon, flows past Warwick and Stratford into the Severn. Where is the Trent ? It flows through the Midland counties by Notting. ham. This river and the Little Ouse form the estuary of the H umber, between Yorkshire and Lincoln- ' shire. The Great Ouse falls into the Wash, which is between Lincolnshire and Norfolk. Where is the Tyne ? In Northumberland ; it consists of two branches, the North and South Tyne, the former rises in the Cheviot Hills, and the latter in the Cross Fell, a mountain of the Pennine range. Where are the Mersey, and the Medway ? The Mersey is in Lancashire, and empties itself 3—3 30 A^ .., 1^'' into the Irish sea; and the MedwaP^iB in Kent, and runs into the Thames. Name the chief lakes in England. Windermere in Westmoreland, it 'is lOJ miles in length, and one mile in breadth. [UUeswater in Cumberland is eight miles in length, and three- quarters of a mile broad ; and Coniston lake in Lan- cashire is 5\| miles in length, and nearly half a mile broad. Name the chief mountains in Europe. The Cheviot hills, between England and Scot- land, Ingleborough and Whamside in Yorkshire, Wendle in Lancashire, Skiddaw and Helvellyn in Cumberland, the Cotswold hills in Gloucestershire, the Malvern hills in Worcestershire, the Mendip hills in Somersetshire, the Wrekin in Shropshire and the Peak in Derbyshire ; this last is the highest hill in England. To whom does Cornwall give the title of duke ? To the Prince of Wales : he is also earl of Chester. Which is reckoned the second city in England ? York, situated on the Ouse, the Roman Emperor Severus died here. This city is famous for its fine cathedral, called York Minster, it is built in the Go- thic style of architecture, it has likewise an ancient castle. Not far from York is Marston Moor, where Charles I. was defeated by the Parliamentary army ; and also the village of Towton, where a battle was fought between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians. Which of these two houses had the better right to the English throne ? The Yorkists, seeing they were descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III., whereas the Lancastrians were descended from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, fourth son of the same king. Where is Eton ? 31 In Buflkin^niHlkBliire ; it is famous for its college^ founded by Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., by his third wife Lady Jane Seymour. Where is St. Albans ? In Hertfordshire. This town is said to have been built before Christ, its ancient name was Verulum ; it was the capital of the Trinobantes, a people who lived in Hertfordshire, Essex and Middlesex. Julius Caesar advanced as far as this island, upon his second landing in Britain, b.c. 54. Where is Winchester ? In Hampshire: it is noted for its college, and cathe- dral ; it was at one time the capital of England. Where is Windsor ? In Berkshire, on the river Thames ; here is one of the royal residences, called Windsor Castle, which stands in Windsor forest. Where is Norwich ? In Norfolk ; it is famous for the manufacture of woollen stuflFs, which was introduced here by a body of Flemmings, in the reign of Henry I. Worsted stockings were first made at a place near Norwich, called Worstead, from which circumstance they took their name. How many archbishops and bishops are there in England ? There are two archbishops, Canterbury and York ; and twenty- six bishops, including the four Welsh Which of the archbishops takes the precedence ? Canterbury, he is styled the " Primate of all En- gland,'' and the Archbishop of York is styled the " Primate of England.'' The former ranks next to the princes of the blood royal, and the latter has the same rank, but gives place to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lord Chancellor of England. They are both styled " Your Grace." 32 How do the bishops rank ? They take precedence of all temporal peers. Amongst themselves the Bishop of London ranks firsts Durham next^ and Winchester third ; the others rank according to the length of time they have been bishops. How are the bishops addressed ? "Your Lordship/ and are styled "Right Re- verend Father in God.' What Bishops have not a seat in the House of Lords ? The Bishop of Manchester, and the Bishop of Sodor-and-Man. Who is considered the head of the established church f The sovereign, who is styled " Defender of the Faith.' This title was given to Henry VIII., by Pope Leo X., for writing a tract against Luther, who was bom at Isleben in Germany, and was one of the first reformers. He was a monk of the order of St. Augustine. What is the parliament ? It is an assembly of the peers and gentlemen of Great Britain and Ireland, who meet together to make laws, levy taxes, and settle the affairs of the nation. Who meets the parliament upon their assembling together ? The sovereign, or his representative. Without this there could be no parliament. The sovereign alone has the power of dissolving the parliament ; but he must call a new one within 40 days. Of what does the House of Lords consist ? Of the lords spiritual, who are the a rchbishops and bishops, with four bishops from Ireland, and of the peers of England, Scotland and Ireland. The 33 peers of Engkmd are hereditary ; those of Ireland sit for life, and the peers of Scotland until parlia- ment is dissolved. By whom are the members of the House of Commons chosen 7 By the voters of the counties, boroughs, and cities of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. How many members are there in the House of Commons ? 658:— For England, 471. For Scotland, 53. For Wales, 29. For Ireland, 105. What is the form of government in England ? Monarchical,) and aristo-democratical. The government consists of three distinct parts; the sovereign; the peers; and the commons; and these being a check upon each other, the government of Great Britain surpasses that of any other in the world. Wales. Where is Wales ? It joins England on the west ; and is separated from Ireland by the St. George^s channel ; its southern counties are washed by the Bristol channel. What was the ancient name of Wales ? Cambria. The Welsh are descended from the early Britons, many of whom fled into Wales rather than submit to the Saxons. What English king conquered Wales ? Edward I., who annexed it to the English crown, A.D. 1282; opposing whom, the Welsh prince Llewellyn was slain. Edward II., was born at Caernarvon in this cQjintry, and was the first prince of Wales, A.D. 1284. 3i Into how many counties is Wales divided ? Twelve — Six in the north and six in the south. Is Wales a mountainous country ? .YeSy its principal mountains are Snowdon, in Caemarvonshirey the highest in Wales ; being 3^571 feet high ; Gader Idris in Merionethshire ; Plynlimmon^ on the borders of Cardiganshire and Montgomeryshire. Which are the principal rivers in Wales ? The Severn, already mentioned^ which flows into the Bristol channel ; and the Dee. Where is Swansea ? In Glamorganshire, in South Wales ; it is a famous watering place. In this county is Cardiff Castle, where Robert, Duke of Normandy was imprisoned by his brother, Henry I., who invaded his dukedom, and took him prisoner at the battle of Tinchebray, a.d. 1106. Where is Milford Haven ? In Pembrokeshire, in the south west of Wales ; it is one of the best ports in Britain. Pater dock- yard is situated here. Where are the chief mines of Wales f At Merthyr Tydvil, in Glamorganshire, the largest town in the principality. A very large supply of iron comes from Wales. Has Wales any college ? Yes, one at Lampeeter. Ireland. Where is Ireland ? To the west of Great Britain, being separated from Scotland by the North channel, from England by the Irish sea; and from Wales by the St. George's channel. Ireland is bounded on the north, south, and west by Jihe Atlantic ocean. Its . 35 iDcient name was Hibemia. Its mean length is 220 miles^ and its mean breadth 140 miles. What English king conquered Ireland 7 Henry 11.^ the son of Maud^ or Matilda^ daughter of Henry I., his father was Geoffrey Plantaganet^ Count of Anjou, a.d. 1172. What title did Henry II. then assume ? That of " Lord of Ireland/* which his successors continued to bear until the time of Henry VIII., who made himself king of Ireland. How is Ireland governed ? By a viceroy or lord lieutenant, appointed by the English government. Till what year had Ireland a parliament of its own? Until the year 1801, when it was abolished. The Irish send to the British parliament, 28 peers, 4 of whom are likewise peers of England, together with 105 members to the House of Commons. How is Ireland divided ? Into four provinces, viz., Ulster in the north ; Munster in the south ; Leinst^r in the east ; and Connaught in the west. These are subdivided into 32 counties. What is the established religion of Ireland ? The church of England^ though four-fifths of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics. In whose reign was the English church reformed ? In the reign of Henry VIII. By the Reformation is meant the reforming of the Christian reUgion from the errors of popery, and reducing it nearer to its original purity. Name some of the early reformers. Martin Luther, Melancthon, Calvin, and John Knox. 36 What was the cause of Luther's taking so promi<* nent a part in the Reformation ? Luther was a monk of the order of St. Augustine to which order Pope Leo X. had granted the privi- lege of selling indulgences; hut suspecting these monks kept back part of the profits accruing there-» from, he transferred this right to the Dominican friars. When Luther found he no longer derived any profit from this nefarious traffic he determined to expose the inutility and sinfulness of Indulgences ; together with many other absurdities existing in the Bomish Church. How many archbishops are there in Ireland ? Four, viz., Armagh, Dublin, Cashell, and Tuam. The Archbishop of Armagh is styled ^ Primate of all Ireland;^' and the Archbishop of Dublin is styled " Primate of Ireland.^' What regulation has been made respecting the Irish bishops? The archbishops are to be reduced to two ; and the bishops to ten; so when any of the present bishops of those sees which are to be done away with die, no others will be appointed in their place. Name the chief rivers of Ireland ? The Shannon, which is the largest, being 224 miles long ; it is famous for its Salmon Fishery, and falls into the Atlantic ocean. The Barrow and the Suir which form Waterford Harbour. The LiflFey which falls into Dublin Bay. The Blackwater and the Boyne. For what is the river Boyne famous in history ? For a battle fought near it, between the Irish Catholics, under James II., and the forces of William III., when the latter was victorious. What relation was William III. to James II. ? He was his nephew, and son-in-law ; being the 37 son of Mary^ Jameses sister, and he was married to Mary, the eldest daughter of this monarch. What is this period in English history called ? The Bevolution, because the EngUsh rebelled against the government of James II., and compelled him to abdicate the throne; when they invited over William, Prince of Holland, and bestowed the crown upon him conjointly with his wife Mary. What led to the revolution ? James's love of despotic power^ and his foolish attempt to re-establish the Roman Catholic religion, at a time when not one-hundredth part of the people of England and Scotland were favourable to such a change. Where did James II. die ? At St. Germains in France, where he lived after his abdication, upon the bounty of Louis XIY., A.D. 1700. Name the chief lakes in Ireland. Earn; Neagh; Foyle; Derge; and the lakes of Eillamey. In Ireland the lakes are called " Loughs.^' Whicn ar&the principal mountains iu Ireland? The Moume mountains, in the County Down. Which is the most northerly cape of Ireland ? Malin Head. Cape Clear is the most southerly cape of this island. What is the capital of Ireland ? Dublin, on the river Liffey. This city possesses a university, called Trinity College, which is confined exclusively to Protestants. Are there any other universities in Ireland ? Yes, one called Queen's College, where all sects, without regard to religion, can prosecute their studies. It embraces the colleges of Cork, Belfast, and Galway. There is also a college at Maynooth, in the county of Kildare, for the education of persons 38 who are intended for the Roman Catholic priesthood. It was endowed by Sir Robert Feel in 1845. Where is Londonderry ? It is a town in the county of the same name^ and is famed in history for the siege which it sustained against the forces of James II. Which are the principal ports in Ireland ? Cork, on the river Lee, in the county of the same name. On an island in the harbour is Queenstown, which was called the Cove of Cork, till the visit of her Majesty in 1849. Londonderry, already men- tioned. Limerick, on the Shannon, is a place of some considerable trade, and has manufactures of linen, wool, cotton and paper. Belfast, on the river Logan ; this town has a considerable foreign trade, and manufactures of linen and cotton. Waterford, on the river Suir. This is the nearest port in Ireland to Milford Haven, in Wales. Drogheda, north of Dublin, is one of the chief corn-markets of Ireland. Mention some other towns in Ireland. Galway, Kilkenny, Downpatrick, Carricfergus, Coleraine, Sligo, Kinsale, Wexford, Armagh, and Enniskillen. France. Where is France ? It is in the western central part of Europe, and it is bounded on the north by the English Channel, Belgium, and Germany ; on the south by the Pyre- nees and the Mediterranean; on the east by the Alps, the Jura mountains and the Rhine; and on the west by the Bay of Biscay. What was the ancient name of France ? Gallia or Gaul; it was conquered by the Romans under Julius Csesar, B.C. 56. 39 1 was France formerly divided ? • provinces; but since the revolution of 1789, 3een divided into 86 departments. The num- first was only 83, but three others have since ided. ) was King of France at the time of the ion? is XVI. who with his queen, Marie Antoinette, ut to death by the National Convention, fhat year were they put to death ? king was beheaded January 21st, 1793, and leen suffered the same fate on the 26th of ir in the same year. > eventually obtained the supreme power in ? oleon Bonaparte, who was bom in the island dca, which now forms one of the French de- nts. He made himself Emperor of France LS crowned by the Pope. ) succeeded Napoleon after his final defeat at oo? is XVIII., brother to Louis XVI. He was led by his brother Charles X., who was de- i in 1830, in consequence of his attempting ige the constitution. ) succeeded Charles X. ? is Philippe, duke of Orleans, who was de- i in February, 1 848, when France was declared )lic, and Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Bona was chosen president, and afterwards pro- l emperor in December, 1852. le the chief rivers of France. Rhone and the Saone, which unite at Lyons, [1 into the gulf of the same name, being an f the Mediterranean sea ; the Graronne and which run into the bay of Biscay ; and the 40 Seine and the Somme which fall into the English Channel. Where does the Rhone rise ? The Rhone, together with the Rhine, rises in Mount St. Bernard, in Switzerland. The Rhone enters the lake of Geneva, at the north end, which is called lake L6man, and continues its course from the south j when, after flowing some miles further, it completely buries itself under the ground; here it is called the " Perte du Rhone," the " Loss of the Rhone ;' it again becomes visible as it runs farther south. At Geneva, in consequence of there being a fall in the river, it is designated the "Chute du Rhone.'' Which is the principal canal in France ? Languedoc, which opens a communication between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic by means of the river Garonne. Name the chief mountains of France. The Alps, which divide it from Italy; the Pyre- nees, which separate it from Spain ; the Jura moun- tains, a boundary between it and Switzerland ; the Cevennes in Languedoc ; and the Yosges in the de- partment of the same name. Name some islands to the north of France. Jersey, Guernsey, Aldemey, and Sark. Aldemey is famous for a fine but small breed of cows. These islands are called the Channel Islands, and belong to the British ; they are the remnants of the Norman possessions. What do you mean by the remnants of the Nor- man possessions ? They belonged to William Duke of Normandy when he conquered England in 1066, and conse- quently became a part of the English dominions^ and have remained so ever since. 41 iVhat people inhabit these islands ? Chey are a mixed race^ and speak a language iposed of English and French. The capital of sey is St. Heliers^ and of Gaernsey St. Pierre. SVhere is the Race of Alderney ? [t is a channel between the island of Alderney 1 cape la Hogue in France, nrhatj is the established religion of the Channel inds? Che English Church; they are in the see of nchester ? [n what part of France is Normandy ? [n the norths it was anciently called ''North- ndy/^ and the inhabitants '' northmen,'' because y originally came from the north of Europe. Its lital is Rouen. Ssme some other islands off the coast of France. [Jshant^ opposite the port of Brest; Belle Islcj ^ron^ and Rhe in the bay of Biscay. Who headed an expedition against the isle of Rh6 ? rhe Duke of Buckingham in the reign of Charles but it entirely failed. This nobleman was after- rds stabbed at Portsmouth by an Irishman named Iton. What is the capital of France ? Paris on the river Seine. It is surrounded by Us which are fortified, and is entered by 56 gates barriers. The church of Notre Dame situated on island in the Seine is a magnificent gothic build' ;. The National Library in Paris is the larges( the worlds containing eight hundred thousand umes, besides manuscripts. The British Museum London contains but five hundred thousand umes. The Seine is crossed by 22 bridges, out twelve miles from Paris is Versailles, noted 4—^ 42 for its splendid palace and gardens^ and picture gallery. Where is Cherbourg ? It is a fortified port in the south of France^ opposite the Isle of Wight. Where is Rheims ? In the department of Champagne ; it was at this place that the French kings were formerly crowned. It is in this department that the wine called cham- pagne is made. Mention some towns in the north of France. Caen, Dieppe^ and Havre de Grace^ all of which are upon the sea coast. Name some seaport towns on the west coast of France. Brest, Lorient, Nantes, Rochelle, Rochefort, and Bordeaux. This last is famous for its wine called claret. Name two sea port towns on the Mediterranean. Marseilles and Toulon. Marseilles is a very ancient city, it was founded by the Greeks, 539 B.C. Where is Orleans ? In the centre of France on the Loire. This town is the birth-place of Joan of Arc, who compelled the English to raise the siege of ^ this place a.d. 1428, during the reign of Henry VI. Charles VII. reigned at that period in France. What became of J oan of Arc ? She was taken prisoner by the duke of Burgundy, at Compeign, whilst heading a sortie made by the inhabitants of that town against the English^ who were besieging it, and afterwards purchased by the. duke of Bedford, regent of England, and being tried for witchcraft at Rouen, she was condemned to be burnt alive, which sentence was most inhumanly carried out. 43 ere is Bretagne or Brittany ? I in the north of France, and takes its name he Britons who settled there> when driven out ;land by the Saxons in the fifth century, ere is Burgundy ? he coast of France^ it is famous for its wine Burgundy, ere is Lyons ? he south of France, at the confluence of the Rhone and Saone. It is famous for its silk actures. ere is Poictiers ? ) in the department of Vienne, and is famous victory gained by the Black Prince^ the son rard III., over the French, when John, king 3ce, was taken prisoner, a.d. 1356. 3re is Dauphin^ ? he department of Drome ; it gave the title o£ in to the eldest son of the king of France, gre is Limoges ? he department of Upper Vienne. It was here ichard Coeur de Lion, king of England, was whilst besieging the castle of Chains, a.d« ere is Amiens ? he north of France ; it was formerly the capi- ?icardy. It was at this place that a treaty of vas signed between the French and English in ign of George III., a.d. 1802. A little • north is Cressy, famous for a victory gained English over the French in 1346. ;re is Agincourt ? ;he north-east of France, a few miles to the of Abbeville. It was here that Henry V. d Charles VI. of France, who was a weak, e monarch, a.d. 1415. Hetwc^ N»\ftam<t^ 44 Catherine, the daughter of Charles, and was declared Regent of France and heir to the French throne. After his death Catherine married Sir Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, who was the grandfather of Henry VII. Where is Strasburgh ? On the river 111, about a mile from the Rhine ; it is a strongly fortified city in the east of France, and formerly belonged to Germany : it is famous for its magnificent Gothic cathedral, which has a clock of remarkably ingenious construction. From whom does France take its name ? From the Franks, a tribe of German emigrants, who completed the foundation of the present king- dom under Clovis, about the year 470 ; a few years later was the period when Christianity was introducd into France. What is the climate of France ? Mild and salubrious; the soil is exceedingly fertile, and produces in great abundance all the necessaries and a great many of the luxuries of life. France exports fruits, and silks which are manufactured at Lyons, wines and brandy ; this last, known under the name of cognac, is distilled at Charente. What is the established religion of France ? Roman Catholic; but all others are tolerated. The population of France is about 36 millions. The French are gay, lively, and inventive ; possessing a great amount of politeness ; but they are vain, frivo- lous, and selfish. Spain. Where is Spain ? In the south-west of Europe; it is bounded on the north by the Pyrenees and the bay of Biscay ; on the south by the Mediterranean, the Atlantic 45 Ocean, and the straits of Gibraltar; on the east by the Mediterranean; and on the west by Portugal and the Atlantic. What was the ancient name of Spain ? It was formerly known under the names of Iberia, Hispania, and Hisperia, which likewise included the kingdom of Portugal. These two countries taken together form a peninsula. Name the various people by whom Spain has at different periods been possessed ? The Celta, a people of Oaul, were its first inhabit- ants. It was afterwards possessed by the Phoeni- cians, who founded many cities in it. The Greeks were its next masters. It then became subject to the Carthaginians, a people of Africa, between whom and the Romans it was long a source of con- tention ; but a few years before the birth of Christ it became dependent upon the Roman empire. What people took possession of Spain after the fall of the Roman empire ? The Goths, who, under their king, Alaric, founded the Spanish monarchy. These were invaded by the Moors^ a people of Africa, who held possession of the country until about the year 1475, when they were driven out by Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain. How was Spain formerly divided ? Into 13 provinces; but, in 1833, the country was re-divided into 47 provinces. The Balearic isles and the Canary isles have since been added, making the number of provinces forty- nine. Name the chief rivers of Spain ? The Ebro, which falls into the Mediterranean sea ; the Tagus, the Douro, the Guadalquiver, and the Guadiana, all of which run into the Atlantic ocean. Which are the principal mountains of Spain ? 46 The Pyrenees, which separate it from France ; the Cantabrian mountains, which are a continuation of the Pyrenees ; the Sierra de Toledo, and the Sierra Nevada. What is the religion of Spain ? Roman Catholic, no other being tolerated. The government is monarchical. Name four islands in the Mediterranean belonging to Spain ? Majorca, Minorca, Iviga, and Fromentari. The island of Minorca has a famous harbour, named Port Mahon, one of the largest in the world. It was at the island of Minorca that Admiral Byng neglected to engage the French fleet, for which he was shot, A.D. 1757. Where did Spain, at one time^ have immense possessions? In America; but now it has not any on the conti- nent ; it only possesses a few islands, of which Cuba is the principal. What is the capital of Spain ? Madrid, on the Manzanares, a branch of the Tagus. It is about eight miles in circuit, and is surrounded by walls. The Prado, a handsome pro- menade two miles in length, is the favourite resort of the inhabitants. The palace of the Escurial, about thirty miles from the capital, contains the tombs of many of the Spanish kings, it has likewise a library, and a fine collection of pictures. Where is Saragossa ? It stands on the Ebro, in the province of Arragon. It is famous for the bravery which its inhabitants displayed during two sieges by the French, in 1808 and 1809, during the Peninsula War. Where is Cadiz ? It is on a narrow strip of land^ being part of an 47 island, between Gibraltar and the mouth of the Guadalquiver, On the eastern side of the bay of Cadiz is Santa Maria, the port for the shipment of sherry wine, which is made in the island of Xeres^ a short distance from it. Where is Badajoz ? On the Guadiana^ in the north of Spain. It was taken bySoult, one of Napoleon's generals, in 1811, and was retaken by Wellington in the April of the following year. Albuera, about 13 miles distant from Badajoz^ is where the French were defeated in 1811 by the allied English and Spanish armies. Where are the towns of Barcelona^ Malaga^ and Valencia? They are all situated in the Mediterranean ; the former is famous for its nuts ; and the other two are noted for raisins. Barcelona is a very ancient city, having been founded upwards of 200 years before Christ. Where is Seville? On the river Guadalquiver, in the south of Spain. It has a fine cathedral, and is famous for the immense quantity of oranges which it exports. Where is Granada ? On the river Douro ; it is situated at an elevation of 2312 feet above the sea. It contains many remains of Moorish grandeur ; among others the palace of the Alhambra, which was begun by the Moorish king Mohamed Abu Alimar. Name some other towns in Spain ? Cartagena, on the Mediterranean; it has a fine Wbour and arsenal. Alicant, a little to the north, is famous for the wine called Tent. St. Sebastian, on the confines of France, is famed for the siege ^hich it sustained in 1813 against the English, when It was taken by assault. Salamanca, once celeVst^"^^ for its university, is an ancient city, auA. cow\«vas^ \)aa 48 remains of Roman works. And Ciudad Rodrigo, about fifty miles from Salamanca, was taken by the French in 1810, and by the English in 1812. What is the climate of Spain ? It is mild and salubrious in the north ; but hot and unhealthy in the south. The soil is fruitful near the sea. Its population is about 12 millions. The Spaniards are grave^ pompous^ revengeful^ bigoted, and indolent. Portugal. Where is Portugal ? It joins Spain on the west, by which country it is bounded on the north and east^ and on the south and west by the Atlantic. What was the ancient name of Portugal ? Lusitania. This country, like Spain, was held by the Moors ; it was afterwards taken possession of by Spain, and became an earldom of that country. What prince threw off the Spanish yoke ? Alonzo I., A.D. 1139, and his descendants held Possession of the kingdom till the year 1580, when 'hilip II., king of Spain, who was the son of the emperor Charles V., made himself master of Portugal, and it remained an appendage of Spain till 1640, when the Portuguese threw off their allegiance to Spain, and elected the duke of Braganza for their king, who assumed the title of John IV., since which time it has remained an independent kingdom. What celebrated war was carried on in Spain and Portugal ? The Peninsula war, when the English, under Wellington, and the French, under the generals of Bonaparte, contended for the mastery in this penin- sula ; the French strove to take possession of it, and the English assisted the inhabitants to prevent their doing so. 49 What was the issue of this war ? The English succeeded in driving the French out of the peninsula^ and also followed them up in their own country, when Napoleon, being: defeated at Leipsic in Saxony, and finding his affairs hopeless, abdicated, and returned to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, where he remained but a short time, A.D. 1814. What English commander was killed during this war? Sir John More, he fell at Corunna, a.d. 1809. He was beloved by his soldiers, but he was inadequate to the command of the great undertaking in which the English were then engaged. What were the Portuguese the first to discover ? A passage to the East Indies by way of the cape of Good Hope, a.d. 1498. Henry VII. was king of England at that time. What is the religion of the Portuguese ? Roman Catholic. The government is monarchical, and their language greatly resembles that of the Spaniards. Name the chief rivers of Portugal. The Tagus, the Douro, the Minho, the Mondejo, and the Ouadiana. All these rivers, except the Mondejo, in some part of their courses, form a boundary between Spain and Portugal. What is the capital of Portugal ? Lisbon, near the mouth of the Tagus ; this city, like Borne, is built on seven hills. In 1755, during the reign of George II., it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. What city in Portugal ranks next to Lisbon ? Oporto, on the Douro. It carries on a great trade m the wine called port wine, which is made in the provmces of Entre-Douro-e-Minho and Tras-os- Montes. ^ 50 How many kinds of port wine are made ? Three ; one of which is drunk exclusively in the country; the second is used for making up other wines ; and the third is exported to foreign countries. What is the population of Portugal ? Nearly four millions. The Portuguese are dark in their complexion^ and^ like the Spaniards^ are very indolent ; but they do not possess the refine- ment and mental elevation of their neighbours. Belgium. How is Belgium bounded ? On the north by Holland, on the south by Prance, on the east by Prussian Germany^ and on the west by the North Sea. To whom did Belgium at one time belong ? To Philip II., king of Spain ; it joined the Dutch in a revolt against this king ; but was subdued by the prince of Parma. It remained in the possession of Spain till the year 1706 ; wKen, after the battle of Kamilies, gained by the duke of Marlborough in the reign of Queen Anne, it became united to Austria. What nation overran Belgium in 1794 ? France, when it became part of the dominions of that country; but in 1814 it was combined with Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands. Did these countries continue long united ? No, in 1830 Belgium revolted, and formed itself into a separate kingdom, and chose for its king Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg. Whom did he marry ? The princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV., and queen Caroline. After her death he espoused the daughter of Louis Philippe, late king of the French. Leopold died in 1865. Name the chief rivers of Belgium. The Maese or Meuse and the Scheldt. What is the capital of Belgium Brussels, on the Senne, a tributary of the Scheldt. This city is noted for the manufacture of carpets and lace. Which is the chief seat of trade in Belgium 7 Antwerp, on the Scheldt. After the Dutch had thrown off their allegiance to Spain, they attempted to ruin the commerce of Antwerp by sinking vessels laden with stones at the mouth of the Scheldt. The cathedral at Antwerp is a magnificent gothic build- ing 446 feet high. Name some other ports in Belgium. Ghent, Bruges, and Ostend ; the latter, though an inland town, carries on a large trade by means of canals. Liege on the Meuse, and Spa, are inland towns of Belgium ; the latter is the resort of number-^ less visitors, on account of its mineral waters. Where is Waterloo ? In Belgium, about ten miles south of Brussels. It is famous for a battle which was fought here be- tween the British under Wellington, and the French headed by Napoleon, when the latter met his final overthrow, Sunday, June 18th, 1815. What became of Napoleon ? He endeavoured to escape to America ; but find- ing the attempt fruitless, he surrendered himself up to the captain of the Bellerophon, and was sent by the allies to the island of St. Helena, in the Pacific ocean, where he died of a cancer in his stomach, A.D. 1821. What is the population of Belgium ? About five millions. The established religion is the Roman Catholic ; but other sects are tolerated. Holland, or the Netherlands. How is Holland bounded ? 52 It is bounded on the north and west by the North Sea ; on the south by Belgium ; and on the east by Germany. Part of the provinces of Limburgh and Luxemburgh belong to Holland^ which last is sepa- rated from it by Belgium, to which country the remaining portion of these provinces belongs. To what country did Holland formerly belong ? To Spain^ but it revolted during the reign of Philip II., and formed itself into an independent republic, under the name of the Seven United Provinces. By whom were these provinces overrun ? By the French in 1795, when they were formed into the Batavian Republic, and afterwards, into the kingdom of Holland, by Napoleon, who made his brother Louis king ; but in 1814 it was joined to Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands. What is remarkable in the situation of Holland ? A great portion of it lies below the level of the sea, which is prevented from overflowing it by means of dykes or banks of earth ; the tops of which serve as roads. Which are the chief rivers of Holland ? The Rhine, which rises in Switzerland and flows through that country, Germany and Holland, into the North Sea, and the Meuse and the Scheldt. By what means are the towns both in Holland and Belgium connected ? By canals ; these two countries are almost inter- sected by them, and nearly the whole of the inland trade of Holland is carried on by this means. What is the capital of Holland ? Amsterdam, on the estuary of the Y, at the mouth of the river Amstel, a branch of the Rhine. The houses in Amsterdam are built upon wooden piles, the ground not being sufiSciently firm to allow of anj other foundation. 53 Where is Saardam ? It is in Holland^ north-west of Amsterdam. Ship- bailding is carried on here to a very great extent. It was here that Peter the Oreat^ emperor of Russia^ worked as a shipwright^ which he did likewise at Deptford in Kent. Where is Haarlem ? To the west of Amsterdam. The village of Camp is not far distant from here^ where the battle of Camperdown was fought in 1797, in the reign of George III., when the Dutch fleet, commanded by De Witt, was vanquished by Admiral Duncan. Where is Leyden ? In the south of Holland ; it is famed in history for the defence which it made against the Spaniards ia 1574, when the Dutch inundated the Spanish camp by opening their sluices. Leyden is also noted for its university. Where is the Hague ? In Holland. It was here that William III., of England, Stadtholder of Holland, was bom. The Hague is the seat of government in this country. Name some other towns in Holland. Utrecht, on the Rhine, the seat of a university, Zatphen in Ouelderland^ where Sir Philip Sidney Was killed in 1586, during the reign of Elizabeth. Luxemburg, the capital of the province of the same name, Bergen-op-Zoom, and Flushing. Was not Holland at one time very powerful by sea ? Yes, it made both England, under Charles II., and the French, during the reign of Louis XIV., acknowledge its superiority. During the reign of Charles II., the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, ^vhen the city was entirely at the mercy of the Dutch admiral ; who, after sinking and destroying upwards of twenty ships, thought proper to retire. 54 What is the religion of Holland ? There is no established religioTi ; but the great majority of the people are Calvinists. The popula- tion is about three-millions-and-a-half. The Dutch are slow and heavy ; but remarkable for their clean- liness^ frugality and industry. They are the best gardeners in Europe, Name some islands off the coast of Holland. Texel, north and south Beveland, and Walcheren. In the reign of George III., a.d. 1809, the En- glish sent an armament of a hundred thousand men, under the command of the earl of Chatham, to oc- cupy a situation commanding the navigation of the Scheldt; but having disembarked on this island, they were swept off in thousands by disease, so that the expedition was retarded^ and eventually failed. Denmark. Of what does Denmark consist ? Of Zealand and Funen, and some other islands in the Baltic : Iceland, Greenland and Faro in the Northern ocean, and the province of Zutland. How is Denmark bounded ? It is bounded on the north by the channel of the Skager Rack ; on the south by Germany ; on the east by the Baltic sea, and the channel of the Cattegat ; and on the west by the North sea. Of what ancient people was Denmark the country? The Goths, who, with the Vandals, Huns^ and other barbarous nations, overran Rome. Until when was the crown of Denmark elective ? Until the year 1661, when the people made a formal surrender of their liberties to Frederick III. What Danish king married into the British royal family ? Christian VII., a.d. 1766 ; he married the young- 55 est daughter of George III.^ and, in 1772, she was imprisoned, and afterwards banished the kingdom. She died at Zell in Grermany, a.d. 1775. The prime minister of Denmark, and the queen's physician, were arrested at the same time and beheaded for treason. Has Denmark any river ? The only two of any note are, the Eyder which flows into the North sea ; and the Trave which falls mto the Baltic, a short distance below Lubeck. What is the capital of Denmark ? Copenhagen, which is situated on the western side of the island of Zealand. What English admiral attacked Copenhagen ? Lord Nelson, in March 1801, when he compelled the Danes to surrender all their stores and ships. By means of this the armed confederacy was de- stroyed. It was again bombarded and taken in 1807, and the Danish fleet of 18 sail of the line and 15 frigates were brought to England. What was the reason that Britain acted in this manner ? It was suspected that the Danish fleet was to be made over to the French, to be employed against England, and therefore the English seized it to pre- vent any such thing happening. Name some other towns in Denmark. Altona, on the Elbe ; Kiel in the Baltic, which has a university, and Bendsburg. What is the established religion of Denmark ? The Lutheran. The population is about two millions. Norway. Where is Norway ? In the north-west part of Europe, having Sweden on the east^ the Atlantic on the Y^e^t, tXi^ Ki^>^\^ 56 ocean on the north ; and the Skager Rack on the South. What is the capital of Norway ? Christiana. Name some towns of Norway in the Atlantic. Bergen, and Drontheim, the ancient capital. Hammerfest, on the island of Qualoe, exports oil, fish and skins. Frederickshall in Norway is the town where Charles XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon ball in 1718. When did Charles XII. come to the throne ? In 1695 ; he was a very warlike prince, and in his first campaign, at the age of seventeen, he hum- bled the power of Russia, Poland and Denmark, which countries had united in a league to seize his dominions. In what manner did Charles XII. accomplish this? He first laid siege to Copenhagen, and in six weeks compelled the Danish king to purchase the safety of his kingdom, by laying down his arms. He then hastened into Ingria, which was being in- vaded by Peter the Great ; and, in the battle of Narva, defeated an army of sixty thousand Russians, taking thirty thousand prisoners. In what way did he humble Poland ? He invaded th^t country, and took the cities of Warsaw and Cracow ; he then assembled the states general, and deposed Augustus, the Polish king, and placed Stanislaus, one of his own dependants, upon the throne of Poland. What was the next step of Charles ? He invaded Russia with an army of forty-five thousand men, and marched through the Ukraine, i,e,f the south-western part, in the middle of winter ; being instigated to do so by a treacherous promise of aid from the Cossacks ; in consequence of this, ^Jiis Army became wasted by fatigue and famine. 57 What was the result of this ? Being encountered by the Gzar^ he was easily conquered^ losing nine thousand in killed^ and fourteen thousand taken prisoners^ a.d. 1709. What followed this defeat ? Augustus remounted the throne of Poland ; and Peter the Great took possession of Finland^ and Livonia^ on the eastern coast of the gulf of Bothnia. What became of Charles XII. ? He retired with 1800 men into the Turkish do- minions ; but was soon after obliged to quit them, and return to his own country. He then^ at the instigation of his prime minister^ Gortz^ entered into a scheme to dethrone George I.^ and place the Pre- tender on the throne of England. What other parties entered into this scheme ? Alberoni^ the prime minister of Philip V., king of Spain^ and the Czar of Russia, who had made peace with Sweden ; but an unforeseen event frus- trated their designs, which was the death of Charles, as before described, a.d. 1718. What mountains are between Norway and Sweden? The Dovre-field mountains. Off the north-west coast of Norway is the Maelstrom, a dangerous whirlpool, and also the* Lofoden isles, chiefly famous for the quantity of fish caught near them. To whom was Norway formerly subject ? To Denmark ; but it was united to Sweden in 1815, by the treaty of Kiel. The government of these countries is a limited monarchy. The esta- Uisbed religion is the Lutheran. The population of Sweden is about three-millions-and-a-half, and of Norway, one-and-a-half-million. Sweden. How is Sweden bounded ? It is bounded on the north by t\ve XxeXvi ^^^«si\ 58 on the south by the Gattegat and the Baltic sea ; on the east by the Baltic sea^ the gulf of Bothnia^ and Lapland ; and on the west by Norway and the Skager-Rack. How is Sweden divided ? Into Sweden Proper, Gothland, and West Bothnia. What people were the ancient inhabitants of Sweden ? The Goths. To what country was Sweden formerly united ? To Denmark, a.d. 1887, and continued so until A.D. 1523, when Oustavus Yasa expelled the Danes; since which period it has remained an independent kingdom. What king of Sweden was assassinated in 1792? Gustavus III., who was succeeded by his son, Gustavus Adolphus, who was deprived of his crown in 1809 by his uncle the Duke of Sudermania ; and this monarch was succeeded by Bemadotte, one of Napoleon^s generals ; whose title was recognised by the Allies in 1818. What did Norway and Sweden form a part of? The ancient kingdom of Scandinavia. Have Norway and Sweden any rivers ? Yes; but few of them are navigable, in con- sequence of the falls and rapids which impede their course. The Gloramen is the largest river in Norway ; and the Gota is the principal stream in Sweden. Mention some lakes in these countries. Wetter, Wener, and Maelar are in Sweden ; and lake Miosen is the largest in Norway, being about sixty- three miles in length. What is the capital of Sweden ? Stockholm ; this city is built upon a number of small iaianda which are comiectedL^^ v?oo^eii\w\d.'^iaa^ 59 and on the adjoining mainland, near the entrance of the lake Maelar. Name some other towns in Sweden. Gk>ttenbarg, a considerable trading port ; Upsal, famoua for its university; and Carlscrona, the principal naval port and arsenal. What two islands has Sweden in the Baltic ? Gotland and Atland : the Aland isles formerly belonged to Sweden, but they have been ceded to Russia. Name a celebrated botanist of Sweden. linnseus, who classified all plants and animals. Lapland. It lies to the north-east of Sweden, and is situated in the most northern part of Europe; it belongs partly to Sweden and Russia. For how long is the sun absent in the northern part of Lapland during the winter ? For seven weeks, and during the summer it never sets for the same period ; this is the case with all countries in the same latitude. The farther north we go in the Polar Regions, the longer the sun is absent in winter, and consequently, in summer the the longer it continues shining without setting ; and at the poles there is only one day and night in the year. What is the cause of there being continual dny or night, at certain periods in the year, within the Polar Circles ? The sun always shines 90° every way, and when it is vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, it must shine 23i^ beyond the north pole, and consequently there can be no night to the people living in that circle ; and when the sun is over the equatOT, \\.% twj^ \\'^\. reach the north pohj and since the ^xxu V& xvatSSa. ^l 60 the equator for six months in the year, there must be constant light for that period at the north pole ; and six months' night at the south pole. When the sun is in the southern hemisphere, the reverse is the case. What is the capital of Lapland ? Tomea, it stands at the northern extremity of the gulf of Bothnia. What is there peculiar respecting the Laplanders? They are a very diminutive race, scarcely ever exceedmg five feet in height. Wliat constitutes the chief wealth of the Lap- landers ? Their reindeer, which supply them with all the necessaries of life, and it is by means of these animals that they travel, in sledges drawn by them, often at the rate of two hundred miles a day. Russia. How is Russia situated ? It occupies all the eastern part of Europe, and the northern part of Asia. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean ; on the south by the Black sea, and the Caucasus mountains; on the east by the Caspian sea, the Ural river, and the Ural mountains ; and on the west, by Swedish Lapland, the Baltic sea, and Prussia, Austria, and Turkey. What is the size of the Russian empire ? It is the largest in the world. Russia in Europe is 1600 miles in length from the most southern point of the Crimea to the Arctic ocean, and rather more than that in breadth from west to east. What were the emperors of Russia formerly called ? Czars of Muscovy ; Czar is an abbreviation of the word Csesar. 61 When does the history of Russia commence to be authentic ? About the year 1540, when John Basilowitz reconquered it from the Tartars, to which people it had been subject for many years. It was about this time that Russia conquered Siberia. When did Russia become an empire ? In the year 1721, during the reign of Peter the Great, the son of Alexis Michaelowitz ; he set aside the claims of his elder brother, and became master of the whole empire in 1689. When did Peter the Great die ? In 1725, and was succeeded by his wife Catharine I» Had Peter the Great no children ? Yes, an only son, named Alexis Petrowitz, who was condemned to death for treason; but the manner of his death was never known ; it is sup- posed that he was privately executed. What empress of Russia deposed her consort in 1762. Catharine II., the wife of Peter III. This emperor was preceded by John, who was dethroned whilst an infant. He was kept in close confinement till 1764, when a feint being made to release him, he was slain by the officer of the guard. In what estimation was the empress Catharine held ? She was the admiration of all Europe ; but her putting to death the emperors John and Peter III., cast a shade over her most illustrious actions. She has been styled the " Semiramis of the north .^' When did Catharine II. die? In 1796, and was succeeded by her son Paul Petrowitz, who was assassinated in 1801, and was succeeded by his son Alexander I. The late empe- ror Nicholas, who was the son of Alexander, ascended 62 the throne after his death. The present emperor is Alexander 11.^ the eldest son of Nicholas, who died in the year 1855. How is Russia divided ? Into 49 governments, not reckoning the province of Finland, which is divided into 8 governments ; and Russian Poland, which consists of 5 govern- ments. The division of Russia into 49 provinces took place under Catharine II. What is the capital of Russia ? St. Petersburgh, built by Peter the Great, in the year 1703, in the reign of Queen Anne. It stands partly on some marshy islands and the mainland at the mouth of the Neva, at the extremity of the gulf of Finland. A few miles from St. Peters- burph is the fortress of Cronstadt. What was the ancient capital of Russia ? Moscow ; it is connected with St. Petersburgh bv means of a canal made by Peter the Great. It resembles an Asiatic, rather than an European city. What happened to Moscow some years since ? It was burnt bv order of the government, to prevent Napoleon wintering there when he invaded Russia in 1812. It would seem, by the occurrences of the late Crimean war, that this is the policy- generally pursued by the Russians to prevent any of their towns falling into the hands of an enemy, without considering the wishes and feelings of the inhabitants. Name some sea ports of Russia. Archangel, on the White sea, at the mouth of the Northern Dwina ; some of the largest line-of-battle ships are built here ; but the harbour is frozen up for nine months during the year. Riga, at the extremity of the gulf of the same name. Revel, at 63 the entrance of the gulf of Finland. Odessa and Cherson on the Black sea; at the former place, which stands near the mouth of the Dnieper^ immense quantities of corn are shipped for foreign countries. Helsingfors^ in Finland^ of which it is the capital^ at the extremity of the gulf of the same name, and near which^ is the fortress of Sveaborg, which was bombarded by the French and EngUsh in 1855. Abo, the former capital of Finland, which has a university; and Warsaw, in Russian Poland. Where is the Crimea ? In the south of Russia ; it is a peninsula between the Black sea and the sea of Azov. It is one of the most fruitful districts in Europe. The capital is Simferopol. What fortress is in the Crimea ? Sebastopol, the chief naval station of Russia in the Black sea; the southern portion of which was destroyed by the allied forces of England and France during the Crimean war, but it has since been rebuilt. Name the principal rivers of Russia. The Volga, the largest in Europe, being about 2000 miles in length, and which falls into the Caspian sea. The Don, which empties itself into the sea of Azov. The Dnieper aud the Dniester running into the Black sea ; and the Dwina, which discharges itself into the White sea. Name the principal lakes in Russia. Ladoga and Onega, the former being the largest in Europe, measuring 123 miles in length. Name the chief mountains in Russia. The Ural mountains, which separate European Russia from Siberia, the Olonetz chain near the White sea, and the Caucasus mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. ft— ^ 64 For what is Russia conspicuoos ? For its immense tracts of uncoltiyated land called '^ steppes/^ and its large forests^ which are estimated to cover two-fifths of its surface. With what country does Russia carry on a large overland trade ? With China. What is the religion of Russia ? That of the Greek church. The government is despotic ; the Emperor is styled Czar, or Autocrat of all the Russias. The population of Russia in Europe is about sixty-five millions. What is the climate of Russia f Extremely various, in consequence of its great extent. The extremes of heat and cold are greater than in the same latitudes on the western side of the European continent. Has Russia any canals ? Yes ; the chief, besides the one already mentionedi is that which connects the Baltic with the Caspian sea. What are the chief exports of Russia ? Timber, hemp, tallow, hides, tar, and flax. Where is Finland ? It joins Russia on the west. The Fins make excellent sailors. Hanover. Where is Hanover ? In the north-western part of Grermany; it ia bounded on the north by the North sea, on tne south by the Prussian dominions, on the east by Prussia and the Elbe, and on the west by Holland. With what country was Hanover united in 1714? With Great Britain ; George I., Elector of Hano- ver, becoming king of England, the two oountriea n 65 were united under one sovereign, George I. acquired the throne of England by the right of his mother, Sophia, granddaughter of James I. He was the nearest Protestant heir. Is Hanover at the present time a part of the British possessions ? No ; in Hanover, the Salique law, which prohibits a female from reigning, is in force ; and consequently, the present queen of England, when she came to the throne, was excluded from holding any jurisdiction over that kingdom ; and, therefore, her uncle, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the son of George III., became king of Hanover. He was succeeded by his son Ernest II., who was deposed by the Prussians in 1866. What is the capital of Hanover ? Hanover, on the Leine, a tributary of the Weser. Name the chief seaports of Hanover ? Emden and Stade on the river Ems ; and Gottin- gen, with a Protestant university. Osnaburgh, in this country, gave the title of bishop to the late duke of York. What mountains are in Hanover ? The Hartz mountains, which extend along the south-eastern border; their highest summit^ the Brocken, is in Prussia. Prussia. How is Prussia bounded ? It is bounded on the north by the Baltic sea, Mecklenbtirg and Hanover, though this last now forms part of the dominions of Prussia ; on the south by France, Saxony, several German states and Austria ; on the east by Russia and the former king- dom of Poland ; and on the west by the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. ft— "i I 66 Of what does Prussia consist ? Of Prussia proper^ and several minor Germaii states, and a large part of Poland. By whom was Prussia conquered in 1230 ? By the (German knights of the Teutonic order, upon their return from the Crusades or Holy wars^ of which there were eight : the first was undertaken during the reign of William 11., and the last in the reign of Henry III., by his son Prince Edward. What was the object of the crusaders ? Their design was to recover the Holy Land, and more especially Jerusalem, out of the hands of the Saracens, who were the followers of Mahomet, a false prophet, who was bom towards the close of the sixth century. Till when did Prussia remain in possession of the Teutonic knights ? Until 1525, when Albert, the last grand-master of this order, was acknowledged duke of the eastern portion of this country, and for this reason it was called Ducal Prussia. He was a fief of Poland. Under whom did Ducal Prussia become inde- pendent ? Under Frederick William, sumamed the Great. In 1701 it was raised into a kingdom by Frederick; the son of Friederick William. What is the capital of Prussia ? Berlin on the Spree, a small river flowing into a tributary of the Elbe ; it has a museum and a uni- versity, and manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen goods^ and porcelain. Potsdam, 18 miles from Berlin, contains the palace of Sans Souci. What was the ancient capital of Prussia ? Konisberg on the Pregel ; it has a university. Where is Dantzic ? 67 In Prussia^ on the Vistula; it is noted for its great trade in com. Where is Pomerania ? It stretches along the shores of the Baltic sea^ its capital is Stettin. Where is Silesia ? It is a province of Prussia conquered horn Austria; its capital is Breslau on the Oder. Where is Magdeburg ? In Prussian Saxony, of which it is the capital ; it itands on the Elbe, and is one of the strongest brtresses in Europe. Halle in the same territory is ;he seat of a university ; and Isleben^ a few miles listant^ was the birth-place of Martin Luther. This lerritory is famed for its fine wool. Where is Westphalia ? It is a detached portion of the western Prussian lominions. Its capital is Munster^ on the river Sms. This province is famed for its hams. Of how many parts do the Rhenish provinces onsist ? Of two ; the first includes the provinces of Juliers, Aleves, and Berg; the other is known under the lame of the lower Rhine. They are watered by the Elhine and the Moselle. For what are these provinces noted ? For Rhine wine^ known under the name of Hock ind Moselle. What is the capital of the Rhenish provinces ? Cologne on the Rhine; it is the centre of the iteam navigation of the Rhine. From this town is )rocured the scent^ callecT Eau-de-Cologne. A few niles from Cologne^ is Bon, the seat of a university. Where is the town of Aix-la-Chapelle ? In Rhenish Prussia, near the confines of Belgium, rhis city was the capital of Charlemagne, one of the 68 early kings of France, he was the son of Pepin le 13rcf, who first gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction; he died in 768. It was at this place that a treaty of peace was signed bet^'een the English and French in 1748. When did Charlemagne die ? In the year 814. Ue was succeeded by his son Lewis le Debonaire, or ^ good-tempered.^' Where is Dusseldorf ? On the Rhine ; it is noted for its picture gallery. Where is Coblentz ? In Prussia, at the junction of the rivers Rhine and Moselle. Opposite to it, on the other side of the Rhine is the strong fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. Where is Frankfort-on-the-Oder ? . On the Oder, it is famous for its three annual fairs, which are attended by dealers from all parts of Germany, as well as from foreign countries. Where is Posen ? In Prussia, it is the capital of the province of the same name. What rivers run through Prussia ? The Oder, Vistula, Rhine, Weser, Niemen, and Elbe. What is the population of Prussia ? Including its lately acquired territories, 1866, of Hanover, Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-onthe Maine, it is about twenty-five millions. Poland. Where is Poland ? In the centre of Europe ; it is bounded by Russia on the east, and by Prussia on the north and west. Poland was the country of the Vandals, one of the barbarous nations that invaded the Roman empire. When was Poland raised to a kingdom ? 69 In the year 1000. The first Polish king was ^olislaus I.; the title of king was conferred on dm by Otho III., emperor of Germany. By what countries has Poland been dismembered ? By Russia^ Prussia^ and Austria. The first dis- Demberment took place in 1772 ; and in 1795, a otal partition of the kingdom was effected. What two empresses took part in the unjust spolia- ion of Poland ? Catharine II. of Russia, and Maria Theresa, impress of Austria, daughter of the emperor Charles 71. : she is likewise known as the queen of Hungary. \he was the mother of Marie Antoinette, the unfor- unate wife of Louis XVI. What parts of Poland were taken by each of these jowers? Russia took all the eastern part, which is by far he largest division. Austria seized that portion K)rdering upon Hungary; and Prussia took pos- ession of that part of the country lying near the Baltic sea. What is the capital of Poland ? Warsaw on the Vistula, this city is now included a Russia. The ancient capital was Cracow, on the ame river. Where is Oalicia ? It now forms a part of the Austrian dominions ; mt was formerly a portion of. the kingdom of Poland. '.t contains some very large salt mines; those of ^ielicza are the largest in the world. What mountains lie between Hungary and Poland? The Carpathian mountains. Austria. How is Austria bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Poland, Prussia, and Saxony ; on the south by Italy^ the Adriatic sea, and Turkey; on the east by Turkey and Russia; and on the west by Bavaria^ Switzerland, and Sardinia. What was the sovereign of Austria formerly called? Emperor of Germany and king of the Romans. Napoleon compelled the emperor of Austria to re- nounce this last title, and to content himself with that of emperor of Austria. Until the late war between Austria and Prussia, 1866, these two powers took the lead in the Germanic confederation; but the former no longer does. How was Austria compensated for the loss of Belgium ? She received Venetia in lieu thereof; but has 8U^ rendered it to Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, a.d. 1866. What are the possessions of Austria in Germany? Austria so called, Bohemia, and Moravia. Out of Germany it possesses Hungary, Transylvania, and Galicia, and the mountain districts of Styria, Carin thia, Camiola, Istria, and the Tyrol. Austria like- wise possesses a portion of Silesia with Dalmatia. How does Hungary lie with respect to Austria ? To the east of it. This country, with Transylvania^ Croatia, Dalmatia, and Sclavonia, constitute the Hungarian countries. In what part of Germany are Bohemia and- Moravia ? In the centre. The capital of Bohemia, is Prague^ and of Moravia, Bmnn. Twelve miles from Brunn is the village of Austerlitz, where Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1805. f When did the Hungarians attempt to throw oflT their allegiance to Austria ? In 1848 ; but tkey failed in consequence of the n Qce rendered by Russia to Austria to subdue at are the capitals of Hungary? [a and Pesth, on opposite sides of the Danube. try is famed for a wine called Tokay. ere is Styria ? ween upper Austria and Hungary. ere are Corinthia^ Garniola, and Istria ? y extend south from Styria to the Adriatic These districts are reckoned under the name of whom does Sclavonia belong ? Austria ; it lies between the Danube^ and the nd the Drave^ these two are tributaries of the '. Croatia and Dalmatia also belong to Austria. a is between the Drave and the coasts of the ic; and Dalmatia is between the Dinaric Alps^ e eastern co^st of the Adriatic sea. at is the capital of all Austria ? una; it stands upon an arm of the Danube; it as the palace of the Belvedere^ and the church Stephen^ a magnificent Gothic structure. r opposite to Vienna, on the other side of the ^, is Wigram^ the scene of some of Napoleon^s at victories, at famous castle is in Lower Austria ? castle of Diemstein ; it is about 40 miles from a and stands on the Danube. It was here that •d I. was confined on his return from the Holy when he was taken prisoner by the duke of a, who delivered him up to. Henry VI. emperor west, A.D. 1194. Saladin, emperor of the ^as contemporary with Richard I. Qre is the town of Gratz ? Styria, of which it is the capital. It is the seat liversity. 72 Where is Trieste ? In Illyria, on the Adriatic sea ; it is the chief port of Austria. Ship-building is carried on here to a great extent. Where is Innsbruck ? It is the capital of the Tyrol^ and stands on the river Inn. In this province is situated Trent, where an ecclesiastical council was held, called the Council of Trent, from 1545 to 1563. Where is Feterwaradein ? In Hungary, on the Danube; it is strongly forti- fied. Name two lakes in Hungary. Balaton and Neusiedler. What is the religion of Austria? Roman Catholic is the prevalent religion, three- fourths of the inhabitants being of that persuasion. The population is about forty millions. There are more illegitimate children in Austria than in any other country in Europe, Turkey perhaps excepted. The government is almost an absolute monarchy. Name the chief rivers of Austria. The Danube, flowing through Germany, Austria, and Turkey, into the Black sea ; the Save, the Drave, the Theiss, and the Inn. Smaller German States. What is Germany ? A large country in central Europe, extending from the shores of the Baltic sea in the north, to the Adriatic in the south ; and from France, Belgium, Holland, and the North sea, on the west, to Poland, Galicia, and Hungary on the east. Mention the principal rivers in Germany ? « The Danube and the Rhine, already mentioned; the Elbe, flowing through "Etxxssva^, ^«ssyK^> wid 73 lanover into the North sea ; the Oder, which flows hrough Silesia and Brandenburg^ the Weser flowing hrough Westphalia; and the Mayn or Main^ onning through Franconia into the Rhine. Which is the largest lake of Germany ? Constance^ which lies between this country and Iwitzerland. Where is the Black Forest ? In Baden ; it contains the source of the Danube. Where is Saxony ? In the north-western part of Germany. It was reated into a kingdom by Napoleon^ who annexed it the duchy of Warsaw in Poland^ of which it was leprived after the defeat of Napoleon. Name the capital of Saxony. Dresden, on the Elbe ; it is famous for the manu- icture of china ware. Very fine cloth is made in laxony. Where is Leipsic ? In Saxony. It was near this town that Napoleon offered a severe defeat in 1813. This place is cele- •rated for its great fairs which are held annually^ and t which a vast number of books are sold. Which is the smallest kingdom of Germany ? Wurtemberg ; it was created into a kingdom by fapoleon. Its capital is Stutgard. What state in Germany ranks next to Prussia and Lustria ? Bavaria. It was raised into a kingdom by Napo- »n in 1805. Bavaria is intersected by the Danube X)m west to east, and is also watered by the Mayn. Where is Blenheim ? In Bavaria; it was here that the French and lavarians were defeated by the English and Impe- alists under the duke of Marlboro\3L^\i ^xiAi ^^w^'^i'^ ugene^ in the reign of queen Anne, A.n* VIQ\% T 74 Where is Baden ? In Germany, on the confines of France and Swit- zerland ; it is a grand duchy. What famous watering place is in Baden ? Baden-Baden. Carlsruhe, Mannheim, and Hei- delberg are in Baden. Where are Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt ? They are in Germany ; but, consisting of detached portions, it is difScult to describe with accuracy their correct positions ; the former, together with Nassau, has been seized by Prussia. Name a town in Hesse-Darmstadt. Mentz or Mayence, on the Rhine. Gutenberg, the inventor of printing, was born here. Worms, also on the Bhine^ is famed in history for a diet held there in 1521, at which Luther was present. Where is Brunswick ? In Lower Saxony ; it was formerly celebrated for the bravery of its dukes. The present royal family of England is descended from the house of Brunswick. Its capital is Brunswick. Where is Saxe Weimar ? In central Germany. Jena, in this territory, i^ the place where Napoleon defeated the Prussians in- 1806. Where is Nassau ? It lies to the east of the Bhine, in Westphalia ; it^ has been taken possession of by the Prussians, 1866^ Where is Wiesbaden ? In Nassau ; it is famous for its baths. What German state has given two queens to^ England ? Mecklenburgh Strelitz. In what manner is Saxe Coburg Gotha distin^ gttkhed ? By its connection with many ot \Xi^ xo^^ i«m^vt^ 75 of Europe. The late Prince Albert was the second son of the late prince of this territory. Name the four free cities of Germany ? Hamburg, Frankfort, lately seized by the Prus- sians, 1866, Lubeck, and Bremen. It is at Frank- fort-on-the-Maine where the diet assembles. On what river is Hamburg ? It standson the Elbe, about 60 miles above itsmouth. It is a place of great trade, and has some consider- able manufactures. It is in the Duchy of Holstein. In 1813 it was occupied by the Russians, and after- wards by the Danes, and then by the French, who were driven out by the Allies in 1814. Of what towns was Lubeck the capital ? Of the Hanse Towns, another name for the free cities. It is situated in Holstein. Where is Bremen ? In Hanover, at the mouth of the Weser. What is the extent of Germany ? It is about 670 miles in length, and 600 in breadth. Italy. Where is Italy ? In the south of Europe. It is bounded on the north, and north east, and north west, by the Alps, which separate it from Switzerland, France, and Germany ; and by the Mediterranean on the west and south ; and by the Adriatic, or gulf of Venice, on the east. Italy is a peninsula ; being about 700 miles in length, and terminating in the Capes Spartivento, and Di Leuca. From whom does Italy take its name ? From Italus, an ancient king of that country. What mountains are in Italv'J The Apennioea, which extend from north to south, and divide into two branches towards the south. What volcano is in Italy ? Mount Vesuvius^ near Naples. By an eruption of this volcano^ about 1800 jrears ago, the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were overwhelmed; during which Pliny the naturalist lost his life. Name some rivers of Italy. The Po and the Adige, which fall into the Adriatic sea; and the Amo and the Adige, which empty themselves into the Mediterranean. Which are the chief lakes of Italy ? Maggiore; Como and Garda south of the Alps; Perugia and Bracciano in the Papal States ; Albano, near Rome, and Averno, not far from Naples. Mention some gulfs in Italy. Genoa, on the north west coast ; Taranto, which runs up into the southern part of the peninsula; the bay of Naples on the west ; the gulf of Salerno to the south of it ; and the gulf of Venice already mentioned. In what part of Italy is Lombardy ? In the north-eastern part; this territory, with Venice, until lately belonged to Austria, and was known under the name of the Lombardo- Venetian territory. The Ticino, a branch of the Po, separates this district from Sardinia. Where is Milan ? In Lombardy ; it was the capital of Napoleon's kingdom in Italy : he was crowned king of Italy here in 1805. Where is the town of Venice ? It stands upon seventy islands in the gulf of Venice: it was begun to be built in the fourth century, by some of the inhabitants of this country jsho fled to these islands when the Huns ravaged 77 Italy. At one period Venice was very powerful by sea, and was governed by a chief magistrate, called the Doge. It formerly belonged to Austria; but now forms part of the king of Italy^s dominions^ 1866. Where is Savoy ? To the north of the Alps; it consists of^ mountains covered with snow, and Alpine valleys. The inhabitants of this district suffer very much from a diseased swelling in the neck, called " Goitre.' It is sometimes as large as a man's fist. Savoy belongs to the king of Italy. Name three former dukedoms in Italy, but which now belong to the king of Italy. Tuscany, Modena, and Mantua. The capital of Tuscany was Florence, now the capital of the king of Italy's dominions ; it is situated on the Arno. Giotto, the painter, Dante, the poet, Amerigo Tespuccio, the navigator, and Pope Leo X. were torn here. Galileo, Machiavel, and Michael Angelo are buried here. What are the capitals of Modena and Mantua ? They have capitals of the same name. What poet was born at Mantua ? Virgil, 70 B.C. ; he was greatly favoured by Augustus Caesar, who restored him his lands, which liad been confiscated after the battle of Philippi. To whom did Parma and Placentia formerly belong ? To Maria Louisa, the widow of Napoleon ; but npon her death, which happened in 1847, they became a part of the Austrian dominions; at the present time they belong to the king of Italy. For what was Parma once noted ? For its cheese, known by the name of Parmesan cheese ; it is now made in the Milanese territory. 7—i 78 Where are the towns of Pisa and Leghorn ? In Tuscany. Pisa is on the river Amo ; it has a fine cathedral, the belfry of which is a leaning circular tower. Leghorn is on the Mediterranean; it is the most commercial city of Italy^ and is famous for the manufacture of straw hats and bonnets. Why does not the leaning tower at Pisa fall ? Because it is not out of the line of direction. So long as the end of a cord suspended from the centre of a leaning body remains within its base^ so long will it continue standing. In what part of Italy are the Pope's dominions? In the middle ; they are situated in the centre of what was formerly the Roman Empire ; they extend from the Mediterranean on the western side^ to the Adriatic on the east. What are the Pope's dominions sometimes called? The Papal States ; the capital of which is Some, on the Tiber. Rome was built by Romulus^ 753 years B.C.; his brother's name was Remus^ they were the sons of Rhea Sylvia^ the daughter ci Numitor^ the son of Procas^ king of the Latins. What does Rome still contain ? Many noble ruins, and monuments of its ancient grandeur. Name two celebrated buildings at Rome. The Pantheon^ a temple raised to all the gods; and the Church of St. Peter's, which surpasses in beauty, magnificence, and richness of design, every other building in the world. It was begun by Leo X., in 1508, and finished in 1621. It is 730 feet in length, and 520 feet in breadth, and 450 feet high. Name some of the designers of this cathedral. Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Bramanti. Where is Ancona ? 79 It is the chief port of the Papal States in the Adriatic ; it was taken by the French in 1796, who sarrendered it to the Austrians in 1799. Where is Civita Vecchia ? It is a port of the Papal States, and stands on the Mediterranean. Where is Bologna ? It is the second city of note in the Pope^s domi- nions ; it stands on the Po, and is famed for the sausage which bears its name. Ravenna, and Perugia are towns in this territory. Where is San Marino ? It is the smallest republic in the world. It extends along the shores of the gulf of Venice, and has preserved its independence for more than 1300 years. In what part of Italy is Naples ? In the south. Naples, its capital, is one of the most beautiful cities in the world ; it stands on the bay of Naples. The Lazzaroni, a lazy and vagabond class, who live by begging and roguery, are very numerous here. Where is the island of Sicily ? To the south of Italy, from which it is separated by the strait of Messina. This island was formerly called Trinacria, from its triangular shape. It was 80 fertile, that it was called one of the granaries of Rome. The Carthaginians, a people of Africa, took possession of this island ; but were driven out by the Romans during the Punic wars. Name the three principal towns in Sicily. Palermo, Messina, and Syracuse. The first-men- tioned of these towns is the present capital, whilst Syracuse was the ancient capital. Hiero, king of Syracuse, at first sided with the Carthaginians, but 80 eventually joined the Romans^ of whom he became the firm and attached ally. Name two celebrated tyrants of Syracuse. Dionysius the elder^ and Dionysius the younger ; the latter was expelled from Syracuse, and went to Corinth in Greece, where he is said to have opened a school, ^f) Name a celebrated mathematician of Syracuse? Archimedes ; it was this man who invented the screw of that name, and which is in use at the present time. He was slain by a soldier under the Roman consul Marcellus, who besieged Syracuse, 212 B.C. Name a volcano in Sicily. Mount ^tna. It is two miles in perpendicular height ; it measures 180 miles in circumference at the base, and its crater 3 J miles. This volcano is known to have been in a state of eruption at various times for the last three thousand years. Catania is a town situated at the foot of this mountain. Sicily belongs to the king of Italy. Where is Malta ? It is an island in the Mediterranean sea to the south of Sicily ; the capital of which is Valetta. The ancient name of this island was Melita, where St. Paul was wrecked in his voyage from Csesarea, a port of Judea, to Rome, being a prisoner at the time, after having appealed to Caesar, who was the emperor Nero. To what religious order of soldiers did this island at one time belong ? To the knights of St. John of Jerusalem ; it was given them by Charles V. emperor of Germany, after they were driven out of Rhodes by the Turks. What nation at a later period took possession of this island ? D 81 le French; but they were deprived of their lest by the Enghsh in 1800, who still retain ssion of it. Gozo is an island lying to the -west of Malta, bere are the Lipari islands ? the north of Sicily. Stromboli, the most erly, and Volcano, the most southerly of this ), have volcanoes which are constantly burning, bere are the islands of Corsica and Sardinia ? the Mediterranean sea, to the west of Italy, are separated by the strait of Bonifacio. Cor- the more northerly of these islands, belongs to ;e; and Sardinia, which is the larger, is in ssion of the king of Italy, bat is the capital of these islands ? gliari is the capital of Sardinia, and Bastia of ea. At Ajaccio, in this island, was born Napo- Buonaparte, a.d. 1769, in the same year as ngton and Nelson, lere is the island of Elba ? the Mediterranean sea, between Corsica and It was here that Buonaparte resided after his ation, from May 3rd, 1814, to the 26th of lary in the following year. The island of Ischia ) the south of Elba, near the bay of Naples, lat is the population of Italy ? ;lusive of Savoy it is about 26 millions ; the >n is the Roman Catholic, and the climate is , dry and healthy ; in the northern and elevated snow is sometimes seen as well as ice. Switzerland. lere is Switzerland? is entirely an inland country in the centre of )ej being bounded on the north and east by 82 Germany, on the soutli by Italy, and on the west by France. What was the ancient name of Switzerland ? Helvetia ; this country was subdued by the Romani under Julius Caesar. The inhabitants were called Helvetii. To whom were the Swiss some time subject ? To the Burgundians and Austrians, till about the thirteenth century, when they revolted. What caused the Swiss to revolt ? The tyranny of the Austrian governor, Geder, during the reign of Albert I., emperor of Austria. Who first offered any resistance to Gesler? William Tell, who, being condemned to be hanged by him, was rescued by his countrymen ; they then attacked, and defeated Gesler, who was slain by Tell, and, shortly after, the independence of the Swiss cantons was effected. Who conquered the Swiss in 1797 ? The French, under Napoleon, when a new republic was formed under the name of the Helvetic Confe- deracy. What is the present government of Switzerland? Bepublican ; each canton, of which there are 2% is independent of the others; but, as it respects foreign nations, they all constitute one body called the Swiss republic. What is the capital of Switzerland ? Berne, on the river Aar ; but Geneva, on the lake of the same name, is the largest town in this country. It is divided into two parts by the river Rhone, which, in its course, forms an island here. Name some other towns in Switzerland. Basle or Bale, Fribourg, Zurich, Lucerne, Soleure, St. Gall, and Neuchatel ; the last of which towns^ until lately, belonged to the king of Prussia. 83 ne some mountains in Switzerland. J Alps ; the highest of which are Mont Blanc ^oy, and Monte Rosa the highest in Switzer- :he Shreckhorn, and the Jungfrau, and Mounts >emard and Gothard ; the Jura mountains lie sn this country and France, lat is the height of Mont Blanc ? 000 feet, or nearly three miles above the level i sea. Mount St. Bernard at one time had a ;tery on its summit, 8,000 feet above the level sea. ne some lakes in Switzerland, leva, sometimes called lake Leman; Lucerne, mce, Neuchatel and Zurich; part of lake lore is in the Swiss territory. ne some towns on the north part of the lake of a. isanne, Vevay, Villeneuve, and Montrenu, they noted for their picturesque scenery, lat celebrated castle is on this lake ? \ Chateau Chillon ; it was here that Bonivard infined, who was the subject of Byron^s beautiful " The prisoner of Chillon.''' ne the chief rivers of Switzerland. J Rhine and the Rhone, which have their sources the Aar, and the Reuss ; the Inn, a tributary Danube, is in Switzerland, as is also the source Ticino. lat is the religion of the Swiss? •testant and Roman Catholic, lat language do the Swiss speak? nch, German, and Italian, according to their on with respect to these countries. The Swiss igal, and industrious and great lovers of their •y; they are in general poor and proud, and er themselves superior to other nations, and 84 flatter themselves that they enjoy a larger share of liberty, fancying that where there is a supreme ruler, there must be a certain amount of oppression. Greece. Where is Greece ? In the south of Europe ; it is bounded on the north by the Turkish provinces of Thessaly and Albania^ and on the south^ east^ and west by the Mediterranean sea. For what were the ancient Greeks remarkable? For the great advancement they made in the arts and sciences^ and for their military and naval ex- ploits^ and also for their famous statesmen^ generals; and orators. What first brought the Greeks into notice ? The Argonautic expedition under Jason^ 1263, B.C. They likewise obtained much glory in the war with Troy, which city they took after a siege of ten years. With what Asiatic power were the Greeks often compelled to contend ? With Persia, by which power it was twice invaded, under Darius and his son Xerxes. Greece afterwards in its turn invaded, and completely subdued that country, under Alexander the great, son of Philip II., king of Macedon, and grandson of Amyntas, 334-330 years B.C. Who was king of Persia when it was invaded by the Greeks ? Darius Codromanus, who was the last king; there were three kings of the name of Darius, viz. : Darius Hystaspes ; Darius Nothus ; and Darius Codromanus. What people had possession of Greece after the successors of Alexander the Great ? The Romans who treated the Greeks with great 85 apect. After the Romans, the Turks held them in slavish subjection for more than 300 years ; but eir tyranny and oppression at last drove the Greeks revolt against their oppressors. Who aided the Greeks to gain their independence ? The christian powers of Europe, and in 1829 the irks acknowledged the independence of Greece, )rd Byron assisted the Greeks in their struggle ainst Turkey. He died at Missolonghi^ a.d. 124, in the reign of George IV. What naval engagement was fought during this uggle? The battle of Navarino, in which the Turkish and cyptian tieet were defeated by the combined forces England, France, and Russia, under Sir Edward idrington, a.d. 1827. Navarino is in the south- st of Greece. Whom did the Greeks elect for their king? Otho, a Bavarian prince, a.d. 1833, in the reign William IV., brother of George IV., both of lom were sons of George III. Otho was deposed 1864. The present king is George, son of the ig of Denmark, and brother to the princess of ales, whose sister married the son of Ale3cander , emperor of Russia. What constitute the kingdom of Greece ? rhe Morea, or the ancient Peloponnesus, with tica and Thebes, as far north as the gulfs of Arta 1 Volo ; it also includes the islands of Negropont^ dra, and the Cyclades, together with the Ionian nds. IVhat is the capital of Greece ? Athens ; this city was likewise the capital of the lient kingdom of Greece. It contains the remains lumerous works of art. Here is Mars hill, at the tern end of which is Areopagus, the chief judicial % 86 court of Athens. It consisted of 70 of the wisest old men. What apostle preached here ? St. Paul^ who disputed with the Areopagi, and endeavoured to convince them that the " Unknown Grod/' to whom they had raised an altar^ was the one true Grod. When and by whom was Athens founded ? It was founded 1556 b.c.^ by Cecrops and an Egyptian colony. The territory, of which Athens was the capital, has been called at various times Ionia, Attica, and Cecropia. Name some other famous cities of ancient Greece. Thebes, Corinth, and Sparta. Of what was Thebes the capital ? Boeotia. It was begun to be founded by Cadmus, 1519 B.C. It was demolished by Alexander the Great, and afterwards repaired by Cassander, the son of Antipater, one of his generals. Where is Corinth situated ? In the centre of Greece, on the isthmus of Corinthi which joins the Morea to the rest of Greece. It was founded by Sisyphus, 1383 B.C. It took its name from Corinthus, the son of Pelops. Of what was Sparta the capital ? Of Laconia; it was sometimes called Lacedsemon. It was called Sparta after Sparta, who married Lacedsemon. What Spartan king opposed Xerxes at the strait of Thermopylae. Leonidas, who with 300 men, opposed the Per- sians for three days ; when a detachment of the enemy was conducted by a treacherous Trachinian by a secret path up the mountains, and falling sud- denly upon the Spartans, there slew them all with the exception of two^ who tied from the field of 87 tie; one of whom^ unableto bear the reproaches of countrymen for his cowardice^ killed himself; the er retrieved his honour at the battle of Platsea, ween the Persians under Mardonius^ and the Lace- monians and Athenians under Fausanias^ on the le day that the battle of Mycale was fought, ) B.C. ^fame a famous Spartan general. Lysander ; it was he who completely ruined the ver of Athens. Name a noted Athenian general. Miltiades ; he defeated the Persians at the battle Marathon, 490 B.C. Miltiades was afterwards justly condemned by his countrymen to pay a ivy fine, which being unable to do, he was thrown prison, where he died. Name a distinguished Theban general. Epaminondas; this man freed Thebes from the Ner of the Lacedaemonians, and was killed at the ;tle of Mantinea, 863 B.C. Name some modern towns of Greece. Tripolezza, Navarino, Patras, and Missolonghi. Where is the isthmus of Corinth ? It joins the Morea to the rest of Greece. The )rea is the southern part of this country. On this bmus stands the ancient citadel of Acro-Corinthus. Where is the gulf of Lepanto ? It runs up between the Morea and the northern rt of Greece, it is sometimes called the gulf of rinth. Where is cape Matapan ? It is the most southerly cape of Greece. Where are the Ionian islands ? In the west of Greece ; in that part of the Mediter- lean, called the Ionian sea; there are seven of jm, viz. : — Corfu, Santa Mora, Cephalonia, Ithaca, 88 Zante^ Cerigo^ and Paxo ; until lately* these islands were under the protection of Great Britain^ bat in 1864 they became a part of Greece. Name a famous ancient king of Ithaca. Ulysses^ he rendered himself famous at the siege of Troy. For what is Zante famous ? For currants^ which it produces in great abon- dance. They are called currants because they first came from Corinth in Greece. Where are the Cyclades ? In the ^gean sea^ to the east of Greece; the principal are^ Delos^ Ceos^ Naxos, Paxos, Mdos; Seriphos, and Tenedos. The greater part of these islands encircle Delos. Name some other islands belonging to Greece. Negropont, Hydra, Spezzia^and Egina; all which are near the mainland. What is the religion of Greece ? The Greek church. The population is about one million two hundred thousand. The climate is mild and most agreeable. Mention some mountains in Greece. The Pindus chain, which is also in Turkey; and mount Parnassus. What league existed among some of the states of north Greece? The Achsean league'; it consisted of twelve states which bounded themselves together for mutual pro- tection. The whole country was called Achaia by the Romans. Turkey in Europe, How is Turkey bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Hungary and Russia ; on the south by the sea of Marmora^ the Archipelago and Greece ; on the east by the Black sea ; and on the west by the Austrian provinces of Dalmatian Croatia^ the Adriatic sea^ and the Medi- terranean. Who were the Turks originally ? They were a warlike race who inhabited that im- mense tract of country known to the ancients under the name of Scythia, and at the present day of Tartary ; at a later time they were called Saracens. Under what other name is Turkey known ? The Ottoman empire; it was established by Ossman L, about the year 1300. When did the Turks begin to establish them- selves in Europe ? About the year 1352 ; soon after this^ Amurath fixed his empire at Adrianople, «. e., the city of Adrian. By degrees they subdued the eastern em- perors, and in 1453 they took Constantinople, i. e,, the city of Constantine — who was the first Christian emperor of Rome — when the eastern empire may be said to have come to an end; and since that time the Turks have been regarded as an European nation. What is the government of Turkey ? Despotic, the whole authority of the state is vested in the Sultan or Grand Signior. To whom are the affairs of the Turkish govern- ment intrusted ? To the Grand Vizier. It is the policy of the Turkish government, to have such ofiicers of state, as are entirely at the command of the Sultan, whom he can destroy without danger to himself. What is the religion of the Turks ? Mahometanism, as established by Mahomet, whom they consider greater than Jesus Christ. The book by which they profess to regulate their lives is the Koran^ which was written by Mahomet ; parts of 8— a 90 wbich were distributed at different times^ in order that he might r^nlate his policy according to the chain of events. Which are the chief mountains of European Turkey ? The Hoemus or Balkan chain ; Findus and Olym- pus in Thessaly^ and Mount Athos; this last over- shadows the island of Lemnos^ though at a distance of 24 miles. What is the height of mount Olympus ? It is a mile and a half high^ and is famous for being the place where the ancients believed the gods of the heathen mythology resided^ and where Jupiter held his court. Mention the chief provinces of European Turkey. Bulgaria^ and Rumelia; this last includes the ancient Macedonia^ Thessaly and Albania. Name some other provinces of Turkey. Moldavia, Wallachia, Bosnia, and Servia; but these last are nearly independent, or under the in- fluence of Russia. What is the capital of Turkey ? Constantinople on the Bosphorus. Constantine the Great removed the seat of government from Bome to this city, which before, was called Byzantium; it then became the capital of the eastern, as Rome was of the western empire. The Roman empire being thus divided, was one of the causes which greatly tended to accelerate its downfall. Scutari on the Asiatic coast, is considered a suburb of Constanti"' nople. Name some buildings in Constantinople. The Seraglio, or palace, which is washed by the ]posphorus and the Golden Horn, an offset of the former; and the church of St. Sophia, which was built by the emperor Justinian in the sixth centuryt 91 Which is the second city in Turkey ? Adrianople^ near the river Maritza. This city was the capital of the Ottoman empire before the Turks took Constantinople. Where is Salonika ? In the south of Turkey, on the shores of the Archipelago. Its ancient name was Thessalonica. Name some fortified places in Turkey. Schumla, Nicopolis, Belgrade, Varna on the Black Sea, and Silistria. It was at the last-named place that the Russians were frequently repulsed with great slaughter, upon their attempting to take it during the late Crimean war, a.d. 1855. Where is Sinope ? On the Black Sea; it was here that the Russians inhumanly destroyed the Turkish fleet before war had been formally declared. Where is Bukharest ? In Wallachia, on a tributary of the Danube. Where is Jassy ? It is the capital of Wallachia, and stands on a tributary of the Pruth. Name some islands of Turkey. Lemnos, at the entrance of the Dardanelles; 'Hgina, where money is said to have been first coined 5 Candia in the Archipelago, together with Mytilene, Shodes, Cos, Samos, Chios, and Cyprus. What was the ancient name of Candia ? Crete ; this island at one time contained a hundred cities, and it was at this island that St. Paul advised the master of the ship in which he was a prisoner to Borne from Csesarea, to winter. Mount Ida is in this island. Where is Rhodes ? ; In the Levant, the most easterly port of the Medi- 02 terrean; this island, with Cyprus and the other islands mentioned, belong properly to Turkey in Asia. For what was Rhodes famous r For an immense brazen statue of Apollo, called Colossus, which was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. It was 105 feet in height ; its legs stretched from one side of the harbour to the other, and ships were able to sail under it. Who was the designer of this statue ? Chares ; it was begun 300 B.C., and was 12 years in the course of construction ; 56 years after it was erected, it was partly destroyed by an earthquake. In 672 it was sold by the Saracens to a Jew, for 86,000 pounds, who loaded 900 camels with the brass of which it was composed. Where is Cyprus ? In the Levant, to the west of Syria. Pliny states that it was originally joined to the mainland. The capital is Nicosia. The apostle Barnabas was bom in this island. What is the population of Turkey in Europe ? About fifteen millions. The climate of Turkey is varied, according to the elevation of the district ; near the lower Danube the extremes of heat and cold are felt. Name the chief rivers of Turkey in Europe. The Danube, the Pruth, the Save, and the Maritza. In European Turkey there are several lakes, the chief of which is Skutari. Asia. From whom are the Asiatics descended ? From Shem, the son of Noah. In which hemisphere is Asia ? In the eastern hemisphere ; it lies to the east of Europe; to the north-east of Africa ; and to the west of America, from which it is separated by the Pacific 98 ocean ; it is bounded on the north by the Arctic or Frozen ocean. In what does Asia surpass the other divisions of the globe ? In the fecundity of its soil, the mildness of its air^ the delicious flavour of its fruits, the medicinal qualities of its plants, its gums, and spices, and in the value of its gems and metals. ^ For what else is Asia remarkable ? It was here that our first parents were placed, and it was this quarter that was first peopled after the deluge, 2348 B.C. In Asia almost all the events recorded in the bible took place, and here also were situated the empires of Assyria, Media, Chaldea, and Persia, the last of which was conquered by Alexander the Great, king of Macedon. What European nation held possession of a great part of Asia ? The Romans; and after them the Saracens founded in Asia an empire larger than Persia under Gyrus, or Alexander, and even than the Romans. Who were the Saracens ? The successors of Mahomet were known under this name. Tamerlane the Great was the last of the Saracens who possessed any great sway in Asia. What is the peculiar form of government in Asia ? Despotism. What religion prevails in Asia ? Mahometanism. The Persians and Mahometans of India follow the sect of Uali, and the Arabians and Turks are of the sect of Omar. Where was Mahomet born ? At Mecca, and died at Medina, both which towns are in Arabia. He fled from Mecca to Medina in 622. The flight of Mahomet is called the He^\t^. What languages are spoken in Ami 94 The Russian^ the Persian^ which is considered the court language of Asia; the Turkish, the Arabic, the Malayan, the Chinese, the Japanese, iand the Tartarian. Name some seas to the east of Asia. The Chinese sea, to the south-east of China ; the Yellow sea, to the east of China ; the Japan sea, to the east of Mongolia or Chinese Tartary ; the sea of Okhotsk, to the east of Asiatic Russia ; the sea of Kamschatka, to the east of Siberia ; and the gulf of Tartary, between the island of Saghalien on the east, and Mongolia and Russia on the west. Of what ocean are all these seas part ? Of the Pacific ocean. Mention the seas to the west of Asia. The Red sea, which separates Arabia from Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia; the Mediterranean, the Black, and Caspian seas. Why is the Red sea so named ? From the'quantity of red coral found there. Coral is formed by innumerable insects. Where is the Persian gulf? Between Persia and Arabia. Where is the Arabian sea ? Between Arabia and Hindostan ; it is sometimes called the sea of Oman. Where is the bay of Bengal ? To the east of Hindostan, and west of the Burmese empire. Where is the gulf of Martaban ? To the south of the Burmese empire. Where are the gulfs of Siam and Tonquin ? The gulf of Siam is to the south of Siam ; and the gulf of Tonquin is to the south of China and Tonquioi between Cochin China and the island of Hainam. What isthmus joins Asia to Africa ? 95 The isthmus of Suez. The countries which it connects are Arabia and Egypt. * Where are the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb ? Between Arabia and Africa ; they connect the Red sea with the Arabian sea. Bab-el-Mandeb signifies the gate of tears. Where are the straits of Ormas ? Between Persia and Arabia. They connect the Arabian sea with the Persian gulf. Pearls are found in this gulf; which are a disease in the oyster. Where is Palk^s strait or passage ? Between Hindostan and the north-east coast of the island of Ceylon ; the gulf of Manaar separates it on the north-western side. Where are the straits of Malacca ? Between the peninsula of Malaya and the island of Snmatra. The straits of Sunda are between Sumatra and the island of Java. Where are the straits of Macassar ? Between the islands of Borneo and Celebes. Where are Torres straits ? Between the islands of Papua or New Guinea^ and Australia. Basses straits separate Australia from Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land. Where are Behring^s strait ? Between Asia and North America; these two continents make the nearest approach to each other it these straits. Where is Cape Comorin ? In the south of Hindostan. Name the countries in the south of Asia^ beginning n the south-west side. Arabia, Persia^ Beloochistan^ Hindostan^ the Bur- lese empire, Siam, Laos, Anam or Cochin China, id China. Name the countries in the east of Asia. 96 China, Chinese Tartary or Mongolia^ Asiatic Russia, Siberia, and Kamschatka. What countries are in the west of Asia ? Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Independent Tartary, and Asiatic Russia. Siberia occupies the northern part of the continent. In what country are Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor included ? In Asiatic Turkey, which lies to the north of Arabia. Where is Afghanistan ? North of Beloochistan, and south of Independent Tartary. It is sometimes called the kingdom of Cabool. Where is Thibet? To the north of Hindostan. Nepaul and Bhootan are two independent states in the north of India. Where is the peninsula of the Corea ? On the eastein coast of Asia; its eastern shores are washed by the sea of Japan. Turkey in Asia. How is Turkey in Asia bounded ? It is bounded on the nort^h by the Black sea, on the south by Arabia, on the east by Persia and Georgia, and on the west by the Mediterranean. Name the chief cities of Turkey in Asia. Smyrna in Asia Minor, situated on the Levant; it is the chief port of Asiatic Turkey. Damascus and Aleppo in Syria; the former is the oldest city in the world, and is famous for the manufacture of sword blades. Jerusalem in Palestine, and Bagdad on the river Tigris. Name some others. Tyre, Sidon, Acre, and Antvodv in Syria, the last of which ia where the fo\loN«et^ oi CtoeX^etfe^s^ 97 called CIiristiaDs; and Bassora or Basra^ on the Shat-el-Arab, the name given to the united streams of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is near the Persian golf. For what was Tyre famous ? For its purple dye. It was here that queen Dido lived before she founded the city of Carthage in Afirica. She was the grandmother of Jezebel^ the wife of Ahab, king of Israel. What two great conquerors took Tyre ? Nebuchadnezzar^ king of Babylon^ after a siege of 18 years^ when he destroyed it ; it was afterwards rebuilt on an adjacent island, and was taken by Alexander the Great. Of what was Jerusalem the capital ? Judaea, another name for Palestine, or the Holy Land ; it was sometimes called the Promised Land, because God promised it to the posterity of Abraham. Csesarea was the chief port of Judaea when a Roman province. In what year was Acre besieged by the French under Napoleon ? In the year 1799, during the reign of George III., when, aided by Sir Sydney Smith, it resisted the French for sixty-one days, who were obliged to raise the siege. What Egyptian took Acre ? Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Mehamet Ali, in 1832 ; he spent upwards of five months in besieging it ; but it was retaken by the combined fleets of England, Austria, and Turkey, under the command of Admiral Stopford. What ancient city is supposed to have been situated about 60 miles from Bagdad ? Babylon^ which was founded \>^ "Smw^^ «xA. greatly enlarged by his wife, Sem\t^.m\^\ ^^^ afterwards by Nebuchadnezzar. This city was the capital of the Chaldean Empire. The Chaldeans were the first people who studied astronomy. The town of Hillah stands among the ruins of Babylon. Who took Babylon ? Cyrus, the Persian, 538 B.C., when his uncle Cyaxares II. became king; he is better known under the name of Darius, the Mede. He was succeeded by Cyrus. How did Cyrus take Babylon ? By turning the waters of the Euphrates, which ran through it, into another channel, and his army marched into the city through the dry bed of the river. Belshazzar, the son of Evil Merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, was king of Babylon at this time ; and the prophet Daniel was living here, he came into favour with Darius and Cyrus. Name one of the chief works of art of Babylon. The hanging gardens, which were built by Nebuchadnezzar. What other ancient city was situated in Asiatic Turkey? Nineveh, on the Tigris, near where Mosul now stands. This city was the capital of the Assyrian* empire. What people destroyed Jerusalem ? The B/omans, under Titus, the son of Vespasian, tenth emperor of Rome, a.d. 70. Josephus, a converted Jew, has written an interesting account of the siege of Jerusalem, of which he was an eye- witness. What ancient city was situated in Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor ? '' The pupH must not confouiid Assyria with Syria. 99 Troy, wliich was destroyed by the Greeks, when Priam reigned over it, 11^ b.c. Name some of the most famous Greek leaders. Agamemnon, the commander-in-chief of the Greek forces ; Ajax, Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Nestor, and Neoptolemus. Mention some leaders on the side of the Trojans. Hector and Paris, the last of whom was the cause of the Trojan war, sons of Priam; Antenor, and J)ne^, a son-in-law of Priam. The last two are accused of having betrayed Troy into the hands of the Greeks. How was Troy taken ? By the stratagem of the Wooden Horse. — Vide firgil, ^n. Book II. What gave rise to the Trojan war ? Paris, one of the sons of Priam having persuaded Helen, the wife of Menelaiis, to leave her husband, and flee with him to his father's kingdom; the Greeks united their forces and besieged Troy. Name some mountains in Asiatic Turkey. Mount Taurus, in Asia Minor, Ararat, in that part of Asia Minor called Russian Armenia ; it is higher than Mont Blanc. It was here that the Ark rested after the flood, 2348 b.c. Hermon and Tabor^ in Palestine^ and Lebanon^ in Syria ; this last was famous for its cedar trees. To what age did the cedars of Lebanon live ? They were 700 years coming to perfection, and the same time falling to decay. According to M. Lamartine there are but seven of these trees ^maining. Name some mounts near Jerusalem. Mounts Zion^ Moriah, and Olives. Which are the principal rivers ot A.m^e^xsffeRTj'^ The Tigris and Euphrates, wlaicYi iiiXV \s^ ^^^ 9— ^ 100 mouth into the Persian gulf ; the Orontes and the Jordan ; the latter flows into the Dead sea^ and the former into the bay of Antioch. What was the ancient name of the country between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates ? Mesopotamia, a name which is derived from two Greek words, " Mesos/^ between, and '^ Potamos/^ a river. It is now called Al-jezireh. The lower district between these rivers is called Irak Arabi. Name some seas in Asiatic Turkey. Asphaltites or the Dead sea, the water of which is nine times heavier than the ocean ; and the sea of Tiberias, sometimes called the sea of Gralilee, or the lake of Gennesaret. Of what ancient cities was the Dead sea the site ? Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities of the Plain, which were overthrown when Lot lived in them. What is the religion of the Turks ? Mahometanism, What are the chief manufactures of Turkey ? Carpets and leather. Asiatic Russia and Siberia. Where is this country ? It occupies all the northern part of Asia, extend- ing from the western to the eastern side of the continent of Asia: the northern shores of Siberia are washed by the Northern ocean. What use does Russia make of Siberia ? As a place of banishment for their state prisoners. What countries bordering on the Caspian sea belong to Russia ? Astrachan, Georgia, and Circassia. What is the population of Asiatic Russia ? About seven millions. 101 Into what two governments is Siberia divided ? Irkutsk in the east^ and Tobolks in the west. What mountains are to the west of Asiatic Russia? I The UraUan mountains. Name the chief rivers of Siberia. The Obi, the Irtish, the Yenesei, and the Lena^ all of which run northward into the Arctic ocean. What large lake is in Asiatic Russia 7 Lake Baikal. What is the climate of Asiatic Russia and Siberia? The cold is excessively severe, especially in Siberia, cuid in some parts of the latter country the ground in summer remains unthawed at a depth of six inches. Name the chief towns. Tobolsk, which is reckoned the capital of Siberia, ^omsk, on the Tom; Omsk, on the river Irtish, Xrkutsk, Yakutsk, and Okotsk. Where is Kamtschatka ? In the north-eastern part of Asia; it is a pen- ^ioisula joining Siberia. Arabia. Where is Arabia? '^ It is a large country in the south west of Asia, liaving Turkey on the north ; the Arabian sea, and t;he sea of Bab-el-Mandeb on the south ; the Persian gulf and Turkey on the east ; and the Red •ea, and the isthmus of Suez on the west. Into how many parts is Arabia divided ? Three ; Arabia Felix, or the Happy, which extends along the shores of the Red sea ; Arabia Petrsea, or the Stony, in the north ; and Atabi.^ li^^^xXa.^ ^-^ the Desertj in the south and east. 102 Which are the chief towns of Arabia ? Mecca^ the capital ; Medina^ Mocha^ Sana, Mus- cat, Suez, and Aden. For what are Mecca and Medina famous ? The former for being the place where Mahomet was born, and tfcjp, latter where he was buried. Every Mahometan considers himself bound to go on pilgri- mage to Mecca once during his life. Jeddah is the port of Mecca. In what part of Arabia are Mocha and Aden ? In the south-west, near the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb. For what are they famous ? Mocha is famed for its coffee, the best in the world, and Aden is one of the stations for the ships engaged in the overland route to India. Who projected the overland route ? Lieutenant Waghorn, R.N. Name some mountains in Arabia. Sinai and Horeb in the north ; and Gabel-el-Ared in Arabia Felix. For what are Sinai and Horeb famous ? It was upon Sinai that God gave the ten command- ments to Moses; and God appeared to him in a burning bush in mount Horeb, when he kept the flocks of his father-in-law Jethro, priest of Midian. From whom are the Arabians descended ? From Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Agar. What was foretold of the posterity of Ishmael ? That they should be invincible, and that " their hand should be against every man, and every man's hand against them,' and their having remained un- subdued, even by the Greek, Roman, and Tartar conquerors, proves the divinity of the prediction, and the Arab, like the Jew, is a convincing proof that the writers of the Bible were divinely inspired. 103 What is the signification of Arab ? It means a robber^ and it is remarkable that the country has kept its name unchanged from the earliest period to the present time. What is the religion of the Arabs ? Mahometanism. Its population is twelve millions. Persia* How is Persia bounded ? It is bounded on the north by Georgia^ the Caspian sea^ and Independent Tartary ; on the east by Afghanistan and Beloochistan ; on the south by the Persian gulf and the gulf of Oman; and on the west by the Persian gulf and Turkey. Into how many provinces is Persia divided ? Seven, viz. : Arzerdbijan, Mazanderan, Irak- Ajami^ Khuzistan, Farsistan, Khorasan^ and Kirman. What are the chief towns of Persia ? Teheran the capital, Ispahan the former capital ; Shiraz, which was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake in 1853^ Ormuths and Gomberoon. Has Persia any considerable rivers ? No. The Araxes is in the north; but a very small portion of Persia is washed by it ; the largest river in the north of Persia is the Kizil Ozan ; it is bown in Scripture under the name of Gozan. The 8hat-el-Arab washes the western shores of Persia ; this river is a continuance of the Tigris and Eu- phrates after they unite, before falling into the Persian gulf. What is there remarkable in the Persian sheep ? The tails of some of them weigh thirty pounds. Is Persia an ancient kingdom ? Yes, it is one of the oldest in the world. It suc- ceeded the Assyrian or Babylonian empire. * The ancient name of Persia ^aa \iwi. 104 By whom was the Persian monarchy founded ? By Cyrus, about 550 years b.c. ; it came to an end when Darius was king, 329 b.c, who was con- quered'by Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, a country now included in Turkey in Europe. What is the religion of Persia ? Mahometanism, mixed with Brahmin superstitioD. Afghanistan and Beloochistan. How are these countries bounded ? On the north by Independent Tartary ; on the east by Indostan; on the south by the Arabian sea; and on the west by Persia. By what other name is the country of Afghanistan known. It is sometimes called the kingdom of Cabool. Of what ancient kingdom did Afghanistan fonii a part? Of the ancient Iran or Persia. What are the chief towns of Afghanistan ? Cabool the capital. Candahar, Ghuznee, and Herat. What is the capital of Beloochistan ? Kelat. What is the religion of these countries ? Mahometanism. Independent Tartary. Where is Independent Tartary ? It lies between the Caspian sea on the west, and the Chinese empire on the east, having Russia on the north and Persia and Afghanistan on the south. What are the chief towns of Independent Tartary? Bokhara the capital. Samarcand and Kokan. Name a large lake in Independent Tartary. Lake Aral, one of the largest m the world. What river flows througVi t\iA& eoxxnX.x^'^ 105 The Jihon or Oxus, which falls into lake Aral. To what race do the Tartars belong ? To the nomadic or wandering tribes. Indostan. Where is Indostan ? It is a large country in the south of Asia, being »unded by Afghanistan^ Beloochistan^ and the rabian sea on the west, by the bay of Bengal and urmah on the east, and by the Himalayan mountains I the north. How is Indostan politically divided ? Into those countries which are ruled by Great ritain, those whose princes are under her influence, id those which are still independent. What is the population of India ? 140 millions, nine-tenths of whom are either allies : Britain or subject to her. What is the derivation of the name Indostan )metimes spelt Indoostan ? It is of Persian origin, being derived from two 'orda, " indos,^' black, and '^ stan,^' a country, signi- j^ng the " black country," having reference to the omplexion of the inhabitants. Others believe it to aean the " country of the Indus,'' from the river ndus flowing through it Name the three British presidencies. Calcutta in the north-east, Madras in the south- east, and Bombay in the west. Name some mountains in Indostan. The Himalayah to the north, the eastern and irestem Ghauts, and the NelUghelly hills. Where are the chief rivers of Indostan ? The Indus, which flows into the Arabian sea ; the Ganges, the sacred river of India ; and the Burram- pooter, both which fall into the bay of Bengal. 106 Where do these rivers rise ? In Thibet. Name some of the provinces of India. The Punjaub in the north-west, the chief towns of which are Lahore and Monltan. This is the country of the Sikhs. Oude in the north-east, the capital of which is Lucknow ; this place was long besieged by the revolted Sepoys, and was at last relieved by Sir Colin Campbell.* Bengal in the north-east. Scinde near the mouth of the Indus. The Camatic in the south-east ; and the Mysore territory in the south- west. What is the signification of the term Punjaub T It signifies a country watered by five rivers. What is the capital of the Mysore ? Seringapatam, which was taken by Lord ComwalEs in the reign of George III., a.d. 1799, when Tippoo Saib, the son of Hyder All, both of whom were inveterate enemies of the British, was slain. Name some other towns in India. Agra, Delhi, Allahabad, Benares, the chief seat of Hindoo learning in India, and Patna ; all of which towns are situated in the northern part of India. 6oa, which belongs to the Portuguese, is on the west coast; Poonah, Hyderabad, Tatta, Ajmeer, Surat, and Arcot ; Cashmere is in the most northern part of Indostan, and is famous for the manufacture of shawls. Which is the capital of all British India ? Calcutta, on the river Hooghly, a branch of he Ganges ; it stands about a hundred miles inland. What settlements have the French in India ? Pondicherry and Chandemagore. What are the eastern and western coasts of India named ? * Afterwaida "Loxd CVj^e. 107 The western is called the Malabar, and the eastern lie Coromandel coast. What commodities are brought from India ? Gold, diamonds, indigo, opium, and drugs. What is a diamond ? Pare carbonic acid gas. How is the comparative value of diamonds deter- (lined ? Bv the squares of the differences of their weights. Give an example. If a diamond weighs 2 carats, and another weighs i, the latter is 3 times heavier than the former, and he square of 3 being 9, the diamond which weighs 6 arats is 9 times more valuable than the one which nly weighs 2 carats. How is a diamond polished ? By means of diamond dust ; the diamond is fixed 1 a piece of lead, and the dust being made to adhere a stone bv means of some sticky substance, it is ben ground or polished in the ordinary way. What is indigo ? A plant from which a blue dye is extracted. What is opium ? The thickened juice of the poppy. The Chinese nd some other nations are much addicted to the moking of it ; it produces a pleasing intoxication, lat is very injurious to the constitution, producing bbility and premature decay. Who are the priests of India ? The Brahmins ; they maintain that they are a more Dcient race than the Chinese, and that these are a dlony of them. Their sacred language is the anscrit, which is studied only by themselves. What animal is reverenced by the Hindoos ? The cow ; and they will not eat any animal food. 108 The Hindoos are divided into castes^ and the members of one caste will not associate with those of another. In whose reign were the East India Company granted an exclusive charter to trade with India ? In the reign of Elizabeth. Who greatly increased our possessions in India? Colonel CUve, in the reign of George II. What became of Clive ? He hanged himself; he had twice previously attempted to shoot himself. What was the character of Clive ? He was a restless, good-for-nothing boy when at school; a brave and skilful commander^ whom no difficulties, however great, could daunt ; but he was somewhat arbitrary in his dealings with the native princes, though he excused himself by saying that, '' he was obliged to meet rogues with roguery." Who was the first invader of India worthy of notice ? Alexander the Great, about 330 B.C. Who was the next ? Genghis Khan, a.d. 1220; he was followed by Tamerlane the Great, a.d. 1398, who exceeded ia cruelty all the conquerors that the world has produced, and established an empire extending from Asia Minor to the east of India. Who may be said to have been the founder of the Mogul empire in India ? Aurenzebe, a despotic tyrant, who died in the year 1707. Under whose government is India at the present time? The Queen's ; the East India Company has been abolished, and the Indian army has been amalga- mated with the other forces of her Majesty since the revolt of the sepoys in 1857. 109 What is the religion of Indostan ? Idolatry and Mahometanism. It is said that the natives have three hundred million gods. Where is Nepaul ? It is an independent state in the north of Indostan. What is the capital of Nepaul ? Khatmandoo. What is the religion of Nepaul ? Buddhism. Where is Bhotan ? To the east of Nepaul. What is the chief town of Bhotan ? Tassisudon. The Birmese Empire. Where is the Birmese Empire ?' To the east of Indostan, having Thibet on the norths and China and Siam to the east of it. Of what does this empire consist ? Of Birmah^ and the kingdom of Ava. What other states formerly constituted a part of this empire ? The kingdoms of Pegu and Aracan^ and the province of Tenasserim^ all which now belong to the British. What large river flows through Birraah ? The Irawaddy^ which rises in Thibet^ and falls into the gulf of Martaban in the south. What are the chief towns of Birmah ? Ava, which is the capital^ and Ammerapoora. What is the capital of Pegu ? The capital of Pegu, is Pegu, on the river Pegu, a branch of the Irawaddy. Rangoon is in Pegu. What is the capital of Ar^can ? Aracan, which is intersected by t\ie Kx^c^axiTO^^* What are the chief towns of Teua^^mm^ \0 110 Tavoy and Mergui. What river flows through Tenasserim ? The Tenasserim river. What is the religion of these countries ? Buddhism. In the late war between the British and the Bir- mese who were the aggressors ? The Birmese, who, in 1795, violating our territory in pursuit of some criminals, were quickly repelled; from that period, till 1824, there was a secret mis- understanding between the two powers, and in the latter year — in consequence of the arrest of some missionaries resident there, and the seizure of a dis- trict within our territory — war was declared against them, and, being defeated, they ceded to the British, the territories a&eady mentioned. In 1852 hostili- ties again commenced, when the British arms were once more successful; since which time the two countries have enjoyed the blessings of peace and commerce. The Peninsula of Malata. Where is Malaya ? In the south of Asia, to the north-east of the island of Sumatra, from which it is separated by the straits of Malacca. What is the chief town of Malaya ? Malacca. What is the character of the Malays ? They are a fierce and warlike race, and much ad- dicted to piracy, but, notwithstanding, their language is very harmonious ; it has been styled the ItaHan of the East. What people claim this peninsula ? The Siamese. Where are Siam, Laos, Cambodia, Anam,Tonquin, and Cochin China ? Ill They are all in the south of Asia. What is the capital of Siara ? Brankok on the river Meinam,which flows through Siam, into the gulf of Siam. What large river flows through Anam ? The Camboya, which falls into the gulf of Siam. What is the religion of these countries ? Buddhism. What is the climate of Malaya ? , It enjoys a perpetual summer. Thibet. Where is Thibet ? It is to the north of Indostan^ and to the west of China. What mountains are in the south of Thibet ? The Himalayah range. What rivers rise in Thibet ? The Irawaddy, and most of the large rivers of Indostan, and some which flow through China. What is the capital of Thibet ? For what is Thibet i-emarkable ? For the number of lakes that it has. Who is the object of worship in Thibet ? The Grand Lama^ who resides at Lassa^ in a "ace 120 yards high, and which contains ten thousand apartments. Who is the Grand Lama ? He is a person, who, the priests persuade the people, never gets old, and when appearances belie this, they despatch him, and substitute another in his place. China. Where is China ? It is a large country in the south-east of Asia. How is China proper bounded ? 112 It is bounded on the north by Mongolia ; on the east by the Yellow sea, and the Pacific ocean; on the south by the Chinese sea, the gulf of Tonquin, the countries of Siam, Laos, Auam,and Cochin China; and on the west by the Birman Empire and Thibet. Name the chief towns of China. Pekin the capital, Nanking, Canton, Shanghai, and Fou-Chow-fou. What is Nanking famous for ? For the manufacture of Nankeen, a species of light cotton. Name some of the rivers of China. The Hoang-ho, or Yellow river; the Yang-tse- kiang, or Blue river; both of which fall into the Yellow sea. These rivers have many tributaries equal in size to some of the largest rivers of Europe^ as the Peiho, or Peho, the Eu-ho, and the Si-kiang^ or Ta-si-kiang, which last empties itself into the sea.^ near Canton. "What two great works of art are in China ? The Imperial Canal, and the Great Wall. When was the Great Wall built 'C About two thousand years ago ; it was built by the Chinese to protect themselves from the Tartars. .For what plant is China remarkable ? For the tea-tree. When the tea-tree attains the age of three years, the leaves are fit to gather, and there are three gatherings in a year. There are seven kinds of black tea, and six of green tea ; bat green tea is often the black tea coloured by the Chinese to suit the taste of Europeans. A great quantity of tea that has been used in the tea-pots of the Chinese, undergoes a preparation, and is then exported to Europe. What nation at present rules in China ? TLe MoDgul Tartars, wlao coxic^vxet^^ \\. \ti\^AS^. 113 what manufactures are the Chinese famed ? celain and silk. The silk- worm was brought 3hina. at is the religion of China ? is a strange mixture of superstition and lat is the population of China ? IBS been variously estimated. Lord Macartney, 94, estimated it at 333,000,000, and Dr. jon, in 1825, at 353,000,000 nearly, at settlement have the Portuguese on the eastern coast of China ? cao : it is situated on an island named Heang- The Portuguese were the first European who traded with the Chinese; they visited at the commencement of the fifteenth century, lere is Chinese Tartary, or Mongolia ? ies to the north of China, lat large river flows through it ? J Amoor, or Saghalien, which empties itself le gulf of Tartary. ere is Manchouria ? is to the east of Mongolia, and is watered by ^moor: these two last mentioned countries ; to China. Japan. ivhat does Japan consist ? a number of islands in the Japan sea. The ; are Niphon and Jesso. oe the chief towns of Japan, igasaki, Osaka, Jedo, and Miaco. V is Japan governed ? a temporal, and a spiritual ruler, what are the Japanese famed 7 lacker- work ; but their unwillingness to trade 114 with Europeans, renders it almost impossible to pro- cure any of their best specimens of this manufacture. What is the religion of the Japanese ? There are three religious sects in Japan ; one of which, called Sinto, believe in a supreme being. Buddha is an object of worship here, as well as in China. In many things there is a great similarity between the Chinese and the Japanese. With what two European countries did the Japanese until lately only trade ? With the Dutch and the Portuguese. They formerly traded with the English; but at the instigation of the Dutch they ceased doing so.^ The Islands of Asia. Where is the island of Pherim ? In the Red sea, it belongs to the English, and has lately been strongly fortified. The Laccadive Islands. Where are the Laccadive Islands ? In the Indian ocean, to the south west of Indostan. These islands are very small and thinly inhabited. There are nineteen of them ; the two principal ones are Anderot and Cabarita. Of what origin are they ? Arabian, and they profess Islamism, or Mahome- tanism. Who discovered these islands ? Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator, a.p* 1498. They belong to the English. The Maldives. Where are the Maldives ? In the Indian ocean, to the south-west of Indostan; * A tre&ty of commerce TMk&\a\.f^^\)etTi<s«ii'^xi^^^\5«' tvFeen the English and Japanese. 115 Y are divided into seventeen groups j some of m are wasting away ; they are but slightly ele- Bd above the sea. Ceylon. SVTiere is the valuable island of Ceylon ? [n the Indian ocean^ to the south of Indostan^ n which it is separated by Falk's passage on the th-east side^ and the gulf of Manaar on the th-west. It belongs to the English. ^ame the chief towns of Ceylon. yolombo, the capital ; Kandi, and Trimcomale. ^hat berry is cultivated in Ceylon ? yoffee, which would be equal to the best kinds, e the growers more experienced in the art of cul- .ting it. The tea-tree^ and sugar cane have lately n introduced into this island. Vhat fishery is carried on in the gulf of Manaar ? ?he pearl fishery ; but it is not very profitable. /That animals are very numerous in Ceylon ? Slephants^ some of which are tamed and made to k. 8 Ceylon a flat or mountainous country ? t is very mountainous in the interior. Andaman and Nicobab. ¥here are the Andaman and Nicobar islands ? n the bay of Bengal^ the principal are Great and :le Andaman. They produce teak, iron-wood, ebony. Vhat is the character of the inhabitants ? 'hey are a very degenerate, cruel, and fierce race. Vhat is their only covering ? lud, which they put on their bodies to protect nselves from the noxious insects, which are very lerous here. 116 What nation endeavoured to establish a settlement here? The English, but owing to the ferocity of the natives, and the unhealthiness of the cUmate^ they were obliged to give it up. Where are the Nicobar islands ? In the bay of Bengal, the largest is Sambelong; like the Adaman islands, they are very unhealthy. Penang, or Pkince of Wales' Island. Where is the island of Penang, or Prince of Wales' island ? To the west of Malaya ; it belongs to the British. How did it come into their possession ? It was presented to them by an EngUshman who had it as his wife's dowry, being the daughter of the king of Keddah. What is the climate of this island ? Exceedingly healthy, so much so, that persons who have lost their health for many years in India, sooa recover their energy and strength in this island. What are the chief productions of this island ? Pepper, nutmegs, cofiee, sugar, and pine-apples. Almost all the ships engaged in the China trade touch at this island. Sumatra. Where is the island of Sumatra ? The large island of Sumatra is in the Indian ocean, to the south-west of Malaya, from which it is sepa* rated by the straits of Malacca. Is Sumatra a productive island ? Yes, fruits and flowers grow here spontaneously, to a fabulous size. There is a flower in Sumatra three feet in diameter. Some of the edible roots weigh four hundred pounds ; oaA. \Xiexe «xe %»^^ 117 liell fish so large that more than twenty men can me off one of them. Are there any wild animals here ? Yes, wild animals of almost every kind abound in his island. What large town is in Sumatra ? Bencoolen, in a district of the same name. The Dutch possess almost the entire trade of this island. Singapore. Where is the island of Sincapore ? To the south of Malaya; it belongs to the English; ts chief town is Sincapore. Java. Where is the island of Java ? In the Indian ocean, to the south-east of Sumatra, rom which it is separated by the strait of Sunda ; ie greater part of this island belongs to the Dutch. Name the chief towns in Java. Batavia, the capital of the Dutch settlements in he East Indies; Bantam, Cheribon, Tegal, and iemorang, each of which is the capital of a residency { the same name. Did this island ever belong to the English ? Yes, they took possession of it in 1811 ; and under heir government the island greatly improved; at a ater period it was restored to the Dutch, and in OQsequence of their avaricious policy the revenue as decreased. Borneo. Where is the island of Borneo ? In the eastern Archipelago, to the west of Celebes, "om which it is separated by the strait of Macassar. What is the size of this island ? 118 It is as large as Britain and France together; and^ next to Australia^ is the largest island in the world. What are the chief towns of Borneo ? Borneo, Banjamassin, and Ponteanak. What European nation possesses a large part of this island ? The Dutch. What peculiar custom regarding marriage exists in one part of the island of Borneo ? No man can marry unless he has cut off the head of an enemy : and a widower cannot marry again, unless he has slain an enemy in battle. What circle passes through Borneo and Sumatra? The equator. What animal is peculiar to these two islands f The ourang-outang. What European first visited Borneo ? Fernando Magellan, a Spanish navigator. Name some other islands in the eastern Arcbi- pelago. Celebes, Jilolo, and Ceram. What settlement have the Dutch in Celebes ? Macassar and Menado. What settlements have the Dutch in Ceram ? Wahdi. What is the policy of the Dutch in all these islands 7 To shut out the English from trading with them. Papua, or New Guinea. Where is New Guinea ? It is a large island in the Pacific ocean, north of Australia, from which it is separated by Endeavoor and Torres^ straits. Why i8 this island bo caWed.^ 119 Prom the similarity of the inhabitants to the people Guinea in Africa. Who discovered this island ? The Spaniards in 1528 ; but it is very imperfectly lown even at the present time. Australia, or New Holland. Where is Australia ? In the Pacific ocean ; it is the largest island in the }rld, and belongs to the British. This island^ with ew Guinea, New Zealand, and Tasmania, form the incipal group of islands in Australasia. What is the signification of Australasia ? Southern Asia. How many colonies have the English in Australia, id name them ? Four, viz. : New South Wales, South Australia, ^est Australia, and Victoria, or Port Philip. Name their chief towns. Sydney is the capital of New South Wales ; Ade- ide is the capital of South Australia ; Perth is the pital of West Australia — it is on the Swan river ; elboume is the capital of Victoria. Has Australia any rivers ? It has a great number, but all of them are incon- lerable in comparison with the size of the country. Name a few of the principal. Victoria river, the largest, in North Australia; the iverpool; and the Alhgator rivers; the Yarra- arra ; the Murray ; and the Swan river. Name some other towns in New South Wales. Brisbane, Bathurst, and Port Jackson. Where are Geelong and Port Philip ? In the colony of Victoria, which is the most uthern part of Australia. Where is Botany bay ? 120 On the east coast of Australia. Why is this place so named ? This name was given it by Captain Cook, its dis- coverer, from the number of plants unknown to Europeans, that were found to thrive there. What did the British once use this district for? As a place to transport convicts to; but it was discontinued in 1842. Van Diemen^s Land, or Tasmania. Where is this island ? To the south of Australia, from which it is sepa- rated by Basses strait. What is the capital of Tasmania ? Hobart Town ; Elizabeth Town is distant twenty- one miles from it. What are the principal rivers of Tasmania ? The Derwent and the Tamar. Has Tasmania any lakes ? Yes ; the principal is named Clarence. What animals are found here ? The kangaroo, the opossum, and the wild cat. Name two ports in Tasmania. Dalrymple and Launceston. To whom does this island belong ? To the English, who took possession of it in 1803, in the reign of George HI. New Zealand. Where is the island of New Zealand ? In the south Pacific ocean, to the south-east of Australia. Of what does it consist ? Of three islands, named New Munster, New Ulster, and New Leinster. Mention some towns in New Zealand. 121 Auckland, the capital, Nelson, Wellington, and Canterbury. To whom does New Zealand belong ? To the British, who took possession of it in 1840. Where is Chatham island? To the east of New Zealand. Where is Norfolk isle ? To the north-west of New Zealand. Philippine Islands. Where are these islands ? In the north Pacific ocean, to the south-east of Dhina ; they belong to the Spaniards. Name the chief of them. Luzon, Mindanao, and Palawan. What is the capital of these islands ? Manilla, in the island of Luzon ; it is famed for ts cigars. What is the structure of these islands ? Volcanic, many of the mountains being in a state >f constant eruption. They are also much subject o earthquakes, by which many of its towns have requently been laid in ruins. What nation took these islands from the Spaniards? The English, in 1761, but they restored them in .764, in the reign of George III. The Pelew Islands. Where are the Pelew islands ? In the north Pacific ocean ; they lie to the east of he Philippines. The inhabitants are Malays. Hainan. Where is the island of Hainan ? To the south of China. W 122 What is its capital ? Zeun-chu-fu, on the river Lemu. Hong-Kong. Where is the island of Hong-Kong ? To the south-east of China ; it stands at the en- i trance of the Canton river. ^ What is the signification of this name ? It means " Sweet Waters/^ The water of China in many parts is bad^ and has to be boiled before it is fit for drinking. To whom does this island belong ? To the British ; it was ceded to them in 1841 ; it is very hilly, and only a few acres are fit for cultiva- tion. What is the capital of Hong-Kong ? Victoria. Stanley is another town in this island. What is the chief export of this island ? Granite. What is granite ? It is the hardest of stone, and the lowest stratum in the earth to which we have gone. What are the component parts of granite ? Mica, felspar, and quartz. Gneis, or detritus, is pulverized granite, and forms the second lowest stratum. Next in order are the Silurian formations, which consist of coral. The next stratum is coal, and then chalk ; and lastly, the earth, or ground, which we cultivate. How is coral formed ? By insects. What is coal ? Wood acted on by moisture, heat, and time. Peat-moss is a coal-bed in its infant state, which jbas been indisputably proved to \i«in^ oxvc.^ V^^^xi wood. What is chalk ? 123 An accumalation of marine insects and shells. What are those strata of flint observed in chalk ? Petrified sponge^ caused by silicious matter per- colating through it. Flints have been discovered, in the inside of which has been found sponge. Formosa. Where is the island of Formosa ? In the Pacific ocean, east of China, to which country it is partly subject. Its chief town is Tayo- wan. What European nation first attempted a settle- ment here ? The Dutch, in 1634, but they were driven out of it by a Chinese pirate. The Loo-Choo Islands. Where are these islands ? In the Pacific ocean, east of China. Which is the largest of these islands ? Tanaxima, which, with several others, belongs to Japan ; the other islands forming this group are in- dependent. Where are the Ladrone or Marianne, and the Caroline islands 7 In the north Pacific ocean. Ladrone signifies a robber ; a name given these islands by the Spaniards, on account of the thieving propensities of the in- habitants. Saghalien. Where is the island of Saghalien ? It is to the north of the island of Jesso, one of the Japan islands. This island is adm\ta\A^ 'svV.wd.^.^^V^'c. giving aay European nation, wlio mi^X. iox\si ^ ^^V W— % 124 tiement here, the predominance over the eastern coast of Asia. Where are the Kurile isles ? To the north of the Japan islands. Where are the Aleutian isles ? To the east of Kamstchatka, in the Behring sea. Africa. What is Africa ? One of the four great continents ; it is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean sea, which sepa- rates it from Europe ; on the east by the isthmus erf Suez, and the Red sea, dividing it from Arabia, and by the Indian ocean ; on the south by the Southern ocean ; and on the west by the Atlantic ocean, which lies between it and America. Which are the chief rivers of Africa ? The Nile, the Niger, the Orange or Oliphant, the Senegal and the Gambia. Where does the Nile rise ? In the mountains of the Moon, in Abyssinia, it flows northward through this country, Nubia and Egypt, into the Mediterranean sea. How are the diflFerent parts of this river de- signated ? By the names of White Nile and Blue Nile ; at the confluence of these two streams the river takes the name of the Nile. What is the Delta of the Nile ? It is that part of Egypt lying between the branches of the Nile by which it empties itself into the Me- diterranean sea. It is called the Delta, from its re- sembling in shape that letter of the Greek alpha- betJ. What 18 there peculiar m t\via xYNet^ 125 It periodically overflows its banks; and in this manner fertilizes the land through which it flows. Where does the Niger rise ? In the Kong mountains^ about ten degrees north )f the equator : it empties itself by many mouths nto the the gulf of Benin^ and the Bight of Biafira, vhich are parts of the Atlantic ocean. Name some travellers who were sent to discover ;he sources of these rivers. Park, Denham, Clapperton and Lander. Where are the Senegal and Gambia rivers ? They flow through the western part of Africa into he Atlantic ocean. Of what river were these two streams long sup- )osed to be branches ? Of the Niger ; but Park proved this to be incor- rect. Where is the Orange or Oliphant river ? In the south-western part of Africa; it empties tself into the South Atlantic ocean. Is Africa joined to any other continent ? Yes, to Asia, by the isthmus of Suez, which is ;ixty miles across. Which are the principal mountains of Africa ? The Atlas range ; the mountains of the Moon ; Lud the Kong mountains. Where are the Atlas mountains ? They extend through the Barbary States, in the lorth of Africa. Where are the mountains of the Moon ? In the interior of Africa. The Kong mountains ire to the north of Guinea. Where is the Mozambique channel ? To the east of Africa, separating it from Mada- gascar. Where is the gulf of Guinea ? \\— ^ It is a part of the Atlanti^lii^eaii nmning npinto the western coast of Guinea.. Where is cape Guardafui, i.e., ^^ Beware ?" It is the inost easterljtcape fljf Africa. The cape of Good Hope is the m6st southerly ; and cape Verd is the most westerly; ^ipe Blanco is also on the western coast of Africa.^ What large lake is in Africa ? Lake Tchad, it is east of Bornou, in the interior of the continent. This lake was discovered by Clapperton and Denham. Where are the Barbary States ? and name them. In the north of Africa ; they are Morocco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Barca. Morocco. How is Morocco situated ? It is in the north-west part of Africa, being bounded on the north by the straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean sea, and on the west by the Atlantic ocean. What mountains are in Morocco ? The Atlas mountains. Has Morocco any rivers ? Yes, several ; the principal are the Seber and the Um-er-begh. Name some capes in Morocco ? Cape Blanco and cape Nun in the Atlantic, and cape Ceuta in the Mediterranean, Name two bays in Morocco. Tangier and Tetuar. Which are the chief towns of Morocco ? Mogadore, Tangier and Tetuan. To whom did Tangier once belong ? To Charles II., it was part oi \Xi^ ^10.^^5 ^^ VJ& wife Catharine of Portugal, log^Oci^t m\!«i ^^\^^l in the East Indies. jMll^er came into the possession of the English in 188^ but they gave it up in 1684. Which are the chief manufactures of Morocco ? Carpets^ leather^J^d mining. What ancient European power held possession of a part of Morocco ? The Romans^ and afteJ^tthem^ the Goths, and Greeks. What country in Europe did the Moors hold possession of for many years ? , Spain, in which country they landed in 1086, and defeated the Spaniards at the battle of Sala. What is the religion of Morocco ? Mahometanism. Where is Fez ? It joins Morocco on the north, of which empire it is a province. Name the chief towns of Fez. Fez, the capital, Mamora, and Mequinez. Name the chief rivers of Fez. The Sebu and the Bir Regreb. Who was the first sovereign of Fez ? Sidi Idris, in the eighth century. This was the first Mahommedan kingdom in the north of Africa. Algiers, or Algeria. Where is Algiers ? In the north of Africa; it is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean ; on the east by Tunis ; on the south by the great desert of Sahara ; and on the west by Morocco. What is the capital of Algiers? Algiers; Bona ia a town, and «l\ao «l 3Mk\.m\. \cl 4.1gier8, t 15» { Name some rivers of Algiewu j The Shellif, the Seibus, the Haratch^ and the ] Isser. ^ Has Algiers any lakes ? Yes, a great many; the chief is El-Ubeira. What mountains are in Algiers ? The Atlas mountains. To what were the Algerines at one time greatly addicted ? To piracy, and many expeditions have been sent against them. Charles V., emperor of Germany, father of Philip II., king of Spain, sailed against them in 1540, but in consequence of losing the greater part of his ships in a storm, he was obliged to retire without reducing them to subjection. The French, and after them, the English, and also the Venetians, made several attempts, with varied success, to force the Algerines to abandon these practices. In 1816 Lord Exmouth bombarded Algiers and laid the town in ruins. What good resulted from this ? The Algerines released all Christian slaves, to the number of more than twelve hundred ; and made restitution to those persons who had been ransomed. To whom does Algiers belong at the present time? To the French, who made themselves masters of of it in 1830 ; but they are still obliged, and prob- ably always will be, to maintain a large army there to keep the country in subjection. Tunis. How is Tunis bounded ? On the north by the Mediterranean ; on the west bjr Algiers ; on the 80ut\i ani ^u^-^v.^^. \i>j the desert of Sahara ; and on IYlc e«L^\.\>^ 'Irv^Oiv 129 Name the chief towns of Tunis. Tunis, the capital, and Tabarca. What rivers are there in Tunis ? The Mejerdah and the Wad-el-Quibir are the incipal. What ancient city was situated near where the wn of Tunis stands ? Carthage, which was founded by queen Dido, 19 B.C. ; who fled from Tyre to escape the tyranny her brother, PygmaUon. She was the grand- LUgbter of Jezebel. Of what other nation was Carthage long a rival? Of Rome, between whom and Carthage there were ree wars, called the Punic wars. Which of these two powers was at last vanquished ? Carthage, and the city was razed to the ground ' Scipio, the grandson of Scipio Africanus, [7 B.C. Name some celebrated Carthaginian generals. Amilcar, Annibal, and Asdrubal. What became of Annibal ? He poisoned himself to escape falling into the mds of the Romans, who ungenerously persecuted m from one country to another. Tripoli. Where is Tripoli ? In the north of Africa ; it comprises Barca and 3zzan, which is to the south of Tripoli. What is the signification of Tripoli ? It means the country of the "Three Cities," hich name was given it about the end of the first jntury. Name some towns in this district. Tripoli, the capital, Bengazi, Cyrene, Barca, and onandria. 130 To whom do these states, together with Tunis, owe a nominal sovereignty ? To the Sultan of Turkey. Egypt. Where is Egypt ? In the north-eastern part of Africa ; having tie Mediterranean sea on the north ; the Red sea and the isthmus of Suez on the east ; Nuhia on the south ; and the deserts of Libya and Barca on the west. Into how many parts is Egypt divided ? Into three ; Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypt, Name the principal towns in Egypt. Grand Cairo, the capital, Alexandria, Rosetta, and Damietta. What river flows through Egypt ? The Nile, which flows into the Mediterranean sea ; this river has already been described. Who built Alexandria ? Alexander the Great. The ancient city of Pelusium was situated near here. Is Egypt an ancient country ? It is one of the most ancient in the world ; and at one period the most civilized; it was the Egyptians who civilized the Greeks, so conspicuous in former times for the advancement they made in the arts and sciences. Are there any remains of ancient Egyptian monu- ments ? Yes, especially at Thebes andDendara. The pyra- mids of Egypt are the largest buildings in the world ; the two largest are near Cairo. By whom were they built ? The larger one was built by Cheops ; it stands on eleven acres of ground, and is five hundred feet high, 131 je feet square at the top, which can be reached ins of rude steps on one side. The smaller two was built by Cephrim, the brother of )S. • what purpose are they supposed to have been ? a burial place for their kings, hat strange custom existed in Egypt respecting >urial of the dead ? very man after death was tried, and if any wrong he had committed against his neighbour, for ch he had not made restitution, could be proved inst him, he was deprived of the rights of sepul- e ; the kings themselves were not exempt from 8 custom ; and it is said that the builders of these o pyramids were found guilty after death, and were iried without funeral rites. What other ancient monuments are found in ;gypt? Obelisks, which consist of one large stone, termi- ating in a point, with four sides ; Cleopatra's needle ; 'ompey's pillar ; and the sphynx, which consists of le head and shoulders of a woman hewn out of a )ck : it is thirty feet high. Were not the Egyptians famous for preserving leir dead ? Yes, and the process was called embalming. What is seldom seen in Egypt ? Rain ; the country is watered by the periodical ^erflowings of the Nile. The nilometer is an instru- lent used to measure the height of the waters of le Nile. Were not the Egyptians an extremely superstitious sople ? Very much so : they worshipped all animals that 132 could do them harm, in order to propitiate them; and also those which were serviceable to them. What bird and animal were particularly sacred among the Egyptians ? The Ibis, and the sacred ox called Apis. To whom has Egypt long been subject ? To the Turks, it was governed by a Pacha, ap- pointed by the Porte ; but the title has now become hereditary, although Egypt still pays him a yearly tribute. What were the ancient kings of Egypt called? Pharaohs, until the time of Cambyses, the sou of Cyrus the Great, who conquered Egypt, 520 b.c Eigypt continued from this period till the time of Alexander the Great, a part of the Persian Empire. Who became king of Egypt after the death of Alexander ? One of his generals, named Ptolemy; and his successors were called Ptolemies. Name a celebrated queen of Egypt. Cleopatra ; after her death Egypt became a Ro- man province, and continued so for seven hundred Name two Romans, between whom a celebrated naval engagement was fought off the Egyptian coast. Augustus Csesar,"^ and Mark Antony ; the latter of whom wa^ aided by Cleopatra. Which of the Ptolemies had the Old Testament translated into Greek. Ptolemy Philadelphus. This version is called the Septuagint, because seventy learned Jews were em- ployed in translating it. What is the religion of Egypt ? Mahometanism. Name the countries on the eastern side of Africa. Known, also uudet lYie xiMsie ol OcXw-v^aa. 183 Egjrpt, already mentioned^ Nubia^ Abyssinia^ Ajan, Zanzibar^ Mozambique and Caffraria. Nubia. Where is Nubia ? To the south of Egypt, having the Red sea on the east^ Abyssinia on the south, and the desert on the west. By whom was this country conquered ? By IbrahimPashaof Egypt, the son of Mehamet Ali. What river flows through Nubia ? The Nile. Name two towns in Nubia. Suakin^ a port on the Red sea^ and Shendi, on the Nile, What celebrated queen reigned here ? Candace,* queen of the Ethiopians. She had but one eye. She lived during the time of the Apostles. Abyssinia. Where is Abyssinia ? To the south-east of Nubia, on the eastern side of Africa ; the Red sea is to the east of it. What river rises in Abyssinia ? The Nile. What are the chief towns of Abyssinia ? Gondar the capital and Axum. What religion do the Abyssinian s profess ? The Christian religion, but they are a cruel people, and in some parts cut off slices from the living ox. Various Districts. What savage tribes live to the south of Abyssinia ? The Galla, who adorn themselves with the entrails of oxen. * The queens of Ethiopia, after her, were called Can- daces, in the same way as tlie succe&^OT^ ol ksi5s.QrKsss»& were for some time called Antouiuea. 134 Name some Portuguese settlements on tlie eastern coast of Africa. Mozambique, Sofala, and Quilimane. Where is CaflFraria ? It is on the south-eastern coast of Africa; it is sometimes called Cafferland^ and the inhabitants are named Gaffers. What was the original signification of this term; It had the same signification among the Mahom- medans, as " heretic" has at the present day with the Roman Catholics. Where is Port Natal ? To the south of Gaffraria; it belongs to tbe English. where is the colony of the Gape of Good Hope? It occupies the most southern part of Africa. To whom does Gape Golony belong ? To the English, to whom it was ceded by the Dutch in 1814, in the reign of George III. Name the chief towns in the colony of the Gape of Good Hope. Gape Town, the capital; Graham^s Town; and George Town. Name two bays here. Algoa bay on the south-eastern side ; and Table bay on the south-western coast. What mountain is in this colony ? Table mountain. What nation first sailed round the Gape of Good Hope? The Portuguese, during the reign of John II., King of Portugal. What river rises in Gape Golony ? The Orange river. Where is the country of ttie Hott^ivtots ? 185 On the south-westem side of Africa^ north of Cape Colony. Guinea. Where is Lower Guinea ? On the west coast of Africa. What countries does Lower Guinea comprise ? Loango^ Gongo^ Angola^ and Benguela. What European country has settlenients here ? The Portuguese. Name two rivers in Lower Guinea. The Zaire or Congo, and the Coanza ; the latter is nearly six hundred miles long. Where is Upper Guinea ? To the north of Lower Guinea, having Nigritia and Senegambia to the north of it. Name some maritime districts in Upper Guinea. Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Grain, Ivory, Gold, and Slave coasts, Benin, and Calabar. Mention some territories in the interior of Upper Guinea. Ashantee, Benin, Dahomey, Eboe, and Mandengoe. To whom does Sierra Leone belong ? To the British ; it is on the west coast of Africa ; all slaves taken by the English from slave vessels are sent to this settlement, of which the capital is Freetown. What other settlement have the EngUsh on the coast of Guinea ? Cape Coast Castle. To whom does Liberia belong ? To the Americans ; it is in the south-westem part of Guinea. What is the capital of Ashantee ? Komasi. The capital of Benm \& ^cclwjl* Q?l 136 Dahomey, Abomey. Of Eboe, Eboe. Of Man- dingoe^ Zamalia. Seneqambia. Where is Senegambia ? On the western side of Africa. How is it bounded ? On the north by the Sahara or Great Desert ; on the south by Upper Guinea ; on the east by Nigri- tia ; and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Name some rivers in Senegambia. The Senegal and Gambia, from which the country takes its name, and the Rio Grande. Mention two capes in Senegambia. ' Cape Verde and cape St. Mary. Central Africa. Mention some states in Central Africa. Soudan; Nigritia or Negroland; Timbuctou; Bor- nou; Houssa, and Dar-Fur. For what is Timbuctou famous ? For being the seat of the caravan trade. What lake is to the east of Bomou ? Lake Tchad. Name some towns in Bomou. Zouka, and New Birnie. How is Houssa divided ? Into seven provinces. What is the capital of Dar-Fur ? Cobbeh. Where are Dongola, Sennaar, and Kordosan ? To the south of Nubia. Where is the country of the Fellatahs ? In Central Africa. .187 The Islands of Africa. Where is the island of Socotra ? In the Arabian sea, to the north-east of cape Guardafui. Madagascar. Where is the island of Madagascar ? To the east of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique channel. What divides this island into two parts ? A chain of mountains extending from north to south. Name two large rivers in Madagascar. The Mangour and the Skropa. What is the capital of Madagascar ? Tananarivo sometimes called Antananarivo. What capes are in Madagascar ? Cape Ambro is in the north, and cape St. Mary is in the south of this island. The Comoro Isles. Where are the Comoro isles ? In the Mozambique channel, lying between Africa and Madagascar. How many of these islands are there? Four, the principal is Johanna Mayotta ; one of the Comoro isles belongs to the French. Mauritius. Where is the island of Mauritius ? In the Indian ocean, to the east of Madagascar ; it is sometimes called I'Isle de France. Name two ports in Mauritius. Port Louis, and Port Bourbon. T?ot\.liRW\^\&\k!k& capital of the island. 138 To whom does Mauritius belong ? To the British, to whom it was ceded by the French in 1814. Bourbon. Where is the isle of Bourbon ? ^ In the Indian ocean, to the south-west of Mau- ritius; it is sometimes called Reunion. What is the capital of Bourbon ? St. Denis; S^ Louis and St. Paul are likewise situated in this island. Which is the principal river of Bourbon ? The Mat; it is only thirty miles in length. To whom does Bourbon belong ? To the French; the English took possession of this island in 1810, but restored it in 1815. St. Helena. Where is the island of St. Helena ? Tn the south Atlantic ocean, to the west of Africa; it belongs to the English. What is the capital of St. Helena ? Jameses town. What celebrated man was banished to this island ? The Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, after the battle of Waterloo in 1815 ; he died here in 1821, of a cancer in his stomach. ^ What place was the residence of Napoleon in St. Helena ? Longwood. Who was the governor of the island during the time of Napoleon^s banishment ? Sir Hudson Lowe, whom Napoleon treated with ^eat disrespect^ and iu a most ungentlemanly manner. In what year were Napoleon's remains removed to Prance ? In 1840; Prince Joinville, son of Louis Philippe, ^^i command of the expedition which was sent of convey his body to Europe. Ascension. Where is the island of Ascension ? In the south Atlantic ocean, to the north-west of St. Helena, It is so named because it was dis- covered on Ascension day, a.d. 1501. To whom does Ascension belong ? To the English, it is naturally a barren island, but has been rendered somewhat fertile by cul- tivation. With what does Ascension abound ? With turtle, some of which are so large, that eighty men have dined oflF one of them. Where are the islands of St. Thomas, and Fer- iiando Po ? In the gulf of Guinea, to the west of Africa. Cape Verde Islands. Where are the Cape Verde islands ? In the north Atlantic ocean, to the west of Africa. Which is the largest of these islands ? St. Jago. The capital is St. Jago. To whom do the Cape Verde islands belong ? To the Portuguese. The island of Goree near Cape Verde belongs to the French. Under what name were these islands supposed to be known to the ancients ? The Hesperides. The Canary Islands. Where are the Canary islands ? 140 In the north Atlantic ocean^ off the north-west coast of Africa ; the largest are Teneriffe, Fuert% Ventura, and Grand Canary. Under what name were these islands known io the ancients ? Insulae Beatse, or the Fortunate isles. Name a large port in Teneriffe. Santa Crux. What celebrated mountain is in Teneriffe ? The Peak of Teyde, which is more than twelve thousand feet in height : it is in the form of a sugar- loaf. To whom do the Canaries belong ? To the Spaniards. The Madeira Isles. Where are the Madeira isles ? In the north Atlantic ocean, to the north of the Canaries. From what do these islands take their name ? From Madeira, which is the largest of the group; the capital of which is Funchal. To whom do the Madeira isles belong ? To the Portuguese. What is the climate of Madeira ? Very salubrious ; the average length of life here is one third longer than in most other parts of the world. What is the chief export of these islands ? Wine, called Madeira. The Azores, or Western Isles. Where are the Azores ? Jn the north Atlantic ocean ; they are nearly equidistant from Africa, Europe) and America. iVame these islands. 141 St. MichaePs, St. Mary's, Fayal, Pico, Graciosa, St. George's, and Terceiras, which is the principal though not the largest. What town is considered the capital of these is- lands ? Angra in Terceiras. Name two towns of St. MichaePs. Ponta del Gada, the capital, and Villa Franca. Of what fruit does St. Michael's export largj quantities ? Oranges. To whom do these islands bslong ? To the Portuguese. North America. What is America ? A large continent in the western hemisphere, laving the Arctic ocean on the north ; the Atlantic )cean on the east, which separates it from Europe md Africa ; and the Pacific on the west, dividing it rom Asia. By what are North and South America united ? By the isthmus of Panama or Darien. What other continent is nearest to America ? Asia, which is only fifty miles distant at Behriug's straits. What nations before the time of Columbus claim he discovery of America ? The Norwegians, a.d. 982. The Welsh maintain bat one of their princes, named Madoc, discovered t in the twelfth century : it is said that there is a :ribe of Indians living near the river Missouri, who jpeak a dialect of the Welsh language. And the Sermans maintain that Martin Behaim, a German, liscovered it in 1843, and made known his discovery bo Columbus. 143 Where is BaflSn^s bay ? To the west of Greenland. Where is Hudson's bay ? On the north-eastern side of North America ; the southern part is named James's bay. Where is the gulf of St. Lawrence ? Between the island of Newfoundland, and the eastern coast of North America. Where is the bay of Fundy ? Between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, on the eastern side of America. Where are Delaware and Chesapeak bays ? They run up into the eastern side of the United States, being inlets of the Atlantic ocean. Where is the gulf of Mexico ? To the south of the United States. Where is the bay of Honduras ? In Honduras, iu Central America. Where is the gulf of California ? Between California and Mexico. Where is Queen Charlotte's sound ? In British Columbia, on the western ' side of America. Where are Melville's sound, Lancaster sound, and the gulf of Boothia ? On the northern coast of North America. Where is Davis' strait ? It leads from the Atlantic ocean into Baffin's bay. Where is Hudson's strait ? It leads from the Atlantic ocean into Hudson's bay. Where is Behring strait ? Between Russian America and Asia. Name the chief mountains of North America. The Rocky or Stony mountains, which extend from north to south, on the western side of the 143 ; the Alleghany range, north of the river ; and the Appalachian range, south of the r ; they extend from south-west to north- some of the chief lakes of North America, or, the largest piece of fresh water in the Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, these between Canada and the United States; g, the Great Slave lake, and the Great Bear in British America, great cataract is between lakes Erie and lis of Niagara. connects lake Erie with Hudson river ? Jbany canal, the largest in America, the chief rivers of North America. It. Lawrence, which flows through Canada gulf of St. Lawrence; this river is one miles in breadth at its mouth, some tributaries of the St. Lawrence, 'ttawa, dividing Upper and Lower Canada, Connecticut. The Mississippi, the largest . America, and the Missouri which joins it ; ito the gulf of Mexico, on some other rivers in North America. Mackenzie, which flows into the Arctic le Hudson; the Delaware; the Susquehanna; mac, and the St. James's river ; all of which • the Atlantic ocean. 3 is cape Farewell ? 5 south of Greenland. 3 is cape Race ? B south of Newfoundland. 3 are capes Cod and Hatteras ? e eastern side of the United States. B is cape Sable ? 144 To the south of Florida, a territory of the United States. Where is cape Gracios a Dios, " Thank God ?" To the east of Honduras. Where is cape St. Lucas. To the south of California. Cape St. Lazarois also in California. To whom did the greater part of America once belong ? To Spain, who has now no possessions in it. Where is Russian America ? It is in the north-western part of North America; it also includes the Aleutian isles. What are the chief ports of Russian America ? New Archangel and Siatka. British America. Name the British possessions in North America. The Hudson^s Bay territory ; British Columbia; Canada ; New Brunswick ; Nova Scotia ; Labrador; the islands of Newfoundland; Cape Breton; and Prince Edward's Island. HuDsoN^s Bay Territory. Where is the Hudson's Bay territory ? It is a large tract of land lying to the west and south of Hudson's bay. In whose reign was a charter granted to tbe Hudson^s Bay Company ? J In the reign of Charles II., a.d. 1670. j What are the chief articles exported from this j territory ? \| Furs and skins, chiefly of the fox, the bear, the j beaver, the lynx, the martin or sable, the wolf, and f tbe otter ; a single skin ot l\ie ^^«i-Qtter is sometimes sold for as much as ioxty poxxu^^. S 145 Name the principal forts or stations whence these commodities are shipped to Europe. Port York, on Hudson's bay; Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia river, near the Pacific ocean, and Fort Moose, on James's bay. Canada. Where is Canada ? In the north-eastern part of North America, having Rupert's Land, a district of the Hudson's bay territory, and Labrador on the north; New Brunswick and a portion of the United States on the east ; and the lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, on the south. How is Canada divided ? Into Upper, or Western ; and Lower, or Eastern Canada. Which is the more southerly of the two ? Upper Canada, so called from its being nearer the source of the river St. Lawrence; it lies between James's bay on the north ; and the river Ottawa on the north-east ; and the lakes above mentioned on the south ; its western boundary is the Hudson Bay territory. Which are the chief towns of Upper Canada ? Ottawa, on the river Ottawa ; and Kingston and Toronto, both of which are on lake Ontario. Which are the chief rivers of Upper Canada ? The St. Lawrence, rising in lake Superior, under the name of the Cataraqui, and which takes the name of the St. Lawrence at the town of Montreal, in Lower Canada ; and the river Ottawa. By whom is Upper Canada peopled ? Its European inhabitants are chiefly of British origin. Where is Lower Canada ? \^ 146 It lies between Labrador on the north; New Branswick^ and the United States on the east and south j and Upper Canada on the west. Name the chief towns of Lower Canada. Quebec and Montreal, the latter- is built on an island of the same name ; both these towns are on the river St. Lawrence. Which are the chief rivers of Lower Canada ? The 8t. Lawrence, the Ottawa^ the Riviere au Lievres, and the Richlieu. How is Lower Canada peopled ? The inhabitants are mostly of French origin. What is the capital of the united provinces of Upper and Lower Canada ? Ottawa, which is also the seat of government; formerly each province had a separate govemment of its own. To whom did the Canadas formerly belong ? To the French; but in 1759, in the reign of George II., Quebec was taken by the English under General Wolfe, and Montreal capitulated in 1760, when all Canada came into the possession of the Bri- tish. What tarnished the glory of our; conquest of Canada ? The death of General Wolfe, who was slain in an engagement which took place before Quebec; the French General, M. de Montcalme, also lost his life in the same battle. New Bbunswick. Where is New Brunswick ? It is on the north-eastern side of America, lying between Canada and Nova Scotia. Which are the chief liveta oi "Jiew ^xmh^Vv^I The St. Johu's Tiver, rimnm^ VtvX;^ V!S!i^ Xiw^ ^\ 147 Fondy, and the Miramiclii, which flows into the golf of St. Lawrence. Which are the principal towns in New Bruns- wick? Frederickstown, the seat of government, and St. John^s^ both on the St. John's river^ and Newcastle on the Miramichi. Nova Scotia. Where is Nova Scotia ? On the eastern side of North America; it is a peninsula, being joined to New Brunswick by the I8thmtt9 of Chignecto. How is Nova Scotia bounded on the south and east? By the Atlantic ocean ; on the north it is sepa- rated from Prince Edward's island by the North- umberland strait. Name some rivers of Nova Scotia. The Shubenacadie, the Annapolis, the Avon, and the St. Croix, but none of them are of great extent. Which are the chief town? of Nova Scotia ? Halifax, the capital, with a fine harbour, and a university ; Annapolis, on the bay of Fundy ; and Windsor, with a college, founded in 1802, in the reign of George III. What is Annapolis famed for 7 As being the first English settlement in North America, being colonised in James I.'s reign, a.d. 1604. Annapolis signifies the city of Ann, so called in honour of Ann, the wife of James I. What is found in great quantities in Nova Scotia ? Coal. Who is said to have first visited Nova Scotia ? Sir John Cabot, in the reign pf Henry VII. ; he named it "Prima Vista,'' signifying "first seen,'' 148 this being the first land he saw after leaving Bristol, a town in the west of England^ situated partly ia Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. Labrador. Where is Labrador situated ? On the north-eastern side of North America, having its northern and eastern shores washed by the Atlantic ocean. How is Labrador situated as regards Lower Canada ? To the north-east of it. How is Labrador separated from Newfoundland? By the straits of Belle-isle. Under what name is this district sometimes known ? New Britain. What is the length of the winter in Labrador? Nine months; it lasts from the middle of Sep- tember, to the middle of June. Name three missionary settlements in Labrador. Okkak, Nain, and Hopedale. Newfoundland. What is Newfoundland ? Newfoundland is an island in the Atlantic oceaO; to the east of America, from which it is separated by Belle-isle strait, and the gulf of St. Lawrence. What is the capital of Newfoundland ? St. John's. Where are Conception and Fortune bays ? In Newfoundland. ^ For what is Newfoundland famous ? For its abundance of fish of all kinds, but more particularly of cod, which is caught with a hook. To what countries is the cod mo^\\^ «»^tiX.'^ ] 149 Spun, Portugal, Italy, and the West Indies. What is extracted from the liver of the cod ? Oil : the liver is allowed to decay in casks, when the oil is drawn off. Who discovered the island of Newfoundland ? Sir John Cabot, in 1497, in the reign of Henry ra. What nation often disputed with the English the possession of this island ? The French ; but the possession of it was con- firmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht.* The French are allowed to dry their nets on the northern shores of the island. What two small islands north of Newfoundland belong to the French ? St. Pierre and Miquelon. Cape Breton, Where is Cape Breton ? It is a small island in the Atlantic, to the south of Newfoundland, and north-east of Nova Scotia. It was formerly called by the French L'Isle Royale. What is the capital of Cape Breton ? Sydney ; it has a large and safe harbour. Mena- don, in this island, is a flourishing little village. From whom did the English take Gape Breton ? From the French, in 1758, in the reign of George II. What mineral is found here ? Coal. Prince Edward^s Island. Where is this island ? ^ To the east of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, from which it is separated by Northumberland strait. This island was formerly called 8t, 3oW^ \^^\A> * A.D. 1713. 150 but in 1789 its name was changed to Prince Ed- ward^s Island, in honour of the Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. What are the chief towns in this island? Charlotte town, the capital; George town, and Prince town. Where is the island of Anticosti ? In the gulf of St. Lawrence ; it is not inhabited. i The United States. ^ Where are the United States ? They occupy that part of North America which extends from British America, on the north, to the gulf of Mexico, on the south, and from the shores of the Pacific ocean and Mexico on the west, to the Atlantic ocean on the east. Which are the chief rivers of the United States ? The Missouri and the Mississippi, which fall into the gulf of Mexico. Are not these two rivers united ? Yes ; the Missouri joins the Mississippi eighteen miles from the town of St. Louis, and about 3,100 miles from its source. Name some tributaries of these rivers. The Platte, the Kansas, and the Arkansas, the Ohio, the Illinois and the Tenessee. Name some other rivers of the United States. The Mobile and the Alabama which flow into the gulf of Mexico. Mention some rivers of the United States which flow into the Atlantic ocean. The Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the St. James, the Savannah^ and the Potomac. Name some mountaiiva in. iTae United States. The Alleghany range, ox \J[ift K^Aw^\'mi \s\a\ar tains already described. The Stony or Rocky moun- tains are to the west of the United States. Mention some lakes lying entirely in the United States. Michigan and Champlain ; many of the large lakes of America are boundaries of, or are partly situated in these states. Of how many states did the United States ori- ginally consist ? Of thirteen, at present there are thirty-nine. What are the chief productions of the United States? Cotton, wheat, barley, rye, Indian corn, buck- wheat, hay, potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco, rice and sugar. Which are . the principal towns of the United States ? Washington, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, New Orleans, Charlestown, Cincinnati and Pittsburg. Which of these is the capital of the United States ? Washington, on the river Potomac. This town is the seat of government. After whom was this town called ? George Washington, the first president of the United States. What is the name of the residence of the pre- sident ? The White House. Which is the commercial capital of the United States ? New York ; it stands on Manhattan island, at the mouth of the Hudson river. What larg-e street runs through "S^ns Xq^1 152 Broad street. This town has a noble bay and harbour, and many public buildings and theatres. Of what state is Philadelphia the capital ? Pennsylvania ; this city is the second largest in the United States, and is situated on the Delaware. By whom was Philadelphia founded ? By William Penn a quaker ? What was Philadelphia once ? The seat of the federal government, until Wash- ington was made the capital. When did William Penu obtain the grant of a charter for this territory ? In 1681, in the reign of Charles II. His heirs sold their right to this territory, when the states en- gaged in a war to throw off their allegiance to Bri- tain in 1775, during the reign of George III. In what state is the town of Boston ? Massachusetts, of which it is the capital. Of how many parts does Boston consist ? Three, old Boston, and south and east Boston ; all of which are connected by means of bridges. When was Boston founded ? In 1630, during the reign of Charles I., son of James I. Boston was one of the first towns which engaged in the war of American Independ- ence. In what year was the port of Boston closed by act of parliament? In 1774. What two taxes imposed by the British parliament did the citizens of Boston oppose ? The stamp act, a.d. 1765 : and the duty on tea, A.D. 1773. What celebrated man was born in Boston ? Benjamin Franklin. Of what country is BaUimote >J^^ esK^v^fli^^ 153 altimore in the state Maryland ; it stands iver Fatapsco^ fourteen miles from the bay sipeake. •e is the town of New Orleans ? e state of Louisiana ; it stands on the river ppi^ and is nearly ninety miles from the gulf CO : New Orleans is the chief port in the the United States. bat state is Charlestown — sometimes called on — the capital ? •uth Carolina ; this is the largest town in the States on the Atlantic, hat does Charlestown stand ? neck of land formed by the junction of the md Cooper rivers. ; island is near Charlestown ? an's island. ; fort defends this island ? Moultrie, which repulsed the British fleet, ded by Sir Peter Parker in 1776, in the George III. bom was Charlestown partly peopled ? rench exiles after the revocation of the edict z. ; king of France revoked the edict of 1 XIV., of whom William III., king of Eng- as an inveterate enemy ; and to whom II. and James II. were mercenarily subject, hat country is Cincinnati the capital ? amilton in the state of Ohio, hat river is Cincinnati ? le Ohio. Cincinnati is the great emporium rest. has already been described, m \)si'& ^3tkK^\«t otL 154 Where is the town of Pittsburg ? In Pennsylvania, on the confluence of the rivers Alleghany and Monongahela^ which here take the name of the Ohio. What is Pittsburg sometimes called ? The Birmingham of America, on account of the numerous manufactories which it contains. Name some other towns in the United States ? Albany on the Hudson river; this town is the seat of legislation for New York state; Portland, the capital of the state of Maine ; Newport and Providence, the capitals of Rhode Island; New- haven^ the capital of Connecticut ; Louisville on the Ohio; this town is in the state of Kentucky, of which Frankfort is the capital; Richmond^ on the James river; this town is the capital of Virginia state ; Mobile, on a river of the same name in Ala- bama ; this town is on the Mexican gulf. Where is the town of Brooklyn ? On Long Island in the Atlantic ; this island forms part of the state of New York. * By whom were the United States originally peopled ? By emigrants from Britain and Ireland. When did the United States publish their Decla- ration of Independence ? On July 4th, a.d. 1776. Who was commander-in-chief of the American forces during the War of Independence ? George Washington, who was twice president of the United States. What two European nations aided the Americans in their rebellion against Britain ? The French and the Dutch. In what year did the "BtitiaYi fcpNcmxci^xi^. ^Vuow- ledge the independence oi t\ie^e «X«Xfc%1 / 155 A.D, ] 783, in the reign of George III. Which is the frontier state between Canada and the United States ? Maine. Where is Texas ? It is one of the United States of America adjoining Mexico, of which country it wjts formerly a territory, and subsequently an independent state. In what year was Texas admitted into union with the United States? In 1845. What is the government of the United States ? It is a republic^ and is governed by a president chosen every four years. Mexico. Where is Mexico ? It is situated to the west and south of the United States ; its western shores are washed by the gulf of CaUfornia and the Pacific ocean ; it is bounded on the south by Guatemala and the gulf of Mexico, and on the east by the same gulf and Texas. What is Mexico sometimes named ? New Spain. Name the chief rivers of Mexico. The Eio Bravo, or the Rio-Grande-del-Norte, signifying " the great river of the north '/^ it falls into the gulf of Mexico ; the San Jose running into the gulf of California ; and the St. Jago, which falls into the bay of San Bias on the Pacific. Name the largest lake in Mexico. Texcuco, by the overflowing of which, the city of Mexico has often been inundated. Name some mountains in Mexico. 3%e Rocky or Stony mountains. TlVv^ C»^xT<a- de-Sinpualtepcc is so Jiigh, that bot\\ Xi^^ MX-wx^ASi 156 and Pacific oceans can be seen from it. The summit of Popotacepetl, a volcanic mountain, covered with perpetual snow, is nearly 18,000 feet above the sea. Name the chief towns of Mexico. Mexico, the capital; Puebla; Acapulco; Vera Cruz ; and Guanaxuato. What did the town of Mexico formerly stand on? On some islands in a lake ; but the lake has long since retired. The present town is built on the site of old Mexico. In what part of Mexico is Vera Cruz ? It is on the gulf of Mexico^ and is the largest sea- port of this country. What is the climate of Vera Cruz ? It is one of the most unhealthy in the world ; the inhabitants have no water, except rain-water, which is preserved in tanks. Where is Old Vera Cruz ? It is situated fifteen miles from New Vera Criw; it was here Cortez, the Spanish conqueror of Ma- ico, landed. Where is Puebla ? In the south-east of Mexico ; it was the chief colony of Spain in this country. Where is Acapulco ? It is a town of Mexico, on the Pacific ocean, and has latterly risen into importance from the influx of emigrants from the United States to California. For what is Guanaxuato famous ? Its silver mine of Valenciana is the largest in the world. What metals are found in Mexico ? Gold, silver, and copper; it also produces dia- moada, amethysts, and turquoises; though the former are but rarely met. m\)[i. To whom did Mexico iorrcvetV^ \iAoxv^^ 157 To Spain, it was conquered by Fernando Cortez, a cruel tyrant, a.d. 1518, in the reign of Charles v., Emperor of Germany, father of Philip II. of Spain. What queen of England did Philip 11. marry ? Marjr, daughter of Henry VIII. by his first wife, Cathanne of Arragon, daughter of Isabella of Spain ; she was the widow of his brother Arthur ; and was divorced by Henry, in order that he might marry Anne Boleyn. Name two sovereigns of Mexico, who lived about this period. Gruatamozin and Montezuma ; the former of whom was roasted alive on a charcoal fire, to make him discover where he had concealed his riches ; and the latter was killed by the blow of a stone during an iosarrection. In what year did Spain make a last attempt to regain possession of Mexico ? In 1829 ; but the attempt failed. Where is the peninsula of Yucatan ? It is to the north of Guatemala and British Honduras ; it forms a part of Mexico. What settlement in Yucatan belongs to the English ? Belize. Central America. Where is Guatemala ? In Central America ; it is bounded on the north and west by Yucatan ; on the south by the Pacific ocean, and on the east by the state of Honduras. What is the capital of Guatemala ? Guatemala-la-nueva, or New Guatemala. To whom did Guatemala formerly \)e\oTvgi To Spain, bat it became independent m \?aV- 14. 158 Where is Honduras ? In Central America ; it is bounded on the north by the bay of Honduras ; on the south by Nicaragua and the Pacific ocean ; on the east by the Mosquito territory, and on the west by Guatemala. What is the capital of Honduras ? Comayagua; Truxillo is likewise in Honduras. To whom did Honduras formerly belong F To Spain. It is famous for mahogany. Where is Belize ? In Central America^ it is often called BritiBh Honduras, or British Yucatan. Under whose control is this territory f The governor of Jamaica. What is the capital of this territory ? Belize. Where is Nicaragua? In Central America ; it is bounded on the north by Honduras ; on the east by the Mosquito terri- tory ; on the south by Costa Rica; and on the west by the Pacific ocean. Name some towns in Nicaragua. Santiago -de - Managua ; Granada ; Nicaragoii sometimes called Rivas ; and Grey-town. Name a river of Nicaragua. San-Juan-del-Norte. What two large lakes are in Nicaragua ? Lakes Nicaragua and Managua^ the former is 120 miles long^ and 55 miles broad. What is the government of Nicaragua ? A republic. Where is the Mosquito territory ? In Central America, to the south-east of Honduras^ having the Caribbean sea to the east of it. What is the derivation oi t\ift •nwrk^'ilLci^c^AJwit 159 It 18 a corruption of Miskito^ the name by which the country is called by the inhabitants. Under whose protection is this territory ? The British ; this kingdom has for many centuries remained independent. What is the capital of the Mosquito territory ? Blewfields^ on a river of the same name; but irhich is sometimes called Escondito. Where is Costa Rica ? In Central America^ to the south of Nicaragua and the Mosquito territory; it is bounded on the east by the Caribbean sea. Name some towns in Costa Rica. San Jos4 the capital; Torrava; Boruca; and San- Juan-del-Norte, sometimes called Nicaragua. What people first had a settlement here ? The Spaniards; in 1821 Costa Rica declared itself independent. California. Where is California ? On the western side of North America, its western shores are washed by the Pacific ocean ; it is bounded on the east by Mexico^ and the gulf of California. How is California divided ? Into Upper and Lower California. Has Lower California any rivers ? Very few, and none of them are navigable ; the largest is San-Josef-del-Cabo. Name some towns in Upper California. San Francisco, and the Sacramento city on the Sacramento river. To .whom does Upper, or New California belong? To the United States. Name two rivers in Upper Ca\\£oxma. 14:— ^ 160 The Sacramento; the Rio-de-los-Angelos ; and the Rio-de-las-Plumas. What mountains extend along the western side of California ? The Sierra Nevada. What has rendered California famous during the last few years ? The great quantity of gold found there. British Columbia. Where is British Columbia ? On the north-western side of North America; it lies to the south of Russian America, and is washed by the Pacific ocean on the west. What river flows through this territory ? The Fraser river . What is the capital of British Columbia ? New Westminster. Name two forts in British Columbia. Fort Alexander and Fort Essington. What islands near Columbia belong to the English ? Queen Charlotte's island to the west, and Van- couver's isle to the south-west. By what is Vancouver's isle separated from British Columbia ? By the gulf of Georgia, and Queen Charlotte's sound. What island lies to the north of Queen Charlotte's island ? Prince of Wales' island, to the north of which are New Archangel, and Admiralty island. The Oregon Territory. Where is the Oregon Temlox^ 1 On the western side of North America^ it lies between Upper California and British Colambia. What river is in this territory ? The Columbia^ or Oregon; it flows into the Pacific ocean. Name some towns in Oregon. Linn city ; Maltnomah city ; and Oregon city. Name the chief American settlement in Oregon. The Williamette colony. By whom is the Oregon territory chiefly peopled? By Indians^ vfho have no knowledge of a Supreme ^eing. Name some islands in the Arctic ocean to the north of America. Melville, Bathurst, and Cockbum. They were discovered by Captain Parry. OrE£NLANI)4 Where is Greenland ? It is a large island to the north-east of America ; it is bounded on the west by Davis' straits and Baffin's bay. To whom does Greenland belong ? To the Danes. For what fishery is Greenland famous ? The whale fishery, which is carried on chiefly by the English and Americans. What is the most southerly point of Greenland ? Cape Farewell. The West Indian Islands. Where are these islands ? They lie beftween North and South America. Name these islands. The Bahamas, the Greater AntiWe^} ^xvdi ^iTti^Ai^^^^^ Antilles, \4^^ 162 Where are the Bahamas or Lucayos islands ? They lie between St. Domingo and the eastern coast of Florida. How many of these islands are there ? About 1,500, though not more than twelve of them are inhabited. Which is the largest of these islands ? Grand Bahama ; between this island and Florida the Gulf stream flows. What is the Gulf stream ? It is a current in the ocean, caused by the trade winds. Where does this current come from ? From the Pacific and Indian oceans; it coasts along Africa, and crosses the Atlantic near the equator towards America; it then passes through the Caribbean sea, skirting the gulf of Mexico, and proceeds along the United States, and as far north as Newfoundland, and then passes over the Atlantic again. What is the breadth of the Gulf stream ? About fifty miles. Is there any difierence between the water of the Gulf stream and that of the ocean ? Yes ; it is between seven and eleven degrees, ac- cording to its situation, warmer, and it does not sparkle in the dark. What is the average velocity of the stream ? About three miles an hour. What is the principal town in the Bahama islands? Nassau, in New Providence. The Greater Antilles. Name the islands comprised^under this name. Cubaj St. Domingo, Jamaica, aiid Porto Rico. Which is the largest oi tVicac v^wxSaI 163 I ; it belongs to Spain. it is the capital of Cuba ? anna^ in the northern part of the island; ;o-de-Cuba is the ancient capital; Santa :> and Trinidad-de-Cuba are in Cuba. le a range of mountains in Cuba. Sierra-del-Cobre. it nation took this island from the Spaniards ? English, in 1762, in George III/s reign, but stored it in the following year, in exchange ; Floridas^ a group of small islands to the /^est of Florida. St. Domingo. «rhat other name is St. Domingo known ? . sometimes called Hayti, o^' Hispaniola. 2re is Hayti ? he east of Cuba, from which it is separated Windward passage, it is the capital of Hayti ? ;-au-Prince; St. Domingo^ in the northern the island, is the chief town and port in the h quarters. le a spacious harbour in the north of Hayti 3 Fran9ois, sometimes called Cape Henry, vhom did Hayti formerly belong? he French and Spaniards ; but in consequence s^olt of the inhabitants, the island became in- ent under an emperor ; but the government ce changed, 1864, and the island has been der the protection of Spain. Jamaica. ere is Jamaica ? the south of Cuba ; it is t\v^ W^'k^X. ^\ ^^ West Indian islands. 164 Which are the chief towns of Jamaica ? Kingston^ the capital of the island ; SpanisbtowD; the seat of government, and Port Boyal. Has Jamaica any large rivers 7 Few of them are navigable; the diief is Black river. What mountains are in Jamaica ? The Blue mountains. What are frequent in this island ? Earthquakes and hurricanes. What are the chief exports of this island ? Sugar, rum, and coffee. When did Jamaica come into the possession of the English ? During the time of the Commonwealth under OUver Cromwell ; it was taken by Admirals Penn and Venables, a.d. 1655. What are the descendants of the Spaniards called ? Maroons. Porto Rico, or Puerto Rico. Where is Porto Rico ? To the east of St. Domingo, from which it is separated by the Mona passage. What is the capital of Porto Rico ? St. Juan-de-Porto Rico^ on the sea coast. To whom does this island belong ? To the Spaniards. The Lesser Antilles. Where are these islands ? They extend from Porto Rico to the northern coast of South America. Name some islands of this group belonging to Jbenmark, Santa, Crux, or Croix, Bt.1\iom«ji, wi^L^V.^'i^^i'v 165 /That do these islands form a part of ? ^hey form a part of the Virgin isles. St. Eusta- belongs to the Datch, and St. Bartholomew to iden. Mention some of these islands belonging to Bri- It. Christopher's or St. Kitt's^ Barbuda^ and :igua. Vhat is St. Kitt's famed for ? t was the first English settlement in the West ies. !'o whom do Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, badoes, Grenada, Tobago, and Trinidad belong ? ^hey are West Indian islands, belonging to Bri- Vhere are the Bermudas ? n the Atlantic ocean, about 880 miles from irlestown, in America ; they are called the Ber- ias after their Spanish discoverer. Jnder what other name are the Bermudas known ? lomers' islands, from an Englishman named lers, who was wrecked on them. fame two towns in these islands. {amilton^s and St. George's. Vhat West Indian islands belong to France ? Juadaloupe, Mariegalante, and Martinique. South America. low is South America joined to North America ? Jy the isthmus of Panama, or Darien. Vhat mountains run down the western side of ith America ? ?he Andes, or Cordelliras mountains. Vhat is the most easterly point of South America ? 3a/)e Branco; cape Fro ward \a tVie \x\o^\.^^vi^X!«;^'k 166 cape Gallinas the most northerly^ and cape Parina the most westerly. ; How is South America bounded ? ] On the north by the Caribbean sea and the Atlantic ocean ; on the east by the Atlantic ; on the west by the Pacific ; and on the south by the Southern ocean. Colombia. Where is Colombia ? In the north-western part of South America ; it is named after Colombus. How has Colombia lately been divided ? Into three districts, viz. : New Granada, Vene- zuela, and the Ecuador. Name the chief ports of Colombia. Cartagena, Panama, Porto Bello, Guyaquille, La Guayra, Cumana, and Maracaybo. Name some inland towns of Colombia. Bogota, formerly called Santa-fe-de Bogota; this is the capital of New Granada ; Quito, the capital of Ecuador ; and Caraccas, the capital of Venezuela. What mountains are in Colombia ? The Andes. Name two lofty peaks of the Andes in Colombia. Chimborazo, 21,600 ft. high, and Cotopaxi ; the latter is the largest volcano, or burning mountain in the world. Mention some rivers of Colombia. The Amazon and Orinoco which fall into the Atlantic ocean, and the Magdalena emptying itself into the Carribbean sea ; the Amazon, which is the largest river in the world, being 3500 miles long. What island north of Venezuela belongs to the Dutch ? Curagoa, it is in t\ie Cam\i\ifewx ^^^. Guiana or Guyana. Where is Guiana ? In the northern part of South America^ having the Atlantic ocean on the north and east^ the Ama- iqh on the souths and Colombia on the west. What foreign nations have possession of the greater part of Guiana ? The iQnglish^ Dutch^ French^ Spaniards^ and Bra- litians. What other name is Spanish Guiana known by ? Venezuelan Guiana. What is the capital of Spanish Guiana ? San Tom or Angostura. Which are the chief British settlements in Guiana? Demerara^ Berbice, and Essequibo. What is the capital of English Guiana ? Georgetown, on the Demerara river; the Esse- quibo fiver is also in British Guiana. What is the capital of Dutch Guiana ? Surinam^ or Paramaraibo, on the river Surinam. Name the capital of French Guiana. Cayennei on the Cayenne river, on an island of the same name. What pepper comes from French Guiana ? Cayenne pepper. Bbazil. Where is Brazil ? It occupies the north-eastern, and a large portion of the central part of South America. Name the chief towns of Brazil. Bio de Janeiro, the capital ; Bahia or San Salva- dor, and Fernambuco are the chief ports ; these towns are on the east coast. On what bay is San Salvador ? On All Saint a' bay ; bay de Todoa S^w\.c>%. What rivers are in Brazil ? 168 The Amazon orMaranon, the Araguay, the upper Paraguay, the Parana, the Uruguay and the Rio Francisco. For what is Brazil particularly noted ? For its immense forests, and the beautiful plumage of its many different kinds of birds. What valuable stone is found in Brazil ? Diamonds : a few years since Brazil furnished an immense amount of gold ; but latterly it has not yielded so much. What is the established religion of Brazil ? The Roman Catholic. To what European nation did Brazil formerly belong ? To Portugal ; but in 1822, the Brazilians pro- claimed their independence, and made Don Pedro emperor. Who was Don Pedro ? He was the son of Don John VI., king of Portu- gal. Who is the present emperor of Brazil ? ' Don Pedro II. What queen of Portugal was daughter of Don Pedro? Donna Maria da Gloria, who died in 1853. What English admiral assisted Donna Maria in the civil war between herself and her uncle Don Miguel ? Sir Charles Napier, as well as a body of English volunteers. Peru. Where is Peru ? It is a large country on the western side of South America, south of Ecuador ; the Pacific ocean is to the west of it. How is Peru divided? 169 > Upper and Lower Peru, the latter being the northerly. lat is the capital of Lower Peru ? oia^ situated about six miles from the sea. hat is the port of Lima ? allao. ^hat is seldom seen in Lima ? tain ; but it is very subject to earthquakes, and sequently the houses are built low. What was the ancient capital of Peru ? Cazgo^ or Cusco ; which town is situated eleven ousand feet above the sea. Pasco in Lower Peru famed for its silver mines. Name two other towns in Peru. Truxillo and Guamanga or Huamanga. Has Peru any rivers of importance ? No; the chief is the Paro. Most of its streams run into the river Amazon. What great lake is in Peru ? Titicaca, the largest lake in South America, being 170 miles long, and 70 broad ; it is on the frontiers of Upper and Lower Peru. What mountains extend through Peru ? The 'Andes. The Nevada-de-Sorata in this range is 25,400 ft. high. What is exported in great quantities from Peru ? Guano, properly called Huano. Where does the Peruvian Guano come from ? From the Chinchas islands, there are three islands, on which by far the largest supply is found. What other name has been given to Upper Peru ? Bolivia, from general Bolivar, who assisted the Peruvians to free themselves from the Spaniards, in 1823; he died in 1841. How is Bolivia situated ? To the south-east of Lowet "Peicvx^Vwfvw^ ^ \^ 170 , and La Plata on the south ; and Brazil on the north and east. ; What is the capital of Bolivia ? Chuquisaca^ on the Cachimayo. Name some other towns in Bolivia. Potosi, famous for its silver mines ; Chochabamba, or Oropeza, and La Paz. What is the signification of La Paz ? It signifies "Peace/^ so named^ because^ when Pizarro was conquered near this town^ peace was restored to the country for a time. Name two lofty peaks of the Andes in Bolivia. Sorato, which is 25,000 ft., and Ilimani, 24,000 ft. high. The given height of mountains cannot always be depended on ; but the most reliable calcu- lations have been chosen by some measurements, the peaks in Peru are much less high. Is there any large lake in Bolivia, beside Titicaca? No, but the inundations of some of the streams in Bolivia, which cover a great extent of country, have, by some geographers, been mistaken for a lake. Mention some rivers in Bolivia. The Rio Mamore, the Rio Blanco, and the Rio Beni, with several smaller ones ; the Paraguay is within the borders of Bolivia. What ancient line of kings reigned in Peru ? The Incas. What European nation long held possession of Peru ? The Spaniards ; but at the present time they have no influence either in Lower Peru or Bolivia. Chili. Where is Chili? It is a long narrow tract oi coxxxvtt'^ wv tJ\^ wes- tem side of South America, \^\vv2, Xivi'^^^^VL \i^^ Andes and the Pacific ocean ; it is to the south of Bolivia. What is the capital of Chili ? Santiago. Valparaiso, Conception, Valdivia, and Coquimbo are ports of Chili. Mention the principal rivers in Chili. The river Callocallo, or Valdivia; the Rio Maule, and the Bio Biobio. What mountains are in Chili ? The Andes, separating it from La Plata ; the peak of Aconcagua is 23,000 ft. high. To whom did Chili once belong ? To the Spaniards ; but it is now an independent republic. What is the religion of Chili ? Roman Catholic, which is the religion of all the countries of South America which were once under the dominion of Spain. Name some islands in the Pacific ocean opposite Chili. The Chiloean Archipelago, so named from Chiloe, the largest of them. Juan Fernandez, nearly 400 miles from Santiago, likewise in the Pacific, is noted for being the island on which Alexander Selkirk re- sided for some time alone. Where is Araucania ? To the south of Chili, between the Andes and the Pacific. La Plata. W^here is La Plata ? In South America ; it is south of Bolivia, east of the Andes, and west of Paraguay and Uruguay. By what other name is La Plata known ? The Argentine Republic. What 18 the capital of La P\at«i^ 172 Bajada-de-Santa-Fe, or Parana, on the Parana river. Name some other towns in La Plata. Mendoza^ which was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1861 ; Cordova, Santiago, Santa Fee, and San Juan de la Fontera. Where is Buenos Ayres ? It is a province in the south-east of La Plata, which separated from the Argentine Confederation in 1853 ; but was re-united to it in 1859. What is the capital of Buenos Ayres ? Buenos Ayres, on the Rio-de-la-Plata. Mention some rivers in La Plata. The Parana, the Uruguay, and the Paraguay. What are peculiar to La Plata ? Its immense plains, called Pampas. Uruguay. Where is Uruguay ? To the east of La Plata, from which it is separated by the river Uruguay ; it is bounded on the north by Brazil, on the west by the Atlantic, and on the south by the estuary of the Rio de la Plata. What other name has been given to Uruguay ? Banda Oriental. W^hat is the signification of this name ? It signifies the ^^ Eastern Boundary^'; this name was given it by the Spaniards, What are the chief towns of Banda Oriental ? Monte Video, the capital, and Colonia del Sacra- mento. What rivers are in Banda Oriental ? The Uruguay, and the Rio Negro. Parag\3x\. Where is Paraguay ? 178 It lies between Brazil and La Plata j being sepa- rated from Brazil by the Parana^ and from La Plata by the Paraguay river. TVhat is the capital of Paraguay ? Assumpcion : Villa Bica^ and Concepcion are like- wise in Paraguay, Patagonia. Where is Patagonia ? In the south of South America, having the At- lantic on the east, and the Pacific on the west, as far north as Araucania, What country is to the north of Patagonia? La Plata, the river Negro lies partly between them. Is much known of Patagonia ? Very little. Port Desire, and San Julian are in this country. What is there remarkable about the Patagonians ? They are a very tall race ; and in a state of bar- barism. . What islands are to the south of Patagonia ? Terra-del-Fuego, or the land of fire, so named from their volcanic structure : they are separated from the continent of America by the straits of Magellan. After whom are these straits named ? Fernando Magellan, who first sailed through them. What is peculiar respecting the inhabitants of these islands ? They are a very stunted and degraded race. What is the southern extremity of this island called ? Cape Horn. Name three islands off the 80ut\i-Yie^\.erft. ^Q'a.'^\. ^^ Patagonia. We/lington, Hanover, and AdfeUide VA^Jvaa. 174 Where are the Falkland isles ? In the Atlantic ocean^ to the south-east of Pata- gonia ; there are about two hundred of these islands ; but only two are of any size, East and West Falkland, they are separated by Falkland's Sound. Where are the New South Shetland isles ? About 600 miles south of Cape Horn, in the Ant- arctic ocean ; the principal of them are, Cornwallis, Clarence, Deception and Livingston. Polynesia. What is Polynesia ? It is a name given to several groups of islands in the Pacific ocean. Name the principal groups of these islands. The Sandwich, the Society, the Friendly, the Marquesas, the New Hebrides, the Fiji and the Navi- gator's islands. Which is the principal of the Sandwich isles ? 0- why-he or Hawaii ; it was here thajt Captain Cook was killed in 1779, in the reign of George III. Where is Honololu ? In the island of Oahu, one of the Sandwich isles* it is the seat of a bishopric. Under whose government are the Sandwich isles ? They are governed by a native king, and their in- dependence has been recognised by the principal of the European governments, and also by the United States. Which is the chief of the Society isles ? Tahiti or Otaheite ; this island is under the in- fluence of the French government. Why were the Friendly isles so called ? This name was given them by Captain Cook, in consequence of the friendly disposition of the na- tives. These islands are subject to one sovereign; 175 King George, who, with the greater part of the na- tives, has been converted to Christianity. To whom do the Marquesas belong ? To the French. The natives are the least sensible of all the inhabitants of the Polynesian isles to the influence of civilization; and they are said to be cannibals. The principal island of the Marquesas is Noukahiva. Which are the chief of the Fiji islands ? Great Fiji, and Tarkanava. The inhabitants are a warlike, cruel, and treacherous race above all the Polynesian tribes ; they are also cannibals. They believe that they will retain in the next world the body in the same state as at death ; for this reason, they put to death their aged relations as a friendly act ; and often kill themselves to prevent their dying decrepid or diseased. Why were the Navigators' islands so named ? They were so called by a French traveller, in con- sequence of the skill they displayed in the manage- ment of their canoes ; but it is inferior to that dis- played by the Friendly islanders. Savaii is the largest of the Navigators^ isles. Name some more islands of Polynesia. Cook^s islands, the Gambier islands, Easter island, Norfolk isle and Pitcairn isle. It was at this last, where the mutineers of the Bounty settled in 1789. The rest of the Polynesian islands have been de- scribed among the islands of Asia. ASTRONOMY. What is the derivation of the term astronomy ? It is derived from two Greek words " Aster,^' a '' star/' and " Nomos/' a "law/' What is astronomy ? The study of the heavenly bodies; or it is a science that treats of the classification, magnitudes^ and motions of the heavenly bodies^ and describes the laws by which these motions are regulated and maintained. How many stars are visible at one time ? About eight or nine hundred to the naked eye. How is it that they appear so numerous ? Because some of them are so far ofi^, that the rays of light from them are liable to countless reflections, which are mistaken by us for stars. How are the stars classed ? * • According to their magnitude, viz., 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th magnitude. Of what two things is the sun the source ? Of light and heat, which it supplies to the earth and other planetary bodies, of which it is the centre, and round^which they turn. What is the path of a planet round the sun called ? Its orbit What is the form of t\ie oibila oi ^i)cL^ ^«aR^.^1 177 An ellipsis^ or oval. What is the face of the sun or a planet called ? Its disc. At what distance is the sun from the earth ? Ninety-five millions of miles. What is the size of the sun compared with the earth ? Its diameter is 111^ times that of the earthy and its magnitude is 1^384^000 times greater. How do you find the difierence in bulk between two round bodies ? By squaring the diflference of their diameter. Explain this. If one is 2 feet in diameter, and another is 6 feeb, the latter's diameter is three times greater than the former^ and the square of 3 being 9^ the second is nine times greater than the first. How can you find the circumference of a body, when its diameter is known ? By multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. Has the sun any motion ? Yes ; it is supposed to turn on its own axis. How is this ascertained ? By the dark spots on its surface, which move across its disc, and then disappear, always returning at stated periods. What is that system called of which the sun is the centre ? The solar system ; it derives its name from the Latin word ^^ sol,^' the ^^ sun.^' Of what does the solar system consist ? Of the sun, with the planets, and their satellites, or moons. Name the planets. Mercury, Ven us, the Earth , Maia, S w^Vi^x j'^^^^x^xx^ , Vranus, and Neptune. 178 What four smaller planets are between Mars and Jupiter ? Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas; they are called the Asteriods. Which planet is nearest the sun ? Mercury, whilst Neptune is the farthest off. What are Mercury and Venus alternately ? The morning and evening star. They are called inferior planets, because their orbits are within the orbit of the earth. Which is the largest of all the planets ? Jupiter, which has four moons. Have the other planets any moons ? Uranus has six, and Saturn seven. What is there peculiar to Saturn ? It is surrounded by a luminous triple ring. What other name has Uranus ? It is sometimes called Herschel, after its dis- coverer, and sometimes Georgium Sidus, " George's Star/^ in honour of George III., in whose reign it was discovered. What are the Fixed Stars? Those stars which are so far off, that their posi- tions with respect to the earth never seem to alter, although they are a hundred and ninety millions of miles nearer to us at one time of the year than at another. Which is the nearest fixed star ? Sirius, or the Dog Star ; it cannot be less than nineteen billions— 19,000,000,000,000 — of miles from the earth. How far is the moon from the earth ? Two hundred and forty thousand miles. What 18 the size of Ite mooiv.? Its magnitude is one iott^-iivsi^ ^"^^ ^^ "^^ ^wsSa.. How long is the moon TeNoWm^xovsssA^^^^e^X 179 V7 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes. Sow is it that the outline of the moon is some- es visible, when only part of her illuminated side umed towards the earth ? Phe moon receives part of its light from the earth, 1 it is this light shining on it, which enables us ;race its outline at certain times. iiVhat things are wanting to the moon ? In atmosphere, and water. lYhat is the Zenith ? That part of the heavens immediately over our ds. ^hat is the Nadir? That part of the heavens which is opposite to our ^hat is the sensible Horizon ? Phe circle which bounds our view, or where the and earth seem to meet. THE WINDS. AT is wind ? lir put in motion. Vhat is this principally occasioned by ? ly heat ; when the air is heated it expands, and ^mes lighter, and consequently rises, and the ion of the cooler air rushing in to supply its e, causes the current which we call wind. The trie fluid in the air is the cause of the variable- 5 of the winds. how thdii such is the case. 'you bold a lighted candle a.t t\!Le >aQ>\X.wx!L ^'l ^ 180 door in a room where the fire is opposite to it, the flame will blow towards the inside ; but if it be held at the top of the door, the flame will then, be seen to blow outward, fully showing that the cold air is rushing towards the fire, and that the heated air is escaping. How many principal winds are there ? Four, viz. : the North, South, East, and West. From what do they take their names ? They derive their name from the four cardinal, or principal, points of the compass.* Which of these winds is the coldest to Europeans ? The north wind, because it comes from the North Frigid zone. Which wind is the hottest ? The south wind, because it come from the Torrid zone, and before it reaches us, it has to pass over the hot continent of Africa. Which wind is the wettest ? The west wind, seeing it has to pass over the Atlantic ocean, where it imbibes a large quantity of vapour, or moisture. Which of the winds is the driest ? The east wind, because it has to pass over the immense continent of Asia, which has but little water, and consequently loses its moisture before reaching us. What are the Trade Winds ? Winds that always blow in the same direction. How is this occasioned ? The sun is continually heating the air at the equator, which causes a current of wind from the north and south, and seeing the earth is always * There are 32 pomta to i\ie coTt\\>«A%, It ia said to have been invented by Giom, o^^a^\eft,'m\^^^* 181 turning eastwards^ it causes the current coming from the north to blow in a north-easterly direction. What ar^ the Monsoons ? They are winds which blow from the south-west, from the middle of Mar<jh to the middle of Sep- temberj ?^nd from the north-east for the rest of the year. At what rate does the wind move ? From one to a hundred miles an hour. What are land and sea breezes ? The sea breezes are winds which begin to blow from the sea to the land in the morning, with in- creasing force till noon, and then gradually subside as evening approaches, when they cease altogether; and then the breezes from the land towards the sea spring up, and continue till the iporning. What are the Simoons ? Hot pestilential winds, injurious to animal life, which blow over the deserts of Africa. The Air. What is the ftir ? A thin transparent fluid surrounding the ^arth on all sides to the height of about 45 miles. Of whfi^t is the air con^posed ? Atmospheric l^r consists of two gases, viz., oxygen and nitrogeuji in the proportion of 21 to 79 parts in 100. Is the air always as pure as this ? Never, there is always some carbonic acid gas, iQpre or )ess, mixed with it ; there is always more in the night than iu the day, and }ess in fine weather than the coi^trary. Which of these gases is e8sent\a\ to «.T\\»a\.\\i^'^ Oxygen; when we draw in a \>te^XX\ <A «vx/^^> \& 182 passes through the lungs, which retain the oxygen to support life ; and the nitrogen is expelled in the form of carbonic acid gas, which is a poison. If such is the case, how is it that the air does not become injurious to animal life ? Because, by a wise ordination of Providence, all vegetables and trees cannot live without carbonic acid gas, which they imbibe or suck up, so to speak, and give out oxygen gas in return. What is the weight of the air at the surface of the earth ? Fourteen and a half pounds upon every square inch ; the higher we ascend, the more rarefied, or less heavy does the air become. Exemplify this. The under part of a hay-stack must be more closely pressed than the upper, because the upper part bearing upon it presses it more firmly together; or, if you were to take twenty sacks, and fiU them with hay, and place them one on the other, the eighteenth would be more closely pressed than the nineteenth, and the seventeenth than the eighteenth; but the first would be the most compressed of all; in like manner is it with the air upon the surface of the earth, which, having to support the whole weight of the air, must be heavier than any other part ; and the higher the air is from the earth, the less weight . there is pressing upon it, and therefore the less dense it is. What effect has the pressure of the air upon the human body ? If the air inside us were removed, we should be crushed by the great weight of external air pressing upon our bodies ; and, on the other hand, if the pressure of the external ^it v«et^ XsJ&sa w?^'^^ our bodies would burst. 183 The Tides. What are the tides ? The constant motions of the sea, according to which it ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours. What do you mean when you say the tide is flowing ? When the tide is flowing, the water is then com- ing up towards the land, which it continues to do for about six hours ; when it remains at rest or in equilibrium for ten or fifteen minutes ; it then turns, and recedes from the land ; the tide is then said to be ebbing, which it continues doing for the same space of time as it was flowing. What two things have a great influence upon the tides ? The sun and the moon ; the latter raises the water nine feet, and the former two feet. When the sun and moon are both drawing in the same direction, what are they said to be ? In conjunction; at which periods the tides are raised eleven feet ; when they are acting upon the earth in a contrary direction, they are said to be in opposition ; the tides are then raised only seven feet. When are the tides greatest ? At new and full moon, which are called spring tides ; they are least when the moon is in her first and last quarter^ and then they are called neap tides. Eclipses. What are eclipses ? Partial, or total obscurations of the sun or moon. How is an eclipse of the moon occasioned ? It takes place when the earth com^% \i^\.^^^\5L C^^ sun and the moon ; the sun sVime^ \x^<iTv \!a^ ^"^xJ^^ and the earth's shadow falling upon \\i^ YCvowv,^«t- \?> — ^ 184 tially or totally obscures it, according to its position with respect to the earth. At what period of the moon does an eclipse happen ? At full moon. How is an eclipse of the sun occasioned ? By the moon coming between the earth and the sun, and thus hiding the sun from our view. Bain, Hail, Snow, Dew, &c. What is rain ? Kain is moisture drawn up from the earth in the form of vapour, and which, congregating in the air, forms clouds ; when these clouds become heavier than the atmosphere, which is occasioned by their passing through a colder region and becoming condensed, they fall in drops to the earth. What is hail ? Bain frozen as it falls to the earth. What is snow ? When a cloud passes through a region, colder than 32^ Fahrenheit, it is congealed, and then falls to the earth in the form which we call snow. What is dew ? Moisture drawn up from the earth by the sun during the day, and which returns again in the night, in consequence of its being condensed by a cooler atmosphere. Exemplify this. If you hold a cold plate to the spout of a boiling kettle whence the steam is issuing, the steam, as soon as it touches the plate, is condensed, and turned into water. How is lightning occasioned ? When two electric clouds approach each other, they ^ The moon is 240,000 mWea is^m IbA earth. 185 • . • have a tendency to equalise themselves^ that is^ the one that is overcharged gives out its electricity to the other until they are both equal ; and the passing of the electricity from one cloud to the other formt the lightning. What is thunder ? It is caused by the air rushing into the vacuum made by the lightning, and the noise is reverberated in the clouds. Why is it dangerous to walk by the side of a river during a storm ? Because water is a good conductor of lightning; and a man^s height is sufficient to attract the light- ning to him, provided there be no taller object near him. Which is the safest place during a storm ? In the middle of a room, covered with a carpet, or on a thick hearth-rug ; the fire-place should be avoided. When out of doors, the safest place is a few yards from a tall tree, as that is likely to attract the electric fluid should a discharge take place near you. Various Subjects. Why is it more dangerous to leap from a carriage, when it is in motion, than when it is stationary ? Because, when a person is riding, in a railway carriage for example, his body possesses a motion in common with the carriage, and consequently is moving with the same speed, and, when he leaps from the carriage, his body does not lose directly the progressive motion which was imparted to it by the moving vehicle ; and when his feet touch the ground, their onward motion is impeded; but it is not so with the upper parts of his body ; for they still have a tendency to go on ; but bdv\w Vvccvkx'^vL ^ • • '^186 from doing sO by the feet '^bmainlng stationary, the body topples over and thus the danger. . ••1? Does this yule apply to any other case ? > Yes ; for this same reason, a person, sitting in a vehicle with his back to the horses, falls forward as soon as the horses start, because his legs are, in a manner, dragged from under his body, almost in the same way as if some one had pulled his &et from behind him. The Thermometer. What is a thermometer ? An instrument to mark the changes in the air, as it regards heat and cold. From what is the word " thermometer" derived ? From two Greek words, "theirmos,' hedt> and " metron," a measure. How many kinds of theniiometers are! there ? Three, viz., the Farenheit^ so called frdm the name of the inventor, who was a Dane ; the Reaumur thermometer, and the Centigrade used by tbe Swedes. What is the difference between these thermo- meters ? Farenheit makes water freeze at 82^ and boil at 212°. Reaumur makes it freeze at 0° or feero, and boil at 80°; and in the Centigrade thermometer, water freezes at 0'', and boils at 100^ Why did Farenheit choose 32° for freezing point ? Because melting snow or ice mixed with salt, is 32 degrees colder than water just beginning to freeze. In what manner do heat and cold affect the quick- silver in a thermometer ? Tbe former causes it to e^iii^aad, aud the latter Contracts it Wbi^ is the difference ki the length of a degree '..^. on ftrenbfit^ and Reaumur's thermometer?* : « A degiii on Beautnur's thermometer eqaaB 2i degrees on Farenheit's. * Shew how this is. Between freezing and boiling poiht on Reaumur's* thermometer, there are 80°; and 180° on Farenheit's ; therefore 80° Reaumur equal 180° Farenheit ; and 80° is contained 2^ or -J times in 180°. How do you change Farenheit into Reaumur's scale? By multiplying the number of degrees above or below 32° by 4, and dividing by 9. Let us prove this: — ^What degree of Reaumur equals 122^ Farenheit ? 40°; for 122— 82 = 90 .-. 90x4^9=360^-9=: 40°. — Answer. How do you change Reaumurs scale into Farenheit's? By multiplying the number of degrees by 9^ and dividing bv 4, and then adding 32° to the quotient. We will prove this: — What degree Farenheit corresponds with 40° Reaumur ? 122°; for 40°x9-5-4 = 3eO°-5-4^90^ .-. 90°+ 32°= 122°.— Answer. What difference is there in the length of a degree between Farenheit and the Centigrade thermo- meter? A degree of Farenheit is \|- of -a degree Centigrade. How do you compare these two thermometers ? By the same rule as in the former case^ only it is necessary to substitute 6 for 4 in working any problem. The Barometeu. What 18 a barometer 7 188 An instrument used for measuring the weight of the air. How does the air act upon the quicksilver in the barometer ? If the air is dense, the quicksilver rises ; this is a •sign of fine weather; but if the air becomes lighter, the quicksilver falls, which is an indication of rain or snow. The Common Lever. What is a common lever ? A bar of wood or iron used to move heavy weights. What is the support on which you rest the lever called ? The fulcrum. What is the force employed to raise the weight named ? The power. What advantage is gained by using the lever in moving weights ? By how many times the length of the lever, between the power and the fulcrum, exceeds the length between the fulcrum and the weight, by so many times a less power is required to move it. Give an example. If the length of the lever between the fulcrum and the power is 12 feet, and between the fulcrum and the weight 2 feet, the former is six times greater than the latter ; therefore, if the weight is 72 lbs. a power or weight of 12 lbs. at the other end will balance it. Why does a ball, when rolled along the ground, stop erentually ? Because there are t\\te^ Wvvxi^ ^esL^xXxcL^ «a. influence upon it to cawae \t X.o ^o «i, ^'x'l^, ^'i. 189 attraction of gravitation^ Mrhich consists in the earth drawing it to it ; secondly^ the friction of the ground it passes over ; and thirdly^ the opposition it meets with from the air as it moves along; all these acting upon it at the same time^ eventually over- come the force or power that was employed to set it in motion. Is it possible to tell how high an arroVv goes when shot up into the air ? Yes; count the number of seconds that elapse from the time of the arrow^s leaving the bow, till it reaches the ground again ; then divide the number of seconds by 2, square the result^ and multiply it by 16. Why do you in the first instance divide by 2 ? Because a thing thrown up into the air, is always the same time falling that it was rising. Give the result of the following problem : — An arrow is 6 seconds before it touches the ground, after having been fired from a bow, how high did it go? 144 feet; for 6-^2=8 .'. 8X 16=3x8x16= 144. — Answer. Can this be proved another way ? It can ; a body falls* 16 feet the first second ; three times 16 the second second; five times 16 the third second; seven times 16 the fourth, and so on; al- ways multiplying 16 by the successive odd numbers ; therefore as the arrow was 8 seconds falling, it fell during the first second 16 feet ; during the next second it fell 16 feet X 3=48 feet, and during the third second it fell 16 feet X 5=80 feet .-i 16 feet +48 * 16iV feet 18 the exact distance a\ioa.^ ItiJ^^ ^xixoi^^viaa Brat second. 190 feet +80 feet =144 feet, the same as the previous answer. Will this rule apply to any other thing ? Yes ; in the same way the depth of a well can be ascertained ; though it will not be necessary to divide by 2 in the first instance.^ Why is it easier to move a body when in the water than otherwise ? Because when a body is in the water, as a ship for instance, it sinks until the bulk of water that is pressed out by the submerged part of the vessel, equals the whole weight of the ship, which then is in equilibrium, and therefore, only a power sufficient to overcome the opposition of the water is required to move it. How is sound occasioned ? When an elastic body is struck, its parts are made to vibrate, and corresponding vibrations are com- municated to the air, which falling upon the ear, produce the sensation which we call sound. What causes the difi^erence there is in sounds ? When a thing vibrates sharply, it produces a tenor sound ; and when it vibrates slowly, as a dram, it causes a bass sound. What is necessary to sound ? Air. At what rate does sound travel ? About 1130 feet in a second. How would you reckon the distance a ship was oflf by its firing a gun ? 1 should count the seconds elapsing between seeing the flash of the gun, and hearing the report, Count the seconds elapamw ?tom ^k^ ^tx^ne's leaving your hand, &nd hearing tue ft^^fta\iol '\^.l«J^\i^\u\ft'Oafc water, and proceed as before. 191 ' and multiply the number by 1130^ which would give the distance in feet. Are the flash and the sound produced together ? Yes, but as light travels at the rate of twelve mil- lions of miles in a minute^ we see the flash in- stantaneously. Can you tell the distance of anything else by the same rule ? Yes, of an electric cloud, by counting the number of seconds intervening between seeing the flash, and hearing the thunder. What causes an echo ? Sound striking against something, and being re« fleeted back in the same direction. What distance must there be between the reflected and the direct sound ? Not less than 70 feet, this distance will give an echo of onesyllable, and the number of echoes will be increased in proportion to the distance. Why cannot an echo be heard at a less distance than 70 feet? Because it would reach the ear before the im- pression of the direct sound had ceased. How often does Leap- Year happen ? Once every four years, it consists of 366 days. Why do we have a Leap-Year ? To make up for the hours and minutes over the 365 days which are in a year. Does this overplus amount to an entire day in four years ? No ; therefore every fourth year we are a trifle in advance of the right time. How is this error rectified ? By making every hundredth year, although it is divisible by 4, not a Leap-Year. Does tbia bring the reckomng xv^X.'l 19? Not exactly; by this ealculation we are a little behind the exact time^ so every four hundredth year is to be a Leap-Year; and the error, by this method of calculating, will not amount to a whole day in 5000 years. How much does the error by our computation amount to ? To 11 m. 11 8. in a year. What man undertoojc to rectify this error ? Gregory XIII., a.d., 1582, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; the error then amounted to ten days, and the 5th October was made 15th. In what year did the English adopt this com- putation ? A.D. 1752, in the reign of George II.; it is called the New Style. What other alteration was made in the same year ? The year was made to begin on 1st January, in- stead of 25th March, as it previously had done; so January, February, and March, to 24th, became part of the year 1753, instead of the last part of the year 1752. What is zoology? That part of natural history which describes animals. What is a quadruped ? An animal with four legs ; a biped is an animal with two legs. What are amphibious animals f Those animals which can live either on land or in water, as the crocodile, the alligator, &c. What are carnivorous animals ? Those that feed on flesh, as the lion, tiger, &c. What are graminivorous animals ? Those that feed on graa^ «l% \.\ifc otl, \.Vi^ W«ft, &c. How can you diBtingm&Yi ^ c«crKVNoxws& Vcwa. ^ g^raminivorom animals 193^ By the teeth; the former has sharp teeth for tearing; the other has flat ones for grinding, or bruising its food. To what class does man belong ? He combines both species. What are mammalia ? Those animals that suckle their young; the whale belongs to this class. What are oviparous animals ? Those that produce their young from eggs. What is ornithology ? That science which describes birds. How does a bird rise or drop when flying ? If it beat the air with its wings with a force greater than its own weighty it will rise ; but if with a less'power, it will faiU. VI GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Abbeville France Europe. Aberdeen Scotland Europe. Abo Finland Europe. Acapulco Mexico • • • c . > • • North America Adriatic sea, or gulf of Venice, between Italy & Turkey. . Europe. Adventure isle . • . .Pacific ocean . . Asia. Agra East Indies .... Asia. Ayr ..... Scotland Europe. Adrianople Turkey Europe. Aleppo Turkey Asia. Alexandretta Turkey Asia. Alexandria Lower Egypt . . Africa. Algiers Barbary Africa. Albany New York . . . . N. America. Amboyna « . .East Indies .... Asia. Amiens France Europe. Amsterdam Holland Europe. Amsterdam isle. • . . Pacific ocean. . . . Asia. Angra, in Terceira. .Azores^ Atlantic ocean. . Europe. Antigua Carib sea N. America. Antiocb Turkey Asia. Antwerp Belgium Europe. Archipelago Greece Europe. Archangel Uusaia ^\tt«^^. 195 Ascension isle . . . . S. Atlantic ocean. . Africa. Astracan Russia Asia. Athens . • Greece Europe. Ava Birmese empire . • Asia. Avignon France Europe, Bagdad Turkey Asia. Baltic sea, betw. Germany & Sweden .. Europe. Balasore East Indies Asia. Bay of Biscay . . , .East of France. . Europe. Bay of Bengal ... .East of India . . Asia. Balbec Turkey Asia. Barcelona Spain Europe. Barbuda isle Atlantic ocean . . N. America. Basil, or Basle .... Switzerland Europe. Baasora Turkey Asia. Bastia Island of Corsica. . Europe. Bath Somersetshire . . England. Belfast Antrim Ireland. Bayeux France Europe. Berlin Prussia Europe. Bermudas Atlantic ocean . . N. America. Bern Switzerland Europe. Berwick Scotland Europe. Belgrade Turkey Europe. Bencoolen, Sumatra, Eastern Archipelago. . Asia. Batavia Java, island Asia. Birkenhead Cheshire England. Bourdeaux France Europe. Bayonne France Europe. Boston Lincolnshire. . . . England. Boston New England . . N. America. Boulogne France Europe. Bologna Italy Europe. Bombay East Indies ksva., JBiIboa Spain '^vjl^'^^^^ Birmingham WarwicVsYvite . •^w^«cl\» \7— ^ 196 Bokhara • • • • Independent Tartary^ Asia. Breda • • Holland Europe. Brest -^ • • • • France Europe^ Bremen. . • Germany Europe. Bristoli partly in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. . England. Breslau • • • Bohemia Europe. Buenos Ayres . . . .Buenos Ayres . . S. America. Bukarest Turkey Europe. Black sea^ or Euxine, Turkey ih Europe and Asia. Bruges • .Belgium Europe. Brunswick Germany Europe. Buda .... Hungary Europe. Bourbon isle Indian ocean . . Africa. Cadiz •••...•.•. Spain Europe. Caen France Europe. Cagliari^ Sardinia isle^ Mediterranean .. Europe. Cairo Egypt Africa. Calais • • • • • France, Europe. Callao Peru S. America; Calcutta East Indies .... Asia. Cambray France Europe. Cambeltown •.•••• Scotland Europe. Cambridge • Cambridgeshire .England. . Canary isles Atlantic ocean . . Africa. Candia Mediterranean sea. . Europe. Camboja West of Siam ..Asia. Canterbury • Kent England. Canton China Asia. Carlscrona » Sweden Europe. Carthage Ruins 4 .Tunis Africa. Carthagena Colombia S. America. Carthagena Spain Europe. Carlisle. . • .Cumberland. . . . England. Cardigan .CardigaM\i\t^ . ."W A««^, Candi Ceylon Ksv^.. 197 Caspian sea. . South-east of Russia. .West of Tartary. Cassel Germany Europe. Cavan Cavan Ireland. Cayenne Guiana S. America. Chalons France Europe. Chandernagore .... East Indies .... Asia. Cherbourg France Europe. St.Christopher's isle Caribbean sea . . N. America. Civita Vecchia .... Italy Europe. Cologne Prussia Europe. Cape Clear South of Ireland. .Europe. „ Comoriu .... South of India . . Asia. ,, Finisterre, North-west of Spain. . Europe. „ St. Vincent. . South of Portugal. . Europe. „ of Good Hope . .South of Africa. „ Florida South of Florida. . N. America. ,, Verd West of Africa. . Africa. „ Horn, South of Terra delFuego, island..S. Amer. Cattegat sea, between Sweden and Denmark..Europe. Ceuta • Morocco Africa. Cherson Russia Europe. Chester Cheshire England. Charleston South Carolina. . N. America. Copenhagen Denmark Europe. Constantinople .... Turkey Europe. Cork Munster Ireland. Coventry Warwickshire . . England. Corinth Greece Europe. Cowes Isle of Wight • .England. Cracow Poland Europe. Cura9oa West Indies . . • • America. Damascus Turkey Asia. Dantzic Prussia •...••• .Europe. Delhi » East Indies .... Asia, Delft Holland •'^mxq^^. Dieppe . . » France ••%%%•* J^x^lo^^^ Yl— ^ Dijon ••••..;..; France ..• Etirope. Dominique isle. • • .West Indies. . . . Amcfrica Dover kk. . • Kent • i • » % .^.England. Derby Derbyshire • • • • England^ Derry Ireland Europe. Dresden ; Saxony Europe. Dundee; . ; Scotland Europe. Dublin Ireland iVx « • .Europe. Durham Durham ^^v.* .England. Dungeness Kent •••«•... England. Dunkirk • • France • • Europe. Dunbar Scotland • Europe. Dumfries Dumfriesshire • .Scotland. English Channel,between England &France..Etirope. Ephesus Turkey. . . . ; ; . .Asia. Easter isle Pacific ocean • .America. Edinburgh ....;. Scotland Europe. Embdeu ..;.;.;. Germany . . ^ . • .Europe. Eustatius isle .... West Indies. ; i .N. America. Evereux . i France Europe. Exeter . . . . 4 . . . « . Devonshire • . • .England. Falmouth ........ Cornwall England. Falkirk Scotland Europe. Fe2 ........ i .. . Barbary States. . Africa* Ferrara 4 ........ . Italy. . . ; Europe* Florence . 4 « ; . . . . Italy. Europe. Frankfort- on-the-Main^ Grermany . . Europe. Funchali ....;.... Madeira isle. . . .Africa. Geneva ; Switzerland . . .* Europe. George's St. isle . . Azores Africa. Genoa . > ........ Italy Europe. Gibraltar Spain .Europe. Ghent i ... i* ... .Belgium ; ....Europe. Olaagow • ; Lanarkshire • • • • Scotland; Ooa . . . i . i i ; . . . . India i 4 . % • . * .Ksaa.^ Ooree iek. i . . . . Ailantfe o«fe«a.M3W». 199 rottenberg Sweden Europe. rottigen y . . Hanover Europe. rranville France Europe. rratz Austrian dominions . . Europe. I^uadaloupe isle . . West Indies • • • .America. Tuildford Surrey .England. Uoucester Oloucestershire .England. Gombroon Persia Asia. Ireenock • Senfrewshire • . Scotland. ruam . . Ladrone^Jales^ Pacific ocean • • Asia. Tulf of Bothnia . . East of Sweden.. Europe. „ Finland . . West of Russia. . Europe. „ Venice, between Italy and Turkey^ • Europe. „ Persia, between Persia and Arabia. , Asia. „ California, between California and Mexico. N. America. „ St. Lawrence, between Labrador and Newfoundland. .N. America. „ Mexico, south of United States, • . N. America. 9ague Holland Europe. Hamburg Germany Europe. Hastings Sussex England. Halifax Nova Scotia N. America. Halifax Yorkshire England. Hanover ........ Germany ..... .Europe. Havannah Cuba isle . . . • • .N. America Havre-de-Grace . . France lSurope« Hellespont between Asia and Europe. Helena St. isle .... Atlantic ocean . . Africa. Haarlem Holland .•••.. Europe, Hogue la Gape .... France Europe. Hull Yorkshire England. Hudson Bay Coast of Labrador. . N. America. Jeddo Japan islett • % . • Ksasl. Jerusalem, .... Holy Land, Tuxke^. • K&ve.. ^obn'8 town, St. . ■. Newfouad\«ad . .^.-Kssmb^^ss^^ 200 Ispahan Persia Asia. Inverness Inverness-shire •. Scotland. Isthmus of Suez^ joins Egypt to Axabia,Africa&A8ia. Isthmus of Corinth . .Greece Europe. Isthmus of Panama^ joins North & South America. Irish sea, between England and Ireland. . Europe. Indian ocean East of Africa, South of Asia. Kamtschatka .... North-east of Siberia. . Asia Kinsale Munster •••••. Ireland. Kingston Surrey •••••.•• .England. Kingston Jamaica America. Koningsberg Prussia Europe. Lancaster Lancashire • • • .England. Levant, the ...... West of Sjrria • . Asia. Lausanne Switzerland • • . . Europe. Leeds Yorkshire • • • .England. Leicester Leicestershire • .England. Leipsic Saxony, Germany. . Europe. Leyden Holland Europe. Leith Edinburgh .... Scotland. Lahore India Asia. Linlithgow Linlithgowshire .Scotland. Lincoln Lincolnshire . . Scotland. Lima Lower Peru . . . . S. America. Liege Belgium . . . ; . .Europe. Limoges France Europe. Lille France Europe. Lisbon Portugal • . • . • .Europe. Lizard Point Cornwall England. Limerick Limerickshire • . Ireland. Litchfield Staffordshire • .England. London . • ^ Middlesex .... England. Londonderry Londonderry • . Ireland. Lubec ^Germany ..... .Europe. Luneville • France ....... .I^vrtci^^. Luxemburg Belgvxxm &c lio\\»B>SL% %^\a«^ 201 Lyons France Europe. Macao China Asia. Macassar isle Eastern Archipelago . . Asia. Madeira isle Atlantic ocean • .Africa. Madras East Indies • • ^ • Asia. Madrid Spain • • • • ... Europe. Mahon port Mediterr. sea . .Europe. Majorca Mediterr. sea • . Europe. Malacca Peninsula^ S. of Asia. Maloes, St France ........ Europe. Malta island Mediterr. sea • . Europe. Manilla. . Island of Luzon^ Philippine Is.% . Asia. Mantua Italy Europe. Maregalante^ isle ..Atlantic ocean ..S. America. Marseilles • • .France .Europe. St. Martin's isle . .West Indies. % . . America. Martinico isle • • • .West Indies « • . .America. St. Mary's isle . . . .Atlantic ocean . .Europe. Mauritius Indian ocean • • Africa. Mayence Germany Europe. Medina Arabia » • Asia. Mecca « Arabia % • Asia. Mediterranean sea, between Europe «nd Africa. Mequinez Barbary ..... .Africa. Messina Island of Sicily. . Europe. Mergui, Tenasserim, Birmese empire .. Asia. Mexico .......... Mexico. N. America. Milford haven . . . .Pembrokeshire. .Wales. St. Michael's isle . • Azores Europe. Milan Italy Europe. Mocha Arabia Asia. Modena Italy Europe. Montreal > Lower Canada . . N. America. Montpelier France '&>\\q'^^« Montrose Scotland . • . % » ."^xxxQi^^* Motttaerrat iale... .West Indies • • • • Nxassv^^* 202 Morocco Barbary Africa. Moscow Russia Europe. Munich Bavaria Europe. Munster Westphalia . . . .Europe. Munster Ireland Europe. Nanking China Asia. Namur •»..••.•• .Belgium Europe. Naples Italy Europe. Nantes France Europe. Naze cape S. Norway • . . .Europe. Nice Italy Europe. Newport Rhode isle . . . .N. America. Newport Isle of Wight . .Eng. Channel. Newport Monmouthshire Wales. New York New York • . . .N. America. Nineveh ruins . • . . Turkey Asia. Newcastle Northumberland. .England. Ningpo China Asia. Norfolk isle S. Pacific ocean. . Asia. North cape Norway Europe. Nottingham Nottinghamshire. . England. Northampton . • . .North am ptonsh. . England. Norwich Norfolk -. England. Nuremberg Germany Europe. Okotsk • • . . • Siberia Asia. Otaheite isle^ Society isles. South Pacific ocean. .Asia. Oleron isle France Europe. Oporto Portugal Europe. Orleans France Europe. Orleans, New .... Louisiana . . • . N. America. Ormus ..»••••.. .Persia Asia. Ostend .......... Belgium Europe. Oxford Oxfordshire . . . .England St Onier's ..... .France Europe. L^Orient port . . . .France ."^va^^^. Pacitic ocean Fast o? X«va . .^ .^"i kxc^^^ 203 Padua .Italy • • • Europe. Paisley Renfrewshire . . Scotland. Palermo Isle of Sicily • .Europe. Palmyra Turkey Asia. Panama Central America Palmerston's isle . . S. Pacific ocean. . Asia. Paris France Europe. Parma Italy .. t Europe. Patna East Indies . • . .Asia. Pau France Europe. Pegu Birmese empire. . Asia. Pekin China Asia. Pembroke Pembrokeshire . . Wales. Penzance Cornwall England. Perth Perthshire . . • .Scotland. Persepolis Persia Asia. Petersburg, St Russia Europe. Philadelphia Pennsylvania . .N. America. Pisa Italy Europe. Placentia Italy Europe. Plymouth Devonshire • • • .England. Plymouth West Indies . . • .N. America. Pondicherry India Asia. Porto Bello Columbia S. America. Port Royal Jamaica isle • • . • America. Portsmouth .•.••• Hampshire • • . • England. Portsmouth United states . .N. America. Prague Bohemia Europe. Potosi • • • • Upper Peru, or Bolivia. . S. America. Providence • r • • • .United States • .N. America. Preston Lancashire • . • .England. Presburg Hungary Europe. Quebec » .Lower Canada . .N. America. Quito Peru S. America^ Queen Charlotte^s isles, S. "Pacv&c ooeAXi. « Kn^KtNK^.. BSiBle Fraace •••%••• ."^xsxw^* 204 • ^ Ehode island ..•• The Levant ^^cvAsia. Riga • • « Russia ••Europe. ^ Bochelle France Europe.- Bochefort France Europe. 'V^""- Rome Italy Europe."';' Rotterdam Holland Europe. Rouen • . • • • France Europe* St. Domingo isle • .West Indies. • . • Amene. St. Jago . • • Chili S. America.. St. Salvador Brazil S. America. Samarcand • • Independent Tartary. . Asia. Salisburv Wiltshire England. Sandwich isles • • • .N. Pacific ocean. . Asia. Santa Fe New Mexico. . . .N. America. Savannah ....••«. Georgia N. America. St. George^s Chan- between England nel and Ireland • .Europe. Scarborough Yorkshire England. Scone . . • . • Perthshire . • • . Scotland. Sea of Azov between Europe and Asia. Sea of Marmora • .between Europe and Asia. Sea of Ochotsk, between Siberia and Kamptschatka. Senegal and Gambia rivers, Senegambia. • Africa. Siam East of Birmah. . Asia. Shrewsbury Shropshire • . • .England. Shields^ South • • • .Durham England. Sheemess Kent England. Seville Spain •••••* .Europe. Sidon • Syria^ Turkey , .Asia. Smyrna Asia Minor^ Turkey. . Asia. Southampton ••••Hampshire ••••England. Spa Germany Europe. Sound strait^ between Denmark & Zealand. Europe. Stafford Staffordshire • • England. Sterling • • StetVvngi&Vise » •%QiQk\\a.\A. Straaburgh Fraao© .^\««^^, 205 )ckhoIm •••••• Sweden Europe. ait8 of Dover^ betw. England and France. Europe, raits of Gibraltar between Europe and Africa, laita of Babel-mandedj between Africa and Asia, raits of Ormus^ between Persia and Arabia. Asia, raits of Malacca^ betw, Malacca and Sumatra. Asia, raits of Magellan^ between Terra del Fuego and Patagonia. .America, raits of Sunda between Sumatra and Java. .Asia, aumness Iceland. . • Europe. nderland Durham England. ' rinam Guiana. S. America, rat • . • East Indies • • • .Asia. racuse Sicily isle Europe. . urus^ mount • . • .Turkey. Asia. neriffe Canary isle •. ..Africa. rceira The Azores • • • . Europe. lebes Egypt Africa. lebes^ ancient^ and modern Thiva^ Greece, .Europe. . Thomas' isle . .Virgin isles • • • .America. lom W. Prussia • . . .Europe. tuan Barbary Africa. ibolsk Siberia Asia. »msk Siberia Asia. »ledo Spain Europe. ent Germany • • • . . .Europe. oy ruins Turkey Asia. )mea Lapland Europe. ipoli Barbary . . • • • .Africa. mis Barbary Africa. irin Italy Europe. rre Turkey — Syria. .Asia. psal Sweden Europe. shant isle France .«.•••, .'EkXi^'g^* trecht Holland • • . • « ^IkM'c^'^^. nice Italy. • • • '^^««^ 206 Vera Craz Mexico N. America. Verona Italy. • • Europe. Versailles France Europe; Vienna Austria Europe. Wakefield Yorkshire England. Warsaw ....... .Poland Europe. Warwick Warwickshire • .England. Waterford Munster Ireland. Whitehaven Cumberland • • • .England. Wells Somersetshire. • .England. Winchester Hampshire • • • .England. Worms Germany Europe. Worcester Worcestershire. .England. Wurtemburg .... Strasburgh— Germany. Europe. Yarmouth ..••••• .Norfolk • . • • . .England. Yellow Sea N.E. of China. . Asia. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C.1 The Creation 4004 Death of Abel 8875 The Deluge 2848 The Tower of Babel is built.... 2247 The kingdom of Aeayria commences under Ninus 2059 The Call of Abraham 1921 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed 1898 Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 Moses is bom 1578 The Israelites go out of Egypt 1491 The Commandments given nearly three months later 1491 Balaam lives 14-52 Troy taken by the Greeks 1184 Saul is made king 1095 Solomon's Temple built 1005 Elijah prophesies 910 Carthage built by Dido 869 End of the first Assyrian empire — Death of Sardanapalus . 820 Sennacherib invades Judah 726 Samaria taken by Salmanazar — Kingdom of Israel ends ... 720 Kome built by Komulus 758 Jehoiakin taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar 597 Esther, the queen of Ahasuerus, lives 464 The death of Socrates 400 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus 890 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon 828 Euclid lives about 290 The Septuagint translation 284 The first Punic war — Borne and Carthago 264 The Colossus of Rhodes thrown down by an earthquake, having stood 56 years 224 The second Punic war KSA Death of Archimedes 'fi^ End oi third Funic war— Carthage de«\aro^e^ \si ^c«^>a . ^ grandson of ScipioAfrioanxw , 208 B.O. The first triumvirate at Borne. Pompey, Cseiar, and Crassus 60 GflDsar iirvades Britain 55 CflBBar is murdered 44 A.D. Our Sayiour is crucified — Tiberius reigping 33 Cornelius sends for Peter 41 St. Paul preaches at Athens 54 Claudius comes into Britain — Caractacus 43 Joseph of Arimathflsa supposed to preach in Britain 64 Paul put to death at Borne by Nero 67 Jerusalem taken bj Titus, son of YespasianJ 70 Adrian's wall in Britain built .* 121 Beyerus builds a wall in Britain — ^Dies in Britain i ^n CoDstantine remoyes the seat of Gh>yemment to Constan-] tinople 828 The Bomans leaye Britain « 448 The Western Empire comes to an end 476 King Arthur dies 614 Augustine comes to England with 40 monks 596 The fiight of Mahomet— The Hegira 622 The Saxons expel the Britons .»... 685 Computing the time from Christ begins • 748 Charlemagne gives names to the winds and months 800 Egbert becomes King of England 828 Cambridge University founded , 916 Coronation oaths used in England 979 Figures of Arithmetic brought into Europe from Arabia • 991 Leo Ninth the first pope that maintains an army 1054 Battle of Hastings—Harold is slain 1066 Musical notes invented — ^William First 1070 Tower of London built— Do 1080 The first Crusade— William Second 1096 England divided into Circuits— Henry Second « 1176 < Bieu et Mon Droit" used aa royal motto— -Eichard First 1194 Magna Charta signed — John »..* 1215 The Commons summoned to Parliament — ^Henry Third ... 1264 First Prmce of Wales— Edward Second .:.. 1284 The mariner's compass invented by G-ioia — ^Edward Firtt 1801 Cannon first used, battt« of Crescy— Edward Third 1846 Order of the Charter instituted consisting of 26 knighta— Edward Third 1849 Coals brought to London — Edward Third 1357 John Wickhfie opposes the errors of Bome-Bdward Third about this time Cards inrented in France for CViaTW^vx\ik---^«Dx:s'!&^^^ \S9l Ooxutantiaople taken by t\io 1\ueVf lSi%aV«ctL'^m^>s» «iu^ V£% 209 A.D. Battle of Bosworth Field— Biobard Third slain 1486 America discovered by Columbus— Henry Seventh 1492 Battle of Flodden Field--JameB Fourth of Scotland slain— Henry Eighth » 1618 The Diet of Worms— Do 1621 ^Reformation by Martin Luther begun — ^Do Protestants protest at the Diet of Spiers, hence the name — Do... 1629 Council of Trent begins, and lasts 18 years 1646 Beformation in Scotland by John Knox — ^Elizabeth 1660 Massacre of St. Bartholomew — ^Do 1572 Sir Francis Drake first English Circumnavigator— Do. ... 1580 Spanish Armada fitted out by Philip Second of Spain — ^Do. 1688 Watches brought into England from Germany — Do 1697 Decimal arithmetic invented — Do. 1602 England and Scotland united under the same king, James First 1608 Gunpowder plot— Do 1605 Henry Fourth of France murdered by Bayaillao^Do. ... 1610 Baronets created in England— Do 1611 Circulation of the blood discovered by Harvey — ^Do 1619 Charles First beheaded 1649 Jamaica taken by Penn and Yenables— Cromwell 1656 Cromwell dies 1658 Plague of London— Charles Second 1666 Fire of London— Do 1666 St. James's Park laid out— Do 1668 Habeas Corpus Act passed — Do »« 1^8 William Penn colomzes Pennsylvania 1680 Duke of Monmouths rebellion — He is beheaded-^ames Second 1686 Bevocation of the Edict of Slants, by Louis FourteenUi— Do 1685 The Bevolution— James Seoond deposed 1688 Battle of the Boyne— James Second defeated W WiUiam Third 1690 Bank of England established— William and Mary 1698 Massacre of aiencoe— Do 1698 Peace of Byswick— Do .7 1696 James Second dies at St. Cbrmains— William Third 1700 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel— Do 1701 Gibraltar taken by Sir G. Booke and Sir C. Shovel— Anne 1704 Union of England and Scotland under one Parliament— Do* 1707 St. Paul's Cathedral finished by Sir C. Wren— Do 1710 Peace of Utrecht— Do "WA Louis Fourteenth dies— The Uat "Kmf^ olYtwiw^Vti ^"^^5.- ,^^^- oeeded hia Jbther, GeoT^ "E^nt ,....» 210 A.D. Bebellion in Scotland in fayoor of the OldPretender— Anne 1715 Septennial Parliament Act passed — ^Do 1T16 South Sea Bubble— Do 1719 Inoculation for the Small Fox first tried — Gkorge Second 1727 Battle of Dettingen in favour of Maria Theresa — Do. ... 1743 The Toung Pretender defeated at Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland— Do 1746 Peaceof Aix-la-Chapelle— Do 1748 New Style introduced September 5th, called 15th — ^Do. ... 1752 British Museum first established — ^Do 1753 General Wolfe killed at Quebec— Do 1759 George Third begins his reign 1760 Jesuits expelled from the Papal States — G^rge Third ... 1778 First skirmish between the king's forces and the Ame- ricans at Lexington 1775 Battle of B unkers Hill between the English and Americans — Gieorge Third 1775 Lieutenant- General Burgojne surrenders his army — ^Do. . 1777 Admiral Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet — Do 1780 Earl Cornwallis surrenders his army to General Wash- ington—Do 1781 Independence of America acknowledged by Britain — Do. . 1783 The first balloon ascent in England— Do 1784 Times newspaper commenced — Do 1786 The revolution in Prance under Louis Sixteen begins — Do. 1789 Louis Sixteen and his queen beheaded — Do 1793 Battles of St. Vincent and Camperdown— Do 1797 BattkoftheNUe— Do 1798 Bonaparte repulsed at Acre — Seringapatam^ in India, taken ——Do 1799 Naval engagement near Copenhagen — Emperor Paul of Russia dies — Do 1801 Peace of Amiens — ^Do 1802 Battle of Trafalgar— Death of Nelson— Do 1805 Bombardment of Copenhagen — Do 1807 Battle of Corunna— Death of Sir J. Moore— Do 1809 Bonaparte invades Russia — Do 1812 Allied sovereigns enter Paris — Bonaparte abdicates — ^Do. . 1814 Battle of Waterloo— f'inal defeat of Bonaparte— Do 1815 Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth — Do 1816 Princess Charlotte, daughter of Gteorge Pourth, dies — Do. 1817 George Third dies 1820 Cato Street conspiracy — ^Attempt to murder the Cabinet Ministers— George Fourth 1820 Disgusting trial of Queen Carolm©— Do 1820 Queen Caroline dies — Do .»» »••» \S2l Mechanics institutes founded— T>o. ,, ,,„,o, ».»»«»»»»— '^^'^ 211 A.D. Battle of Navarino—Gteorge Fourth 1827 Test and Corporation Acts imposed by Oharlei Second repealed— Do 1828 London University opened — Do 1828 Catholic emancipation — Do 1829 King's College, London— Do 1830 The Police Force introduced by Sir R. Peel— Do 1830 William Fourth reigns 1830 Revolution in France— Charles Tenth deposed — Do 1830 Reform Bill— Do 1832 Emancipation of Colonial slaves — Do 1834 Houses of Parliament destroyed— Do 1834 Queen Victoria begins her reign 1837 Rebellion in Canada 1838 The Queen married Prince Albert 1840 The Penny Post introduced 1840 War in China 1842 The Thames Tunnel opened 1848 Royal Exchange opened 1844 Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 Louis Philippe deposed 1848 Great Exhibition at Hyde Park 1851 Louis Napoleon chosen Emperor of the French 1852 Wellington dies 1852 War declared against Russia 1854 Battles of Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermann 1854 Indian Mutiny begins 1867 The Great Eastern launched 1868 Prince Albert died 1861 Atlantic Telegraph successfully laid 1866 TEB END. BltLTXa, PBIHTm, OmUyMVD, VSVKVl. ) DE LA VOTE'S FRENCH READING BOOKS. HEincES DOEEES BE LECTUBE ERAITCAISE A Collection of Historical Anecdotes, selected from the best Authors by MARIN a. DE LA VOYE. 2. Price Is. 6d. L£ NAEEATETTK. A Collection of Tales, Historical Occurrences, Singula] Facts, Good Actions and Q-ood Maxims, selected from the best Authors by MARIN a. DB LA VOYB. 8. Price Is. SESULTATS ET PEEUVES. A Selection of Pieces exemplifying the Result of Study, Taste and Talent of the most celebrated French Writers ; together with Examples of Extraordinary Triumphs of Perseverance, set forth as Models for Young Persons, by MARIN G. DB LA VOYE. 4. Prtce Is. ELISABETH OTT LES EXILES DE SIBEEIE. PAR MADAME COTTIN. ABRIDGED BY M. G. DB LA VOYE. LONDON: T. J. ALLMJlS, 46^, OX^O^^ %^^KES:^ rNo.2.) ,. NEW AND CHEAPEE EDITION OF MARKHAM'S ENGLAND. Just Pubiislied, Prieo 4s. Illustrated with numerous wood- engravings of costumes, &o. Mils. MARKHAM'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, From the First Invasion by the Komans to the end of the Keign of George the Third ; with Conversations at the end of each Chapter. WITH CONTINUATION TO THE PRESENT TIME BY MARY HOWITT. SHAKESPEEE FOE SCHOOLS. Just Published, Price Ss. 6d, SHAKESFERE'S FLAYS, Abridged and Arranged especially for School Reading, and for the use of Young Persons, bj THOMAS SHOETEE, Author of " Poetry for School and Home." A Book of English Poetry," "A Book of English Prose," &c. Just Published, Price 2s. THE FRENCH SECRETARY; Containing Familiar Letters on various Subjects, followed by Models of Letters selected from the most celebrated french Correspondence, and Short Letters on Trade and Commerce ; with an Appendix consisting of suitable Be- ginnings and Endings of Letters. BY DR. KENNY, Author of the '* LONDON: T. J. (No. 2,) TN'&O.	i don't know
Special stamps were issued on April 5th to mark which anniversary of the death of William Shakespeare?	Postage Stamps Issued in Britain to Mark 400th Anniversary of Shakespeare's Death Postage Stamps Issued in Britain to Mark 400th Anniversary of Shakespeare's Death 2016-04-05 19:27:09 Xinhua Web Editor: Huang Yue Britain's Royal Mail launches a set of special postage stamps to mark the 400th anniversary of the death of the playwright William Shakespeare on Tuesday. [Photo: royalmail.com] Britain's Royal Mail launched a set of special postage stamps Tuesday to mark the 400th anniversary of the death of the playwright William Shakespeare. The 10 First Class stamps pay tribute to the genius of Shakespeare through his immortal words and poetry, said Royal Mail. They will be sold at 8,000 post offices across Britain. Royal Mail said that a special postmark will be also applied to British stamped mail commemorating 400 years since the Bard's death. The postmark will simply say 'William Shakespeare 1564-1616'. The stamps are the latest of many commemorations items and events to remember Shakespeare who was born in 1564 to become an actor, poet and playwright, as well as a businessman. He died on April 23, 1616. Shakespeare's plays are continually performed and re-interpreted throughout the world, making him arguably the most influential writer of all time. He introduced around 1,700 words and phrases into the English language, including "assassination" and "all's well that ends well". A spokeswoman for Royal Mail said: "Over 50 years, William Shakespeare and his work have appeared on 25 stamps, making him the most featured individual on Special Stamps outside of the Royal Family."	400th
Wearmouth Bridge and two black lions feature on the crest of which English football club?	New stamps celebrate Shakespeare - 102 Touch FM 102 Touch FM Classic Hits Non-Stop Midnight - 6:00AM 0845 0949773 This Is What I Came For. Download 2:26 Stratford Town Walk 11am 20th January Friday More from Local News Tuesday, April 5th, 2016 12:00am Royal Mail's releasing a set of Special Stamps to mark the 400th anniversary of the death of William Shakespeare. From Tuesday 5 April until Saturday 9 April, a special postmark will be applied to UK stamped mail commemorating 400 years since the Bard’s death. It will say William Shakespeare 1564-1616. Having previously issued stamps that depict performances of his plays, a painting of the bard himself and the world famous Globe Theatre, this set focuses on the power of Shakespeare’s words, and selected poignant lines from his plays and poems. Over 50 years, William Shakespeare and his work have appeared on 25 stamps making him the most featured individual on Special Stamps outside of the Royal Family.	i don't know
Which river is formed at Launceston in Tasmania by the merging of the North Esk and South Esk rivers - a river of the same name forms much of the boundary between Devon and Cornwall?	HOT FREE BOOKS • The History of Tasmania , Volume II (of 2) • John West • 11 Abercrombie—a township in the parish of Abercrombie and county of Somerset. Adamson's Peak—a mountain in the south-eastern corner of the island, said to be 4,000 feet high. Alarm—a river which falls into Bass' Strait on the western side of Rocky Cape. Altamont—a village on the Derwent, 20 miles from Hobart. Andover—a village on Little Swan Port River, in the parish of Brisbane and county of Somerset, about 50 miles from Hobart. Antill Ponds—so called by Governor Macquarie, in honor of Major Antill of the 48th regiment—a district in the county of Somerset, 60 miles from Hobart, the road to which passes through it. There is a post station here. Apsley—a river in the county of Glamorgan, falling into Oyster Bay. Apsley—a township in the parish of Apsley and county of Monmouth, about 40 miles from Hobart. Arthur—a river, flowing into the sea on the western side of the island, about 30 miles south of Cape Grim. It receives in its course the waters of the Hellyer, Horton, Frankland, and Leigh rivers. Arthur's Range—a chain of mountains in the south-western part of the colony. The most elevated point is 3,900 feet above the sea. Arve—a branch of the river Huon. Asbestos—a range of hills extending inland from Port Sorell, in the county of Devon. Some of the elevations are 1,700 feet high. Auburn—a village on the Isis, in the parish of Hill and county of Somerset. It is about 10 miles from Campbell Town, 40 from Launceston, and 75 from Hobart. Not far from Auburn is the remarkable hill called Jacob's Sugar Loaf. Avoca—a township in the parish of Avoca and county of Cornwall, near the confluence of the St. Paul's and South Esk rivers. It is 99 miles from Hobart, 62 from Launceston, and 19 from Campbell Town. It is on the road from Campbell Town to the east coast, and contains a small episcopal church (St. Thomas') and school, a post and police station, and two inns. The police magistrate holds a court at Avoca once in a week. At the entrance of the township the St. Paul's river is crossed by a small substantial stone bridge of one arch. Bagdad—a small township in the parish of Strangford and county of Monmouth. It is on the main road, 20 miles from Hobart. The country near Bagdad is fertile, and the road passes by numerous farms. On the northern side is a beautiful valley, the cultivated part of which is two miles wide, bounded by lofty hills thickly wooded, and through which flows the Bagdad Creek. Barrow—a lofty hill, about 13 miles east of Launceston. Bayford—a village in the parish of Spring Hill and county of Monmouth, about 40 miles from Hobart. Bellerive—a township nearly opposite Hobart, in the parish of Clarence and county of Monmouth. Ben Lomond—a mountain in Cornwall, 5,000 feet high, about 45 miles from Launceston, and 15 from Fingal. A rivulet of the same name rises here, and falls into the South Esk, about 30 miles from Launceston. About 15 miles north of this mountain is Ben Nevis, 3,900 feet high. During winter these elevated points, which are named after celebrated mountains of Scotland, are covered with snow, and seen from a distance, they present a magnificent appearance. They form parts of a chain of mountains extending inland from St. Patrick's Head to the northern coast. Beverley—a township on the Ben Lomond Rivulet, in the parish of Beverley and county of Cornwall, about 30 miles from Launceston. Bishopsbourne—a village in Westmoreland, about 8 miles from Longford and 26 from Launceston. It contains a post station, an inn, and a school. Christ's College is situated here. Boobyalla—a small river in the county of Dorset, flowing into Ringarooma Bay, in the north-eastern corner of the island. Bothwell—a town in the parish of Grantham, and county of Monmouth, 44 miles from Hobart, and 104 from Launceston. It is situated on the eastern side of the Clyde, in the midst of a level and excellent pastoral country, well watered. There are a church, (occupied alternately by English and Scotch congregations), a church of England day school, a library society, three inns, some small shops, a police office, and post station in the town. It has a resident assistant police magistrate. The population of the town and police district is 1,045; the number of houses 200, of which 72 are of stone or brick. Boyd—a small river on the western side of the island, falling into the Gordon. Blackman's River—a stream which rises in Somerset and falls into the Macquarie, about 4 miles south of Ross. Blythe—a river rising in Devon and falling into Bass' Strait, about 5 miles east of Emu Bay. Break o'Day—a stream watering plains of the same name, in the south-eastern part of the county of Cornwall. It joins the South Esk about 6 miles east of Fingal. The country here is from 500 to 800 feet above the sea, and is well adapted for grazing purposes. Bridgewater—a village and post station on the Derwent, in the parish of Wellington and county of Buckingham, 12 miles above Hobart. The Derwent, which is about three-quarters of a mile in width at this place, is crossed by a bridge of wood, which forms a part of the main road from Hobart to Launceston, and is said to be the largest work of the kind in the Australian colonies. The river is spanned to a length of 2,300 feet by an earthen causeway, and the length of the bridge from the end of this to the northern shore is 1,010 feet, with a breadth of roadway of 24 feet; the whole length of the work being 3,310 feet, or nearly three-quarters of a mile. The navigation of the river is preserved by means of a moveable platform near the northern shore. The timber was procured from Mount Dromedary, 7 miles from the bridge, which was begun in January, '48, and opened in April, '49. The cost was L7,580. Brighton—a town in the parish of Drummond and county of Monmouth. It is on the eastern side of the Jordan, on the main road, 17 miles from Hobart, and 104 from Launceston. The country around Brighton is cultivated and fertile, and was early occupied. On the right is a branch road to Jerusalem and Jericho, districts on the Coal River. On the left is the district on the Jordan, called the Broadmarsh. Brighton has a resident magistrate, a post station, several inns, small stores, and retail shops. The church (St. Mark's) and police office are at Pontville, near the town. The population of the town and police district is 2,582, and the number of houses 427, half of which are of stone or brick. Brighton is also an electoral district, for which John Walker, Esq., is the first member. Brown's River—a stream rising near Mount Wellington, and falling into the Derwent about 10 miles below Hobart. The land on its banks is fertile, and is divided into many small farms. There is a village and post station here, 8 miles from Hobart, containing an episcopal church and day school, and a Wesleyan chapel. This district is celebrated for the fineness of its potatoes. Brumby's Creek—a small stream rising among the Westmoreland mountains, and joining the Lake River, about 12 miles south of Longford. Several streams rising near the Western Lagoon fall into it. Bruni—an island lying between D'Entrecasteaux Channel and Storm Bay, at the entrance of the Derwent. It was named after the French admiral who discovered it. It is about 50 miles long, and varies in breadth from 4 to 15 miles. It consists of two parts, connected by a long and narrow neck of land. There are a township called Lonnon and several farms in the northern part of the island, and in most of the bays many fine kinds of fish are found in abundance. There is a light-house on Bruni Head, the south-western point of the island, and off one of the southern capes is a remarkable rock, closely resembling in its form the pedestal and shaft of a monumental pillar. Buckingham—a southern county and electoral district. Hobart is in this county. R. W. Nutt, Esq., is the first member for the district. Buckland—a village at Prosser's Plains, in the county of Pembroke, on the eastern coast, 34 miles from Hobart and 155 from Launceston. It has an episcopal church, and a police and post station. The assistant police magistrate of the district holds a court here once in a week. Buffalo Brook—a beautiful stream rising under Ben Lomond, and joining the South Esk near Eastbourne. Burford—a village in the parish of St. Alban and county of Cumberland, about 60 miles from Hobart. Burgess—a township at Port Sorell, in the county of Devon, on the northern coast, 157 miles from Hobart and 60 from Launceston. It has a resident police magistrate, a small episcopal church and school, and a post station. Burghley—a village on the Leven, near the Surrey Hills, in the county of Devon. It is on the road through the western district, about 60 miles from Launceston. The Van Diemen's Land Company has a station here. Burnham—a village in the parish of Cambridge and county of Monmouth, about 40 miles from Hobart. Cam—a river rising in the Hampshire Hills, and falling into Bass' Strait a few miles west of Emu Bay. Campbell Town—a town in the parish of Campbelton and county of Somerset, 89 miles from Hobart, and 42 from Launceston. It is situated in a level pastoral country, on the Elizabeth River, and the main road from Hobart to Launceston passes through it. The town consists chiefly of one long street, in which are four large inns, a brewery, some stores, small shops, and an assembly room. There are in the town an episcopal and presbyterian church (St. Luke's and St. Andrew's), a Wesleyan Chapel, and schools. The river is crossed by a bridge or causeway, 200 yards long, and on the southern side are numerous fine farms. The road to Avoca, Fingal, and the eastern coast here branches off from the main line. In the town there are also a gaol and police and post offices. There is a resident police magistrate. The population of the town and police district is 2,319, and the number of houses, 255 of which are of stone or brick, is 386. Campbell Town is also an electoral district. It is considered to be the middle district of the colony, and the Midland Agricultural Association originated here. R. Q. Kermode, Esq., is the first member for Campbell Town. Carlton—a village and post station on the stream of that name, in the parish of Carlton, and county of Pembroke, about 35 miles from Hobart. The Carlton falls into North Bay, below Pittwater. Carrick—a township and post-station on the west bank of the Liffey and western road, in the parish of Carrick and county of Westmoreland, 113 miles from Hobart and 10 from Launceston. The Liffey is crossed by a bridge at the township. There are a small episcopal church and day school, a mill, a brewery, and three inns. Annual races are held near the township. Catemara—a small stream falling into Recherche Bay, in the county of Kent. Circular Head—a bold promontory, 500 feet high, forming part of a small peninsula in the north-west corner of the island, about 30 miles east of Cape Grim. It is seen at sea at the distance of 10 leagues. It is 280 miles from Hobart, and 160 from Launceston, and here the western road terminates. The town of Stanley, which stands on the eastern side, contains an episcopal church, a Roman catholic chapel, a post station, a custom-house, three inns, and some substantial buildings. It has also a benevolent society, and schools. There is a resident police magistrate. The Van Diemen's Land Company has an extensive establishment here, and a considerable trade is carried on between the settlers in the neighborhood and Victoria, to which large quantities of timber, potatoes, and other produce grown on the fertile farms on the coast, are shipped in small vessels belonging to the port. The town and district of Stanley have greatly advanced during the last ten years, under the intelligent management of Mr. Gibson, the company's agent. The failure of the previous management may be traced to those general causes which have always prevented the success of similar companies, when they have attempted cultivation and grazing. Mr. Gibson urged upon the company the importance of establishing a tenantry, and succeeded in attracting a considerable rural population by offering advantageous terms to small farmers. The arrangements made with them, from the depression of prices, proved unfavorable to the company, but the prosperity of their tenants has probably firmly fixed a population on their estates, which will ultimately indemnify them for all their losses. Occupying a geographical position highly favorable to trade, and in the vicinity of extensive forests of valuable timber, there can be no doubt that within a few years their settlements will become of great importance. Within a few hours' sail of Port Phillip and South Australia, their timber will find an increasing market, and enable their settlers to turn to good account what often elsewhere proves an incumbrance. The population of the district, which is called Horton, is about 900, and the number of houses 137. Clarence Plains—a cultivated and fertile district on the east bank of the Derwent, nearly opposite Hobart. It contains the villages of Rokeby, Kangaroo Point, and Bellerive. Cleveland—a village in the parish of Cleveland and county of Somerset, on the main road, 91 miles from Hobart, and 30 from Launceston. There are a small chapel, two inns, a post and police station, with a district constable. The police magistrate of Campbell Town holds a court here once in a week. A branch road to the eastern coast breaks off at the township, and Epping Forest is a short distance on the Launceston side of it. The country near Cleveland consists chiefly of grazing farms. Clyde—a river which divides the county of Monmouth from Cumberland, and falls into the Derwent above the township of Macquarie, about 40 miles from Hobart. It waters, together with the Dee, Ouse, Shannon, and Jordan, a fine district of the same name. Coal River—a stream rising in the northern part of the county of Monmouth, and falling into the bay of Pittwater, at Richmond. The Wallaby and Kangaroo rivers fall into it. Cocked Hat Hill—a name given to a hill on the side of the main road, 8 miles from Launceston. A fine view of the Tamar is obtained from its top. There are a post and police station, a small church, and an inn in the village at this place, where the roads to Perth and Evandale separate. Colebrooke—a village in the parish of Ormaig, and county of Monmouth, about 30 miles from Hobart. It has a small episcopal church and school. Cornwallis—a village in the parish of Cornwallis and county of Somerset, about 80 miles from Hobart. Cornwall—a northern county and electoral district. Launceston is in this county. J. W. Gleadow, Esq., is the first member for the district. Cullenswood—a small village and post station at St. Paul's Plains. It has a small episcopal church. Cumberland—a midland county and electoral district. Bothwell is the principal town. W. S. Sharland, Esq., is the first member for the district. Deloraine—a township and post station on the Meander, in the parish of Calstock, and county of Westmoreland, 132 miles from Hobart, and 30 from Launceston. It contains a small episcopal church and a Wesleyan chapel, and three inns. There is a police station with a district constable, and the assistant police magistrate of Westbury holds a court twice in a week. About 15 miles from Deloraine, in the Western Mountains, are situated the great caves, which, in extent and beauty, perhaps equal subterranean wonders of more celebrity. They have not often been visited; but those who have seen them describe them as being extremely grand and beautiful. The entrance of the principal cave, which is considerably more than two miles in length, is in the limestone rock, at the upper extremity of a narrow ravine, down which flows the stream which issues from the mouth of the cave, and extends throughout its whole length. The opening is thirty feet high, and fifty or sixty in width. At a considerable distance from the entrance light is admitted by two openings in the roof, the only ones throughout the whole extent of the cave, and when these are passed the full beauty of the scene breaks upon the view of the visitor. Stalactites of every form, hang like icicles from the roof; some presenting the appearance of inverted cones, others that of glistening semi-transparent tubes, about the thickness of a pipe stem, and several yards in length. In some parts, the stalactites, meeting with their opposite stalagmites, form pillars in appearance supporting a roof of immense height. In other places they assume the form of elegant and flowing drapery thrown over the huge rocks that project from the sides of the cavern. The fringes of this drapery, when struck by any hard substance, give forth a ringing sound, and every variety of note, high or low, according to their respective lengths. The floor is covered with stalagmites of every form, and it sparkles as if paved with diamonds. If the visitor extinguish his torch, myriads of glow-worms are seen to cover the roof and walls, emitting a faint blue light, and making the surrounding stalactites appear like spectres in the gloom. As the spectator proceeds, new objects of wonder appear. In some places the stalactites, shooting out in all directions, into innumerable small fibres, appear like fret-work along the roof; in others like masses of elegant drapery, extending fold above fold, to the height of thirty or forty feet, from the floor to the roof. Near the entrance of the cave they are of a grey or brownish color, but in the interior they are of a pure white. There are several chambers, some of great beauty, which branch off from the main passage, and have been formed by the rivulet which passes through the cave. Others will probably yet be discovered in the Western Mountains. Denbigh—a township in the parish of that name, and county of Somerset, on the Lake River, about 80 miles from Hobart. D'Entrecasteaux—the name of the channel between the main land and Bruni Island, so called after the French admiral who first sailed through it. A small river of the same name flows into Recherche Bay. On the western side of the entrance of the channel is the reef on which the Acteon was wrecked, in 1822. Derwent—a river which rises at Lake St. Clair, in the western mountains, and flows through the county of Buckingham, which is well watered by it and its numerous tributaries. The land on the banks of the Derwent is fertile, with occasional tracts well adapted for grazing and pastoral purposes. In the upper Derwent there is a fall of some magnificence, and the scenery on the banks of the river is various and beautiful. The Derwent receives in its course the waters of the Dee, (flowing from Lake Esk) Clyde, Jones, Ouse, Styx, Plenty, and Thames. From its source to Hobart it is about 70 miles long, and to its entrance at Storm Bay 85 miles. Devon—a northern county. Douglass—a river in Glamorgan, on the eastern coast. Excellent coal is procured in its neighborhood. Dulcott—a township in the parish of Forbes, and county of Monmouth, about 60 miles from Hobart. Eastbourne—a township in the parish of Eastbourne, and county of Cornwall, near the South Esk. East Grinstead—a township in Somerset, about 80 miles from Hobart. Ebrington—a township in Cumberland. Elderslie—a village near the Jordan, in the parish of Wallace and county of Monmouth, about 40 miles from Hobart. Eldon—a range of hills on the western side of the island, southward of the river Macintosh. Emu Bay—a harbor on the northern coast, about 45 miles west of the Tamar heads. The Van Diemen's Land Company has an establishment at Emu Bay, and there is also a police and post station and an inn. The road to Circular Head passes by the bay. The country here abounds with timber, of which large quantities are exported. A stream called the Emu falls into the bay. Enfield—a township in the parish of Staffa and county of Monmouth, about 20 miles from Hobart. Esperance—a harbor on the south-eastern coast, into which falls a river of the same name. Evandale—a town in the parish of that name and county of Cornwall, 115 miles from Hobart and 11 from Launceston. It is prettily situated on the eastern side of the South Esk, and contains several substantial brick buildings, three large inns, and a steam flour mill. It has a resident magistrate and a post station. There are two well-built, neat, and commodious churches (episcopalian and presbyterian), a Wesleyan chapel, and a good subscription library. Evercreech—a township in the parish of that name, and county of Cornwall, about 120 miles from Hobart. Exeter—a village on the west bank of the Tamar, about 15 miles below Launceston. Falmouth—a township near St Patrick's Head, in Cornwall, on the eastern coast, 141 miles from Hobart and 104 from Launceston. There is a post station here and an inn. The produce of some of the farms on the coast is forwarded to Hobart by sea from this place. Fingal—a township in the parish of Fingal and county of Cornwall, on the southern side of the South Esk. It is 100 miles from Hobart and 70 from Launceston. The road from Campbell Town to the east coast passes through it. On the banks of the Esk in this district are many fine farms, as well as tracts of pasture land. There is a resident police magistrate and a post station at Fingal, and two inns. There are 877 persons in the township and district, and 134 houses. About 11 miles beyond Fingal the road has been carried with immense labor, to a distance of 5 miles round the face of a high, rocky, and almost perpendicular hill, called St. Mary's Pass. On one side the hill towers above the traveller, and on the other he sees a precipice of many hundred feet. Gold has been discovered in the neighborhood. Forth—a fine river in Devon, falling into Bass' Strait, between the Mersey and the Leven. Frankland—the name of a range of hills on the western side of the island. A mountain called the Frenchman's Cap, 3,800 feet high, is near this range. Franklin—a township on the river Huon, in the county of Buckingham, about 28 miles from Hobart and 149 from Launceston. It has an assistant police magistrate, an episcopal church and school, and a post station. Franklin—a village on the main road, 117 miles from Hobart and 3 from Launceston. It contains a small church, an excellent private school, and two inns. About half a mile on the south side of the village there is a substantial stone bridge crossing a deep ravine. George Town—a town in the parish of George Town and county of Dorset, 153 miles from Hobart, and 32 from Launceston. It is situated on the shore of a small bay of the Tamar, about 4 miles from the entrance. It was originally intended to fix the northern head-quarters at George Town, but the scarcity of water, and some other local disadvantages, caused the abandonment of the plan. The town is now chiefly supplied from Launceston, many inhabitants of which resort to it as a summer residence. It contains a small church, a school, three inns, and has a resident magistrate and a post station. The population of the town and district is 601, the number of houses 115. There is a road to George Town down the eastern side of the Tamar, but communication is chiefly carried on by water.... Outward-bound vessels waiting for a fair wind usually anchor off George Town, where there is a convenient bay. Glenorchy—a township and post station in the parish of Glenorchy and county of Buckingham, 7 miles from Hobart, near New Town. Gordon—a river on the western coast. It passes through a wild and romantic country, and falls into Macquarie Harbor. Great Swan Port—a bay on the eastern coast. A river of the same name falls into it. The district has a police magistrate, an episcopal and a presbyterian church, and a post station. The population of the town and district is 1,684, and the number of houses 274, 105 being of stone or brick. Green Ponds—a district and township 29 miles north of Hobart, on the main road. It is situated in a fine valley, at the southern entrance of which is Constitution Hill. There is a church (St. Mary's) and school, a congregational chapel, two inns, and a police and post station. The assistant police magistrate of Brighton holds a court at Green Ponds twice in a week. Grindlewald—a township in the parish of Denbigh and county of Somerset, about 80 miles from Hobart. Hadspen—a village on the Westbury road, in the parish of Launceston, 128 miles from Hobart. There is a small church, a Wesleyan chapel, an inn and a post station. The South Esk is crossed by a wooden bridge at this place. Hamilton—a town on the Clyde in the parish of Hamilton and county of Monmouth, 43 miles from Hobart and 93 from Launceston. There is a church (St. Peter's) and school, two inns, and other buildings in the township, which has also a resident police magistrate and a post station. The population, including that of the district, is 1,415, and the number of houses 281. Hobart—in the parish of Hobarton, and county of Buckingham, is the chief town of the colony, and is in lat. 42 deg.. 53'. S., and long. 147 deg.. 21'. E. It was named after Lord Hobart, once secretary for the colonies; and stands on the shores of Sullivan's Cove, about 15 miles from the entrance of the Derwent. It is finely situated on a rising ground, and covers a surface of nearly two square miles. On the western side it is bounded by a range of wooded hills, with Mount Wellington, a snow-capped mountain, 4,000 feet high, in the back-ground. On the southern side of the harbor there are many beautiful residences, and, on a commanding eminence, fine military barracks. Close to the harbor, on the western side, stands the government-house, an extensive range of wooden buildings, erected at different times. Mulgrave Battery is on the southern side of the harbor. The streets are regular and well made; and many of the buildings—some built of freestone—are commodious and handsome. The wharves are extensive and well constructed, and are lined with numerous large stone warehouses and stores. St. David's church is a large well-built brick edifice, in the Gothic style, stuccoed, and well fitted up. The court house, nearly opposite the church, is a large stone building, containing various offices. The hospital and prisoners' barracks, on the north-eastern side, are extensive buildings. The police office is a substantial edifice. The female factory and orphan schools, a short distance from the town, on the western side, are commodious buildings. The commissariat stores, the treasury, the bonded stores, the custom-house, and other public buildings are built of freestone. The legislative council chamber is included in the custom-house. On the north side of the harbor are situated the engineer stores and other government buildings. On this side also is the government domain, a large open piece of ground, used as a place of amusement and exercise. The magnetical observatory is erected here. Many of the shops are large and handsome. Besides St. David's (the cathedral church), there are three handsome episcopalian churches—Trinity, St. George's, and St. John's. There are two presbyterian churches—St. Andrew's and St. John's—both commodious buildings—one Roman catholic church, two Wesleyan chapels, three congregational churches, a baptist chapel, a free presbyterian church, and a synagogue. There are four banks and a bank for savings, three local and two English insurance companies, and a company to establish steam communication with the adjoining colonies. The educational establishments are the High School and Hutchins' School, besides private schools. The public institutions are the Mechanics' Institute, the Tasmanian Society of Natural Science, the Royal Society, the Public Library, Gardeners' and Amateurs' Horticultural Society, St. Mary's Hospital, Dispensary and Humane Society, Dorcas Society, Hebrew Benevolent Institution, Asylum for the protection of destitute and unfortunate females, Branch Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and for the Propagation of the Gospel, Auxiliary Bible Society, Wesleyan Library and Tract Society, Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, Auxiliary London Missionary Society, Wesleyan Missionary Society, Colonial Missionary and Christian Instruction Society, Infant School, Auxiliary of British and Foreign School Society, Wesleyan Strangers' Friend Society, Sunday School Union (including eight schools), three Masonic Lodges, Masonic Benevolent Fund, three Odd-fellow's Lodges, with Widows' and Orphans' Funds attached, Independent Order of Rechabites, Hibernian Benefit Society, four Temperance Societies, Society of Licensed Victuallers, Choral Society, Mercantile Assistants' Association, Turf Club, Bathing Association. There are a wet dock and a patent slip, and 170 vessels belonging to the port, their collective tonnage being 14,640. The population is 23,107, and the number of houses 4,050; 2,932 of which are of stone or brick. Five bi-weekly newspapers and a Government Gazette are published in Hobart. T. D. Chapman, Esq., and J. Dunn, jun., Esq., are the first members of council for the city. Huon—a river which falls into the sea about 30 miles below Hobart. At its mouth there is a pretty island of 300 acres, also called Huon. On the northern side of the river, about 5 miles from the entrance, there is a beautiful bay, named by the French discoverers the Port of Swans. The banks of the stream are finely wooded, and the timber, of which immense quantities are cut, is of great value. Fine spars for shipbuilding purposes are found here, as well as the mimosa bark. Ships of considerable tonnage can ascend the river for a distance of many miles. In the upper part of the river grows the valuable pine, to which the name of the district has been given. Many of the trees attain to a gigantic size, and some have measured ninety feet in circumference. The district contains on the banks of the Huon many fine farms, and the population is 2,988; the number of houses, 570. Richard Cleburne, Esq., is the first member for the district. Hythe—a township at South Port, a harbor on the western side of Entrecasteaux's Channel. The township stands on the South Port river, which falls into the bay, and is about 50 miles from Hobart. Ilfracombe—a village on the west bank of the Tamar, 25 miles from Launceston. Invermay—a village near Launceston, on the road to George Town. Isis—a beautiful river in Somerset, falling into the Macquarie, about 6 miles north of the village of Lincoln, which, with Auburn, stands on its banks. Jericho—a township and post station on the Jordan, in the parish of Spring Hill and county of Monmouth, 43 miles from Hobart, and 78 from Launceston. On the southern side is the district called Lovely Banks. Jerusalem—a township in the parish of Ormaig and county of Monmouth, 28 miles from Hobart, near the source of the Coal River. A police magistrate's court is held here once in a week, and there is a post station. An episcopalian clergyman is stationed at this place, and ministers of other denominations occasionally officiate in the district. Jordan—a river flowing from a lagoon near Oatlands, and falling into the Derwent at Herdsman's Cove. It passes by Brighton. Kangaroo Point—a village on the eastern side of the Derwent, opposite Hobart. A police magistrate's court is held there twice in a week, and there is a post station, a chapel, and a school. After crossing the Derwent, the road from Hobart to Richmond and Sorell begins at this place. Kelso Bay—a small bay on the western side of the Tamar, opposite George Town. There are several marine residences on its shores. King—a small river rising near Mount Sorell, on the western side of the island, and falling into Macquarie Harbor. Kingston—a town at the entrance of Brown's River, about 10 miles south of Hobart, and 130 from Launceston. It has an episcopal church and school, and a post station. Lakes—In the south-eastern part of the county of Westmoreland lay several large lakes,—Great Lake, Crescent Lake, Arthur's Lake, Lake Sorell, and Lake Echo. The first has a circumference of about 90 miles; the others vary from 10 to 30 miles round. They are situated on high land, amidst magnificent and picturesque scenery. They are frequented by innumerable quantities of black swans, and game of every kind, and large flocks of kangaroos and emus are found in their vicinity. Lake River—a considerable stream which rises among the lakes in the south-eastern part of Westmoreland, and joins the South Esk at Longford. Launceston—in the parish of Launceston and county of Cornwall, is the second town of the colony, and is in lat. 41 deg.. 24'. S., and lon. 147 deg.. 10'. E. It stands at the confluence of the North and South Esk rivers, which here discharge their waters into the Tamar. It is 121 miles from Hobart, and 40 from the sea at Port Dalrymple. On the east and west it is bounded by hills, and on the north stretches the valley of the Tamar. The town is well laid out, and viewed from the hills which overlook it, or from the Tamar, it has a picturesque appearance. The wharves, which afford accommodation to vessels of large tonnage, extend along the river which forms the northern boundary. Farther up are numerous spacious stores and other commercial buildings. There are two large episcopalian churches, a handsome presbyterian church, a Roman catholic church (all built in the Gothic style), a Wesleyan chapel, two congregational chapels, a free church, a baptist chapel, and a synagogue, all neat and commodious buildings. The court house, the gaol, the house of correction, female factory, and several other government establishments, are large and well-built. Many of the shops, offices, inns, and private buildings are of considerable size and respectable appearance. On the hill which bounds the town on the eastern side, and commands a splendid view of the town and river, are many private residences and gardens. There are four banks, four insurance offices, three printing establishments, and two bi-weekly newspapers. The principal public offices are the police office, the custom-house, the post office, and the port office. The population of the town is 10,855, the number of houses, 2,181; 798 of which are of stone or brick. There are an episcopal grammar school, a Wesleyan day school, an infant school, three episcopal day schools, a catholic school, seven Sunday schools, and numerous private schools. The public institutions, besides the banks and insurance offices, are a mechanics' institute and reading room, a library society, several circulating libraries, two horticultural societies, a benevolent society, auxiliary bible society, two masonic lodges, odd fellows society, rechabite society, and a teetotal society. There are 70 vessels belonging to the port, their collective tonnage being 8,564 tons. There is also a floating dock. Richard Dry, Esq., the hon. the speaker of the Legislative Council, is the first member for the electoral district of Launceston. Leipsic—a township in Cornwall, at the St. Paul's River. Leven—a river which rises near Mount Gipps in the county of Devon, and falls into Bass' Strait, about 10 miles east of Emu Bay. Liffey—a small stream in Westmoreland which falls into the Meander or Western river, a short distance north of Carrick, which stands on its banks. Lincoln—a village in Somerset at the junction of the rivers Macquarie and Isis, about 95 miles from Hobart, and 30 from Launceston. It contains an inn and a few houses. Little Swan Port—a boat harbor at Oyster Bay, on the eastern coast. A stream of the same name falls into it. Llewellyn—a small village in Somerset, on the road from Campbell Town to the eastern coast, near the South Esk. Longford—a town prettily situated at the junction of the rivers Lake and South Esk, in the parish of Longford and county of Westmoreland, 115 miles from Hobart, and 14 from Launceston. The population of the town and district is 3,829, and the number of houses 595, half of which are of stone or brick. It has a resident police magistrate, (who is also deputy chairman of quarter sessions and the court of requests,) a postmaster, and other officers. It contains a neat episcopal church, built in the Gothic style, several schools, a Wesleyan chapel, a court house and gaol, several large inns, a brewery, a mill, and many substantial buildings. Longford is also an electoral district, for which Joseph Archer, Esq., is the first member. Macquarie—a river which rises in the northern part of the county of Monmouth, and flowing through Somerset, by Ross and Lincoln, joins the Lake after receiving the waters of the Elizabeth, Blackman's, and Isis. The district through which the Macquarie flows, is one of the finest in the island, and on its banks are the residences of numerous settlers. On the eastern bank, about five miles from Campbell Town, there is a presbyterian church, having a resident minister. There is also a post station. Macquarie Harbor—a large bay on the western coast, into which fall the rivers King and Gordon. There was once a penal settlement here, but it has long been abandoned. The country along this part of the coast, and to a considerable distance inland, has not yet been opened up, and is little known. It is high, and in some places rocky and mountainous. Pine of good quality is procured in the neighbourhood. Macquarie Plains—a district in Cumberland, on the northern side of the Derwent. It contains several sheep and agricultural farms, and the village of Macquarie, 39 miles from Hobart, which contains a church and post station. Maitland—a township on the Isis. Maria Island—(so named by Tasman), an island off the eastern coast of the county of Pembroke, about 7 miles from the main land. A narrow sandy isthmus connects the northern and southern parts of the island, and has on its western side Oyster Bay, and on the eastern Reidle Bay. The scenery is romantic and picturesque. The northern and southern coasts are high and rocky. In the northern part there is a remarkable mountain, 3,000 feet high, on the summit of which are two rocks projecting one above the other, called the Bishop and Clerk. The base is composed of petrified shells. Near here on a small stream is the penal settlement of Darlington, at which are several government buildings, the residences of a commandant, magistrate, religious instructors, and other officers, and a post station. Marlborough—a village in Cumberland, near the Ouse. The assistant police magistrate of Hamilton holds a court here, and at the bridge on the Ouse once in a week. Meander—a small stream which rises in the western mountains, and, passing Deloraine, falls into the South Esk at Hadspen. The Dairy, Quamby, and Liffey rivulets fall into it. Mersey—a considerable river in Westmoreland, which rises in the western mountains, and falls into Bass' Strait, about 10 miles west of Port Sorell. Its mouth forms a small harbour, called Port Frederic. There is a village called Frogmore at this place, where timber is cut and exported. Coal has been found in the neighbourhood. Montague—a small stream falling into Bass' Strait, in the north west corner of the island. Morven—a northern electoral district. It consists of agricultural farms, and Evandale is the chief town. The town and district contain 2,311 inhabitants, and 372 houses. James Cox, Esq., is the first member for the district. Mountains—The principal mountains are the western range in Westmoreland, of which the highest point is Quamby's or Dry's Bluff, 4,590 feet above the sea; a high rocky range in Cornwall, of which Ben Lomond and Ben Nevis are the highest points, and the Eldon range. A range extends along the western coast, and another farther inland, of which the highest points are the Frenchman's Cap, 3,800 feet above the sea; Mount Arrowsmith, east of the former, 4,075 feet high; Mount Humboldt, 5,520 feet; Cradle Mountain, 4,700 feet. St. Valentine's Peak, on the Van Diemen's Land Company's estate, is 4,000 feet high; Mount Wellington, near Hobart Town, 4,195 feet. Neville—a township in the parish of Abergavenny and county of Cumberland, on the Clyde. New Norfolk—a town in the parish of New Norfolk and county of Buckingham, on the Derwent and Lachlan rivulet, 21 miles from Hobart, and 119 from Launceston. It has a resident police magistrate and post master, and contains an episcopal church (St. Matthew's) and school, a Wesleyan chapel, and another place of worship, a police office, a government house, an asylum for insane persons, and several inns. The population of the town and district is 2,226, and the number of houses, 389. The district contains several fine farms. Coaches run daily to New Norfolk from Hobart, and communication between the two places is also carried on by means of boats on the Derwent. New Norfolk is also an electoral district, for which M. Fenton, Esq., is the first member. Newtown—a town in the parish of Hobart and county of Buckingham, 2 miles north of Hobart, and 119 from Launceston. It contains an episcopal church (St. John's) and school, a handsome congregational chapel, the Queen's orphan schools, two inns, a post station, and several handsome private residences. Nile—a small river which rises near Ben Lomond and falls into the South Esk, about 10 miles south of Evandale. Nive—a river which forms the western boundary of the county of Cumberland, and falls into the Derwent. Norfolk Plains—a fine district in the north-eastern part of Westmoreland, between the rivers Lake, South Esk, and Liffey. It consists chiefly of small agricultural farms, and contains the towns of Longford and Carrick, and the villages of Bishopsbourne and Cressy. Cressy is on the estate of the Van Diemen's Land Establishment, and has a small episcopal church, a Wesleyan chapel, and an inn. North Esk—a river which rises in the Ben Lomond range, in the eastern part of the county of Cornwall, and falls into the Tamar at Launceston. The St. Patrick's river, a small stream, falls into it. Oatlands—a considerable town in the parish of Oatlands and county of Monmouth, 51 miles from Hobart, and 70 from Launceston. It contains an episcopal (St. Matthew's) and Roman catholic church, a Wesleyan chapel, several schools, a gaol, police and post offices, a military station, several inns, and other large buildings. It has a resident police magistrate, and courts of request and quarter sessions are held in the town. The supreme court sits twice in a year. The population of the town and police district is 1,873, and the number of houses 279. Oatlands is also an electoral district, for which H. F. Anstey, Esq., is the first member. Orielton—a village in the parish of Sorell, and county of Pembroke, on the eastern side of Pittwater Bay. Ouse—a considerable river which rises in the western side of the county of Westmoreland, and falls into the Derwent in the southern part of Cumberland. At the bridge on the upper part of the river, there is a village, containing a church and school house, and a post and police station. The assistant police magistrate of Hamilton holds a court here once in a week. Oyster Bay—a harbor on the eastern coast. The rivers Swan and Little Swan Port and other streams fall into it. The road from Prossor's to St. Paul's Plains is along its western side, and on the eastern side is Shouten's Island, where coal of good quality is procured. The bay has several boat harbors. There are several farms on the western side. There is a bay of the same name on the western side of Maria Island. Patterson's Plains—a district in Cornwall, lying south-west of Launceston. It is watered by the North Esk, on which are two flour mills, and a bridge. The district has a small episcopal church and school, and a Wesleyan chapel. Pedder—a lake and river on the western side of the island, named after the Chief Justice. Perth—a town on the northern bank of the South Esk, in the parish of Perth and county of Cornwall, 110 miles from Hobart, and 11 from Launceston. It has an episcopal church and school, a Wesleyan chapel, three inns, and a police and post station. The South Esk is crossed at this place by one of the best stone bridges in the island. Picton—a township in the parish of Dysart and county of Monmouth. Piper's—a small river in Dorset, which falls into Bass' Strait, near Stony Head. Plenty—a small stream in Buckingham, falling into the Derwent above New Norfolk. Port Arthur—one of the penal settlements on Tasman's Peninsula. Port Dalrymple—the entrance of the Tamar, so called by Captain Flinders, in honor of the hydrographer to the admiralty. Port Davey—a large harbor, lying on the south-western coast. Ramsgate—a village on the shore of D'Entrecasteaux's channel, in Kent. Richmond—a town at the mouth of the Coal River, in the parish of Ulva and county of Monmouth, 15 miles from Hobart, and 100 from Launceston. It contains an episcopal and a catholic church, a congregational chapel, a police office, post station, a gaol, and court house, and several inns. It has a resident police magistrate, and the population of the town and district, which consists of farms, is 3,144, and the number of houses 545, nearly half of which are of stone or brick. The Coal River, which here falls into the bay of Pittwater, is crossed at the town by an excellent stone bridge of six arches. Richmond is an electoral district, for which T. G. Gregson, Esq., is the first member. Risdon—a village at Clarence Plains, nearly opposite Hobart. There is a ferry at this place, which was the site of the first settlement in the colony. Rochford—a township in Cumberland. Ross—a township on the Macquarie, in the parish of Ross and county of Somerset, 73 miles from Hobart, 47 from Launceston, and 6 from Campbell Town. It contains an episcopal church and school, a chapel, a police and post station, and two inns. The police magistrate of Campbell Town holds a court here once in a week. There is a bridge across the Macquarie at this township. The district is chiefly agricultural. Rugby—a township on the Derwent, in the parish of Sutherland and county of Buckingham. Shannon—a river which rises at the Great Lake in Westmoreland, and falls into the Ouse. Shepton Montacute—a township in Monmouth. Sidmouth—a village on the west bank of the Tamar, about 20 miles from Launceston. There is a presbyterian church here, and a resident minister. Sorell—a town in the parish of Sorell and county of Pembroke, 23 miles from Hobart, and 144 from Launceston. It has an episcopal church (St. George's) and school, a presbyterian church, a police and post office, and other public buildings. There is a resident police magistrate. The population of the town and district is 3,354, and the number of houses 370. A small stream falls into the bay of Pittwater, close to the town. The district is electoral; Askin Morrison, Esq., is the first member. South Esk—a considerable river which rises in the eastern part of the county of Dorset, and after a circuitous course, in which it passes the towns of Fingal, Avoca, Evandale, Perth, and Longford, falls into the Tamar at Launceston. About half a mile from the place where it joins the Tamar, the river forms a considerable basin, surrounded by lofty hills, and having a water-fall at the upper part. A few yards lower down, there is another cataract—one of the most magnificent in the island—and the river continues its course to the Tamar between two high and almost perpendicular hills. Along one of these hills a wooden aqueduct is carried, which conveys water to turn a mill and supply the town. The river is crossed here by a ferry, which leads to the road down the western side of the Tamar. The view up the Esk at this place is one of the most picturesque in the colony. South Port—a harbor on the western side of D'Entrecasteaux Channel. Styx—a branch of the river Derwent in Buckingham. Summerleas—a township in the parish of Kingborough and county of Buckingham. Swansea—a township in Glamorgan on the western side of Oyster Bay, 74 miles from Hobart, and 194 from Launceston. It has a police and post station. Tamar—a fine river in Cornwall, at the head of which stands the town of Launceston. It is navigable from its entrance to the town—about forty miles—for ships of 600 tons, and is of considerable width—in some places of three miles. At the wharves at Launceston the tide rises from twelve to fourteen feet. On the banks of the river are some good farms, and the scenery is generally picturesque. Tasman's—a large peninsula forming the south-eastern part of the county of Pembroke. There is a smaller one, called Forrester's, between it and the main land. Tasman's Peninsula has several fine bays, and contains some penal stations. Tenby—a township at Spring Bay in the county of Pembroke. Tierney—a township in the Lake River. Trent—a small river in Devon, which falls into Bass' Strait, near Rocky Cape. Triabunna—a village at Prossor's Bay. Tunbridge—a town in the parish of Maxwell and county of Somerset, a few miles south of Ross, on a small stream called Blackman's River, which falls into the Macquarie. Victoria—a village on the river Huon. Westbury—a town in the parish of Westbury and county of Westmoreland, 140 miles from Hobart, and 20 from Launceston. It has a resident police magistrate, a postmaster, and other officers, and contains an episcopal church and school, a Roman catholic church and school, a Wesleyan chapel, and three inns. The town and district has a population of 2,842, and 420 houses. William Archer, jun., Esq., is the first member for the electoral district. Windermere—a village on the eastern bank of the Tamar, about 15 miles from Launceston. It has an episcopal church and a mill. Wye—a branch of the Swan Port River. TASMANIA: PRINTED BY J. S. WADDELL, LAUNCESTON. * * * * * NOTES AND ERRATA. Transcriber's Note: the following errata have been corrected in the text above. Page 14. Black Tom, executed, was not the murderer of Mr. Osborne, but a servant of Mrs. Birch of the same name. Page 27, for "north-east belonging," read "north-west." Page 71, for "1839," read "1830." Page 71, for "Oyster Bay," read "Oyster Cove." Page 90, for "Monododo," read "Monboddo." Page 92, for "aborigina," read "aborigine." Note, page 101. Conditional servitude, under indentures or covenants, had from the first existed in Virginia. The servant stood to his master in the relation of a debtor bound to repay the cost of his emigration by employing his powers for the benefit of his creditors—oppression easily ensued. Men who had been transported to Virginia at the expense of L10, were sometimes sold for L40 or L50, or even for L60. The supply of white servants became a regular business, and a class of men, nick-named "spirits," used to delude young persons and idlers into embarking for America as to a land of plenty. White servants came to be a usual article of traffic. They were sold in England to be transported, and in Virginia, were resold to the highest bidder. In 1672, the average prices for five years service when due, was about L10.—Bancroft, vol. i. p. 175. "The Scots, whom God delivered into your bands at Durbar, whereof sundry were sent here, we have been desirous as we could, to make their yoke easy. Such as were sick of the scurvy or other diseases, have not wanted physic and surgery. They have not been sold for slaves, to perpetual servitude, but for six, or seven, or eight years, as we do our own; and he that bought the most of them I hear, buildeth for every four of them a house, and layeth some acres of ground thereto, which he giveth them as their own, requiring them three days of the week to work for him by turns, and four days for themselves, and promises as soon as they can repay him the money laid out for them, he will set them at liberty."—Letter to Cromwell, by Mather Cotton: Carlyle's Letters and Speeches, vol. ii. p. 349. Page 102. "I beseech your Majesty that I may inform that each person will be worth ten pounds, if not fifteen pounds a-piece. And, sir, if your majesty orders that as you have already designed, persons that have not suffered in the service, will run away with the booty."—Letter from Jefferies, Sep., 1685. "Take all care they continue to serve for ten years at least, and that they be not permitted in any manner to redeem themselves by money or otherwise until that term be fully expired. Prepare a bill for the assembly of our colony, with such clauses as shall be necessary for this purpose."—James II. Letters (countersigned by Sunderland) to the Governor of Virginia, Oct., 1685—Bancroft, vol. ii. p. 25. Page 102. "Good God! where am I? In Bristol! This city it seems, claims the privilege of hanging and drawing among themselves. I find you have more need of a special commission once a month at least. The very magistrates that should be ministers of justice, fall out with one another to that degree, that they will scarcely dine together, and yet I find they can agree for their interests if there be a kid in the case, for I hear that kidnapping is much in request in this city. You discharge a felon or traitor, provided he will go to Mr. Alderman's plantations in the West Indies."—Jefferies Speech: Life of Lord Keeper Guilford, by Roger North, vol. ii. p. 113. Note, page 121. A commission was appointed to enquire into those allegations, and their report fell into the hands of the author after the account of the Amphitrite was printed. It does not appear, that the imputations of sordid calculation were well grounded, and no bond would have been enforced for an unavoidable breach of contract. Page 148, for "free women," read "freed women." Page 149, for "Macarthur's New South Wales," read "Mudie's Felonry." Page 151, for "12,000," read "1,200 houses." Page 155, for "regarded by," read "appeared to." Page 166. Rev. S. Marsden. A pamphlet was published by Mr. Marsden, called A Statement Relative to Illegal Punishment (1828). A warrant to this effect was produced:—"Sitting magistrates—Henry Grattan Douglas, Esq., and Rev. S. Marsden. James Blackburn, attached to the prisoners' barracks, ordered to receive twenty-five lashes every morning until he tells who were the four men in company with him gambling." This warrant, Mr. Marsden declared a forgery. Other charges were made of the same character, but they were refuted by Mr. Marsden. He proved his absence from the bench when sentences of torture were passed. In the text there is an apparent leaning to the charge, but there appears no fair ground to reject Mr. Marsden's refutation, which is most decisive as to his own participation in this revolting practice. Page 189, for "real name," read "known name." Page 271, for "primitive," read "punitive." Page 321, for "Report of Institutions," read "Report of Hanwell Institution." Page 335. The long delay in the publication of this work has given time for several important changes in the aspect of convict discipline. The local government of Van Diemen's Land, resolved in November, 1850, to restore the practice of assignment, and notices for this purpose were issued. Thus the convict was bound to serve his master according to the duration of his sentence, and to accept such wages as the convict department might sanction. The object of this change was to reconcile the settlers to the continuance of transportation, by restoring an interest and authority which the probation system subverted. The men who had been promised comparative liberty on their arrival, complained bitterly of this change, and claimed to work as free servants with masters of their own choice. Earl Grey expressed strong disapproval of this return to a system expressly repudiated by his party, and condemned by himself, and ordered the governor to compensate the men for breach of faith. August 4. 1851; No. 156. The discovery of gold has altered the prospects of laborers. The amazing productiveness of the gold fields has withdrawn almost all good free labor from the colony. The active convict has the means of earning large wages, or of reaching the gold fields at an expense estimated at L5, including hush money. Thus the Gazette, from January 6, to March 30, 1852, shows the absconding of 492, and the arrest of 254. Yet many are not reported, and are therefore not included in these lists. The incessant agitation of the colonies has produced considerable activity in the department, and external decency is respected. The more prominent establishments—both male and female, are creditably kept, and probably the internal evils are abated; and yet what can be hoped for men who, on their discharge from detention, recognise everywhere the associations and the haunts of convictism? THE END	Tamar
On this day in which year was Nelson Mandela inaugurated as President of South Africa?	Full text of "Union Line of Steamers: Tourists Guide to Tasmania" See other formats Google This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for general ions on library shelves before il was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world's books discoverable online. Il has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often diflicult to discover. Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher to a library and finally to you. 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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's hooks while helping authors ami publishers reach new audiences. You can search through I lie lull text of this book on I lie web at \|http : //books . qooqle . com/\| J \. \ \ f Y\ \ "U- y "n \ V «.** / H jtWsn fpue of jf tt&mm. T8UR1STS* &UIDE TO flSffilRffi. GiZecp&tz'f Tasmania: nUTKD AT "THE MERCURY" OFFICE, HACQUIRIB STB ISM ■:>% __^ - £ii . aT. X.. »OOP, & I FHENEW YOfUcI : 'UI>L-iC LIBhARYJ TABLE OF _ _ £ 300689 TlLDE#ft!ftj R tfOS Barrack Square, Hobart, 29 Baths, Hobart, 28 Baths, Launceston, 62 Beaconsfield, 66 Bellerive, 30 Bicycle Regulations, 15 Bookings for Passengers, 15 Botanical Gardeas, 28 Brown's River Road from the Shot Tower, View, 30 Burnie, Emu Bay, View, 58 Cab Fares, Oity of Hobart, 103 Campbell's Potteries, Launceston, 64 Cape Pillar, View, 18 Cascades, 29 Cataract Gorge, Launceston, 62, 63 Churches in Hobart, 28 Churches in Launceston, 62 Circular Head, 51 City Park, Launeeston, 64 Clubs in Hobart, 28 Corra linn, 64 Corinna, 51 D Deloraine, 6€ Benison Gorge, 64 Berwe»t Park, 29 Devon port, 53 Dundas, 49 E Eaglehawk Neck, 33 Editor^ Note, 6 Electric Light Works, Launceston, 63 Emu Bay, 58 English Trout, caught at the Great Lake, View, 40\ : . .•• •„ • •. Entrance Island, ffeH'» Gates^ Mae- qnarie Harbour, View, 2 • Evandale, 65 . • « • . • • Excursions from Devonpor$; 55-62 : Fern Tree Bower ana" JMfc .Wiling' von. o« « • • • • Forth, 56 Franklin Square, 29 Franklin, 36 Franklin, looking South, View, 36 Frederick Henry Bay, 30 CONTENTS. George Town and Lef roy, 65 General Information for Passengers, 12, 15 Often Lusk and Moles worth, 33 Qdt Clubs in Hobart, 28 Gordon River, 47 GfeamviHe Harbour, 51 Great Lake, 41 . Ghudte to Excursions in Tasmania, 27 Guide Falls, near Burnie, View, 58 H Halle in Hobart, 28 Halls in Launceston, 62 Harts Mountain Lakes, 42 Hell's Gates, Port Davey, View, 44 Heaty River, View, 46, 47 m Historical Sketch of Tasmania, 17-26 Hobart and Mt. Wellington, 26 Hobart, Situation and Population, 27 Huen, 36 z Kelly Basin, 48 Kingston, Brown's River, 30 King River, View, 46 L Lady Franklin Museum, 29 Lake Eeho, 39 Lake St. Clair, 39 Lakes Sorell and Crescent, 39 L « taobe ' 65 J ,i ir o Launoeetonfrem Trevallyn, View, 6 I Launceston, 62 Leugley, 36 Longer Excursions from Launceston, Longer Bxcrsns. from Strahan, 48-52. Longford, 65 Lovett from E. Port Cygnet, Ft€«, M List of Works relating to Tas , 75-84 Lyell Mine, View, 50 Macquarie Harbour, Strahan, the * TSflvet' and Copper Fields, and •V Cfr<mlar Head, 43 • Main Street, Waratah, View, 60 I •Jle$hanicB , Institute and Library, launceston, 63 ••Mdorina and Dei by, 70 • "Jit. Rumney, 30 ;• -Mt. Nelson, 32 ^&. Wellington from Huon Road, V iew ' 32 „. oct Mt. Ida, Lake St. Clair, View, 36 Mt. Read, 49 Mt. Lyell, 50 Ill New Town Waterfall, 29 New Norfolk from the Pulpit Rock, View, 30 North Bast Dundas Railway, View, 50 North West Coast of Tasmania, 52 North East Coast, 67 o Offices of the Union Steam Shipping Company, 2 One Day Excursoins from Hobart, 30-34 One Day Excursions from Laun- ceston, 64, 65 One Day Excursions from Strahan, 47, 48 Oonah, steamer at Hobart, View, 24 Page's Bay, Port Davey, View, 46 Passage Tickets, 13 Passengers' Baggage, 14 Passengers' Letters and Telegrams, 15 Places of Interest in and about Hobart. 28, 29 Places of Interest in and about Launceston, 63, 64 Places of Interest in and about Devonport, 54, 55 Penguin, the, 56 Polo and Racing Clubs in Hobart, 28 Population of Hobart and Suburbs, 27 Port Arthur, 32 Port Arthur, View, 32 Port Esperance, 35 Port Cygnet, 36 Port Sorell, 55 Public Library, Hobart, 28 . Q Queen's Domain, Hobart, 29 B Railway Fares in Tasmania, 85-88 Recreation Grounds in Launceston, 62 ': 'V ' Reduced Railway Fares ©!• Aus- tralian Railways, 13 Regular Services of the Company, 3 - Richmond, 30 Risdon, near Hobart 29 s Salmon Ponds, View, 30 : ;; Salmon Ponds and New Norfolk, 31 Sandy Bay, 29 Sarah Island, Macquarie Harbour, 1830, View, 44 Sarah Island Ruins, Vie, 48 Scottsdale, 71 Settlement Island, 48 Sheffield, 61 „ _ Shot Tower, Brown's River Road, View, 30 Situation of Hobart, 27 Sketch of the Union Company s History, 7 South Arm, 35 Southport, 35 Spring Bay, 73 Stanley, 51 Steamers. list of, 1 Steamers' Libraries, 13 Steamers calling at Hobart, 28 St. Helens, 69 Strahan, 46 Strahan from North, View 9 46 Strahan, One Day Excursions from, 47-48 Strahan, Longer Excursions from, 48-52 Swansea, East Coast of, 71 T Table of Distances, 16 Tamar River from Cataract Hill, View, 64 Tasman, Portrait, 17 Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart, 28 Tasmanian Railways, Fares, etc., 85-88 Tennis Courts in Hobart, 28 Teepookana and King River, 47 Theatres in Hobart, 28 Theatres in Launceston, 62 Tourist Agency in Hobart, 28 Two Day Excursions from Hobart, 85-37 XJ TJlverstone, 56 V Various Lake Excursions from /H4brt,37, r . ' Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, Launceston', 63 w ' w£ratah,..Mt. Bischoff, 60 WWt^Dovoaport, View, 52 Woodbridge* Peppermint Bay, 37 Wynvardy^Jale Cape, 61 -» J • 19 J ■» > e o > •» ff Zeehan, 48 Zeehan from North, showing West Coast Range, View t 48 INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. Banks. Commercial Bank of Tasmania, 123. Board and Lodging. The Imperial, 93. Preseland, 93. Booksellers, Stationers, etc J. Waloh & Sons, 89. Butchers. T. Playfair, HI. Cider Manufacturers. Murdoch & Co., 120. Customs Agents. F. Hammond, 94. Educational. Hutchins School, 120. Electric Light, etc, Edison & Swan, 111. Siemens Bros., 112. Freezing Works. Hobart Freezing Co., 90. N. S. W. Fresh Food & Ice Co., 109. Hotels. Hadley's Orient, 90. Heathorn's, 90. Sea View, 96. New Bay Shelverton, 97. Furness' Corn- All Nations', Macquarie Har- Importers, etc* Stanley & Co., 115. Parson's Oatmeal, etc., 115. D. Mc Vicar, 116. W. White, Bread Factory, 117. James Inglis & Co., 118. James Ward, 118. J. Black- wood & Son, 119. Goodlet and Smith, 119. W.Orosby & Co., 124. Insurance Companies. Soottish Metropolitan Life and Accident Assurance Co., 90. National Fire & Marine In- surance Co. of N.Z., 95. A.M.P., 122. Ironmongers. Marsh & Co., 90. Irving, 116. Anderson and View, 97, Imperial, 97. mercial, 98. Zeehan, 98. bour, 98. Importers, etc Coulson, Hay, & Co., 94. Pea- cock & Smith, 94. Wood & Co., 94. Usher's O v V G. Whiskies, 96. Sandera^'a, • Au8t£a1iait . Wines, 100. MortV"J)ock^ and \ Engineering Co , 104. Gray and Gray, 105. J. Booth & $$"•'. 106. Smith & Kopsfcft, 101. Warburton & Son,* '107:' H. ' and A. A. Griffith,. 1X>7. 4 . %l: Lynch & Co., 108// W.J Robin . ' . son, 108. India Rubber Cot, • 113. J. Dynon, Son & Co., 113. Neptune Lubricating Oils, 114. Foster's A le & Stout, 114. Milk Co, Bacchus Marsh Concentrated Milk Co. Ltd., -93. Musical Instruments. Brinsmead & Sons, A. Byrne and Co., Agents, 88. Photographers. J. W. Beattie, 10t Railway. Emu Bay Railway, 99. Shipping Companies. •Qibb?, -/Bright, & Co., 121. Shaw, . <foniH, & Albion Co., 124. W. . Crtfsby & Co., 124. * - ^ourists. * World's Pictorial Route, A. & A., * • * 102. Tasmanian Tourist Associ- "7 * atton, 104. Grand Hotel, Blue ' " Mbuntains, 110. Gibbs, Bright, and Co., 121. Shaw, Savill, and Albion Co., 124. W. Crosby and Co., 124. Stem Stanm Sjrtp €a. of $.£>.; yttr. G. R, I.H.P. O.R. I.H.P. MOANA ... ... 4000 4000 UPOLU 1 141 xooo MOKOIA ... ... 3500 JvlM 1 ... •• .. XX22 600 MONOWAI ••♦ 3433 2800 RINGAROOMA X096 1250 WAIKARE ... 3071 3000 TAKAPUNA .. 930 2000 MARAROA ... 2598 3250 ROTORUA 926 1000 TEKAPO ... ... 2439 1500 PENGUIN 824 850 WANAKA .. ... 2422 1200 JANET NICOLJ L 779 500 RAKANOA ... 2246 800 OHAU 740 550 TALUNE ... ... 2078 2000 TAUPO 737 550 ROTOKINO . • a 2064 1000 ROSAMOND .. 721 450 WAIHORA ... 2003 1750 HAUPIRI 700 550 TARAWERA ... 2003 1750 WAINUI ... 640 755 HAUROTO ... 1988 X250 DINGADEE ... 640 550 WAKATIPU ... 1945 1250 OMAPERE 601 500 MANAPOURI ... X783 2050 MAWHERA ... 554 500 ROTOMAHANA 1763 2980 BRUNNER ... 540 700 OONAH ... ... 1757 2000 WAREATEA ... 460 350 HAWEA ... ... 1750 1000 AUSTRALIA ... 459 370 TAIERI ... ... 1668 750 MAHINAPUA... 458 500 TE ANAU ... 1652 1500 OROWAITI ... 453 350 TAVIUNI ... ... 1465 xooo KAWATIRI .. 453 350 PUKAKI ... ... 1444 700 KAI ORA 300 500 CORINNA... ... 1279 X200 S. CROSS 282 250 FLORA ... ... 1273 XOOO B'TFUL STAR. 177 150 OVALAU ... ... 1229 XOOO MAORI 174 300 PATEENA ... X2Z2 2000 WAIHI 92 100 MAPOURIKA POHERUA V>A<S T1AA ... ... 1203 "75 I200 600 Total Tonnage, 73,6ox Tons. ROTOITI ... . .. "59 X250 HEAD OFFICE, DUNEDIN, NEW ZEALAND. JAMES MILLS, Managing Director. TASMANIA. W. H. BLACKLLOCK, Manager, Winwn Steam Sjrip C0. of \|t J., % tir. hbad omos, dtomdin, w.z. JAMES MILLS, Managing Director. C. HOLDSWORTH, Chief Manager and Inspector. T. W. WHITSON, Secretary. 8. K. SLEIGH, General Traffic Manager. TASMANIAN BRANCHES AND AGENCIES. HOBABT LAUNCESTON DEVONPOBT STRAHAN §>ueenstown EEnAN BURNIE STANLEY MELBOURNE W. H. Blacklock, Manager for Tasmania. A. B. J. Irvine, Manager. Jas. Murray, Manager. Val. Johnson, Manager. D. Morrison, Sub-Manager. J. E. Cramond, Sub Manager. D. Rogers, Manager. E. Plummer, Agent. AUSTRALIAN BRANCHES. David Mills, Manager. NEWCASTLE, N.S.W D. Williams, Manager. SYDNEY, N.S.W Fredk. W. Jackson, Manager. OTTO 1 ZEALAND BRANCHES. AUCKLAND .. BLENHEIM .. PlCTON CHRISTCHURCH Lyttleton . . GISBOKNE . . INVERCARGILL Bluff NAPIER NKLSON OAMARU TARANAKI .. WELLINGTON WESTPORT .. T. Henderson, Manager. T. W. Orr. G. P. Morris, Sub-Manager. Geo. Lambie. Manager. D. Dalgleish, Sub-Manager. J. W. Cargill, Manager. C Edmunds, Manager. W. H. Price, Sub-Manager. Robert Puflett, Manager. Charles Keeble, Manager. Henry Aitken, Manager. D. Dougherty, Manager. W. A. Kennedy, Manager. C. J. Liggins, Manager. NEW ZEALAND AGENCIES. AKAROA Henning & Co. ASHBURTON F. Ferriman. GREYMOUTH Nancarrow & Co. HOKITIKI James A. Bonar. RANGIORA N. Canterbury, Co-operative Store Co. Ltd. RUSSELL (Bay of Islands) .. .. E. Ford & Co. TAURANGA W. M. COMMONS. TIMARU National Mortgage & Agency Co. WANGANUI Johnston & Co. ATJSTBALIAN AND FOREIGN AGENCIES. ADELAIDE A. U. S. N. Co. BRISBANE British India and Q. Agency Co. CALCUTTA Mackinnon, Mackenzie & Co. EDEN S. Solomon. HONOLULU W. G. Irwin & Co. LEVUKA and SUVA (Fiji) .. .. A. M. DUNCAN. SAN FRANCISCO J. D. SPRECKELS BROS. & Co. SINGAPORE Bousted & Co. APIA, HAAPAI, TONGA, VAVAU . . Pursers of Hauroto and Taviuni. RARATONGA Purser of Ovalau PAPEETE (Tahiti) . . F. C. R. Cramond. LONDON QVFZQE : 34 LEADENSALL-ST., E.0 V ^egnlat {5ei«Vice$ of the CSompani}. The following are the Sernlar Servioes carried on 1»y toe Steamers of toe UNION LUTE : AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Weekly from New Zealand to Melbourne, via Hobart, and vice versa Weekly „ „ Sydney ,, Cook Strait Weekly „ „ Sydney ,, Auckland AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA. •> ^ Twice Weekly from Melbourne to Launceeton, and vice versa. Weekly „ ,, Hobart „ „ Twice Weekly ,, ,, N.W. Por!s & Strahan & vice versa Fortnightly „ Sydney Launceeton, via Eden Every Ten Days,, „ Hobart, and vice versa >» ji SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. The Island Services of the Company afford Tourists and those in search of health and novelty an opportunity of visiting some of the most beautiful and celebrated Islands of the Pacific all the year round. The Services comprise a Steamer from Sydney to Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, and Auckland, every four weeks ; from Auck- land to Tonga, Samoa, Fiji, and Sydney, every four weeks ; from Auckland to Suva and Levuka and back, every four weeks ; and from Auckland to Rarotonga and Tahiti and back, every four weeks ; while a Steamer runs regularly between the Islands of the Fiji Group, and another at regular intervals between the Islands of the Society Group, extending monthly to the Marquesas Islands. NEW ZEALAND COASTAL There is almost Daily Communication between the Principal Ports. EUROPE via AMERICA— (The A. & A. Line). The Royal Mail Express Steamers of this Line are despatched from Sydney every fourth Monday, and proceed via Auckland, Samoa, and Honolulu to San Francisco, taking passengers for all European Ports on through tickets. Passengers have the privilege of stopping over at any ports en route, and also of travelling lo or from Samoa by the Company's Regular Island (Steamers. EDITOR'S NOTE. mHE general plan of this Guide should be apparent at a glance, but a word of explanation may be necessary about the fares quoted. They are in all cases the ordinary rates ruling throughout the year, the train and coach fares, except when otherwise specified, are for first-class return. Frequently, however, during the summer, excursion fares are charged on coach and train lines, so that the fares quoted may be considered as the outside cost of the various trips. The tariffs at country hotels and boarding-houses range from Six Shillings to Eight Shillings per day; in the cities from Eight Shillings to Twelve Shillings and Sixpence. The probable cost of long or short excursions may therefore be calculated with this book in hand before leaving home. The Editor wishes to tender very cordial thanks to Col. W. V. Legge, R.A., who assisted with material for the North East Coast tour, and Mr. J. B. Walker, F.R.G.S., who kindly revised the list of works relating to Tasmania. The illustrations are from photographs which have been carefully selected from the splendid collection of Mr. J. W. Beattie (Hon. Photographer to the Government of Tasmania), in order to give some idea of the variety of scenery to be found in the island. The picture of Tasman is taken from a valuable painting, said to be a genuine Van der Heldst, in the possession of L. G. Cockhead, Esq., of Uobart. Q. E. JfOBTOlf. Hobart, SHORT SKETCH OF THE UNION COMPANY'S HISTORY. HE UNION Steam Ship Company of New Zealand, Ltd., was established in Dunedin, New Zealand, in July, 1875, for the purpose of taking over the business and plant of the Harbour Steam Company, a small local pro- prietary which had been in existence for some years, and whose trade, originally confined to the carriage of passengers and cargo between Dunedin and Port Chalmers, had afterwards been extended to ports of the Middle Island. The steamers taken over consisted of three boats of small tonnage, "Maori" (118 tons register), "Beautiful Star" (146 tons), "Bruce " (460 tons), employed in the coastal trade of the Middle Island, and two steamers, "Hawea" and "Taupo," of what was then considered excessive tonnage (720 tons gross register each), which had been ordered some months previously, in view of the Company extending its operations to the North Island. The policy which the Directors of the Union Company adopted at the initiation of their operations, and which they hare consistently carried out until the present S time, was to look ahead and to make provision for all probable requirements, and also to have reserve plant available for unforeseen emergencies, or for new channels of trade which might offer employment for tonnage. The trade of the Company was at first confined to the coastal services of the Colony, with an occasional extension to Sydney. During the following year (1876) the Company took over the plant and business of the New Zealand Steam Shipping Company, a Wellington proprietary which had for some years been engaged in the coastal trade of the Colony. The next important step taken by the Directors was the purchase, in 1878, of the intercolonial fleet of Messrs. McMeckan, Blackwood, & Co., which at that time ran a weekly service between Melbourne and New Zealand. This acquisition strengthened the Company materially, as it completed the chain of communication between Melbourne, New Zealand, and Sydney, and prac- tically placed the entire coastal and intercolonial carrying in its hands. Seeing great possibilities in the development of the intercolonial trade, more particularly between New Zealand and Sydney, which was, to a large extent a free port, and offered a good market for New Zealand produce, the Directors decided upon procuring a steamer superior in every way to anything hitherto seen in the Colony, the result of which was the appearance in these waters in September, 1879, of the splendid steamer " BotolnahaBa, ,, soon to be known as the " greyhound of the Pacific," a sobriquet which she has enjoyed to the present time although in size nnd accommodation she has been sur- passed by subsequent additions to the fleet. It is worth noting that this steamer was the first trading vessel built of mild steel, and this material being the means of her escaping serious damage on the occasion of one or two mishaps in her earlier career, the fact was widely chronicled, and led to a revolution in ship-building, mild steel being now almost universally employed in the construction of the most valuable steamships. The courage of the Directors was rewarded by seeing the fleet fully occupied, and in pursuance of their policy to keep well ahead of the Colony's requirement, they continued to order steamer after steamer, each more luxuriously fitted than its predecessor. Every scientific improvement, either in the machinery or the fitting of vessels, was brought into requisition for their construction, so that from the modest beginning already recorded, the fleet of the Union Company has grown to be the largest and most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere. The connections of the Company have extended with their fleet. In 1881 it embarked in the South Sea Islands trade, beginning with a service between New Zea- land and Fiji, a service which has gradually been extended until it now includes regular monthly connections between New Zealand and Australia and the Island Groups of Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Earatonga, and Tahiti. In 1885, in conjunction with the Oceanic Steam Ship Company of San Francisco, it took up the mail service between the Colonies and the United States, and has retained it ever since. In 1891 the Company purchased the plant and business of the Tasmanian Steam Navigation Company, which for many years had carried on the trade between Tasmania and Australia. This acquisition completed the natural circuit of the Company's Australian trade, and the later absorption of a small local company working in close connection with the Union Company's business enabled the latter to make provision for the increasing trade brought about by the rapid development of the mines in the Western districts of Tasmania. It is unnecessary to record in detail how, year after year, the fleet and trade of the Company have grown to their present dimensions. It need only be stated that at the present time the fleet engaged in regular employment numbers 55 steamers, of an aggregate tonnage approaching 74,000 tons, and of these, fourteen range between 2,000 and 4,000 tons register. The passenger arrangements in these steamers are all of the most modern kind, and nothing has been spared to make travel by sea easy and comfortable. While the newer boats are fitted with all the luxuries that the skill of the ship-builder has made possible, many of the older boats of the fleet have been modernised by the introduction of improved machinery, electric light, and other arrangements which add to the pleasure of a voyage. As examples of the growth of the Company's business, it may be noted that at the close of 10 1876 the fleet comprised 9 steamers, and it now numbers .55. Tn 1876 the number of passengers carried was 25,000 and the cargo 95,000 tons. In 1897 these figures had increased to 173,330 and 1,131,535 respectively. The number of miles steamed by the fleet in 1876 was 171,000 and in 1897 1,819,680. The number of the Company's employees, i.e., those afloat and those on the permanent staffs ashore in receipt of monthly pay, and apart altogether from casual labourers, in 1876 was 223 and in 1897 close on 2,500. The Directors take special interest in the wel- fare of the Company's employees. Their crews enjoy peculiar comforts and privileges. A Benefit Society has been established in the interests of their men afloat, to which the Company contributes an annual subsidy ; and also contributes a considerable proportion of the annual premiums of its officers life insurances. Although the progress of the Company is largely the result of the prosperity of the Colonies, and the state of trade of the latter has a barometric effect on the Company's operations, it could not have attained and held its present position without wise heads and good judgment to direct its affairs. It has alwajs been fortunate in numbering amongst its directors men who hold leading positions in the commercial community, and whose energy and judgment are mutually recognised. The Chairman of the Company, the Hon. George McLean, M.L.C., has filled that position siuce the formation of the Company, while the general operations of the Company's business have been contin- uously controlled and administered by its first and present Managing Director, Mr. James Mills. The remaining Members of the Board, Messrs. E. B. Cargill, J. E. Jones, A. W. Morris, and J. M. Eitchie, are all well-known men in business circles, and have for many years past devoted their energy and ability to the development of the Com- pany's business and the administration of its affairs. In the regular trades of the Company there may be Included the Annual Excursions to the West Coast Sounds ot New Zealand. These have been run without interrup- tion since 1877, and from small beginnings have developed into trips that attract excursionists from all parts of the world. During January and February of each year the Company runs two, and occasionally three, trips, each 11 occupying nine days from Port Chalmers, during which the most attractive of the Sounds are visited. The steamer remains two days in Milford Sound to give excursionists an opportunity of visiting the Sutherland Falls, and as the Government has been steadily improving the track to thq Falls during the last few years, they are now easy of access. The social enjoyment of passengers is made a special feature of these excursions, the whole trip taking the form of an extended picnic. In January, 1899, the Company has in view making a new departure in connection with its West Coast Sounds trips. It has on many occasions been asked to extend its trips so as to include. Stewart Island and the beauti- ful Sounds in Cook Strait, Queen Charlotte and Pelorus Sounds. Besides their natural attractions, these possess a special interest on account of their connection with the great navigator, Captain Cook, who, on each of his visits to New Zealand, spent some time in Quean Charlotte Sound. To meet this generally expressed desire, the Company proposes to utilise its splendid new steamer " Waikare " in making a complete circuit of the Middle Island, calling at Half Moon Bay and Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island, proceeding thence to the most attractive of the West Coast Sounds, and afterwards to Pelorus and Queen Charlotte Sounds. The round trip from Dunedin and back will occupy 15 days, and the trip from Sydney to Melbourne, including the New Zealand excursion, 30 days, while passengers will be permitted to break their journey at any port en route. In addition to the Special Sounds Excursions, the Com- pany has organised several excursions to the Coral Islands of the South Pacific. The last of these, made by the "Waikare" in July, August, 1898, was a most brilliant success, and was the means of creating a great deal of interest in these islands. It is proposed to repeat the excursion in July- August, next year, and to vary the rotate slightly so as to break new ground to excursionists. The " Waikare" will leave Sydney about 1st July, 1899, and will visit in turn Auckland, the Tongan and Samoan Groups, Wallis Island, Fiji, Eotumah Island, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia, arriving back in Sydney about 10th August. 12 Qener&l Information for P&ssengtrs. The dates throughout the various services will be adhered to as closely as possible, but the Company reserve the right to despatch steamers in advance of, or later than the dates named, or to withdraw any Steamer altogether, and cannot be responsible for any loss or inconvenience occasioned thereby. The following starting signals will be used by the Com- pany's steamers, except on Sundays, when the whistle will not be sounded :— One long and one short blast of whistle at least 16 minutes before starting ; one long and two short blasts 5 minutes before starting ; .one long and three short blasts immediately before starting. In ports where the whistle is nob used, the same signals will be made by the ship's bell. The Cabin bell will be rung 5 minutes before starting, when all visitors are expected to leave the ship. The following are the meal hours on board the Company's steamers : Saloon — Breakfast, 830 a.m., except when steamers make an early arrival in port, when breakfast will be served at 8 a.m. ; Lunch, 1 p.m. ; Dinner, 6 p.m. Steerage —Breakfast, 8 a.m. ; Dinner, 12 noon ; Tea, 5 p.m. The Dressing Gong or Bugle is sounded a quarter- of -an- hour before dinner, and when meals are laid, every day. Porridge, tea, or coffee is served in the state rooms between 630 and 7 30 a.m. to those desiring it. Passengers will kindly give their orders the previous evening. All classes of passengers are victualled by the Company in a liberal style. Saloon Passengers are provided with bed- ding, linen, and every requisite, together with the attendance of experienced servants. Steerage passengers are provided with mattresses and rugs. Stewardesses are carried on all steamers. Lights in the Saloon are extinguished at 1030 p.m., and in the State Kooms at 11 p.m. The Bar closes at 1030 p.m. Smoking is prohibited in the Saloons, Cabins, or between deoks, and is permitted only on such parts of the deck where it may not inconvenience other passengers. As ib is the Company's desire to study the comfort and convenience of the travelling public as far as practicable, any communication to Branch Offices or to Head Office, at Dunedin, N.Z.. embodying suggestions in that direction will receive attention, and any well grounded complaints shall be promptly inquired into. 13 Steamers' Libraries. The Company's Steamers are supplied with a well selected Library of standard works in general literature. Passengers can make use of the Library on payment of a subscription of Is. for the voyage, or 6d. if only one work is borrowed. PASSACHE TICKETS. The general conditions on which Passengers are booked are stated fully on the back of the Passage Tickets issued by the Company. Tickets are on no account transferable. Passengers taking out Tickets to New Zealand Ports can remain at any inter- mediate Ports en route, such Ticket being available for three months from date of issue. Return Ticket holders will be permitted to remain three months at the Port for which they are booked, and return by the first steamer of the Company after that period. Return Tickets issued on the Tasmanian Australian lines are available for six months from date of issue. Children under two years of age, free; two years and under six, quarter fare; six years and under twelve, half fare. By arrangement with the Tasmanian Government Rail- way Department, Passengers booking at the Company's Offices in Hobart Melbourne, and Sydney, may obtain through Railway Tickets, and this Company's Tickets may also be obtained at the Hobart and Launceston Railway Stations. Passengers holding Railway Return Tickets can break their journey at any station between Hobart and Launceston, and Passengers between Launceston and Devonport holding Single Tickets can break their journey at any station, but must complete the through journey in six months. Reduced Railway Fares on Australian Railways. Tasmanian Passengers visiting Australia can be booked through by rail from Melbourne to Sydney or vice versa at specially reduced rates in conjunction with return steamer ticket. The certificate necessary to ensure this concession can be grocured from the Purser of the U.S.S. Co.'s Intercolonial teamer by which Passenger travels. 14 BAGOAGBL Each Adult Saloon Passenger will be allowed 20 cubic feet of baggage free. Each Adult Steerage Passenger will be allowed 10 cubic feetj free. Commercial Travellers allowed 40 cubic feet. All in excess of this quantity must be paid for at the current rate of freight. The company cannot hold itself responsible for any loss or damage to or detention of baggage under any circumstances unless booked as cargo and freight paid. Merchandise and Furniture will not be allowed to be carried under the designation of baggage. Packages containing jewellery, plate, and other valuables, must De specially booked, and freight paid thereon before shipment. To avoid mistakes or confusion in the delivery of baggage, Passengers are urged to have each package fully and securely addressed. Where labels are used, it is important that they should be securely pasted, stitched, or tacked on, otherwise they are liable to be torn off in handling on board. Labels should not be attached with string. Gummed slips for baggage to be forwarded by Bail way to Hobart will be supplied, on application, by the Company's officers on board after steamers enter Low Head. Gummed slips, with Port of destination printed thereon in colours, are supplied on application at any of the Company's Branches or Agencies. Passengers from Melbourne are requested to claim their baggage on the wharves at Launceston and Devon port in order that the same may be passed by the Customs. Pas- sengers travelling by railway south of Launceston must claim their baggage at the Launceston Railway Station, and give instructions as to its destination. Passengers' baggage sent direct from Hobart and Laun- ceston to Sydney or Melbourne, or vice versa, when the owner travels vid Launceston will be taken free if not ex- ceeding above allowance. If receipt required, then the usual freight to be paid and Shipping Note or Bill of Lading taken. Bicycles, accompanied by owners as Passengers, are carried from port to port (that is, without break of journey) at a freight of 2s. 6d. each on the Intercolonial Lines, and 5s. each to New Zealand Ports. Tricycles will be charged Is. 6d. each additional to the foregoing rates. Bicycles ana tricycles are carried only at the sole rise of owners. 15 Passengers on visiting Tasmania, bringing with them a bicycle, have to make the following declaration to the Officer of Customs : — Name of Bicycle Number- Ex... From Date of Tasmanian address ( ) declare that I am a Visitor to Tasmania, and that the Bicycle described in the margin hereof is my property, imported solely for my personal use ; and further, that I will make application within the recognised official hours to an Officer of Customs to see the said Bicycle reshipped for exporta- tion from the Colony on or before the day of 18 LETTERS AND TELSORAtfS. Letters posted to reach Passengers at Ports of call should be addressed to the care of the U.S.S. Co.'s Agents at the respective Ports. To facilitate delivery on board the steamer, it is desirable to state in which class the Passenger is travelling. It is recommended that an address be written on flap of envelope, notifying where the letter may be forwarded in case it misses the steamer. For the convenience of visitors from Australia and New Zealand, the principal Sydney, Melbourne, Auckland, Wel- lington, Christchurch, and Dunedin newspapers are kept filed at the ELobart Office. BOOZXHOS. Arrangements have been made whereby Passengers for Melbourne can book at Hobart Kailway Station if desired. 16 TA8LB OF DISTANCES XtTO AT SEA BY OBDHTABY OOUBSSS. (Tasmanian Steam Services Only.) (Nautical Mileage.) HOBAKT to Cape Pillar ... to Twofold Bay to Sydney Heads to Port Phillip Heads to Melbourne Wharf to Bluff to Strahan Miles. 40 426 623 416 467 930 210 LAUNCESTON to Low Head ... to Twofold Bay to Sydney Heads to Port Phillip Heads to Melbourne Wharf to Strahan 40 338 537 236 277 263 DEVONPORT to Emu Bay to Circular Head... to Port Phillip Heads to Melbourne Wharf » » j> 21 55 191 231 MELBOURNE to Bluff via Hobart to Wellington >» 1200 1479 STRAHAN to Hobart ... to Melbourne ... to Launceston » v 210 291 263 TASMAN. ession ot L, G. COCKHEAD. E ■ft V »> * \ #######^MMft jj-r* istoricat Sketch of Tasmania. « : jc : » JN 1642, Anthony Van Diemen, the Governor of Batavia, commissioned Abel Jans Tasman to undertake a voyage of exploration, with a view to making discoveries in the South Pacific. The ships "Heemskirk " and " Zeehan '* were placed at his disposal for this purpose, and, commencing his voyage from Batavia, he eventually sighted the West Coast of Tasmania. Proceeding south, he again came in view of land, but the ships were driven out to sea by a gale. When the gale moderated they returned to a bay, which they named Storm Bay, and eventually came to an anchor in a small bay to the north of Storm Bay, which they named Frederick Hendrick. Before leaving the island they erected a post on the shore on which they had carved a compass and fastened a flag. They then set sail again, afterwards reaching New Zealand, and apparently taking no further trouble about a discovery which, more than anything else in the life of Tasman, has immortalised his memory. The island was known as " Van Diemen's Land " for more than two centuries after Tasman's discovery of it, when the name Tasmania was substituted, its former appellation having become associated with the idea of bondage and guilt. In 1772, Captain Marion, who arrived from Mauritius in search of the southern continent, sailed into Storm Bay, but neither he, nor soveral other navigators who, during the follow- ing twenty years visited the island, discovered the Derwent 18 Many of the names most familiar to residents in Hobart owe their origin to the voyage of Kear-Admiral Brun6 D'Entrecasteaux, who was in charge of the expedition sent to ascertain the fate of La Perouse in 1792-3. D'Entrecas- teaux Channel, a harbour twenty-four miles long, and equally safe in any part, Huon Island, Huon River, Bruni Island, and the Kermandie Biver, are among the places named by him. He also discovered the Derwent, which he named the Biviere du Nord, but Captain John Hayes, a year afterwards, re-named it by the appellation it now bears. Bass and Flinders, in 1798, were the first to sail through the Straits which separate the island from Australia, and which Flinders named after his companion. They also named the two mountain peaks that Tasman first sighted by the names of the two vessels in which his memorable voyage was taken, " Heemskirk " and " Zeehan." The name of one of these is rapidly becoming known throughout the world for a wealth of which Tasman little dreamed, and of which the officers and men condemned to the dreary settlement at Macquarie Harbour could have had no idea. Of Heemskirk, much could be said that would partake largely of the nature of forecast. At Zeehan enough has been discovered to place it among the valuable silver mining areas of the world. The first settlement in Van Diemen's Land was made in 1803, when a party of convicts and military men, under Lieutenant Bowen, came from New South Wales and made an encampment at Bisdon, on the eastern bank of the Derwent, and about four miles higher up the river than the present City of Hobart. In 1804, the party under Lieutenant-Colonel Collins, who had made an unsuccessful attempt to colonise Port Phillip, started for the Derwent, and reached the settlement at Bisdon, to find that it had been deserted by Bowen, and that the settlers who had remained there were almost in a state of starvation 19 Lieutenant-Colonel Collins decided against Risdon as a permanent settlement, and laid out a site at the head of Sullivan Cove, naming it after Lord Hobarb, then Secretary of State for the Colonies. The settlement at Risdon was not at once abandoned, though it might have been better if Collins had, immediately upon his arrival, removed the entire encampment to the western side of the Derwent ; for at Risdon the first hostilities between the blacks and whites occurred, and the war of extermination, which has left so dark a stain on colonial history, commenced. A party of 300 natives, who were out driving kangaroos, appeared on the hills behind the little Risdon settlement ; actuated by sudden and unreasonable panic, the officer in charge gave orders to fire at them, and a number of men, women, and children were killed. Lieutenant- Colonel Collins tried all in his power to protect the blacks from inhumanity, and restore the confidence which had been thus rudely shaken ; but the mischief was done, and thence- forward treachery and violence produced a degree of hostility in which nothing short of extermination of the weaker party would satisfy the stronger. Very early in the history of the settlement, an attempt was made to cater for the literary appetites of the young colony, and in 1810, when the population reached the total of 1,310 persons, the Derwent Star was launched as a newspaper venture. Want of type, want of news, and want of money were fatal to the longevity of the concern, and a few months witnessed its discontinuance. Four years after, the Van Diemen's Land Gazette struggled into life, and after a precarious existence of four and a half months gradually disappeared. The Hobarb Town Gazette, a few years later, managed to weather nine years of storm, but was then submerged in a sea of troubles that overwhelmed it. At the present time fifteen newspapers— daily, weekly, and monthly —minister to the social, moral, and religious needs of Tasmania. In 1804, the first settlement was made in the north of the island, at the west arm of the Tamar, which is now known as York Town. After a short stay, the opposite side of the river was selected in preference! and an encampment made at George Town, near Tamar Heads, but this was soon broken up, and the site of the present City of Launceston, at the junction of the rivers North and South Esk, was permanently fixed upon. In 1812 the two military settlements of the Derwent and Tamar were united under one administration, and Colonel Davey was appointed Lieutenant Governor of the whole island. The celebrated naturalist, Charles Darwin, visited the colony in the Beagle on his voyage round the world. He calls the Derwent a " snug cove," but he was chiefly impressed with the poorness of the houses, and scanty means of defence. At the time of his visit, in 1836, the entire native population, then reduced to 210, had been removed to Flinders Island, " So that/' he says, " Van Diemen's Land enjoys the great advantage of being free from a native population." He remarks tbat two ferry steamers ply between Hobart and the shore on the opposite side of the Derwent, the machinery for one of which had been entirely manufactured in the colony. Wool was first exported in 1819, but it was then of little value. Subsequently the colony shared in the benefit of Captain Mc Arthur's importation to Sydney of pure Merinoes ; and with the favourable climate and careful breeding, Tas- manian wool and Tasmanian stud rams have become famous all over the world. The whaling industry became a large and lucrative one in the early days, the whales even entering the Derwent. Jorgen Jorgenson, the convict king, claimed the honour of killing the first whale in the Derwent. In 1823, the Van Diemen's Land Bank was established ; and about the same time the educational wants of the young in the rising colony, which had been attended to in a desultory fashion for some years, were taken seriously in hand by the Govern- ment, a superintendent of schools appointed, and the way for a better and more perfect educational system made plain. 21 During the years of Governor Arthur's administration, from 1824 to 1836, a large number of public and private schools were founded, but for more than 10 years after his recall the educational condition of the country declined year by year owing to the unsettled state of the population. In 1847, how- ever, the Hutchins School, named after Archdeacon Hutchins, was built, a year before that Christ's College was opened near Longford, and the Launceston Church Grammar School was started in the northern city. Two of these institutions have continued in unabated usefulness up to the present. Christ's College, after some vicissitudes, was removed to Hobart, and conducted for some years as a scholastic institution with varying success, but is now closed. The High School, an un- sectarian educational establishment, was opened in 1850, on a beautiful site at the entrance to the Queen's Domain, and for many years supplied the educational wants of those who desired unsectarian instruction. On the retirement, a few years ago, of the Rev. R D. Poulett-Harris, who had carried on the school since 1857, the committee of the High School made an arrangement with the council of Christ's College, by which the building was taken over for a boys' school in con- nection with the college. The experiment was not successful pecuniarily, and the fine building is now utilised for the Tasmanian University. In 1858, a Council of Education was formed, which had at its disposal several exhibitions, as well as two Tasmanian scholarships, the holders of which received £200 a year for four years while pursuing their studies at an English Uni- versity. The question of founding a Tasmanian University was discussed in Parliament, on the recommendation of the Rev. R D. Poulett-Harris, the rector of the High School, but it was not considered the right time for so extensive an undertaking. A measure which, under the circumstances, was more useful was advocated by the same liberal-minded teacher, and put into practical operation in 1860. An annual exam- ination was conducted by the Council of Education for the degree of Associate of Arts. Up to the time of its abolition 345 persons have successfully passed the examinations and 22 obtained this degree, 43 have taken the Tasmanian Scholar- ships, and 86 have gained Junior Exhibitions in the gift of the Council of Education. Tasmania has now a University with three qualified pro- fessors, a Council, and a Senate, and although as yet it is a day of small things with this institution, there is no reason why the island colony may not do as useful educational work as her larger and more ambitious sisters on the Continent. Scientifically, Tasmania has progressed in an encouraging manner. Sir John Franklin, who became Governor in 1837, exhibited an amount of enthusiasm in scientific and educational pursuits which stimulated very considerably the intellectual life of the settlers. It was during his tenure of office that the French warships, " Zel6 " and " Astrolabe," called at Hobart with news of their discoveries in the Antarctic regions, and an English expedition to the same regions, under Captains Ross and Crozier, started from and returned to the Derwent in the ships " Erebus " and " Terror." Dr. Joseph Hooker, who accompanied the expedition as botanist, used the opportunity to collect specimens of Tasmanian flora, and a large part of his descriptive account of the botany of the expedition is devoted to the flora of Tasmania. Mr. John Gould, collecting materials for his work, " Birds of Australia," also visited Tasmania, and included descriptions of Tasmanian species in his valuable works. Before the " Erebus " and " Terror " left Hobart, the commander, Sir James Ross, fitted up an ob- servatory with the latest and most valuable instruments for meteorological and other observations, which materially assisted the scientific work of the colony. A scientific society, called at first the Philosophical, after- wards the Tasmanian Society, owed its birth to Sir John Franklin and a few scientific and literary members of the community, of whom one, the Hon. Sir James Agnew, has ever since been identified with the scientific progress of Tasmania, and who, as Hon* Secretary of the Royal Society, has done much to foster all the objects for which such a society exists. 23 The meetings of the Tasmanian Society were held at Govern- ment House once a fortnight, under the presidency of Sir John Franklin, and papers on geology, natural history, meteorology, ethnology, and botany, contributed by various members, were published in a volume called the Tasmanian Journal. Lady Franklin, who took a keen interest in natural history, and took many journeys through wild parts of Tasmania for the purpose, among others, of collecting specimens of the flora and fauna of the island, built a museum on the Ancanthe Estate, about five miles from Hobart, where it may still be seen, though its exterior is rather obscured by the cowsheds that reposefully lean against its walls. During the governorship of Sir Eardley Wilmot, the Royal Society grew out of the " Tasmanian," and continued to do the same useful work during the time of Sir W. T. Denison, who, in 18-17, succeeded Sir Eardley Wilmot as Governor of Tasmania. As the Royal Society included horticulture in its objects, the Government made it a grant of the Botanical Gardens, which remained its property until 1885. The Society also started a museum and library, which at first were open on Monday and Wednesday afternoons, after 4 o'clock, and on Saturdays, from 2 to 5 p.m. So great was the interest taken in the collections of natural history specimens all over the island that, in 1849, two years after its inception, the Trustees reported that it was impossible to classify or even keep strict account of the numerous specimens that were sent from every quarter. The Museum and Botanical Gardens were carried on by the Royal Society, aided by a Government grant, until 1885, when they were handed over to the State and placed under Trustees, leaving ther Royal Society free to devote its attention to strictly scientific pursuits. Not the least useful work undertaken during the last few years has been the introduction of salmonidae. By whatever name the species may be called, certain it is that a delicious edible fish has been added to the number of Tasmanian fish already in our waters, 24 It is worthy of remark that one of the oldest members of the Royal Society, Sir James Agnew, bore the entire cost of the last shipment of salmon ova, amounting to about £800. In 1852, just about a year after the gold rush began in New South Wales and Victoria, the precious metal was found near Fingal, and worked for a considerable time by a large number of miners, who gradually, however, were attracted elsewhere by reports of fabulous finds of gold in Victoria. In 1855, Tasmania was granted a new Constitution, with the power to elect two Houses of Parliament Sir Henry Fox Young was at this time Governor, and the people of Tasmania, with whom he and Lady Young were very popular, had the gratification of seeing them, in 1858, take up their residence in the new and beautiful Government House which had just been erected. Morally, socially, and intellectually, the colony made rapid strides during the time that Vice-regal power was in the hands of Sir Henry and Lady Fox Young. In 1857, the City of Hobart was first lighted with gas. The first railway in Tasmania was opened in the North in 1871, but it was not until five years later that the Main Line, from Hobart to Launceston, was built by an English company, and opened for traffic. It was a matter for congratulation when the Government, who had taken possession of the Launceston and North Western Railway soon after its completion, purchased the Main Line in 1890. With the exception of the V.D.L. Railway from Waratah to Emu Bay on the North- West Coast, and Mt. Lyell Company's line on the West Coast, all lines now completed are Government property, and the colony possesses about 470 miles of metal roads, of which only about 50 are yet to be opened for traffic, the re- mainder being in full working order. The population of Tasmania is 172,480. The climate is mild and exceptionally healthy, and the scenery richly varied, I \ 1 >•' : p.' i >-$. 25 grand, and beautiful. The country, notwithstanding some vicissitudes, is, in the main, prosperous, and suffers less from the " unemployed " difficulty than its larger neighbours. As a rule, a provident, sober man can always obtain work at a remunerative rate, and the wealth of the country is, on the whole, evenly distributed. In 1891, the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand took over the business of the Tasmanian Steam Navigation Company, and every year since has demonstrated the great advantage to Tasmania of having the traffic in the hands of a company which has a much larger fleet than any local company could acquire ; and having a deserved reputation for the speed and safety of its vessels, the regularity of its sailings, and its careful consideration for the comfort of its passengers. As an instance of the care exercised in navigation, the s.s. " Oonah " might be mentioned. This fine vessel is in the Hobart-Sydney line, has travelled in the service of tjie Union Company 397,332 miles, and made 283 trips ; the same vessel has covered 63,180 miles and made 90 trips in the service of the old T.S.N. Company, in all - possible descriptions of weather, but has not had a single accident. The Company conducts its Tasmanian business on the same liberal and progressive lines as those pursued in New Zealand, where it has won the esteem of the shipping and travelling community. Where the traffic promises to justify it, commodious steamers are laid on, and every facility given to travellers and traders. The Company took over a service which traded to two Tas- manian ports in 1891. In less than eight years the Company has established regular communication with four more, in order to meet the convenience of its clients, and maintains a thoroughly efficient and reliable service all round the island. Intellectually, Tasmania has no reason to feel ashamed of her record. Of painters, she boasts of a name honoured throughout Australasia, and rapidly coming to the front in England as. one of the truest exponents of art — Mr. W. C. Piguenit. Of poets, Caroline Leakey found a warm place in 26 the affections of her fellow colonists in the fifties, and. later, Rowland Davies made one of a quartette of Aus- tralian song writers. In singers, Miss Amy Sherwin takes a front rank. Among writers, Mrs. Humphry Ward is known throughout the English speaking world, and Caroline Leakey's novel, "The Broad Arrow," shares with Marcus Clarke's Tasmanian novel, a wide popularity. About 160 books relating to Tasmania have been written, many by authors whose long residence had naturalised them in their adopted country. One might specially mention Mrs. Charles Meredith, whose first Tasmanian book was published in 1852, and who, at intervals during a long and useful career, sent forth her charm- ing descriptions of life in Tasmania, with accounts of the animals, birds, and flowers which abound in the island. Mrs. Meredith's last book was a new and beautiful work entitled, "More of my bush friends in Tasmania." To the Rev. John West, Tasmania is indebted for a valuable work entitled " The History of Tasmania," published in the year 1852. Mr. John Gould lived in Tasmania for some time, collecting material for his books on Australian and Tasmanian birds. Mr. ft. M. Johnston, F.L S , is the author of several important books relating to Tasmania, chief among them being his " Systematic Geology of Tasmania." Mr. James Bonwick has written voluminously on different phases of Tasmanian life and customs ; and Mr. James Fenton, aided materially by Mr^ J. B. Walker, F.R.G.S., has given to the world a fair and concise " History of Tasmania." The list might be prolonged indefinitely of Tasmanians by birth and adoption who, in history, in science, in art, in literature, and in song, have been an honour to the island which lies beneath the Southern Cross. The number of scientific and other papers contributed to the Tasmanian and Royal Societies since 1842 would be sufficient confirmation, were any needed, of the mental activity and love of individual research to be found among the inhabitants of Tasmania. it i ; . \ \ f I L .»u MWkanMl J 27 QUIDE TO EXCURSIONS IH TASMANIA. During the last six or seven years, in fact, since the enterprise of the Union Steam Ship Company enlarged the facilities for tourist traffic, many places hitherto unknown or inaccessible have been made available for visitors, so that there is no need for the Australian and English visitors to go year after year over the old familiar round, charming though it is. in a summer climate so perfect ; but new places may be explored, and the enormous varieties of scenery and climate comprised within the limits of the island may be viewed, admired ; and enjoyed. The increasing number of visitors who bring bicycles has directed attention to the possibilities of numerous quiet country excursions in directions that are not in the usual line of travel, so that special attention has been paid, in compiling this book, to the wishes of travellers who desire new places of interest to visit, and to cyclists whose desire for novelty is subordinate to the necessity for good roads. At the same time, as no guide would be complete which left out the familiar and known resorts, due attention has been paid to the best way of reaching these, for there must always be among the thousands of tourists, who from the old world, or from sun-baked Australia, annually come to revel in the attractions of this lovely island, some to whom the whole of Tasmania is a terra incognita. First to be mentioned, as being the Capital, and containing the Houses of Parliament, the principal public buildings, and Government House, must be BOBAST. m SITUATION.— South-east of Tasmania, County of Buck- ingham, on the Eiver Derwent, about 12 miles above its junction with the sea. POPULATION, including suburbs, 39,000 : Area of City 1,270 lucres, 2d HALLS IN HOBART.— Town Hall, Masonic, Temperance, and various smaller halls. THEATRE.— Theatre Royal, Campbell-street BATHS.- Salt and fresh water in the Domain and at Sandy Bay ; Turkish, Harrington-street. CLUBS.— Tasmanian, Hobart, Athenaeum. CHURCHES. — Anglican and Roman Catholic Cathedrals, and numerous Churches of all denominations. GOLF CLUB.-Newlands. TENNIS.— One Association for playing Royal Tennis ; numerous Lawn Tennis Clubs. POLO and RACING CLUBS.— El wick and Risd on. TOURIST AGENCY.— Messrs. Cook and Son, Macquarie- street. STEAMERS. — The fine steamers of the Union Company call at Hobart from New Zealand once a week. There is a direct steamer from Melbourne weekly, and a tri-weekly service via Launceston connecting with Hobart by train, leaving Launceston on arrival of steamer. There is a fast direct service from Sydney to Hobart, in which the favourite steamship " Oonah " is employed, making weekly trips, and the magnificent liner, " Mararoa," withdrawn from the San Francisco Mail Service, has been placed by the Company on this line, in order that passengers may; have the convenience of a steamer every two or three days in the busy season. Places of Interest in and about Hobart. :o: THE BOTANICAL GARDENS, situated in the Queen's Domain, on a slope overlooking the Derwent, with a pretty esplanade, fronting a quiet bay, which is reached by follow- ing the Domain-road past Government House. THE TASMANIAN MUSEUM and ART GALLERY, in which is a large room set apart for the display of Tasmanian specimens of natural history, minerals, etc., in addition to the foreign collections of various kinds. THE PUBLIC LIBRARY.— Located in the same building as the Town Hall, with an entrance in Elizabeth-street, where a newspaper room, magazine room, and a general room are kept well supplied with periodical and general literature. Km r 29 FRANKLIN SQUARE.— Just opposite tne Library. A pleasant resting place. BARRACK SQUARE.— A pretty reserve, and favourite band promenade, with entrances from Davey-street. THE CASCADE.— On the slope of Mt. Wellington, reached Tram 6d. from the terminus of the Macquarie-street or Cascade tram. ' SANDY BAY. — Reached by tram ; three miles from City. Tram $a A fine breezy beach with extensive view. ' LADY FRANKLIN MUSEUM.— A building in a very Tram to beautiful valley, about two miles from the New Town Road Augusta along the Augusta Road. Road, 3d. DERWENT PARK, reached by driving through the lower Domain Road, past Cornelian Bay to Risdon Ferry, and continuing along the new road round the Prince of Wales Bay. Return may be made by the Main Road, to which the park road leads, or through the Domain by turning off the Main Road at the New Town tram terminus, and crossing the railway line. It is one of the most beautiful drives about Hobart, and the road throughout is perfect for cyclists. THE QUEEN'S DOMAIN stretches from the Railway Station to Cornelian Bay, and has several roads, from the highest of which a lovely view is obtained of the mountain, the city, and suburbs towards Glenorchy, and the Derwent. All the roads about Hobart are in good condition for cycling. RISDON. — A new and charming cycle ride is to Risdon and return by way of Bel tana. The Risdon Ferry is reached Ferry* 6d. by following the lower Domain Road till it branches off the Single, railway line at Cornelian Bay, then following the road across and then beside the line, turning to the right when New Town station is reached, and coming out of the little winding road in sight of Risdon Road, which is followed to the Ferry. Crossing in the punt, a perfectly level road leads for nearly three miles through very pretty country, part cultivated, part very beautiful bush land, until a large stone house on tne right and a turning, also to the right, are reached. This turning leads to Beltana, where the cyclist c may take steamer to town or eo on to Bellerive. The way Steamer, to Bellerive is good, but in dry weather is rather sandy. 3 «• Afternoon tea may be obtained at the stone house mentioned, Single, and the whole distance to be ridden is less than ten miles. NEW TOWN WATERFALL. — The slopes of Mt, Wellington, on the side towards New Town, contain a beautiful fall, which is reached by following the Rivulet past Lady Franklin's Museum on the Augusta Road r > ^ Jp^ /..-•■• > -^df ^■<A^/-,„...;\.^-^ / vKX \ v ^; 30 Steamer, 4<i. Coach, 3. Steamer, 4<i. Train, 5s. 8d. Train, 28. 8d. Coach, 5s. oxn-SAY KovBsxom nunc hobart. FREDERICK HENRY BAY.- A little known and exceedingly pretty drive or bicycle ride is one to the shores of Frederick Henry Bay, which is in sight of the spot of Tasman's landing, it not actually the place where the discoverer trod for the first time the soil of Van Diemen's Land. Steamer leaves for Bellerive at 8.30 a.m., to connect with the mail conveyance leaving that place at 9 o'clock on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, for a drive of about seven miles through country with charmingly diversified views of hill and river and cultivated plain. The beach is a lovely one, the road is made of hard white stone, and is kept in good order. From BELLERIVE, the opposite shore of the Derwent, to which steamers run every half-nour, there is a very beautiful drive of fourteen miles to Sorell, along a food road, crossing Pittwater over a causeway which cuts off the bay and mouth of the Coal River from Frederick Henry Bay. A train starts for Sorell at 10 am. daily from Bellerive. The township is quaint, purely Tasmanian, very beautiful in spring when the crops are growing, and not without interest in the summer, when the yellow wheat is being reaped. For Sorell is a very fertile corner of Southern Tasmania, and was among the earliest land selected by the settlers in the little colony on the Derwent. This trip is a very favourite one with cyclists. A day at MOUNT RUMNEY is time well spent, and can be undertaken without much fatigue or expense. The train for Sorell will land passengers at the " Red Gate." from whence a track leads by an easy grade to the top. Mt. Kumney was one of the intermediate signalling places oetween Eagle- hawk Neck and Mt. Nelson. When a convict escaped from Fort Arthur, the signals were flashed [via Eaglehawk Neck to Mt. Rumney, by means of signal fires, and thence to Mt. Nelson, Hobart, in a very few minutes. There is a splendid view in all directions, which conveys a better idea of the contour of the coast and inlets and the relative positions of Norfolk and Storm Bays and Derwent Harbour than can be obtained from any other elevation in the vicinity. Special permission must be obtained by visitors from the proprietor to visit Mt. Rumney. RICHMOND is not so well known as it deserves to be. It is distant only thirteen miles from Bellerive, in the centre of splendid pastoral and agricultural properties, and the township itself contains almost a reflex of life fifty years ago. In one shop, in tle main-street, may be seen various. 31 interesting examples of the fashion of forty years ago. One almost expects a Cobb's coach with four galloping horses Train, 5s. to drive up presently and break the silence of the quiet street Single The road from Bellerive is good, and it should be a favourite day's outing for cyclists, who could make a round trip by going from Hobart railway station by train to Campania, and cycling thence (five miles) to Richmond, returning via Bellerive. SALMON PONDS and NEW NORFOLK.— These inland Train, 9s. resorts may both be visited in one day by taking the 8 a.m. train on Saturdays from 'Hobart to Plenty, from whence a pleasant walk along the banks of a willow-shaded stream Steamtr, brings one to the ronds, which are beautifully situated in 2S **• the midst of a fine estate planted with English trees. The hatchery and the various ponds for the fish at different stages of their growth are all shaded by beautiful trees, and surrounded by a spacious and well-kept lawn, always green in the hottest summer. The hop grounds and orchards on the estate are also very interesting in late summer, when the apples are reddening, and the festoons of fragrant hop blossoms are awaiting the annual visit of the hop pickers, who come from far and near, and " bring the baby " for the pleasant summer picnic. New Norfolk is reached on the way back at about one o'clock, giving time to lunch at one of the comfortable hotels in the township, and to have a look at the hop grounds, or, perhaps, if one's taste inclines that way, a peep may oe taken at the prettily situated Hospital for Insane, then a stroll along the banks of the Derwent for a few hundred yards brings the visitor to the wharf, whence the steamer starts at 3 p in. for the trip down the river to town, arriving at six clock. If return by train be preferred, town may be reached at 640 p.m. KINGSTON (Brown's River). — This pretty village. in a hollow, " shut out by hills from the rude world," ana r . with the river placidly flowing through it and out to sea. Loacn, almost opposite the Derwent Lighthouse, is worth a day of 3 s * the traveller's time. A coach leaves town at 9 a.m., returning at 4 p.m., which gives opportunity to walk on from the first beach to a second, even finer, at Blackman Bay, where there is a blowhole, which is most interesting after a gale, and at high tide on ordinary occasions repays the admirer of natural curiosities for the walk. The road winds alone: the western shore of the Derwent, and passes the Shot Tower f rom whence D'Entrecasteaux Channel, with Bruni Island in the distance, is in view the rest of the way. The road is in perfect order for bicycles, and the distance — 11 miles to the beach — an easy one for quite ordinary riders. 32 PORT ARTHUR.— The Union Company sends one of Steamer, * te large steamers to Port Arthur at intervals during the i-s. summer for the convenience of visitors, most of whom desire to see the place so closely associated with the penal history of Tasmania. Having seen it, they wish to go again because of its natural beauties. The port is quite protected, and the English trees which dot the township give it a cool and pleasant appearance, very homelike to English eyes, and very restful on sunshiny days. The old ruined church, the penitentiary, the model prison and churchyard, with its quaint inscriptions, are the principal places that a day's trip gives the visitor time to see. MOUNT NELSON— The Sandy Bay tram takes the Tram, 6d. visitor to a track, along which a short and steep ascent leads to tho flagstaff and signal station. For fairly eood walkers, an excellent day's outing is afforded by the walk, first along the Waterworks Road, then to the left along Proctor's Road, following its winding towards the right until the ridge running to Mt. Nelson is reached, when the road turns . again to the left, and a delightful bush walk leads to the summit. Hot water or tea may be obtained from the care- taker, and a look through the telescope is not the least interesting part of the day. Splendid views of Bruni Island, D'Entrecasteaux Channel, Storm Bay, Ralph Bay, South Arm, and the City of Hobart may be obtained on a clear day. The short steep track leading to Sandy Bay Road forms the shortest ana easiest way back. FERN TREE BOWER and MOUNT WELLINGTON.— Coach, Coaches leave at 9 a.m. and 2 p.m. daily for the Bower, proceed - 3s. ing along the Huon Road ; the distance is rather more than five miles, with a gradual ascent all the way. There is a rustic house ana shed just in a nook where the water from two streams is collected in a basin and conveyed by pipes to the reservoir at the Waterworks. There are some fine tree ferns at the Bower, and a pleasant walk along a shady level path for about two miles, passing Forked Creek, another intake for the water supply, takes one to the tram line which leads to St. Crispin Well. An arrangement is sometimes made with the Cor- poration for the use of the trolly or tram, but the walk of three miles to St. Crispin's is quite level, and the elevation (over 1,600 feet) produces a feeling of exhilaration that prevents the sensation of fatigue. From the Huon Road, just between the gate leading to the bower enclosure and the pretty little church of "Strawberries and Cream," is the easiest track to the Springs, halfway to the summit of Mount Wellington. There is a turn off, much nearer town, at the Finger rost on the Huon Road, and the track is a \|THE Ni-:\y Y„>:X PUBLIC L::-.w\ilY Af " r on. LfNf X AND Tt-L't K FOUNDATIONS, 33 fairly easy one. Between the two is the newly formed carriage drive to the Springs. Having arrived at the Springs, where there is a shelter shed and a cottage, where hot water or even a lij?ht meal may be procured, the visitor having only a day in which to see the mountain, should proceed up the track to the top of the mountain, about a mile and a half from the Springs. From there a lovely view is obtained of the city, the river, the channel, the waterworks reservoir, and the graceful slopes and spurs on the sides of the mountain towards Kingston. The traveller may rest content with the panorama to be seen from there, or may proceed by the level track round the Ploughed Fields to the Pinnacle, where a glance northerly shows the Derwent to Bridgewater and the country as far as Brighton on a clear day. The observatory established by Mr. Wragge for taking high level observations, in conjunction with those at Mount Kosciusko in New South Wales, is close to the Pinnacle. For persons to whom climbing is distasteful, a level roadway from the Springs, somewhat overgrown, but still distinguishable, offers the alternative of a walk to the Organ Pipes, a name given to the columns of rocks immediately below the Pinnacle. The lightness of the atmosphere, the exquisite scent of the bush, and the attractive glimpses of forest and clearing, and the sapphire blue of the water, make up an impression, or a series of impressions, that render the remembrance a perpetual artistic delight. The fern gullies, mossy banks, shady glens, and pretty waterfalls, and the delicious pure air, are reasons sufficient for spending many days in exploring Mount Wellington, and as several boarding houses and an hotel are to be found in the vicinity of the Fern Tree, a week spent in these surroundings is easily arranged, and would not exhaust the walks to the beauty spots on the various slopes. GLEN LUSK and MOLESWORTH. — The Tasmanian Tourists' Association recommends highly the drive to Bismarck or to Molesworth for one day's excursion Cab, £i. from Hobart. In a pamphlet published by the Associ- ation is the following description of the drive, which, however, is too steep to be recommended to cyclists : —"Within ten miles of Hobart are some picturesque but little known scenes, their inspection forming but a pleasant half day's drive, or an interesting whole day excursion may be had at moderate charges. Turning off to the left of the main road at Berriedale, seven miles from Hobart, a steep but excellent branch road leads up the range dividing the valley of the Derwent from Sorell Creek. On its summit, 34 about 10 miles from the city, is the settlement of Glen Lusk, the small farms of which extend down the valley. Here the road forks, that to the right winding down the steep pass of the Sorell Creek to the settlement of Molesworth ; and that to the left to Bismarck, settled principally by German immigrants. From the summit some charming panoramic views are obtained of the valley of the Derwent on the one side, and Collins Cap and the peaks of the Western Ranges on the other. Seemingly close at hand is Mount Faulkner, bounding the settlement of Molesworth, which is about 14 miles from Hobart. If it is desired to make the ascent, the vehicle may be put up at a farm house, and guides obtained. The spurs of the mountain are clothed with heavy timber, ferns, wild flowers, and mountain berries grow in pro- fusion. The visitor to these settlements can revel in freshly plucked fruit and cream, and arrangements for visiting this charming valley can be made through the office of the Tasmanian Tourists' Association. The road to Molesworth passes a small but most picturesque lake, and ultimately joins the New Norfolk main road near the third mile stone from that township. This route is frequently taken by tourists walking from New Norfolk to Hobart, and is shorter than the Main Road. The Sorell Rivulet has been stocked with brown trout, and is attractive to the angler. EAGLE HAWK NECK. — Occasionally a steamer makes a one-day trip to this historic and charming spot, a narrow Nubeeca, neck dividing Norfolk Bay from Pirates Bay, on which is the ios. "Tesselated Pavement," and a fine sandy beach curving round in the direction of Tasman Peninsula to the Blow- -y hole, which is one of the finest in Tasmania. Readers of txcur- Marcus Clarke's book, " For the Term of His Natural Life," sion, 4s. w -jj remember his mention of this Blowhole and Tasman Arch, and his use of them in a powerful dramatic situation. The horrors of Eaglehawk Neck, with its cordon of blood- hounds across the narrow strip of land, and its guard of voracious sharks in the water, which made escape almost impossible, are also described in the book. A cool breeze from the sea makes the locality pleasant on the hottest day, and there are numerous pretty walks in the neighbourhood which would be worth a more extended visit. j Tr K 1 U .. -. T i APTCH. . ' \ — — _ 1 35 Steamer, zos. ; or, Train, 5s. 8d. ; and Coach, £1 Coach, 6s. TWO-DAY BZOVBSZOKS FROM BOBART. DUN ALLEY is one of the places that were for years practi- cally unknown, but it is every year becoming more popular, as its beautiful position at East Bay Neck, north of Norfolk Bay, the beautiful beaches within easy distance, and the abundance of sport for rod and gun, are becoming better known. It is reached by taking steamer direct on Monday and Thursday, or ferry to Bellerive at 9.30 a.m., connecting with the Sorell train, which leaves Bellerive daily at 10 a.m. Arrange- ments can be made with a coach connecting with this train on Mondays and Thursdays, returning on Tuesdays and Fridays, so that, although it is possible to see Dunalley in a trip of two days, a longer stay, if thought desirable, is easily arranged. The road is good all through for cyclists, and the distance, thirty-six miles, is generally shortened on the outward journey by taking train to Sorell, and thus avoiding a long hill round Mount Rumney, which is easily got over on the return journey by a walk of four hundred yards. SOUTH ARM; — Every Tuesday a conveyance leaves Bellerive at 9 a m. for Rokeby, Clarence, Sandford, and South Arm, the whole length of the peninsula which skirts the eastern shore of the Derwent, returning next day. There is only private accommodation, and arrangements could be made with the driver with regard to it. With Ralph Bay on the one side, . Frederick Henry Bay on the other, with extensive cultivation and comfortable homesteads alternating with park-like open forest land, and an occasional thick grove of wattle, it forms a succession of scenes which rival the better known west side of the harbour, and have the charm and freshness of country, rather than of suburban life. PORT ESPERANCE.— Visitors to the Tasmanian Art Gallery who have seen Mr. W. C. Piguenit's picture of " Faith, Hope, and Charity," the three lovely islands in the beautiful Bay of E8perance ? scarcely need a word of recommendation to visit this interesting part of the Tasmanian forest. A steamer leaves Hobart on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, returning on Tuesday and Saturday. The trip is by way of the Channel, and in ordinary weather is a charming smooth-water excursion, giving the tourist, who inclines to sea trips, a number or glimpses of the various settlements along the shore line of the mainland and of Br-uni Island. SOUTHPORT may be visited by the same steamer on Wednesday only. Like Esperancc, it is principally the «f centre of a saw-milling industry, but the efforts of a village f^? 16 ^ settlement have demonstrated tne fertility of the soil and its adaptability for agriculture, though for various reasons the Steamer, zos. zos. 36 settlement has not been a financial success. The Ida Bay Caves are a few miles from Southport, but they have not received the attention from the Government that they deserve, though they are fairly accessible. In the course of time, their value to the country as a pleasure resort will be recognised, and better facilities for comfortably viewing them will be provided. They are extensive and beautiful. c . THE HUON. — This forms a charming round trip, a ' occupying two days, by taking steamer at 8.30 a.m. on I0S * Monday or Thursday and travelling down the Channel, calling at various ports, Bruni Island, Peppermint Bay, Steamer, Gordon, Port Cygnet, and then along the Huon River to 8s. Huonville, where there is excellent fishing for English trout, staying all night and returning by coach next day ; or, the steamer may be left at Shipwrights Point, and the visitor driven to Geeveston, the pretty village among the moun- tains, returning by coach or steamer next day. PORT CYGNET. - One of the most charming corners in Steamer, Apple Land is Port Cygnet, a pretty bay near the mouth of 7 s - the Huon River. It abounds in edible fish, and is perfectly sheltered, so that boating and fishing are a delight in its calm waters. The surrounding country furnishes a goodly portion of the 160,000 cases of apples shipped annually to England. Raspberries and blackberries also grow in profusion, as in the district of the Huon generally, and Harvey's Hotel has a deserved reputation for comfort. Steamer leaves Hobart at 8.30 a.m. on Monday and Thursday, returning on Tuesday and Friday. The hotel proprietor also sends a vehicle to Huonville to meet passengere coming by the Huon coach, if arrangements are made beforehand. FRANKLIN is also on the Huon River, and the tourist Steamer, desiring to see the orchards of the Huon might leave the ° s * steamer at this port instead of proceeding to Huonville. Coach, The coach drive is considered to be one of the finest in ios. Southern Tasmania. LONGLEY. — A melancholy interest attaches to the pretty C ch va ^ e y & t Longley. The disastrous mountain fire of the ?* ' summer of 1897-8 swept it almost clear of houses, fruit gardens, ferns, and trees, while several lives were lost in the conflagration. It seemed as if it would take years to undo the harm done at that time, but a few weeks afterwards the Eersistent growth began to cover with'a green mantle the rown earth and bare black stems, and the valley is now as beautiful as ever. English trout fishing, in the North West Bay River close by, is a pleasant recreation, and a drive in the Huon coach of 1 1 miles from Hobart, leaves one with a good day in wjiich to ramble in scare]} of ferns, 4j «-u '* . I. '.11 MT. IDA, LAKE ST. CLAIR. F Coach, 7s. 37 or fish for the dainty brown trout, returning next afternoon. There is good accommodation at the hotel, and plenty of strawberries and raspberries in the season. WOODBR1DGE (Peppermint Bay). — The facilities for reaching this charming bay in the Channel have been increased lately by the running of a mail conveyance, which leaves Kingston on the arrival of the day coach, and returns from Woodbridge the following day. The trip by steamer, leaving town on Mondays and Thursdays at 8.30 Steamer, a.m., is still the favourite way of 'reaching Woodbridge, but 5 s - the alternative of a road trip has attractions for a goodly number of tourists, while many visitors will now take the opportunity of goiug by road and returning by river. The road is hilly in one or two places, bub good enough for cyclists, and the distance, about 28 miles from Hobart, makes it an easy day's ride. One or two very comfortable private boarding houses are to be found, notably those of Mrs. Potter and Mr. Chas. Searle, and the boating, fishing, and bush scenery would repay a more extended visit xf time permits. VARIOUS LAZE SZOVBSXOtfS FROM HOBAET. The numerous lakes and abundant rivers in Tasmania, with the wild and romantic scenery where they abound, constitute a perennial attraction for the artist, the lover of nature in her varied moods, and the sportsman ; while the quiet peacefulness of the atmosphere, which contrasts so strongly with the grandeur of the surroundings, appeals to the tired city dweller, whose principal requirement is a bracing climate and a sylvan retreat. The lake district, situated on the south-east part of the basaltic tableland, which stretches from Bothwell north- westerly to Mt. Bischoff, is comprised in a radius of about 30 miles, on an elevation varying from 2,700 to 3,800 feet above sea level. The summer climate is an ideal one, and even in winter it is bracing and bright, though a good deal of snow falls at times. LAKE ST. CLAIR. — Embosomed in the forest beneath T . Mount Olympus, which is a wall-like formation of basaltic ram .' greenstone, rising 2,300 feet above the lake, with Mt. Ida on J 08, . 0d# the further shore, this "Killarney of the Tasmanian Lakes" is in many respects the most beautiful of them all. The Coach, dark green foliage of tfie beech on its western shore forms 13, 38 one of its most striking beauties, and of this forest, Colonel W. V. Legge, E.A., who visited the lake in company with Mr. W. C. Piguenit some years ago, writes thus : — " There may be some whose acquaintance with this tree (the beech) is limited to the solitary specimens met with here and there hi the dells of Mt. Wellington. To such I mav be permitted to say, that on suddenly entering one of these oeautiful woods, ignominiously called 'myrtle scrubs,' the traveller is translated in an instant to the cool, shady, and romantic forests of Central, and Southern Europe. All round stand weird and moss covered trunks of lofty stature, whose gigantic lichen clad limbs stretch out among the feathery beech foliage, upon which, as the wind sways the branches overhead, fitful gleams of sunlight play for an instant, and then fall on the massive, decaying logs which lie strewn among the ferns. For the most part an absolute stillness pervades these verdant solitudes, as scarcely a bird note enlivens their depth, and the usual animals of the Australian bush seem to be absent from them." Lake St. Clair, in which the Derwent takes its rise, is the deepest of the Tasmanian lakes; having a recorded depth of 550 feet. It is about nine miles in length, by two in breadth, and is surrounded by picturesque mountains, which rise from the lake plateau in various directions. It lies in the direct route to the West Coast from Hobart, and can be visited by the tourist en route to Mt. Lyell. The lake is reached by taking the train leaving Hobart at 8 aan., changing at Bridgewater Junction for the Derwent Valley Line, and proceeding to Macquarie Plains, from whence a coach starts for the Ouse. Here is good English trout fishing, and a day or two might be pleasantly spent in the vicinity. On Tuesdays and Fridays a conveyance leaves the Ouse for Dee Bridge, where accommodation is provided for the night, and guides with all neccessaries can be procured for the rest of the journey. There is a house at the lake built for the accommodation of tourists, and a boat in which to explore its beauties. The Tourists' Association, a private association, of which the Hon. Henry Dobson is the president, is now doing all in its power to increase the facilities for tourists in this, as well as in every part of Tasmania, and is specially devoting its attention to opening up little known pleasure resorts such as the one unaer notice The distance from Hobart to the Dee is 76 miles, and the road via New Norfolk is good enough for cyclists, who might pleasantly make a three days trip of it, with good accommodation, by staving one night at New Norfolk (21 miles), then on to Hamilton (24* 39 miles), and proceeding 31 miles to the Dee Bridge on the third day. For many cyclists, however, Hamilton (45 J miles), over a splendid road, is only a comfortable day's ride. Arrived at the lake many days might be spent in ascending the mountain peaks in the neighbourhpod, from most of which magnificent views are be obtained, Mount King William having perhaps the most extensive and varied outlook on the entire plateau. Mr. W. C. Pigueuit, the Tasmanian artist, whose numerous paintings have done much to make its beauties known, says : — " I should strongly recommend the tourist who does not object to a little mountain climbing, when in the neighbour- hood of King William Range to ascend the first peak of that range. If care is taken in avoiding the thick scrub which clothes the base of the mountain, by selecting the ridge or spur on its eastern flank, the ascent is not difficult. Upon gaining the summit a magnificent view is obtained which will reward him for his labour — for ho stands in the midst of a vast panorama embracing almost the whole of the western highlands. Looking over this grand landscape, he will see an apparently endless succession of steep valleys and ravines, all densely wooded; and range after range of rugged mountains, all more or less precipitous. Many of these valleys, such as the Loddon for instance, are clothed with the densest growth of myrtle or beech forest I have ever seen, imparting a beautiful soft, velvety green to the landscape. ^Numerous lakes dot the surface of the country, while gleams of alternate sunshine and shadow Hi ting across it, give a variety and charm of great beauty, at one time bringing some mountain peak into bold relief, and imparting to it, if belonging to the order of crystalline rock formation, the appearance of being snow clad ; while others, plunged in the shadow, are lost in the deep purplish blue of the distance, the whole making up a scene, wild it is true, but of such variety of outline, and of such wealth of colour, as to make the western highlands one of the most charming of the many beautiful landscapes to be found in Tasmania." LAKE ECHO. — This lake is only five miles from the Dee Bridge, and could be visited either as a part of the Lake St. Clair trip, or majr be visited and explored by those who have little time or inclination for the longer trip to the higher plateau. English trout fishing, beautiful scenery, and good accommodation at Mr. Ellis's, Dee Bridge, all com- bine to make the visit pleasurable. LAKES SORELL and CRESCENT.— These beautiful Coach, lakes, distant only 12 miles from Parattah Railway Station, £i. 40 have become favourite resorts of late years, owing to the action of Mr. Algy Page, on whose estate the lakes are situated. This gentleman has built two cottages and a comfortable boarding-house, the name of which, " Interlaken House," is. already familiar to scores of tourists in connection with its admirable management by Mr. Claud Doughty. The zest of life, in the clear, bracing atmosphere of " Interlaken " is so immensely increased, that the trip should form part of the itinerary of all who visit Tasmania to recruit their health, as well as of those who come to spend a holiday in the normal condition of a traveller able to endure some degree of fntigue. The lakes are not generally announced as a cycling trip, on account of their elevation : but Tasmanian riders who have made the tour here suggested report that in the present good condition of the roads the tour is not only a possible, but an enjoyable one. Taking the express from Hobart at ft a.m., ana leaving the train at Brighton, the ride from there along the Main Road to Oatlands is easily managed i» a day, and the hotels there are very comfortable. The cyclist may then proceed by a road leading from Oatlands to '" Interlaken," or the Main Road may be followed to Tunbridge, thence to ,c Interlaken." The road is hilly in places, but there are stretches of fairly level country that are delightful to the wheelman or wheelwoman. When return is desired, it may be made by the same way, or via Bothwell. A pleasant change is to leave "Interlaken" by the Great Lake route, and arriving at the Steppes, 18 miles from " Interlaken," to stay there for a few days, and make an excursion to the Great Lake. Mr. Wilson, at the Steppes, provides good accommodation, and will make arrangements, if desired, for the Great Lake trip. The return trip to Both well is easy and delightful, and a stay of a few days there, visiting the beautiful reaches and falls of the Clyde River, would be time well spent. From Both well, a ride of 12 miles briDgs one to Melton Mowbray, the beautiful country place where the rider again reaches the Main Road. Here the cyclist may take train at 3 p,m., and reach Hobart at 6.40 p.m., if he does not desire to go again over once- traversed ground, but the chances are that the beautiful Bagdad valley, winding among the orchards, has so attracted him on the way up, that he cycles on to Brighton, and there takes train at 7 45 p.m., after a pleasant cycle ride of 86 miles, reaching Hobart at 9 p.m. The direction may be reversed at pleasure, and the lakes visited via Both well. The railway runs to Apsley, nine miles from Bothwell, on the Apsley Line, to Tunbridge on the Main Line, or Parattah, THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY AJTTOH. U NuX AND TILDEN rULNi.«r,jNS. 41 about a mile from Oatlands, also on the Main Line, so that a train ride may alternate agreeably with cycling at different parts of the journey. The officials in charge of the trains are careful in handling bicycles, and extremely obliging, considerations of great importance when entrusting one's tried and true steel steed to their care. A number of other lakes are to be found on this plateau, and the whole summer might pleasantly be passed in the delicious climate and delightful scenery within reach of the comfortable quarters of " Interlaken House." THE GREAT LAKE. — Unquestionably the place for anglers is the Great Lake, for there the results of the per- _. . sistent efforts to acclimatise the salmon and trout ova are lrain > most clearly demonstrated. Hundreds of fish weighing from I 4 S - 1 to 30 lbs. have been captured during the last few seasons, one angler having caught 50 fish, weighing an aggregate of Coach, 500 lbs., during a visit in February, 1896. The expenditure 5s. by the Government at various times since 1848, when the Bothwell. first experiment of sending out salmon ova to the colony was tried, has been considerable, and great interest in the experi- ments wa« taken in the other colonies. The Government of Victoria generously contributed the sum of £995, and on two occasions sent their sloop " Victoria " to convey the ova from Hobson's Bay to the Derwent. The Acclimatisation Society of Victoria also contributed £200 ; the Provincial Government of Canterbury, N.Z., £300 ; the Provincial Government of Southland, N.Z., £200 ; and the Provincial Government of Otago, N.Z., £150. In 1888 the last shipment of salmon ova was brought to the colony by Sir Thomas Brady, Commissioner of Fisheries, Ireland, by the express wish of Sir James Agnew, who de- frayed the expense of this large and very successful shipment. Other fish have at times been acclimatised, but undoubtedly the large trout of the Great Lake form the greatest attraction to the devotees of the red and line. From Hobart the easiest way of reaching the Great Lake is by taking train at 10.30 a. in. for Apsley. proceeding by coach to Both well, then by conveyance to the accommodation house at the southern end of the lake. The Steppes are passed on the way, where a stay of a few hours or days at Mr. Wilson's may be enjoyably made. On the left are St. Patrick's Plains, open grassy country, formerly used for summer pasture in connection with the sheep stations further south. Of late years the experi- ment of keeping sheep there throughout the year has beeu attended with success. Another way of reaching the Great Lake is by the Mount Lyell track from Deloraine, which will be more fully noticed 42 later. Visitors to " Interlaken " desiring to go to" the Great Lake may also drive or ride the 30 miles between the two places by a road which, though precipitous in places, is fairly good. There is a rise of 1,100 feet between Lake Sorell and the Great Lake, and warmth of clothing is by no means to be neglected, even in the height of summer. The Great Lake is interesting, when sudden gusts blowing through the chasms between the hills toss it to and fro in sudden wrath, it is charming, when in the still glow of a summer's day the fantastically shaped rocks mirror themselves in clear water, each, it may be, in love with its own shadow reflected in the brilliant yet softened outline ; it is grand and fascinating always, with a grandeur and grace that are peculiarly its own. Two photographs to be seen in the Tasmanian room of the Museum give the visitor an idea of the size of the Great Lake trout. HARTZ MOUNTAIN LAKES.— The beauty of these lakes lies chiefly in their romantic situation and limpid clearness. They are easily accessible from Hobart by a route which begins to be charming from the start, and continues to unfold fresh beauties at almost every mile of the way. The trip to the starting point for the lakes, Geeveston, may be made by either Channel steamer, leaving Hobart at Steamer, 8.30 a.m. on Mondays and Thursdays, proceeding to Ship- ios. wright's Point, where a conveyance meets the steamer to take visitors to Geeveston, or by the Huon coach leaving Coach Hobart daily at 9 a.m. " Hilicrest, the comfortable boarding- ' house managed by Mrs. Geeves, is reached in the afternoon, and there all arrangements can* be made for guides and provisions. There is plenty to interest the visitor who wishes to delay the ascent — splendid fishing and boat- ing in the Kermandie River, enjoyable picnics in the fores r-, through which several tram lines run, along which the gigantic timber is hauled to the mills ; one or two lovely bush drives, and a summer climate abso- lutely perfect. The track to the lakes is well made, and it is possible to ride all the way to the house which was built for the accommodation of visitors, at the sug- gestion of the Tasmanian Tourists' Association. Generally, however, the tourist who is a fairly good walker, rides only half way, when the lightness of the atmosphere, and the beauty of the sassafras and fern, native laurel, and grass tree, with here and there an extensive view, make the travelling a delight. There is no need for cam pine out, as the accommodation house is comfortable, and a few days may be pleasantly spent in visiting the various lakes. Inhere is a veryjpretty fall on the Kermandie worth making a short I2S. Thl: PUI3L ASTO.. L^( \ AND TiLDEN FOL'NL.AT,JN8. 43 detour on the way in order to visit, and a lovely fall on the Arve River, quite near to the accommodation house. The plateau on which the lakes are situated is 3,000 feet above sea level, and a walk of about a mile brings the visitors to the base of the Hartz Mountains, which rise out of the tableland for another 1,000 feet or so. Round this base the lakes lie ; Osborne, Percy, Esperance, and Eliza are the names of the largest lakes, but there are several small ones. A few years ago the Tasmanian Fisheries Commissioners stocked the lakes with young Californian and Loch Leven trout, so that by this time they should afford good sport. Every visitor to the lakes should climb the ascent called the " Gap," from which he will obtain a magnificent panoramic view of colossal mountains and deep valleys grander than anything in the southern part of the island. It is quite easy to make the trip in live days, having a day and a half on the top of the mountains, and it may be done, if time is an object, in four days to and from Hobarfc. MAOQtTABXE EAEB0TO, STBATTATT, TBS SILVER AND COPPER FIELDS, AND CIRCULAR BEAD. The comfortable steamers of^the Union Company girdle Tasmania with the means of rapid, safe, and easy transit, and contribute not a little by their facility to the extension of trade and consequent increase of traffic. The importance of easy communication with the West Coast with its rapidly growing population has been realised by the directors, who have leased the beautiful Settlement Island in Macquarie Harbour for the purposes of the Company. This island was established as a penal settlement about 1821, and buildings sufficient to accommodate two hundred people were erected. The Zeehan and Dundas Herald of January 18th, 1898, gives the following account of the island : — " During the penal days, the island was surrounded by a line of palisades, of which but fragments are now left. There were also barracks, a jetty, gaol, forge, guard-house, and dockyard, the last named being in good preservation. " Of the buildings only a few ruins are now left, the old court-house, though destroyed, being about the best preserved of the lot. The Commandant's house, which stood in the middle of the island, has quite disappeared. Besides the afore- mentioned buildings there were some others, as the hospital, chaplain's house, and two penitentiaries. From this it may be readily imagined that in the days gone by Settlement 44 Island presented quite the appearance of a small township. I may mention that Captain Forrest, the well-known painter of Hobart, some time ago painted a picture of Settlement Island after a sketch made by a convict who had spent some years there. All has disappeared, though less through the influence of wind and weather than through barbaric hands. When the Heemskirk rush set in, or thereabouts, vessels ran to Settlement Island for the purpose of getting bricks and building material. The old places were ruthlessly broken down, and it was not until the Government got wind of this bit of freebooting that it was stopped. However, this veto came too late, and besides the oourt-house there remained only the walls of a few cells, which are situated close to the landing place. The bricks used for the building were manu- factured on the western side of the bay, on the mainland, whereas the lime, I am told, was brought down from the Gordon River. " As already mentioned, the most pre-eminent ruin of the island is the old court-house. It is built of red sandstone, probably brought from Hobart, and it was roofed with Huon pine shingles. The court-room was on a level with the ground outside, the space below being devoted to cells. Over the door leading to the court-house is the Government coat of arms, which, though waterworn, is still plainly visible. I am told that as much as £\0 has been offered for it by those in search of curios. The few steps leading to the building show by their worn-out state that this place must have been frequently used, but very likely not for the pleasure of all on the island. The prisoners on the island were employed at all kinds of work, the nature of which was very often prompted by the whim of this or that official However, the greater gart seem to have been engaged in cutting timber on the mainland, which was used for shipbuilding, etc., or for export to Hobart. That the prisoners did not live exactly in the Garden of Eden there is little doubt. A fare, bordering on starvation rations, hard work, and plenty of lashes, constituted the bill of fare for the day. The place where the lashes used to be administered is on the southern end of the island, where a few pieces of triangle remain. This kind of treatment did not, of course, tend towards rearing hi the convicts a liking for the island and its beautiful surroundings, and many escaped, the greater part of the fugitives perishing in the attempt to reach the inhabited parts of Tasmania." During one year alone 102 prisoners absconded ; some of these managed to make their way to the bush, afterwards following up the life of a bushranger, like Brady. Now, Settlement Island, also called Sarah Island, is a favourite T Y AH(;f>. i ( n,.x and YlLDbN f CH-NDAT.V.-NS. 4 45 place for picnics, and its new associations are all of a holiday sort, connected with the bright and beautiful summer-time. The Union Company's steamers leave Hobart triweekly for the Silver West and the North-west. The course lies through the beautiful D'Entrecasteaux Channel, with the timbered slopes and pebbly beaches of Bruni on the left, and to the right the bays and rivers that make the channel trip so varied and interesting, Passing Southport, Esperance, and Recherche Bays, and rounding the South-west Cape into the open sea, Port Davey is passed in a few hours ; that is at present, for the two counties of Kent and Arthur, both of which abut on the splendid harbour of Port Davey, contain much country that must eventually be settled on, though so far the whole of A rthur and about 700,000 acres of Kent are unsettled, partly because some of the land is poor, doubt- less, but principally because the means of access have not been provided. The surveyors of the Lands Department report that a large area of land in Kent is suitable for fruit-growing, though neither Kent nor Arthur have been thoroughly explored. The splendid timber trees growing on the Port Davey River and elsewhere are practical proof of the possibilities of the land. The beautiful land-locked harbour of Port Davey, with its numerous bights — like harbours within harbours — the beautiful Spring River with its bays and inlets, Davey River with its magnificent gorge known to all Tasmanians by Mr. Piguenit's picture " Hell's Gates," the varied scenery, and opportunity for sport, emphasise the opinion of more than one visitor, that no one can say he has seen Tasmania until he has visited Port Davey. Sir John and Lady Franklin visited Port Davey in 1842, and Mr. David Burn, who wrote an account of the trip for the United Service Gazette, waxes enthusiastic over the beauties of the lake-like Spring River. He says : — " The picture it presents is one of indescribable magnificence, varying in character every thirty or forty yards. Here a smooth grassy hill thrusts its velvet limbs into the wave, there an endless succession of wild, irregular cliffs split into figures of most extraordinary magni- tude and extravagant form pierce the sky with their uncouth points. Some are hollowed like gigantic punch bowls, fit for the revels of Cyclops, others assume the aspect of nature's primitive fortifications, being ranged in long and imposing lines, tier over tier of deeply scarped battlement and fosse ; the naked crags presenting a variety of tints, pink and white and slate being the prevailing hues that glance and flicker in the varying sunlight. Hill soars over hill, crag surmounts crag, whilst peak and mountain cone tower to Heaven their proud pinnacles, shown in bold relief, or veiled by the fleecy canopy 46 that, ever -and anon, strives to envelop their aspiring fronts. Nature is untarnished, primeval majesty reigns supreme, whilst man looks on to wonder and adore. This panoramic enchantment lies about eight or nine miles above Bathurst Harbour, the expanse of its waters terminating two or three miles further north, whilst the river, or what is said to be the river, flows from E.N.E., for what distance has yet to be determined. Ten or twelve long summer days might be most deliciously spent in the investigation of this little known locality. A century may, is sure to, achieve what the present age is unable to accomplish." The writer's prophecy is not yet fulfilled, the present generation has accomplished nothing in this charming spot, so for the present the Union steamships pass it by ana proceed to Macquarie Harbour. A troublesome bar at the entrance once safely crossed, the inside is sheltered and com- modious, and Strahan, the port, is quickly reached. STRAHAN.—Up till 1877, not only Strahan, but the whole of the country round Macquarie Harbour, was practically an unexplored wilderness, although from the time of Sir John Franklin occasional rumours that the country was highly mineralised were talked of and allowed to be forgotten. In 1877, tin was discovered at Heemskirk, and a wild rush set in, but the results were not sufficiently encouraging to induce settlement, and the country was again almost deserted. A few prospectors, however, continued to look for precious metals, and in 1884 Messrs. Long and Harman discovered some deposits of argentiferous galena, and in four years time the first mineral settlement began to cluster round the Silver Queen property, on which the galena lodes were ex- tremely promising. From that date the importance of Strahan as a shipping port was assured, though various attempts were made to use Trial Harbour, an exposed road- stead north of Macquarie Harbour, and nearer to Zeehan field by some miles than the present port. In 1892, the growing importance of the silver fields led to the construction of a railway from Strahan to Zeehan, a distance of 29 miles. The railway was opened for traffic in 1892, and is one of the most successful railways financially in Tasmania. It has since been extended to Dundas, about seven and a half miles further ; while acting on the advice of Mr. F. Back, the able and energetic general manager of railways, a system of light narrow-gauge railways connecting Dundas with the various mines in the Mount Bead district has been inaugurated, about 18 miles already formed, and other extensions authorised to keep pace with the rapid development of the mining industry in this rich metallic zone. TH E N :i \ ' Y :' ) K K \| public i.:. -. ; ;y ASTOF . ! rvf" AND T T ' r i 1 ' .8. 47 01TE-DAY SZOTJBSZOITS FEOIC STUAHAN. Strahan is sufficiently rich in natural beauties to justify a stay of some time, and there are numerous pleasure resorts within easy reach, while boating and fishing in the bay at West Strahan, the present township, will very pleasantly fill in spare days or half days. The hotel accommodation is excellent, and there are several very comfortable boarding houses. THE H EN TY.— About 11 miles from Strahan the beautiful Train, Henty River is crossed by the Zeehan Railway, and the cha- 6s. racteristic west coast vegetation— myrtle, sassafras, and fern— is to be seen in its luxuriance. The pool-like reaches of this lovely river, with the vegetation growing right to the water's edge, and reflected in its clear depths, so that it is difficult to decide which is growing tree and which reflection, are as beautiful as one could desire. From the nature of the forest, the visitor may obtain some idea of the difficulties experi- enced by prospectors in the less palmy days, when railroad construction was only a dream of the future. The Henty may be reached by taking the train leaving Strahan at 11.15 a.m., and returning from Henty at 3.25 p.m. THE GORDON RIVER. —This magnificent river, navigable by fairly large steamers for 22 miles, flows into Macquarie j^m^h Harbour near its southern end, forming the south-easterly aa ocr ' boundary of the county of Montagu. At various inlets of this arrange, broad, beautiful river are to be seen ketches loading with logs men ^ of Huon pine, blackwood, and myrtle. Further along, beautiful white wails rise on the sides of the river, which are called the Marble Cliffs, and here the excursionist generally calls a halt. Beyond the Marble Cliffs the cucumber herring and native trout are to be caught, and here also the Tasmanian Fisheries Commissioners are about to introduce the English trout to increase its attractiveness for anglers. Swans and ducks are numerous, and the prospect of a " bag " is a not unsatisfactory addition to the pleasure of a day's outing in the midst of perfect natural loveliness. The Union Company keeps a number of launches at Strahan, which can be hired at reasonable rates. TEEPOOKANA and KING RIVER.— Twice a day one of the Union Company launches makes a trip to the starting Launch, point of the Mount Lyell Company's Railway at Teepookana, 3s. 6d. and the trip is well worth taking for the beauty of the King River, even if, as is rather unlikely, the tourist having come so far, decides not to go on to Mount Lyell. The King River enters Macquarie Harbour just to the south-east of Strahan, three miles from the town, and Teepookana is five miles up the river. High banks, densely covered with vegetation of 48 varying shades of green, a river placid as a pool, wondrous reflections of fern and sassafras and black wood ; these are some of the attractions of this part of the river, whose wild grandeur further inland is the scene of the Mount Lyell Company's engineering triumphs. KELLY BASIN. — Twenty miles south of Strahan is a Launch, deep and sheltered inlet which is now rapidly coming into £s. prominence as the starting point of a railway to Mount Lyell through Gormanston, which is being constructed by the North Mount Lyell Company. The busy beginnings of a thriving town, which has been named Macquarie, in a part of Mac- quarie Harbour only just being brought into prominence, may give the visitor a picture of Strahan as it was 10 years ago, when it gave less promise than does Kelly's Basin to-day of future importance. SETTLEMENT ISLAND.— The launch which runs to and from Kelly Basin will also land passengers at Settlement Island, which is an admirable picnic ground, with its pic- turesque ruins, old gardens, and leafy shades. It has already been described. LOKGrEE SXOTOSXOire FROM STRAHAN. <M ZEEHAN. — In the heart of the hills, and surrounded by x 4- M - lofty mountains, covered but a few vears ago with almost impenetrable forest, Zeehan is one of the marvels of the silver west. Only fairly established as a mining centre in 1887, it now numbers a population of 8,000 ; has daily communication by train with Stranan ; a steam tramway runs up and down tne main street, and modern well-built shops, churches, and hotels, give an air of substantiality and permanence to the town that the mining returns abundantly justify. One mine alone, the Western, has a working capital of £15,000, and has paid to the shareholders the magnificent amount in dividends of £85,500, with every appearance of continuing to yield good returns for many years to come. Over 300 buildings have been erected in Zeehan during the past year, and house rents are still so high, and the demand so great, that several hundreds more would be profitable investment for capital. The principal mines are close to the town, and it is easy to obtain an order to inspect any of them. It is possible to visit Zeehan and return to Strahan in one day by leaving at 11.15 a.m., reaching Strahan on return at tht : ^RK pr " : • .. .,Y ASTCJ.. L E V '• / ' D TILDEN K ..' . < ' . ''S. 49 4 p.m., but that only gives one hour at the town, barely sufficient to see all that is to be seen in the principal street, and is not recommended. There are good hotels here, as in all the towns at this new Eldorado, and Zeehan forms a good centre for excursions to the surrounding country, as there are bush tracks in every direction leading to the mines, or would- be mines. Mount Heemskirk and Mount Agnew are in the neighbourhood of Zeehan. DUN DAS. — The train leaves Zeehan for Dundas at 8.30 Train a.m. and 3.30 p.m. The distance is seven and a half miles, f rom with a rise of 310 feet in that distance, and a corresponding strahan lightness in the atmosphere, making it more tonic. Tne town x ^ s 54 ' is younger and smaller than Zeehan, and has a population of 1,500. A considerable number of mines are clustered round Dundas, none of them, however, being at present dividend paying, though they give employment to a large number of hands, and thus add to the wealth of the colon v. The excessive rainfall in this part of the country, where the forest was formerly impenetrable, is gradually becoming modified as clearing progresses, and will probably, before long, approximate to the rest of Tasmania, in which the rainfall is much less than in Great Britain. MOUNT READ. — In pursuance of the policy inaugurated by Mr. F. Back, A.M.I.C.E., F.S.S., general manager of Govern- Train ment Railways, a two-foot gauge railway runs from Zeehan from north -easterly to the foot of Mount Read, which is rapidly Zeehan, becoming another very important mining centre. The scenery 4s. 6d. in parts of this line, especially where tlie rivers are crossed by timber bridges, is particularly beautiful and interesting. Further than the eye can reach, in fact for about 40 miles, there is an immense myrtle forest, the foliage of which is so dense that when viewed from a distance the tops of the forest present the appearance of rolling downs or soft billows of dark green, very restful to the eye, and lingering long in the memory as a vision of peace. The distance from Zeehan is 18 miles ; from Strahan, 48 miles. The first four miles from Zeehan are over fairly level ceuntry, then the line begins to ascend, and to wriggle and twist, until at 10£ miles it has reached an altitude of 1,015 feet above Zeehan, or 1,550 feet above sea level Leaving Strahan on one day at 11.15 a.m., the visitor stays all night at Zeehan, and starts from there at 7.30 next morning, may spend four or five hours at Mt. Read, and return to Zeehan by 5.40 p.m. The train leaves at 8 o'clock next morning for Strahan, and the three days will have been ill spent if they have not given the traveller food for much thought on the marvels of nature and the triumphs of man's ingenuity. 50 MOUNT LYELL.— Like Mt. Biachoff, what is now called Traiii, the great mine has had a chequered career. It was discovered 7s. 6d. and worked for gold in 1886, but although there is gold con- tained in the enormous mountain of metal, it was not until Launch the mine, after thorough examination and report by Dr. -g. 6d/ Peters, the eminent American metallurgist, was worked with a view to extract the silver and copper, as well as gold, that its success began to be assured. In 1893 the Company was re-formed, and a railway constructed to Teepookana, a distance of 16 J miles, for carrying ore to the place of shipment, and taking goods and machinery to the mine. The work- ing of the mine up to the end of 1897 has given a result in dividends of £144,220. The total value of ore raised was estimated at £356,422, and the yield of metal was : — Gold, 20,361 ounces ; silver, 396,984 ounces ; and copper, 4,651 tons. The railway has been of the greatest use in developing this part of the country, and two towns have sprung up with mushroom-like rapidity, though with every indication of permanency and stability. Queenstown, in the immediate vicinity of the mine, has a population of 2,500 ; Gormanston, about a mile away, has already 500 inhabitants. Ouee list own abounds in palatial hotels, fine churches, splendid shops, fashions direct from Paris, and everything else calculated to make the average Briton or Australian at home. If there are any grievances, a sympathetic local press gives the opportunity to air them, and so prevent a revolution. The mine itself is well worth a visit, and an order to inspect may be obtained at the office of the Company. The Linda valley lies between the mine and the Mount Lyell Range, which is mineral bearing for at least 30 miles north-westerly. The Union Company's steam launch leaves Strahan at 8 a.in. and 2 p.m., and carries passengers to Teepookana, where they board the train for Queenstown. The King River valley, through which the line runs, was long ago famous for the richest gold-bearing quartz in Tasmania, but little is being done at present there. The steep grades on this railway necessitate the use of the Abt system for most of the way, and the scenery is very wild and romantic. The railroad winds round on a shelf midway between the rushing torrent of the King River and the forest-clad summit of the mountains, through scenery of a grandeur great and unsur- passed. The great Lyell mine employs 1,500 men, and there are numerous other mines, such as the North Mount Lyell, Lyell Tharsis, and many others which promise great results in the near future. It seems impossible to over-estimate the immense importance of the discoveries that have been made during the last few years on the West Coast, while the absence of a T.\ Y b. th:~ ' A T . ' I ' \ 'iU 51 tendency to boom the mines, and the steady progressive work now being done, are very hopeful signs of ultimate enormous prosperity, of which the exports of minerals from the West Coast, which for the first naif of 1897 reached a value of £256,491, may be looked upon as the first drops of a great golden shower. CIRCULAR HEAD.— The steamers of the Union Company call at Circular Head on the way to and from Melbourne three times a week, and there is therefore a good opportunity for the tourist to go on from Strahan, and thus complete the trip along the west coast of the island. Turning north from Macquane Harbour, Trial Bay is passed in a few hours. For some time attempts were made to use Trial Harbour as a port for Zeehan, but its position as an open roadstead, exposed to the full sweep of the ocean, was not favourable, and it has been finally abandoned, which, as it possesses no natural beauties, is not a matter for regret. GRANVILLE HARBOUR, several miles further north, is also misnamed as a harbour, and is chiefly known as a fatten- ing station for stock, twelve hundred acres having been laid down in English grass. CORINNA. — About 52 miles north of Strahan, and 14 miles up the Pieman River, is the town of Corinna, which the steamers now pass by, though in former times Corinna was of some importance as a mining field, and the largest nugget ever found in Tasmania was discovered there. There are not wanting signs that Corinna will yet regain more than its former importance, for several mines are now being worked with encouraging results, and the attention of Melbourne capitalists is being drawn to the vicinity. The extension of a railway from Waratah would be the easiest and quickest way to connect this mining area with Melbourne, but that also is in the future. STANLEY.— Rounding the north-west corner of Tasmania, a few hours steaming brings the good ship to Stanley, Circular Head — a name known all over Australia for the red-skinned potato that flourishes in the neighbourhood, and also famous throughout Tasmania for fat stock, and the best factory butter. In Walch's invaluable " Red Book " is the following description of part of the island that is little known to tourists, but deserves a wide popularity : — " The township of Stanley is picturesquely situated at the base of the Bluff, a precipitous mass of greenstone 485 feet high, from the summit of which a magnificent view of the north coast is unfolded— eastward as far as the Tamar River — westward to Cape Grim, including the adjacent islands. The 52 climate of Stanley is peculiarly favourable, owing to its position on a peninsula jutting out into Bass Strait, even in the warmest weather, which rarely exceeds 70 deg. Fahr., cold breezes from the sea are continually felt. To the east and west of the township, as far as the eye can reach, stretch sandy beaches which are a famous resort of conchologists, many of the rarer Mollusca being confined to this locality. Mineral springs occur in the immediate neighbourhood, the water from which has been analysed and found to contain the ingredients of some of the German chalybeates. The splendid forests, which specially distinguish the north coast of Tasmania, are everywhere within riding distance. A fine series of Tasmanian plants may be collected, including some of the rarer Crypto- frams, the Cyathea affinis (of which a specimen 53 feet high as recently been obtained) ; Todea afrtcana, with the three beautiful itymenophyllums, being particularly luxuriant." Here the excursionist who desires a change in the mode of travelling may leave the steamer and take a coach ride to Emu Bay via Wynyard, or if it has seemed worth while to take a bicycle for a trip, in which up till this time it has been useless— for the west coast is not cycling country — he may cycle by comfortable stages, as may suit his convenience or leisure, to Emu Bay, to Launceston, or Hobart. The road to Wynyard, with forests on one side and beautiful sea beaches on the, other, is a delightful one, and abundance of wild flowers and ferns beautify the bush. The rare and beautiful black fern (Cyathea medullaris), rarely found in any other part of Tasmania, flourishes in the forest reserve between Stanley and Wynyard. A few days might pleasantly be spent at Stanley by the traveller who wishes to return to Hobart by the sea route, as the Union Company's steamers call here to and from Melbourne, from which port it may be reached in 14 hours. TBS NORTH-TOST COAST OF TASMANIA. No part of the little island has shown more steady progress than the rich agricultural lands extending along the coast line from Port Sorell to Circular Head and back from the coast for about 35 miles. Whether one's eyes are regaled with the splendid order and trained beauty of the lovely estates about New Ground, one of the earliest settlements of the coast, or, crossing the hills which approach the shore line at the Don, one gazes upon the plenteous crops of wheat and potatoes growing in the paddocks, every yard of which is 53 guarded by a white skeleton— the ghost of what was once a green and flourishing tree — everywhere one sees abundant evidence of growth and prosperity. The pioneers of settlement in the e»rly fifties found the export of swamp gum, stringy bark, peppermint, and black- wood logs a profitable business, and several sawmills still continue to do a flourishing trade, though the timbers have to be sought farther back from the coast as the area under plough increases year by year. The whole of the district is abundantly watered by beautiful streams, in which the native and introduced fish abound, and in some, notably the Emu and Cam rivers, the entirely original platypus (Ornitho- rhi/nchtts paradoxus), which is neither fisli nor fowl, is plentiful, though too wily to be caught by anyone save an expert sportsman. The principal rivers west from Port Sorell flowing into Bass Straits are the Mersey, Don, Forth, Penguin, Blythe, Emu, Cam, and Inglis. DEVON PORT. — The most important shipping port on the North-West Coast is Devonport on the Mersey. Dredging operations have resulted in the removal of the bar and the deepening of what was formerly rather a shallow channel, so that steamers of any size can now enter at all times, and can go alongside the wharf at the railway siding within about an nour of low tide. The rise and fall of the tide is nine feet, and the depth at high water 23 feet. The Town Board has jurisdiction over an area of about seven miles in length by four in breadth, and the roads included in this area are being metalled as quickly as the rates will allow. The population is rapidly increasing, the last available returns placing it at 2,000. The imports in 1897 were 2.500 tons, while the exports, principally produce, reached the large total of 60,000 tons. The Union Company has a number of vessels engaged in freight carrying, ana the passenger traffic is well provided for. A large steamer leaves Sydney weekly for Devonport via Launceston, and another is despatched weekly from Melbourne for Devonport direct, while the steamers which leave Melbourne weekly for Strahan call at Devonport on the way west, and on return. The trip from Melbourne is made in about 14 hours from heads to heads, and is generally, especially in the summer, a smooth water trip. The steamers go alongside the wharf, and passengers can step from the steamer into the train, if they are desirous of proceeding at once to Launceston, Hooart, or any intermediate station. The beautiful position of Devonport, on the estuary of the Mersey, the lovely scenery in the neighbourhood, the long sandy beaches, ana pretty bills, as well as the attractions of tne town itself, 64 justify and almost imperatively call for an extended stay. The hotels are modern and convenient, Goslin's in West, Clayton's in East Devonport, and "Graystone House," a private boarding establishment, may be mentioned as possess- ing all the requirements of comfort. Flaoes of Interest in Devonport. There is an air of great substantiality about the buildings in the town. The three large imposing banks at convenient corners, the churches, and the fine post office have been built by believers in the present and potential importance of the city that is to be, and bear evidence of faith in the resources and capabilities of the surrounding districts, of which Devonport is the commercial centre. The Public Library.— A fairly good library is open to the public for reading, and to subscribers as a lending library, and one's occasional idle hours may here be pleasantly spent. Golf Grounds and Tennis Courts. —This is an ideal country for golfing, there are splendid golf links on each side of the river, ana it is always possible to find members of one or other of the clubs ready to join in this prince of games. Tennis, too, is to be played for the asking, and outdoor sports are further encouraged by a finely made cycle track in the park. The Lighthouse.—^ is difficult to believe, as one inhales the fresh breeze blowing in from the Straits, or gazes around the tree-covered hills, that Devonport will ever need a " lung ,; in the shape of a park ; yet the authorities have wisely pro- vided for such a contingency, and a large reserve, at present in a state of nature, exists on the west side, to form a picnic ground for the hundreds who now troop in on holidays. The hard, white sand is pleasant to walk or drive over, and the lighthouse on the Bluff, just above the beach, is worth visiting for the fine view to be obtained. Looking eastward, the low hills which shelter the town on that side are a restful sight, with their green foliage, on which the eyes may glance before sweeping the blue curve of water, broken here and there by a bluff headland, until the Asbestos Range bounds the view. Westward, the bays, in which the Don, Forth, and Leven ioin the sea, and beyond, the headlands to Table Cape, are all in view, and on a bright day the feast of form and colour is something to be long remembered. Coming back into the town, the glimpses of the Mersey in its sweet tranquility naturally set one pondering on ways and means of exploring its beauties, and making closer acquaintance with its charms. Fortunately, the use of a boat is easily 55 arranged for, and a fishing line deftly managed will be a joy to the heart of an angler, and will make anglers of those not already so by nature. Excursions from Devonport. It may be mentioned in passing that all places in Tasmania are as accessible from one end of the island as the other. Laun- ceston in the north and Hobart in the south are connected by a trunk line of railway, from which there are branches in several directions. The North- West Coast line, which passes through Devonport, connects with the Main Line at Evandale Junction and runs on to 1 aunceston, at which place, or at the junction itself, the Hobart train may be met. Devonport is a food centre for various excursions, partly because its natural eauties and healthfulness render it preferable to a larger town, partly because it is easy, with the train and steamboat facilities, to visit any desired part of Tasmania, should the visitor desire to see as much of the island in one visit as time permits. LATROBE. — A boat or small steam launch may be hired at Devonport, and a day pleasantly spent in picnicking on the banks of the Mersey, and having a walk through the town of Latrobe, distant about eight miles from Devonport. Both Devonport and Latrobe rejoice in a magnificent water supply, no little consideration to those who look upon a batn-roora as part of the necessary equipment of a house. There are still some places in Tasmania where this is not understood. Having inspected the shops, banks, halls, and churches of Latrobe, a visit to the prettily situated reserve and rifle range is worth the trouble, although the view is chiefly one of hills, varying in beauty according to the time of the year. Two large hotels and a smaller one or two supply the wants of the traveller. A little fishing, perhaps, on the way back, in some of the still and shady reaches of the river will complete and round off the day The main road to the North- West Coast passes through Latrobe, and a road from Devon- port connects with it a few miles from the latter. PORT SORELL.— This beautiful inlet, about 10 miles from Devonport, provides good fishing and shooting for the sportsman, and lovely scenery for the artist. A good road follows the course of the beach to the township of Burgess, which is near ihe sea, but the beauty of the scenery is most appreciated by following the banks of the er.tuary a little higher up, where the Rubicon flows into it, or to Green's Creek, where the ferns and the young bush show into how many colours green may be divided. Return may be made 56 w Ground, through cultivated farms, with corn- homesteads and willow-fringed rivulets, which have via New fortable a general air of having won through the pioneer stage to one of assured success and prosperity. About a mile from Latrobe, on the homeward journey, a road turning to the right offers a choice of returning to Devonport before reaching the river, or the road may be continued through Latrobe and along the west bank of the Mersey. Another road is in course of construction on the east bank, which will provide a third alternative of return. The trip is a good one for cyclists, and at present the easiest way of return is by the road on the west side of the river. Port Sorell is the eastern boundary of the rich soil that, extending westerly to Circular Head, is so famous for potato growing that the name of " Circular Head potatoes " has been used to denote the tuber that is grown on these chocolate soils at any part of the counties of Devon and Wellington. THE FORTH.— About five miles west of Devonport, and two from the Don, one reaches the river Forth, which is famous for its cucumber herring and other dainty fish. Both at the Don and the Forth clearing is going on apace, and the crops in this well-watered country are of the sort calculated to send every man on to the land. With no droughts and no floods, the lot of a selector in these regions seems to the casual onlooker an enviable one. There is a hill to be climbed by the cyclist who undertakes this excursion, but the road is good, and the views of bays and headlands, clearings, and forest-clad hills make the journey pleasant. A variation in this ride is to return via Latrobe on the west bank of the Mersey. ULVERSTONE.— At high tide, after rain, Ulveratone is a Coach to place of broad rivers and streams, on whose bosoms gallant Penguin, ships might repose, but at low tide one understands why, with 4s. all its natural beauty, it can never rival Devonport. Ketches in plenty, coming in and out of the narrow channel, bear witness to the trade in produce which is concentrated here, while the handsome buildings in the town denote that it is the market place of a large and flourishing district ; but of deep anchorage, in which the Union Company's steamers would be safe, there is none. The Leven is very beautiful ; its leafy solitudes, in which the tree fern and myrtle, wattle and eucalyptus, are mingled in sweet confusion, are cool and inviting to the dweller in parched lands, and many a nook in its winding length has formed the subject of painting or photo- graph. Speckled trout and black fish dart about its waters, and reward the perseverance of the angler, but they need skill for capture. 57 A train leaves Devonport for Ulverstone at 12.30, and arrives at 1 p.m., returning 35 minutes after arrival, so that to see anything of Ulverstone it is better to stay all night at one Train, of the two comfortable hotels facing the river, or at the 4s. 6& u Coffee Palace " in the main street, near the railway line. If time is an object, the visitor might drive or cycle by the road, distant 14 miles from Devonport, and return the same day. THE PENGUIN.-Of all the places on this part of the coast, none is better known "on the other side than the Penguin, and the reason does not seem to be that it is more beautiful than other parts of the coast, but that it contains a large, well-managed, and judiciously advertised boarding-house, so that when seekers after a recreative holiday are malting up their minds where to go, the name of "Watcombe House fastens itself upon their minds and decides the question. Penguin is about 23 miles from Devonport by a good road, and is an easy cycling journey, or may be reached by taking train from Devonport at 12.30 or 7 p.m. to Ulverstone, where a coach meets both these trains to convey passengers the remainder of the distance. The beautiful sandy beach and safe bathing places are very helpful in adding to the attrac- tiveness of Penguin, and even the existence or a silver mine has not rendered the village less rural or restful. This particular mine, with stone of an assay value that would have noated a West Coast mine two or three times over, has changed hands three times, after peaceful intervals of repose, and is now worked with some hope of success. Just benind Penguin the Dial Range forms a picturesque background to the very pretty bay and river round which the small settle- ment clusters. There are not wanting circumstances to justify the prophecy that Penguin will be a very important place befrre long, for some copper discoveries of undoubted value have been made in the Dial Range, and there is a good stretch of mineral country of very promising formation. In addition to these, a mountain of iron, in which is ore almost pure, exists not far from the tow r nship, and is now being worked by a company at good profit. At the back of the hills settlement goes on apace, and the shipments of timber, potatoes, and mangolds help to swell considerably the exports from this part of the island. The Stowport, Pine, and New Country roads leading into the bush south of the settlement pass for the first seven or eight miles through cultivation and clearing, and for about that distance are formed of material that sets like cement and is perfect for cycling over. Mountain climbing, boating, fishing, bathing, cycling, and even prospecting are available forms of amusement, while for sketching and photography innumerable subjects present themselves to be immortalised on canvas or platinotype. 58 EMU BAY. — Nine miles from Penguin the beautiful coast Coach, road passes through the seaport town of Burnie at Emu Bay. 9 s * The coach leaves Ulverstone for Burnie after the arrival of the two trains just mentioned, reaching the Bay at 4.30 and 11.30 p.m. The distance from Devon port is 32 miles, and the road is a hard white one most of the way. Here and there is a short steep hill, but on the whole the trip is a pleasant one for cyclists. As the coach rounds the headland, and the long sweep of the bay comes into view, with pretty houses embowered in gardens, and undulating kills of dark green, in contrast to the blue and white of the sea as it rolls in and breaks on the beach, one is disposed to adapt the remark of the Yankee : " When the Lord made Emu Bay I guess He didn't do anything else that day, but jest set round and feel good. A closer acquaintance with this part of the country deepens the favourable impression created by the first view. Burnie is reached by the Union Company's steamer* from Melbourne twice a week, from Devonport once a week, and the steamer from Strahan calls on the way to and from the Coast. No prettier way to Burnie could be found on a fine day than that from Devonport by one of the large steamers, such as the " Tekapo." A two hour trip, close enough inshore to see many of the lovely inlets, sandy beaches, fantastic rocks, and stretches of cultivation, that render the coast so delightful, takes the passenger from Mersey Heads to Emu Bay Breakwater, from which, looking west, he sees another sweep of bay such as he has crossed, with Table Cape at its further end. The massive wall of masonry at which the steamer berths is one of the engineering triumphs of Tasmania, and its length, 565 feet, to be increased by another 150 feet, makes it possible for the largest steamers in the Company's fleet to berth alongside. A lighthouse at the end of the breakwater renders navigation safe. Just beyond the breakwater is a fine sandy beach much used for bathing, on which dressing houses for Doth sexes are placed. Burnie belonged to the Van Diemen's Land Company, but they have sold half the township in alternate blocks, and are holding the rest for the present. The V.D.L. Company also own the Bischoff Railway, and have lately leased it to the Emu Bay Railway Company, a Company which is forming a railway to Rosebery, in the West Coast mining district. The population of Burnie is now about 1,500, and is in- creasing as rapidly as accommodation can be found for it. The promised extension of the Government railway from Ulverstone and the Emu Bay Company's works are giving a great impetus to the trade of the port. A colossal hotel. " Wiseman's, and several smaller ones, Mrs. Lane's, Mrs. Arcner s, and "Berthon- ■' ,;Y D T » • T t; / r'OKKJ • :-V{ ! ,) 69 ville," private boarding houses, all very comfortable, are generally well filled in the summer, and there is no doubt that irectly some more land is sold by the V.D.L. Company building will be very brisk. Very rich iron ore, assaying up to 95 per cent, of pure iron, is found in quantity at the Blythe River, near Bumie, and will be worked on a large scale directly the railway reaches that part. The industries of Burnie merit a chapter to themselves, but must be only just mentioned for want of space. The produce, chiefly potatoes, sent away annually from the port exceeds 4,000 tons, and is grown on the rich chocolate slopes that are so marked a feature of this district. The manufacturing industries are all in the hands of Captain Jones, whose name is closely associated with the present, and promises to be with the future prosperity of Burnie. His sawmills supply the blackwood, pine, and other woods which have become so much used for furniture snd cabinet-work generally in the Australian cities. On the Coo-ee Creek, some distance back from the town, he has constructed a huge reservoir, the water in which is carried to a cordial factory, where every description of aerated water is manufactured. The creek itself, with beautifully cold water, runs past the Emu Butter Factory, and a stone room, built close beside the water, in which the temperature is kept low by an ingenious arrangement all through the summer, is utilised as a cold room for storage. A complete brick- making plant, with machinery driven by hydraulic pressure, is close to the same creek, at which ordinary red bricks and hard white ones for ornamentation are made in great ?[uantities. Still lower down on the same creek is the actory where Brookside bacon and hams, known all over Tasmania, are put through all the processes whereby living pig becomes smoked and fragrant rasher, or succulent ham. Coo-ee Creek, notwithstanding the many uses to which it is put, is still as sweet as any brook that ever flowed over moss or fern, or gladdened the ear of a thirsty traveller with its musical flow. A pretty fall also is reached by following the creek for about half a mile from the reservoir. The most beautiful falls near Burnie are reached by taking the Bischoff railway to the 10-mile peg (there are no stations on this line), where the guard will point the track to the Kidgley Falls. These falls are 172 feet high, and their ferny, mossy surround- ings make them very beautiful. They are about three miles from the train, which leaves Burnie at 8 a.m. and returns at 5 p.m., allowing ample time to view them. Callaghan Falls, on the other side of the line are also very prettily situated, though the fall is not nearly so great and another day might well be spared to visit country so refreshingly green, even in the middje of summer, 00 WARATAH, Mount Bischoff. —The great tin name, which has paid dividends to the amount of about a million and a Train half on a paid-up capital of less than twelve thousand pounds, from is interesting enough to visit. The mountain of tin and the Emu Bay, various operations carried on at Waratah, where the ore is 2 5' dressed before being shipped to the smelting works at Launceston, have often been described, but are better seen. The train leaving Burnie at 8 am reaches Waratah at 11.20, and leaves at 2 p.m., so that only a hurried inspection is possible if the visitor returns the same day, as the mine is a mile distant from the town. A better plan is to stay at one of the two hotels in the township for the night, and so have an. afternoon and a morning in which to view the various processes of mining and dressing. Interesting as the great mine is, the scenery of the country through which the lino passes is even more attractive. The moist climate and the numerous streams favour luxuriant growth of fern, creeper, and bright -leafed shrub. Many a " cool grot and mossy dell ' rest the eye with their green carpeting, while from Waratah itself the view of beech, eucalypt, and celery-top pine gives a rich luxuriance of colour to the outlook. Close at hand the Magnet Ranges, farther off the peaks of Mount Ramsay, Mount Block, and others difficult to identify without having considerable knowledge of the region, form an effective background ; while over all, if the visitor is fortunate enough to have a fine day, is the deep intense blue of the morning sky, or the lovely softened sapphire of the afternoon. For the visitor to whom the coming of a fine day is a challenge to "go and kill something/' there is splendid sport at the Hampshire Hills, 18 miles from Burnie, on the same railway line. A hut is erected for accommodation, but provisions, rugs, and blankets need to be taken, when several days of enjoyable hunting may be obtained. Several experienced hunters living in Burnie are always willing to act as guides to the best ground in the vicinity, and make arrangements for the expedition. A perfectly delightful drive or cycling trip from Burnie is to the River Cam. four and a half miles, and then along by the river bank on tne white metalled road for a few miles. The river is very lovely, contains plenty of fish, while the bits of primeval forest, interspersed with the farms on which cultivation is progressing apace, give one some idea of the difficulties met with by those who started to hew out a home for themselves in this part of the country. One or two boats on the river suggest the desirability of a row on its clear, placid waters, a proceeding that, if due regard be had for possible snags, will be richly productive THr :: 7 VORK pi' 1 ; : : , .' \ i \ I AST'./-. 1 ' ">n TILD- M s. - 61 5s. of pleasure. The platypus frequents these waters, and has his home on its banks, but it is rather difficult to shoot the wily nondescript, although, once shot, his fur makes caps or muffs equal to the beaver. WYNYARD, Table Cape.— Having left Devonport for an excursion along the North- West Coast, it may be as well to Fare visit the rich dairying district about Wynyard, the butter from * ro ° 1 whence is so well known in Tasmanian towns. Starting from Em " "Vi Devonport at 12.30, as before, and taking coach at Ulverstone, the drive is a continuation of the coast road past Penguin and Emu Bay, from which it is distant 12 miles. Wynyard is reached soon after 6 p.m. The Straits are seen at their best from Table Cape just about sunset ; when in the clear evening light the varied coast outline is seen in all its beauty. The river Inglis flows into the sea at Wynyard, and a very pretty drive along the Flowerdale Road, or through the beautiful Government Reserve (a ferny forest paradise) are both ex- periences that will leave pleasant memories. SHEFFIELD. — This thriving agricultural settlement is an illustration of ♦the sway of fashion in things mining, as in other mundane affairs. It is in the centre of the Middlesex mining district, and while its creameries and butter factory flourisn in the summer, and its crops are satisfactory all the year round, its great mineral wealth is almost untoucned. One or two mines are now being worked satisfactorily, notably the Devon (silver and copper), and Messrs. Shepherd and Murphy's (tin and bismuth), ana their success may turn popular atten- tion to the field. Meanwhile, its situation on a fairly high plateau makes the air pure and light and residence salubrious; the country around is very interesting, some of it grand. It is reached by taking train from Devonport to Railton, at 7 a,m., or 2 p.m. A conveyance meets the train at Railton to convey passengers to Sheffield, and there is a good quiet country hotel, as well as shops, churches, two halls, a court- house, and bank premises. If the invigorating air does not make a sufficient addition to its attractions to justify a longer stay, Devonport may be reached at 7 o'clock in the evening on return, if the morning train has been taken from thence. The method of clearing the Tasmanian bush is well under- stood in Australia, but it gives the English visitor somewhat of a shock to see a flourishing crop of oats or potatoes in a paddock that is almost crowded with upright trunks of defunct trees. It is a question of sentiment versus dollars. The most ardent advocate of the plan would not venture to call it beautiful, but its adoption has so reduced the cost of cultivation in the first instance, as to make it possible for a selector to make a living out of land it would have rained him to clear Train, 8s. Coach, 3s. 62 under the old system. All things else, the climate, the rivers, the natural scenery, are beautiful, and in a land where there is so much to admire^ the visitor soon forgets the shock of the first sight of what is called a " farm " in the remote bush, and learns to appreciate the energy and ability that deserve and that, all along this beautiful part of Tasmania, seem to command success. LATJ2TCEST02T. AREA, 3,340 acres. POPULATION, including suburbs, 28,000. HALLS.— Albert Hall, Masonic Hall, Mechanics 1 Institute, etc. CHURCHES.— All denominations are represented. RECREATION 'GROUNDS. — The City Park, the Princes Square, and various cricket and sports grounds, bowling greens, and tennis lawns. THEATRES.— Academy of Music and Bijou Hall. BATHS.— City Baths, near Esk Bridge, and Victoria Baths, Patterson Street. Five large steamers of the Union Company's fleet visit Launceston regularly, with extra steamers when required, and a bi-weekly service from Melbourne, a weekly from Sydney, a bi-weekly to and from Strahan, West Coast, Devonport, Burnie, Stanley, and the North West, keep this end of the island in constant communication with Australia. Launceston may be reached from Hobart by train leaving at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m., by the Union Company's steamers via Macquarie Harbour, or by the " Warrentinna " via East Coast and George's Bay. Launceston is very prettily situated on the Tamar, which is formed by the junction of the North and South Esk rivers. It is a delightful city for the cleanliness of its streets, its modern electric lighting, and the beauty of its surroundings. It is not so closely shut in by hills as Hobart, but in the blue distance everywhere, as background to the green meadows and darker eucalypt, are the softened outlines of ranges of hills, looking cool and inviting against the bright blue sky. Its proximity to Melbourne, or some other circumstance, gives it an air of briskness and bustle that are wanting in the larger city of the south. If Hobart is a place where "it seems always afternoon," Launceston gives one the impression of being always eleven in the forenoon, with everyone alert to do business. Withal, the good people of Launceston share in the characteristics of their fellows all over Tasmania, and are hospitable and kind to the last degree, THF r:;. •// YORK pi; i :.;■.: l::t;aky ASTO.. l r f '" v / NO TILDt.N • ' ..AT.^.gS. ■» "T A<" T i 1! 63 Flaws of Interest In and Around Lawoeston. THE VICTORIA MUSEUM and ART GALLERY.— The energy and enterprise of the Launceston municipality have shown themselves in the erection of a fine building in the Dep6t Grounds as a Museum and Art Gallery, which has proved very attractive to visitors and residents. The small begin- nings of a permanent art collection and various generous loans of pictures are hung in a bright and pleasant room on the upper floor, while the ground floor is devoted to the exhibition of natural history and mineralogy. The Depot Grounds, in which the building stands, slope down toward the river, and are beautifully shaded with English trees. There is also, a band-stand, and occasional band concerts in the evening or on Sunday afternoons. THE MECHANICS' INSTITUTE and LIBRARY.- Any idle half hours at the visitor's disposal may very pleasantly be spent in the reading - room of the Institute, which is open free to the public. The library contains 20,000 volumes and very low terms of subscription enable visitors to avail themselves of its privileges while in Tasmania. CATARACT GORGE.— The Launceston people are justly proud of their beauty spot, the "Cataract Gorge^ for its natural, beauties have been enhanced by the artistic way in which the glen and waterfall have been made accessible. Just a few minutes walk from the Museum, across the South Esk Bridge, one comes to the gates which open the way for the visitor to the rustic path by the side of the gorge. Below, is the tossing, tumbling water, hurrying down the defile, while on the opposite side a wooden race carries a portion of the stream, that drips on the way with a musical tinkle. Every- where beside the path where a shrub, fern, or tree would grow, one has been planted, and rustic seats ana shelter arbours are placed at convenient intervals, where one may rest and enjoy the view. At what is called the First Basin, a deep and lovely u tarn," the gorge widens out, and the grounds are beautified with trees and shrubs. The Second Basin is reached by a continuance of the walk, and is as beautiful as the first. ELECTRIC LIGHT WORKS.— The path leading on from the First Basin takes the visitor to where a strongly-constructed dam throws the water into a tunnel taken through a hill to the generating station for the electric light, which gives it a fall of over 100 feet, equal to about 1,460 horse-power. The generating station may be inspected by obtaining an order for admission at the Town Hall. 64 CITY PARK.— A beautifully kept and shady park of 12 acres contains the zoological collection, which is the only attempt at a "zoo" in Tasmania. Various animals, chiefly Tasmanian, are on view, but the place is not large enough for them to appear to much advantage. The Launceston Exhibition of 1891-2 was held in this park, and the Albert Hall, a splendid building, capable of holding over 2,000 people, was built at the entrance to the park in connection with the exhibition. It is used for vice-regal receptions, mayor's balls, concerts, etc., and contains a very fine organ. CAMPBELL'S POTTERIES— An omnibus ride to the Sandhills, where the potteries are situated, is worth taking, Bus, 3d. .both for the interest of the earthenware factories and for the splendid view obtained of the city, the fertile valley watered by the Esk, and broad sweep of the Tamar. At the factory, all sorts of drain pipes, filters, jars, flower-pots, and innumer- able articles of majolica and otner sorts of ware arc to be seen in the process of manufacture, and visitors are always cordially welcomed. ONE-DAY BZOTOSIONS 7R0K LAT72TOESTON. ROSEVEARS. — A lovely drive or cycle ride is that along r . f the West Tamar Road for 12 miles, the first part of which Cao tor p a8seg suburban houses with lovely gardens, while further on y» » 1, are very pretty bush views, with the river all the way. The Tamar at Rosevears is very beautiful, it widens out into a lake- like expanse, called " Lake Windermere," and there is a massive pile of rocks close by, called " Brady's Lookout/' while in the distance the mountains close in the view. CORRA LINN. — What ought to be a suburb of Launceston, Cab for but instead is a pretty country place with farms and hedges, day, £1. willows and streams, is St. Leonards, near which, and only seven miles from the city, is the "gorge," which rivals the "cataract " in attractiveness, and is called Corra Linn. It is situated on the North Esk River, and forms a pleasant picnic ground. DENISON GORGE.— On the slopes of the Denison Special Range, 30 miles from Launceston, are the rich fern gullies Excur- and delightful little streams, one of which has been made a sion, picnic ground, pavilions, rustic bridges, and pretty pathways generally taving been made to enhance its natural attractiveness. It 2s. 6d. is reached by taking the train on the Scottsdale line, which runs on Saturdays and holidays during the summer months. The forest scenery is varied and pleasant, and the gorge is very romantic and beautiful '0 65 EVANDALE.— The wheat-growing district round Evandale. the fine homesteads, the comfortable looking old fashioned Train, township, and the willow-shaded Esk make a picture of rural 3 s W. beauty worth travelling more than 13 miles to see, and it is a trip very easy to take, either by coach, cycle, or train. If the latter is preferred, the train may be taken at 8.30 a.m. or 12.40 p.m., the latter train going only as far as Evandale Junction, where a 'bus conveys passengers to the township (3d.) Return train may be taken from Evandale at 1.20 p.m. or from Evandale Junction at 6.10, arriving in Launceston in the first instance at 1.53 p.m., in the next, at 6.40 p.m. LONGFORD.— Distant only 14 miles from Launceston by road, Longford is a convenient day's outing for the cyclist, even Train, if it be not chosen as a centre from which to make various 4s. 6d. excursions. The road passes through Hadspen, turning to the south from that point. Longford is a large town with good public buildings, comfortable hotels, and good roads for cycling. It is the part of the country which contains the finest estates and some of the most beautiful homesteads in Tasmania, while the land is exceedingly fertile. Seven miles further is Cressy, from which place a fairly good track exists to the lakes. The various peaks, Quamby Bluff, Dry Bluff, and others give a picturesque variety to the landscape. The Lonpf ord Agricultural Show attracts visitors from all parts of the island ; it is held in October of each year. LONGER EX0TTBSX0N3 7B0K LATOOESTON. , GEORGE TOWN and LEFROY. — The tourist wishing a restful time with good scenery boating, fishing, and free r from invasion of hordes of other sightseers, would do well to " oacn » pitch his camp for a time at George Town. Two very xos ' comfortable boarding houses, Harris's, and Hopkins', provide good accommodation at reasonable tariffs, and within a few miles there are beautiful sea beaches, as well as a pretty bay at George Town for boating. A trip to the Lefroy goldfields, 10 miles away, makes a pleasant change in the programme for an extended stay, or may be included in a two-day trip from Launceston if time be an object. The distance from Laun- ceston to George Town is 37 miles, to Lefroy 27. The George Town Road is a good cycling road, though a little hilly towards Lefroy. A steamer leaves Launceston every morning for George Town, and a coach from thence conveys passengers to the goldfields, from which one may return by road if preferred. 66 BEACONSFIELD.— The road on the west bank of the Tamar continues past Roseveara, already mentioned, to the great Tasmania Gold Mine at Beaconsfield. The road by the banks of the river to Beauty Point, then three miles further to the township, is very pretty, and the township is interesting from its history more than from the beauty of its surroundings, which are rather rugged. The town, which contains a population of 1,700 persons, is at the base of the Cabbage Tree Hill, in which the Tasmania mine is situated. Gold to the value of a million and a half has already been won from this mine, from crush ings reaching the total of 350,625 tons of stone. The George Town steamer leaving Launceston at 11 a.m. lands passengers at Beauty Point, and a vehicle meets the steamer to convey them to Beaconsfield. DELORAINE.— Situated 30 miles from Launceston, 800 . feet above the sea level, on one of the loveliest rivers in this /! ¥ a,T > °* Tasmania, Deloraine has many attractions for the xos. od. lovers of the beautiful and picturesque. There are innumerable scenes that, transferred to canvas or photographed, would be a "joy for ever." Plentv of fishing may be had in the Meander ; especially abundant is the delicions cucumber herring. There are exquisite walks among the sassafras and myrtle trees by the river, and several enchanting drives and cycle rides in the neighbourhood. From here, by arrangement with Messrs. Cook and Son, the traveller may visit the lakes by a fairly easy and by certainly the loveliest route. He may also see Latrobe and Devonport in a 30 mile ride, most of it through level forest ; he may make excursions in every possible direction — north, south, east, and west — with something fresh and interest ing in them all ; and from here also he may visit the Chudleigh Caves, those natural wonders that will yet be recognised as a valuable national asset, and cared for accordingly. They are about 12 miles from Deloraine, and three from the terminus of the Mole Creek Bailway, which branches off at Deloraine. The caves occur in a huge outcrop of limestone formation at the base of the Great Western Range, and have never been sys- tematically explored, though they were discovered more than 50 years ago. Two or three miles have been traversed in con- tinuous crevices, but it is extremely likely that they contain many more chambers besides those already discovered. The neglect of these caves, and their consequent mutilation by irresponsible persons, who chip off bits of the many coloured and variously shaped stalactites, is a matter for regret, and it is to be hoped will soon end. The rocks which jut out from the sides of the cavern are covered with fringes of elegant drapery, and the floor sparkles as if with diamonds. A rivulet flows through the caves, which has to be waded in order to see 67 all one wants to see, and the atmosphere of the caves, though not particularly damp, is intensely cold. At a cottage close by a fire and a hot cup of tea may be enjoyed before beginning the return journey. The road to the caves is quite good enough for cycling to within half a mile of the entrance, when walking would be easier for the remainder of the distance. A pleasant three-day cycling trip from Launceston or Devonport, either of which is 30 miles from Deloraine. would be : — First day, from Launceston or Devonport, to Deloraine ; second day, to the Caves, and return to Deloraine ; third day, return to Devonport or Launceston. *«oo- NORTH-EAST COAST. One of the most pleasant trips to be made in the north of the island, either by cyclists or by rail or vehicle, is the circular trip through the Fingal, George Bay, and Blue Tier districts, starting from Launceston, and proceeding via St. Marys or Scottsdale. The scenery of the Fingal and St. Marys line is well worth Train, seeing, and round St. Marys there are points of interest which X 9g, ^d. may well tempt the tourist to pause on his journey, and Single, devote a day or two to rambling round its picturesque environs. Taking the Main Line train from Launceston at 3 p.m. to Conara Junction, the traveller takes the branch train and is carried up the valley of the South Esk to the pretty township of Avoca, lying at the junction of the St. raul Kiver with the Esk. Here the cyclist, having ridden 48 miles, might rest well content, and follow on to St. Marys in a day or two. Wooded hills of considerable altitude shut in the valley, while farther to the east towers up the lofty eminence calltd JSt. Paul Dome, which can be seen by those who know its situation from Mount Wellington, Hobart, on a clear day. As the train proceeds up the valley of the Esk, the lofty crags of Ben Lomond— the mountain giant of this part of the country — are seen towering above the nills which border the river. At Fingal, the next township, a lovely view can be had of the mountain, which is much enhanced when the winter snow clothes the lofty sides of the mountains. Thirteen miles beyond Fingal, where the road branches off to Mathinna and its gold mines, the railway terminates at St. Marys, which is reached about 7.35 p.m. The township nestles at the foot of the forest-covered hills which border the elevated plateau, called the Break o' Day Plains, and which have been immortalised by our well-known artist, Mr. W. (J. Piguenit, in a picture 68 which attracted much attention at a recent exhibition in London. The coast range, comprising St. Patrick Head and Mount Elephant, joins the tier known as Mount Nicholas at St. Marys, and in the immediate vicinity are several picturesque bill settlements, commanding fine scenery, and with good roads leading to them ; and through the ranges to the sea lead these fine mountain passes, all well worth a visit. Some three or four miles to the west, towards Fingal, are the coal mines of Mount Nicholas and Cornwall, and lastly the little parish church of Cullenswood, with its lovely windows for those who are fond of art. From St. Marys also is a good cycling road to Swansea, passing through the pretty little towship of Bicheno, with its fine scenery and splendid beach. There are two hotels at St. Marys which offer fair accommoda- tion for visitors, and by making a halt of two or three days, and hiring a trap, or utilising one's steel steed, the surround- ing country can be seen. The first day might be spent in making an excursion to the Cornwall mine, from the mouth of which is a glorious view of mountain, plain, and a river, the Nive, close at hand, which forms a lovely picnicking ground. For the adventuresome there is the mine with its lengthy tunnels piercing the heart of the mountain, which can be traversed without incon- venience, and the toilsome labour of the miners witnessed. On the way back, a halt may be made at Christ Church for the purpose of seeing the stained glass work of Clayton and Bell, London, as exemplified in the beautiful memorial win- dows. In the rich and harmonious colouring, and the well- handled subjects— each window being a study and a poem in itself- we have an admirable attempt by these celebrated artists to recall the old glass so priceless in European edifices. A trip may be made in the afternoon to the romantic settle- ment of Dublin town, which lies on the north side of Mt. Nicholas, and the road to which commands a lovely view of the eastern shores of the island, and the forest-clad hills which bound them for 30 or 40 miles to the north. After the road crosses the. ranges it turns to the west, and contours the moun- tain at an altitude of 1,700 feet above the sea, offering a delightful and far-reaching prospect over the densely- wooded hills until it passes a lofty pinnacle of rock, called "The Sister," and descends to the settlement. The prosperous farmers of Dublin Town are glad to see visitors ; while near at hand a romantic glen will be found, containing some re- markable fossils and crystals which are worth collecting. On returning to St. Marys alone the Germantown ftoad, a fine view of t the Break o'Day Plains and the Fingal Ranges is obtained. The distance to Dublin Town is six miles. A second day's excursion may be had by taking the Swansea Road, which leads in the first instance to the prosperous home* stead of Mr. James Wardlaw, at the Chain of Lagoons. This road passes over the spurs of the Elephant Mountain, at an elevation of 1,500 feet, affording a grand prospect of the coast to Bicheno. and the august head of Schouten Island moun- tains, standing out at sea far to the south. It then winds down the valley by a well-made pass to the ocean, the views of which are nearer and consequently finer than those from St. Marys Pass. On arrival at the Chain of Lagoons, permission may be obtained from Mr. Wardlaw to cross his land to the fine ocean beach, and a pleasant day's outing by the sea, together with the fine scenery of the Pass, will compensate for the fatigue of a 13-mile drive from the township. In the valleys which seam the sides of Mt Elephant are many limestone grottoes, locally called " caves," which would repay a visit from the traveller spending some days in the township of St. Marys. A third day's excursion can be taken to the St. Patrick Valley, and the steep pass leading to Four-mile Creek, a small stream which runs into the sea four miles south of Falmouth. The Pass descends 900 feet in two miles, and traverses some fine rock scenery superior to anything in the district. At the foot of the Pass the creek is crossed, and two miles thence the brackish inlet is reached. Here, at certain times, good catches of bream are made with hook and line, but the water is small, and the fish as a consequence not nearly so plentiful as in the Scamander, which is crossed on the way to St. Helens from Falmouth, and where Mr. Walker's comfortable Scamander Hotel offers good accommodation for anglers and tourists. Four-mile Creek has been stocked with trout, and after a few years time as good fishing will be had in it as in the streams around St Marys. ST. HELENS.— On quitting St. Marys for St. Helens and the road over the Blue Tier (if this route be chosen) the tourist descends the St. Marys Pass, long celebrated for its sylvan a 5v 1 scenery, which, though somewhat tame, is very pretty if one ??• <*• chances to see it after a summer when it has not been Sin 8 Ie « devastated by fire ; the glimpses of the gully beneath, with its carpeting of tree ferns, form the chief charm of this pass, and the tier on the opposite sides reveals one or two prettily clothed ravines. Four or five miles from the top of tne pass the road branches off from the old Falmouth track to the north, and passing along the brackish lagoon called the Styx, reaches, in about Eve miles from the turn-off, the splendid bridge which crosses the Scamander. A halt of a day or two at Mr. Walker's hotel is recommended, especially if the visitor has cycled so far, for the toilsome ascent of the pass calls for r<o a halt : fishing is good, and the trip up the river, five miles to the settlements, well worth making. Near here are the newly opened copper mines, which are struggling on in the hope of giving something valuable to the world before the close of the century. The river, which was originally called the Borthwick, is a fine sheet of water for seven miles, and just above the bridge passes through a gorge, a trip through which makes a fine boating excursion. St. Helens lies at the head of one of the most picturesque bays in Tasmania, and is 18 miles from the sea. The shooting and fishing are very attractive, and boatingor yachting in the bay is pleasant at any time of the year. The Leda Falls are about seven miles from St. Helens, and form a beautiful picture, not so much from the great fall of water, as from the creepers and ferns and climbing plants, which festoon the jutting masses of rock, or the sides of the gorge into which the water flows. MOORINA and DERBY.— The trip from St. Helens to Derby passes through the most beautiful scenery on the tour, Coach, 0^ ft crosse3 the Blue Tier. The traveller passes through c . 1 ^ 8 1 many miles of myrtle, sassafras, and tree fern forest by the Single, winding pass which crosses the range. Here he may have at every turn in the well-made road some fresh peep at the beautiful vegetation and sylvan luxuriance which are so typical of the Tasmanian myrtle forest. The romantic plain at Weldborough, fringed with a well-defined border of green forest, and containing the interesting Chinese camp, is also an attraction on the route. At Weldborough the traveller will find the All Nations Hotel a good house of accommoda- tion, and a night spent here by cyclists will provide a suitable rest on the journey from St. Helens. Before reaching Weld- borough, however, the traveller might well turn aside to visit the piece de resistance of the north-eastern scenery, the George River and Columbia Falls. They are reached on the return journey from St Helens by turning off at Goulds Country. Goulds Country was once renowned for it enormous trees, but is now a collection of prosperous farms, studded here ana there with luxuriant groves of silver wattle. The road from Goulds Country ascends rapidly to Lottah or the " Junction," from whence a romantic road diverges up the range to the Blue Tier mining settlement which once flourished, but is now in decadence. Near Lottah, romantically situated in a deep gully, is the Anchor Mine. A stroll down the mountain track to the extensive works of the Company would repay the short time spent in the visit. A pretty drive along the wooded valley from the turn-off at Qoulds Country takes the traveller, in six miles, to Mr. Terry's 71 boarding-house, which is situated near the South George River. Good accommodation can be had at Mr. Terry's, and if it is desired to drive the six miles to the Columbia Falls, he can furnish a chaise cart for the purpose. Some of the best farms in this fertile valley are on the North George River, where, as everywhere else in this district, can be seen ample evidence of the axeman's prowess in subjugating the forest. On proceeding to the Falls, the first three miles are passed through cleared land shut in by high-wooded hills. The valley then suddenly narrows to a deep glen, following the rocky course of the river, which flows amidst a fairy scene of myrtle, sassafras, wattle, and blackwood, the varied foliage of which is almost more beautiful than the vegetation on the Blue Tier Pass. The road is well graded, and winds round many beau- tiful spurs and across tributary creeks, until, after a gentle ascent of three miles, the tourist comes in sight of the far- famed falls. The valley continues to the west, the stream suddenly diminishing, while by a curious freak the George River appears tumbling over a huge precipice from the north, at right angles to the direction which the traveller has, been following up the valley. In flood-time the sight of the foaming torrent leaping in a shower of mist and spray from crag to crag, from the height of 300 feet, is grand in the extreme. In ordinary times the fall, divided into graceful jets and streams by the lofty crags, is very picturesque. It is seen through a framework of myrtle and sassafras, which forms a picture not easily forgotten. The vandalism of mining speculators has been rife of late years, threatening to destroy the natural beauty of this lovely spot by drawing the water off for various "wild cat" schemes, which it is devoutly hoped will never come off. SCOTTSDALE.— The tin-mining district around Derby will probably not long detain the traveller, and the drive of D . 21 miles over a good road will bring him to Scottsdale, the u ~°y present terminus of the North-Eastern Railway, and the «• i centre of a splendid agricultural district, which is becoming &m ^ le ' more closely settled year by year, though the development is Scotts- not so marked as in the north-west, owing perhaps to the fall ^g in the price of tin and the working out of many rich alluvial Train to deposits. The development of the various tin lodes known to Launces- exist ought to turn the tide more strongly than before in the ton direction of this district. Two fine hotels offer accommodation xxs# ^ to travellers wishing to spend a few days in the beautiful sur- rounding country, and the daily train gives him opportunity of returning to Launceston at pleasure. The train and coach fares for this round trip reach the sum of £3, and it may be accomplished in four days. The roads are good the entire distance for cycling, but some hill climbing has perforce to be encountered, though the stages may be made very short if so desired, as the various towns and settlements passed through contain clean and fairly good accommodation ; while at Avoca, St. Marys, Scamander, St. Helens, and Scottsdale, it is ex- cellent, and the tariffs moderate. SWANSEA, East Coast — Tasmania is justly regarded as, Train, P ? cxcttt&we, & summer resort. Its cool ravines, high moun- 24s. tains, ferny glens, above all, its delicious raspberries, straw- berries, currants, and other English fruits make it supremely attractive just at the time when all Australia is panting under Coach, the fierce heat of almost tropical summer. But the East Coast 2 5 s » of Tasmania, charming in summer, is lovely in winter, with an atmosphere so light and dry, a sky so blue, that one feels (when a summer visitor praises it) inclined to say, " Yes ; but you should see it in the winter, for its summer is in the winter." The equatorial current flowing down the east coast of Aus- tralia retains much of its warmth as it passes Swansea and Spring Bay, or washes gently the shores of Schouten and Maria Islands. Beautiful at all times, the East Coast is never more so than when its background of an eastern tier stands against the blue sky line, and the slight sharpness in the air reminds one that " somewhere " there is frost. The warm glow of the granite peaks in the sunlight is never seen to better advantage than when the coolness and freshness of the air sharpen the contrast, and then the miles of beach, hard, white, and glistening, as "the waves laugh loudly along the shore in advance or retreat, are charming and fascinating beyond description. Swansea is famous among Tasmanians for its shooting, fishing, and magnificent scenery. Its distance from the principal cities of Tasmania has hitherto confined a know- ledge of its attractions to a few of our summer visitors, but now that the residents of Swansea are making efforts to draw the attention of tourists to the locality, and by means of the Swansea Tourists' and Visitors 7 Bureau are affording help and information to intending visitors there is hope that some share of the traffic will follow the increased facilities. Swansea may be reached equally well from Launceston or Hobart by train and coach, while there are no difficulties of moment in the way of riding there on a bicycle, the roads being splendid. The distance from Launceston is 80 miles ; from Hobart, 90. To go from Launceston one takes the train at 8.30 a.m. to Camp- bell Town, leaving Campbell Town by coach at 12.30, arriving at Swansea at 7 p.m. The view of Ben Lomond, rising like a crowned king from the shoulders of his subjects, the mountains, is very fine. The drive all the way is full of interest, and the late afternoon light glorifying the red granite and green forest 73 of the Schou tens just across the bay, makes the hour of arrival seem happily timed. A fairly easy two days bicycle ride may be had by breaking the journey at Campbell Town, and riding the remainder of the distance, about 38 miles, the next. An- . other way is to leave the main Launceston to Hobart road vf"! at Conara Junction and ride to Avoca, where good hotel t0 ®f~» accommodation is to be had, thence on via Leipsic, but the ?• 9*** first day's stage is rather long (48 miles) unless the train be Sm £ le « used for the first 15 miles. In that case, leave Launceston in the Ulverstone train at 8 a.m., getting out at Perth, and then on as before to Ccnara Junction and Avoca for the first day, Swansea (42 miles from Avoca) the second day. To reach* Swansea from Hobart, one must leave by express at 8 a m. for Campania, where Reynolds' coach is in readiness, Train, 8s. and a pleasant drive through Buckland, Orford, and Spring Bay, Coach, ends at Swansea at 8 p.m. The road via Sorell is a favourite one 36s. with cyclists, who go on to Buckland the first day, Triabunna, the township of Spring Bay, the next, and Swansea the third. Hotel accommodation at Buckland is clean and comfortable, but at Triabunna it is well to arrange with Mrs. Robinson, the postmistress, for accommodation. Spring Bay and Orford deserve a aay to themselves, Orford especially, with the beautiful river (Prosser's) and the view of Maria Island across the bay are worth a visit. It was at Orford that Mrs. Meredith, the late Tasmanian authoress, lived for some years, gathering "the harvest of a quiest eye," that was afterwards to enrich with pen and pencil the students of her pleasant books. Maria Island, which a few years ago was a hive of industry, promising great things in the way of cement, colonial wine and silk, with a population of 600, and a busy steamer plying to and from Spring Bay, has suffered a— let us hope- temporary eclipse of its glories, and is apparently waiting for something to turn up. From Spring Bay to Swansea, a distance of 32 miles, is a pretty* coast road with rugged hills to the left, which run close to the sea for part of the way, so that the road had to be cut on a shelf on the side of the hill, below which the sea lashes and dashes. The best time to cycle from Jriabunna to Spring Bay is in the afternoon, when, if the usual summer southerly breeze is blowing it is easy to ride along with it, There are several delightful drives and excursions about Swansea, and both fishing and shooting are to be had in abundance. Schouten Main, or Freycinet Peninsula, is an ideal place for camping out, and every requisite except the tent could be procured in town. There are good hotels and stores, and at least two very comfortable boarding-houses in Swansea. No better place for children could be imagined than 74 the glorious 10-mile beach with its quantities of lovely sheila, and the adult would be hard to please who did not revel in the many delights of a holiday at Swansea, among, which black swan shooting will be considered first by many sports- men. Hill's conveyance runs once a week from Sorell toTriabunna, „ Spring Bay. To connect with it from Hobart O'May's steamer bteamer, mugt j^ ^km to Rellerive at 930 on Wednesday morning, —4 . connecting with the Sorell train, which starts at 10 a.m. The tM M coftc ^ I eavea Sorell on the arrival of the train, and returns •?• ™ from Triabunna next day in time to catch the afternoon train Loach, f TO\|n g oW y i enabling the visitor to reach Hobart at 5 p.m. " 1, It is not likely that a visitor in any one summer will attempt to see the whole of Tasmania, but the island is so full of attractions, that, let him decide to go where he will, he will want to come again and again. If this introduction to some of its beauties serves the Jiurpose of bringing any to this gem of the Southern Ocean or the first time, Tasmania may be safely trusted to induce them to come again. ft LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO TASMANIA. [Compiled by J. B. Walker, F.R.G.S.] 7%€ arrangement follows as nearly as possible the periods to which the works relate. Discovery and Early Voyages. Swart, Jacob. — Journaal van de Reis naar het onbekende Zuidland, in den Jare 1642, door Abel Jansz. Tasman Amster- dam, 1860. Heeres, J. E. — Abel Jansz. Tasman 's Journal of his discovery of Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand in 1642. Amsterdam, 1898. Walker, J. B. — Abel Janszoon Tasman ; His Life and Voyages. Hobart, 1896. The Discovery of Van Diemen's Land in 1642. Hobart, 1891. Roth, H. Ling. — Crozet's Voyage to Tasmania and New Zealand in the years 1771-2. London, 1891. Cook, Captain Jas.— Second Voyage Round the World in H.M.Ss. Resolution and Adventure, 1772-1775. London, 1777. Third Voyage to the Pacific Ocean in H.M.Ss. Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780. London, 1785. Mortimer, Lieut. Geo. — Voyage to the Islands of Teneriffe, Maria's Islands near Van Diemen's Land, etc., in the brig Mercury, J. H. Cox. London, 1791. Bligh, Lieut. — Voyage to the South Sea in H.M.S. Bounty, London, 1792. Labillardiere, J. J. — Voyage a la Recherche de La Pe>ouse. 1791-1794 Paris, 1800. Rossel, M. de. — Voyage de Dentrecasteaux. Paris, 1800. Flinders, Matthew.— Voyage to Terra Australis in H.M.S. Investigator, 1801-1803. London, 1814. Collins, David.— Account of the English Colony in New South Wales. Londou, 1798-1802. Peron, F. et Freycinet, L. — Voyage de d&xmvertes aux Terres Australes. Paris, 1809-1816. Woods, Rev. J. E. Tenison. — History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia. London, 1865. Howitt, Wm. — History of Discovery in Australia, Tas- mania, etc. London, 1865. Historical and Descriptive. Tuckey, Lieut. J. H. —Voyage to establish a colony at Port Phillip, in Bass Strait, in H.M.S. Calcutta, 1802-4. London, 1805. Shillinglaw, J. J.— Historical records of Port Phillip. Mel- bourne, 1879. Holt, Jos.— Memoirs of Joseph Holt, General of the Irish rebels in 1798. London, 1838. Walker, J. B. — The French in Van Diemen's Land. Hobart, 1889. The Settlement of Tasmania. Hobart, 1890. The Discovery and Occupation of Port Dalrymple. Hobart, ] 890. The Deportation of the Norfolk Islanders to the Derwent in 1808. Hobart, 1895. • Transportation.- Report from Select Committee of House of Commons. London, 1812. Bent, Andrew. — Michael Howe, the last and worst of the Bushrangers of Van Diemen's Land. Hobart, 1818. Bonwick, Jas — Mike Howe, the Bushranger of Van Diemen's Land. (A Tale.) London, 1873. Wentworth, W. C. — Description of the Colony of New South Wales and its dependent settlements in Van Diemen's Land. London, 1819. Jeffreys, Lieut. Charles.— Van Diemen's Land. Geographical and Descriptive Delineations of the Island. London, 1820. Dixon, James. — Voyage to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in the year 1820. Edinburgh, 1822. Evans, Geo. Wm. — Geographical, Historical, and Topo- graphical Description of Van Diemen's Land. London, 1822. Bigge, John Thomas. — Reports of the Commission of Inquiry on the state of the Colony of New South Wales. (Parlia- mentary Papers.) London, 1822-3. Godwin's Emigrants' Guide to Van Diemen's Land. London, 1823. Curr, Edward. — Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land. London, 1824. Widowson, Henry. — Present State of Van Diemen's Land. London, 1829. Hermit (The) in Van Diemen's Land, from the Colonial Times. Hobart Town, 1829. Betts, Captain T.— Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land. Calcutta, 1830. ) 77 Rowcuoft, Chas.— Tales of the Colonies ; or, Adventures of an Emigrant. (Fiction.) London, 1843. Goodridge, C. M. — Voyage to the South Seas, etc.; and Eight Years' Residence in Van Diemen's Land. Exeter, 1832. Statistical View of Van Diemen's Land. Exeter, 1832. Bischoff, James.— Sketch of the History of Van Diemen's Land, and an Account of the Van Diemen's Land Co. London, 1832. Henderson, John. — Observations on the Colonies of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Calcutta, 1832. Prinsep, Mrs. A. - Voyage from Calcutta to Van Diemen's Land, comprising a description of that country. London, 1833. Parker, Henry W. — Rise, Progress, and Present State of Van Diemen's Land. London, 1833. Melville, Henry. — Van Diemen's Land, comprising Statistical and other Information. Hobart Town, 1833. Holman, James. — Voyage Round the World, including Travels in Africa, Asia, Australasia, etc., from 1827-32. Lon- don, 1834-5. Ross, James.— Essay on Prison Discipline. Hobart Town, 1833. Arthur, Col. Geo.— Observations on Secondary Punish- ments. Hobart Town, 1833. Defence of Transportation. London, 1835. Bonwick, Jas.— Curious facts of Old Colonial Days. London, 1870. Ullathorne (Archbishop), Autobiography of. London, 1891 t Atkins, Rev. T.— Reminiscences of Twelve Years' Residence in Tasmania, New South Wales, Norfolk Island, etc. Malvern, 1869. Clarke, Marcus.— Old Tales of a Young Country. Mel- bourne, 1871. Lloyd G. T.— Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Vic- toria. London, 1862. Bonwick, Jas. — John Batman, the Founder of Victoria. Melbourne, 1862. Jorgenson, Jorgen.— A shred of Autobiography.— Hobart Town Almanac, 1835 and 1838. Hogan, J. F.— The Convict King, being the Life of Jorgen Jorgenson. London, 1891. Bonwick, Jas.— Early Struggles of the Australian Press. London, 1890. 78 Melville, Henry.— History of the Island of Van Diemen's Land, from the year 1824 to 1835 inclusive. Hobart Town, 1835. Martin, Robert Montgomery. — History of Australasia, com- prising New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, etc. London, 1836. Backhouse, Jas. — Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies. London, 1843. Mann, William. — Six Years' Residence in the Australian Colonies. London, 1839. Dixon, John. — The Conditions and Capabilities of Van Diemen's Land as a Place of Emigration. London, 1839. Southey, Thomas. — Treatise on Sheep, addressed to the Flockmasters of Australia, Tasmania, etc. London, 1840. Burn, David. — Van Diemen's Land : Moral, Physical, and Political. (The Colonial Magazine.) London, 1840-1. Pridden, Rev. W. — Australia, its History and Present Condition. London, 1843. Martin, R. Montgomery.— History of the Colonies of Great Britain. London, 1843. Strzelecki, Count Paul E. de. — Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. London, 1845. Franklin, Sir John.— Narrative of Some Passages in the History of Tasmania. London, 1845. Trail, H. D.— Life of Sir John Franklin. London, 1896. Clarke, Marcus.— For the Term of His Natural Life. (Fiction.) Melbourne, 1874. Burke, J. L. —Adventures of Martin Cash. Hobart Town, 1870. Syme, J. — Nine Years in Van Diemen's Land. Dundee, 1848. Frv, Rev. H. P.— Penal Discipline, etc, in Van Diemen's Land. London, 1850. Mundy, Lieut.-Col. — Our Antipodes, or Residence and Rambles in the Australian Colonies. London, 1852. West, Rev. John. — History of Tasmania. Launceston, 1852. Morgan, John. -Life and Adventures of William Buckley. Hobart Town, 1852. Meredith, Mrs. Chas.— My Home in Tasmania during a Residence of Nine Years. London, 1852. Stoney, Major H. Butler. — Residence in Tasmania. London, 1854. 79 Denison, Sir Wm.— Varieties of Vice-regal Life. London, 1870. Mitchell, John.— Jail Journal, or Five Years in British Prisons. New York, 1854. Melville, Henry. — Australasia and Emigration. Prison Discipline, with a Description of the Penal Settlement in Van Diemen's Land. Land Regulations and Aborigines. London, 1857. Bunce, Daniel.— Austral asiatic Reminiscences of Twenty- three Years Wandering in Tasmania and the Australias. Mel- bourne, 1857. Nixon, Rt. Rev. F. R., Bishop ot Tasmania. — The Cruise of the Beacon. London, 1857. Puseley, David.— The Rise and Progress of Australia, Tas- mania, etc. London, 1857. Howitt, Wm. — Land, Labour, and Gold. London, 1858. Hull, Hugh M.— Experience of Forty Years in Tasmania. London, 1859. Leakey, Caroline.— The Broad Arrow. By Oline Keese. (Fiction.) London, 1859. Walker, G. W.— Life and Labours of George Washington Walker. Edited by J. Backhouse and C. Tylor. London, 1862. Kelsh, Rev. T.— Personal Recollections of the Right Rev. R. W. Willson, Bishop of Hobart Town. Hobart, 1882. . Ullathorne, Archbishop. — Memoirs of Bishop Willson. London, 1887. Jobson, Rev. F. H. — Australia, with Notes by the Way. London, 1862. Fenton, Jas. — Bush Life in Tasmania Fifty Years Ago. London, 1891. Mortlock, J. F. — Experiences of a Convict ; by an ex- Military Officer. London, 1865. Dilke, Sir Charles.— Greater Britain. London, 1868. Milner, Rev. J., and Brierly, O. W. — The Cruise of H.M.S. Galatea, Captain, H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Martineau, John.— Letters from Australia. London, 1869 Buch, Frederick.— Die Britisch-Australische Colonie Tas- manien. Hamburg, 1870. Beauvoir, Le Comte de.— Australie : Voyage autour du monde. Paris, 1870. Walch's Tasmanian Guide Book. Edited by Mrs. Charles Meredith, Hobart Town, 1871. 80 Brownrigg, Rev. M. B. —Cruise of the "Freak." Laun- ceston, 1872. Trollope, Anthony. — Australia and New Zealand. London, 1873. Tasmania : A Popular Account of its Features, Inhabitants, Natural History, and Productions, with a History of its Colonisation. London, 1874. Booth, Edwin Carton. — Australia (Illustrated by Prout, Chevalier, etc.) London, 1874 76. Just, Thomas C— Tasmaniana. A Description of the Island of Tasmania and its Resources. Launceston, 1879. Meredith, Mrs. Charles. — Our Island Home. A Tasmanian Sketch Book. London, 1879. Wallace, Alfred Russell. —Australasia : A compendium of Geography and Travel. London, 1879. Heaton, J. Henniker. —Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. Sydney, 1879. Todd, Alpheus. — Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies. London, 1880. Senior, William (" Redspinner").— Travel and Trout in the Antipodes. London, 1880. Just, Thomas C — Official Handbook of Tasmania. Hobart, 1883. Davies, Rowland L. A. — Poems and other Literary Remains. Edited, with a Biographical Sketch, by Chas. Tom- linson. London, 1884. Morton, Alex. — Catalogue of the Library of the Royal Society of Tasmania. Hobart, 1885. Morton, Mrs. A.— Handbook for Use of the Members of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science (Map). Hobart, 1891. Fenton, James.— History of Tasmania, from its Discovery in 1642 to the Present Time. Hobart, 1884. Dean, W. B. — Notorious Bushrang rs of Tasmania. Launceston, 1891. Dilke, Sir Chas., Bart —Problems of Greater Britain. London, 1890. Mennell, P. — Dictionary of Australian Biography. London, 1892. Jenks, E. — History of the Australian Colonies. Cam- bridge, 1895. Tilley, W.-The Wild West of Tasmania, Zeehan, 1891. 81 Parliamentary and Official Publications. Votes and Proceedings of the Legislative Council of Van Diemen's Land, 1837-55. Hobart Town, 1844-55. Vote£ and Proceedings of the Legislative Council of Tas- mania, with Papers. Annually from 1856 to 1883. Hobart 1856-1883. Votes and Proceedings of the House of Assembly of Tas- mania, with Papers. Annually from 1856 to 1883. Hobart 1856-1883. Journals and Papers of the Parliament of Tasmania. Annually from 1884. Hobart, 1884-98. Acts of the Governor and Council of Tasmania, with Chrono- logical List and Index, 7 George IV. to 19 Vict. Hobart Town, 1873. Acts of the Parliament of Tasmania, 20 tc 62 Vict. Hobart, 1873-1898. Stops, F.— Statutes of Tasmania, from 7 George IV. to 52 Vict., alphabetically arranged with Notes. Hobart, 1888-90. Reid, J. K.— Index to the Statutes of Tasmania and Acts of the Federal Council of Australasia in force on 1st June, 1897. Hobart, 1897. Nowell, E. C— Parliamentary Handbook. Hobart, 1887. Constitutional Act.— Acts, Reports, Petitions, and Proceed- ings of the Legislative Council in connection with the Introduction and subsequent Amendment of the Constitutional Act of Tasmania. Hobart Town, 1879. Nowell, E. C. —History of the Relations between the Two Houses of Parliament in Tasmania and South Australia in Regard to Amendments to Bills Containing Provisions Relating to Public Revenue or Expenditure. Hooart, 1890. Statistics of Tasmania, Annually from 1857. Johnston, R. M. — Handbook of Tasmania for the year 1891. Johnston, Robert Mackenzie.— Tasmanian Official Record, 1890-1-2. Crown Lands Guide, Annually from 1884. Hobart. 1884-98. University of Tasmania, Calendar of. — 1890-1898. Almanacs, Etc. Bent, Andrew. — Van Diemen's Land Almanac for 1824 Hobart Town, 1824. Bent, Andrew. — Tasmanian Almanac. Annually from 1825-1829. Hobart Town, 1825-1829, 82 Ross, Jas.— Hobart Town Almanac. Annually from 1829- 183d Hobart Town, 1829-1836. Melville, H. — Van Diemen's Land Almanac. Annually from 1831-1835. Hobart Town, 1831-1835. Melville, H — Van Diemen's Land Annual, 1836 and 1837. Hobart Town, 1836-1837. Wood, Jas.— Van Diemen's Land Legal and Commercial Calendar, 1837-1838. Hobart Town, 1837-1838. Elliston, Wm. Gore,— Hobart Town Almanac, 1837-38-39. Hobart Town, 1837-39. Wood, Jas. — Van Diemen's Land Royal Calendar, Colonial Register and Almanac. Annually from 1846-1857. Hobart Town, 1846-1857. Hull, H. M.— Guide to Tasmania. Hobart Town, 1858S Royal Calendar and General Tasmanian Almanac, fronr 1859-1860. Hobart Town, 1859-1860. Walch's Tasmanian Almanac. — Annually, from 1863. Hobart, 1863-1898. Gordon and Gotch. — The Australian Handbook. Annually from 1870. Greville, E.— Official Directory and Almanac of Australia. Annually from 1882. Sydney, 1882-1898. Wise, H. and Co.— Tasmanian Post Office Directory for 1898-99. Melbourne, 1898. Ethnology, Natural History, and Geology. For many paper* on these subject* see '* Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science? 1842-49. and M Papers and Proceedings of Royal Society of Tasmania, 1849-1897, passim. Aborigines. Bon wick, Jas. — Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians. London, 1870. The Last of the Tasmanians, and the Black War of Van Diemen's Land. London, 1870. The Lost Tas- manian Race. London, 1884. Roth, H. Ling. — The Aborigines of Tasmania. London, 1890. Calder, Jas. E. — Account of the Wars and Extirpation of the Native Tribes of Tasmania. Hobart Town, 1875. Davis, Dr. J. Barnard. — Osteology and Peculiarities of the Tasmanians. Haarlem, 1874. Smyth, R. Brough.— The Aborigims of Victoria, with Notes relating to the Natives of Tasmania. Melbourne, 1878. I Milligan, Joseph.— Vocabulary of the dialects of some of the Aboriginal Tribes. Hobart, 1890. Charencey, H de.— Recherches sur les dialectes Tasmaniens. AlenQon, 1880. Curr, E. M.— The Australian Race. Melbourne, 1887. Walker, J. B.— Notes on the Aborigines of Tasmania, from the Journals of G. W. Walker. Notes on the Tribal Divisions of the Aborigines of Tasmania. Hobart, 1898. Harper, W. R., and Clarke, A. H.— Notes on Measurements of the Tasmanian Crania in the Tasmanian Museum, Hobart. Hobart, 1898. Tylor, E. B. — On the Tasmanians as representatives of Palaeolithic Man. London, 1893. On the Occurrence of Ground Stone Implements of Australian type in Tasmania. London, 1895. Davies, H. R. — On the Aborigines of Van Diemen's Land, in Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, Vol. II., p. 409. Etheridge, R., Junr.— Contributions to a Catalogue of Works and Papers on the Australian and Tasmanian Aborigines. Sydney, 1890. Zoology. Gould, John.— Synopsis of the Birds of Australia. London, 1837-8. Introduction to the Birds of Australia. London, 1848. The Birds of Australia. London, 1848-1870. Hand- book to the Birds of Australia. London, 1865. Introduction to the Mammals of Australia. London, 1845-1860. Monograph of the Macropodidse, or Family of Kangaroos. London, 1841-1842. Legge, Colonel. — Systematic List of Tasmanian Birds. Hobart, 1886. North, A J.— Descriptive Catalogue of the Nests and Eggs of Birds found breeding in Australia and Tasmania. Sydney, 1889. Macleay, Wm. — Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes. Sydney, 1866. Johnston, R. M.— The Fishes of Tasmania, with a Classified Catalogue. Hobart, 1882. Ogilby, L. Douglas.— Edible Fishes and Crustaceans of New South Wales. Sydney, 1893. Haswell, W. A.— Catalogue of the Stalk and Sessile-Eyed Crustacea. Sydney, 1882. Legrand. Wm.— Collections for a Monograph of Tasmanian Land Sheik Hobart Town, 1871. 84 Petterd, W. F. — Monograph of Land Shells of Tasmania. Launceston, 1879. Meredith, Mrs. Chas. — Tasmanian Friends and Foes, Feathered, Furred, and Finned. London, 1880. Botany. Labillardiere, J. J.— Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Speci- men. Paris, 1804-6. Brown, Robert — Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et insulae Van Diemen. London, 1810. Hooker, Sir J. D.— Flora Tasmania?. London, 1860. Bentham, G., and Mueller, Baron F. von. — Flora Aus- traliensis. London, 1863. Spicer, Rev. W. W.— Handbook of Plants of Tasmania. Hobart Town, 1878. Hannaford, S.— The Wild Flowers of Tasmania. Mel- bourne, 1866. Johaston, R. M.— Field Memoranda for Tasmanian Botanists. Launceston, 1874. Meredith, Mrs. Chas. —Some of My Bush Friends in Tas- mania. London, 1859. Bush Friends in Tasmania (last series). London, 1891. Harvey, W. H.— Nereis Australis, or Algae of the Southern Ocean. London, 1847. Phycologia Australica ; A History of Australian Sea Weeds. London, 1859. Bastow, R. A. — Tasmanian Mosses, with an Illustrated Key. Hobart, 1886. Bunce, D. — Manual of Practical Gardening for Van Diemen's Land. Hobart Town, 1838. Walch's Handbook of Gardening and Greenhouse Culture in Tasmania. Hobart, 1898. Geology. Johnston, R. M.— Systematic Account of the Geology of Tasmania. Hobart, 1888. Guide to the Rocks and Minerals of Tasmania. Hobart, 1888. Etheridge, Robt., Junr., and Jack, R. L. — Catalogue of Works on Geology, Mining, etc., etc., of the Australian Con- tinent and Tasmania. London, 1881. Etheridge, Robert. — Catalogue of Australian Fossils, in- cluding Tasmania, etc. Cambridge, 1878. Johnston, R. M.- Notes showing that the Estuary of the Derwent was occupied by a Freshwater Lake during the Tertiary Period. Hobart, 1881. The Story of an Old Lake of the Derwent. Hobart, 1894. 85 tMSMANIMN RAILWAYS. A glance at the map will show the direction of the 438 miles of railway owned and worked by the Government. The trunk lines extend from Launceston to Ulverstone, 94 miles, and from Hobart to Launceston, 133 miles. These lines junction at Evandale Junction, and the distance through the island, from Hobart to Ulverstone, is 205 miles. The portion of the railway system between Hobart and Launceston is designated the Main Line, as it was originally constructed by a company who adopted the title of the Main Line Company, and from whom the line was purchased by the Government. This line is the main thoroughfare to visitors travelling to and from Hobart and the colonies on the mainland. At Parattah, midway between Hobart and Launceston, and 1,513 feet above sea level, there is an excellent refreshment room and hotel. The latter is not surpassed by any country hotel in Australasia. TSS BRANCHES OF TSS HAXtf LZ2TS ABE AS FOLLOW :- The Derwent Valley Line, from Bridgewater Junction to Glenora, 24£ miles, which runs along the banks of the Derwent for nearly the whole distance, and affords views of some charming river scenery and well-kept orchards and hop grounds. New Norfolk, 25 miles, is a most popular holiday and picnic Tesort, and also the Salmon Ponds, 7 miles farther, on the Plenty River. During the summer season excursion trains, at very low fares, are run on this line every Wednesday, Saturday, and Sunday afternoon. The Derwent Valley Line is also the first section in the routes to Russell Falls, Ellendale, and Mount Field East, Lakes Echo and St. Clair, and the overland route to the West Coast. The Apsley Line, from Brighton Junction to Apsley, 26 miles, is a link in the route to trout fishing in the Clyde at Bothwell, and at the Great Lake, to which the most direct route from Hobart is via Bothwell, and a vehicle runs weekly during the summer season. The Oatlands Line, between Parattah and Oatlands, 4\| miles, is part of the Parattah route to Lakes Sorell and Crescent, and from thence to the Great Lake. From Tun- bridge station vehicles run once a week each way, during the summer season, to Lakes Sorell and Crescent and the Great Lake. The Fingal Line, from Conara Junction to St. Marys, 47 miles, is a portion of the routes to the ascent of Ben Lomond, the Mathinna and Mangana goldfields, the Mount Nicholas 86 coal mines, St. Marys Pass, the Scamander .River, George's Bay (where there is good fishing and shootingX Columbia Falls, and through the North-Eastern tin mines and Scottsdale to Launceston. The Railway Department, as agents for Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son, arrange for all tours branching from any of the Government Railways, either coach or vehicle connections being in operation. Launceston is the Northern terminus of the Main Line, as well as the terminus of the Western and Scottsdale Lines. The Western Line, from Launceston to Ulverstone, 94 miles, after a southerly and westerly course through some of the finest agricultural land in the colony, turns northerly, and reaches the North- West Coast near the mouth of the River Mersey, it then runs westerly for several miles close to the sea shore to Ulverstone, on the River Leven. An extension of this line to Burnie, 18 miles, is now in course of construc- tion, and will complete connection with the Emu Bay Railway to Mount Bischofi^ and with the line to Zeehan now under construction. The seaports on the North- West Coast are favourite summer resorts for visitors ; and Deloraine, 45 miles from Launceston, is the starting point of the shortest route to the Great Lake. There is only one branch line on the Western Line, that from Chudleigh Junction to Mole Creek, 12£ miles. Within a short distance irom Chudleigh station are a number of dry and wet limestone caves, the extent of which is still unknown. Cheap day-trip excursions from Launceston and intermediate districts to the dry caves are arranged at intervals. The Scottsdale Line runs north-easterly from Launceston to Scottsdale, 47 miles, and is the first section of the route to the North-Eastern tin mines. Along the line, 29i miles from Launceston, is the Denison Gorge, a most popular picnic and pleasure resort. It is a picturesque fern gully, on a branch of the Denison River, and cheap day-trip excursions to it are made at intervals on Wednesdays and Saturdays during the summer months. The Sorell Line, from Bellerive, on the eastern bank of the Derwent, to Sorell, 14£ miles, is a section of the overland route to Port Arthur and the natural wonders of Tasman Peninsula. Sorell is the centre of an important agricultural and dairying district, and a day excursion from Hobart can be made, including a couple of hours drive through the district and an inspection of the Great Causeway, two miles in length, that crosses the Pittwater Inlet. West Coast Lines. — The Strahan-Zeehan Line, 29j miles, runs from Macquarie Harbour to the important mining centre of Zeehan, where large ore reduction works are in course of 87 construction. The Mount Dundas and Zeehan Railway, 7J miles, is owned by a private company, but is worked by the Government. The Nortli-East Dundas 2ft. tramway, 18 miles, runs from Zeehan to Deep Lead, through very rugged country, alpine in character, which necessitates gradients as steep as one in twenty-five, and curves of one and a half chains radius. Several mines are quite close to the line, and some are con- nected with it by aerial and gravitation trams. The fares from the two cities, Hobart and Launceston, to the principal centres are as follow : — Passenger Fares from Hobart to SINGLE. RKTURN. New Norfolk 1st Class e. d. 4 2ND CUSS s. d. 3 1st Class s. d. 7 2nd Class s. d. 5 Plenty (Salmon Pouds) 6 4 6 9 6 9 Glenora (Route to West Coast) 7 6 8 11 3 8 6 Apsley (Route to Great Lake) 9 6 6 7 14 3 9 10 Para ttah( 1,5 13ft. above sea level) 12 8 18 3 12 Conara Junction 22 6 15 33 9 22 6 Launceston 30 20 45 30 Deloraine(Great Lake and Chud- leigh Caves) 35 3 23 9 52 9 35 9 Devonport 44 6 30 66 8 45 2 Ulverstone (Mt. Bischoff) .. .. 47 6 32 71 2 43 2 Scottsdale (N.E. Tin Mines)... 41 9 J 27 10 62 8 . 41 9 Passenger Fares xtozxl i Launceston to SINGLE. RETURN. Hobart 1st Class s. d. 30 2nd Class' s. d. 20 1st Class 2nd Class 8. d. b. d. 45 30 \sOnara... .. .. ... ... ... 7 6 5 11 3 7 C x am ti> tan ... .. .... ... ... 18 12 i 26 9 18 New Norfolk 29 9 19 9 i 45 30 3 Scottsdale 11 9 7 10 ! 17 8 11 Deloraine 7 5 6 10 6 8 3 LatroDe 14 6 10 6 21 9 15 9 Devonport 16 3 11 8 24 5 17 6 Ulverstone 1 19 3 ) 13 8 28 11 i 20 6 Ordinary single tickets are available for the day of issue only, and ordinary return tickets for distances over 10 milei are available for one calendar month fr..ra date of issue. At every railway station are sheet time tables giving the fares on all lines and general conditions ; and a handy pocket time table is published monthly by the Railway Department for gratuitous distribution. This can be obtained fiom Messrs. Cook and Son and the steamship companies offices in all the principal towns in Australia, and at all railway stations in Tasmania. During the summer season, cheap excursions are run at short intervals from Launceston and Hobart to places of interest within easy distance, but due notice of these is given by placards and advertisements. Her Majesty QUEEN VICTORIA and the various Courts throughout the World. A FIVE YEABS" WABBAJTT leaned gwuLteeinff east. Piano FHEE from any defeats. LIBERAL TERMS ON APPLICATION TO THE SOLS AOHNTS, ANDREW BYRNE & Co. j&oto fyiomg- Corner of ELIZABETH and MAOQUAHIE Streets, HOBAET. 89 The Oldest Established Booksellers in Australasia. J. WALCH & SONS. EOBART: "Wellington Bridge and 42 Macquarie Street. L01TD02T: 85 Qresham Street, S.O. •.".••'•. COLONIAL NEWSPAPER AGENTS. Sydney Morning Herald, Argus, Australasian, Age, Leader, Etc. ENGLISH NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE AGENTS. On Sale by every Mail :— Strand, Wide World, Windsor, Pearson's, Harmsworth's, Royal, Cassell's, and other Magazines. The Colonial Library. All the Latest Novels included in THE COLONIAL LIBRARY are received by every Steamer. Price, Hatf-a-Croton. The "Red" Hook of Tasmania. WALCH'8 TASMANIAN BOOK ALMANAC, Published by Authority. The only Official and Complete Handbook of the Colony \| 370 pages. Bound in Cloth, Four Shillings. Postage (Colonial) Twopence ; Postage (Abroad) Eightpence. Tasmanian Publications. "Watch's Shilling Reprints of the Old Says of Van Piemen's Land. 1. Martin Cash, the Bushranger of Van Diemen's Land, 1843. 2. A Pioneer Settler, 1817-30; His Perils and Adventures. By Charles Rower oft. 3. The Convict King; The Surprising Career of Jorgen Jorgenson. 4. Bush Life in Tasmania Fifty Years Ago. Two Famous Stories of Old Van Diemen's Land. 1. For the Term of His Natural Life. By Marcus Clarke. Cloth 3/- 2. The Broad Arrow ; The Story of a Lifer. Cloth 3 - Mrs. Meredith's " My Bush Friends in Tasmania." The 8econd 8eries. A Beautiful Folio Volume containing facsimiles of Mrs. Meredith's Paintings of Nature -Flowers, Insects, Etc., with Letterpress by the Author. Richly Bound. 30/- "Waloh's Souvenir Album of Tasmanian Views. In Red and Qold Binding. 1/6. Size, 8 x 10 inches. 22 Choice Views. "Walch's Cyclists' Map of Tasmania. Size, 27 x 21 Inches. Folded in Pocket Case, with Descriptive Pam- phlet of the Routes. 1/-, on Cloth 1/6. 90 THE J%$obavt freezing (£o ICE fyfaqqfqctqi'ei's Butter &nd Produce Merchants, FISH EXPORTERS, > # GENERAL IMPORTERS. ■•»♦ COOL STORAGE WORKS and OFFICE : LOWER MACQUARIE-ST., OBAET. %\}t ^rottislj Metropolitan %iit anb II I II II I I II I HI I II CA/e/ Office for New South Wales and Queensland: CORNER OF PITT & BRIDGE STS., SYDNEY. " limn FUNDS EXCEED £400,000. LOCAL DIRECTOR8: ADAM FOR8YTH, Esq., (Manager A. W. 8. N. Co., Sydney). JOHN MACPHER80N. Esq. (Holdsworth, Macpherson, & Co, 8yd ney). in mi ii ii mill nun ii ii i iiiiiii LIFE POLICIES, ACCIDENT POLICIES, EMPLOYEES LIABILITY POLICIES, PUBLIC RISE POLICIES, AND COMBINED LIFE, ACCIDENT, DISEASE POLICIES. E. N. PARKER, Manager and Attorney. TASMANIAN JAMS. W. D. PEACOCK $ CO., NEW WHARF, HOBART. 92 H&DIiEY'S MURRAY STREET, HOBART. A MINUTE'S WALK FROM POST, TELEGRAPH, AND GOVERNMENT OFFICES. OeauauieatloBi by Letter or Telejrram will receive Immediate Attention. TELEPHONE No. 36. JJ^ HADLS7 Manager. H. J. MARSH & CO., mQNMQMGEBS <§ IMP&BTEM8. MURRAY AND COLLINS STREETS, rXSEXNCt BOSS AND TAOZLB. GUNS AND A1COTNXTX0N. PLATEDWARE, QLA88WARE, CHINAWARE, ETC., ETC. HEATHORN'S HOTEL, LIVERPOOL STREET, HOBART. CONTAINING 70 ROOKS. Is near Railway Terminus, Theatre, Sea-water Baths, and a few minutes from Post and Telegraph Offices. Has Garden, Greenhouses, Lawn, Etc., at the rear. THE CUI8INE A SPECIALITY AS HERETOFORE. T, BS4T80BN, Propriety, "THE IMPERIAL," DOM, map, Is one of the moil comfortable and Beit Appointed Establishments In Tasmania. Situation Central. BEDROOMS are Exceptionally Large and Well Ventilated. LADIES' DRAWING ROOM, windows of which open out on to a Balcony extending the whole length of the Building. PRIVATE SITTING ROOM8, 8MOKINQ AND READING ROOMS, with all EXCELLENT BATHS. Hot, Cold, and Shower. SANITATION Perfect. MESSENGER attendi Traim and Steam en. HALL PORTERS In Attendance Day and Night. TERMS BV DAY OR WEEK ; or BEDS and MEALS can be paid for separately ai deilred. ^ Hotart CoffM Palace Co. Ltd., NORTH RSES, 'an. (/ Mrt. CLEMENTS, HOBART, PROPRIETRESS. TASMANIA. TELEPHONE ITTT. BACCHUS MARSH CONCENTRATED MILK CO. LTD. OFFICE: G9 WILLIAM STREET, MELBOURNE. TBS BACCHUS MftEBTT 00N0KNT&ATSD UJLE i manufactured from Milk collected In the Finest Dairy Dlitrict THE BACCHUS HABSE OOSOEHTEATBD KILE is used by Hotel, Cafes, Clubs, and Public Institutions, the Ocean and Intercolonial Steam Shipping, on account of Its economy and immunity from souring, while its valus as a sub- stitute for cream In salads and for cooking purposes makes It indispensable to high-class cuisine. It is the Best Milk for General Use. It Is the Beet Milk for Children heavily dilated, being easily digested. 94 F. HAMMOND, CUSTOM HOUSE, pipping, \|fortoar6ing, & Commission llgtitt, Morrison Street, HOBART. COULSON, HAY, & CO., flOP MERCHANTS & IMPORTERS, Telephone 862. Al Code used. 662 & 664 FLINDERS STREET, MELBOURNE. Agents for H. M. Russ A Co., Prague. Finest Kent, Bohemians, Cali- fornlans. Nelson, and Tasmanian Hops always in stock. "CROWN," "CROWN AND CANNON," and "LION" Brand HOPS, In Paper and Carton Packets. Agents for 'SPALDING * OLD 8COTCH WHI8KY in Case and Bulk. PROVISION, WINE, AND SPIRIT MERCHANTS, PAINTS, OILS, CANVA8, Ac Ac. ALL SORT8 OF PRE8ERVE8 IN BOND. Orders by Telegraph and Letter will receive Prompt Attention. PEACOCK & SMITH, "W5KX Coppersmiths and Braziers, Ship and Sanitary Plumbers. Manufacturers of • »! 4 oo > \| s> ■« Every Description of COPPER, BRA88, and LEAD WORK. Distillery A Brewery Work, 8t earn boat Work, 8hips* Closets, Pumps, etc. 408 Flinders Street "West, HSLBOTTBOTL WOOD <Sc CO., e ™^^™- BUTTER, CHEE8E, BACON, HAMS, Ac, Carefully delected and Specially Packed in the most improved methods for Export Orders. . , \ i a o a t ■ . We Call Particular Attention to our "' • ^ w • v In 1 ib. and 2 lb. Tins. (oW Br«\llCl Butt&l". Well known throughout Queensland and the East. 05 national FIRE & MINE INSURANCE GO. Of N.Z. Fully Subscribed Capital - £2,000,000. Fire Bisks of every description accepted at Lowest Bates. Marine Bisks taken to all parts of the world on the most favourable terms. "Wool Covered from the Sheep's Back to London. The NATIONAL is the Second Wealthiest Colonial Company, and is in a position to under- take every description of Fire and Marine business on most favourable terms. Lowest Rates. Undoubted Security. Prompt Settlements. <3" New South Wales Branch: 14 SPRING STREET, SYDIEY (Opposite Head Office Australian Mutual Provident 8ociety). Active Agents & Canvassers Wanted. W. A. GIBB, Manager. 96 DRINK . . . USHER'S O.V.G. WHISKIES THEY HAVE STOOD ® N ® •v* THE TEST OF TIME. USHER'S O.V.G. WHISKIES. UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF NI8 EXCELLENCY LORD CORMANSTON. ffi^'^SSfc SEA VIEW HOTEL, WEST DEVONPORT, North West Coast, TASMANIA. JOHN 7. OOSUN, Proprietor. PRONOUNCED THE MOST COMFORTABLE HOTEL IN TA8MANIA. HOT, COLD, AND SHOWER BATH8. LARGE GARDEN, LAWN, AND FERNERY. TOtffgonette will meet Visitors at Train and Steamers. TERMS: FROM TWO GUINEAS PER WEEK. 97 T. WISEMAN'S H1W DAT iwffl lOTWa* BUHNIE, EMU BAY. FIRST-GLASS ACCOMMODATION FOR TRAVELLERS AND COMMERCIAL GENTLEMEN. Seat Sronfe of tSEittes, spirits, C&tc, ALWAY8 IN STOCK. SOT AND OOLS BATES. BILLIARDS, ETC. Ooaohoi to and from L. aad "W. Rail-way Terminus daily. THOMAS WISEMAN, -Proprietor. Sg &pmal ^qfimmggs^r ^ppointnwttt. ) m: CLOSE TO RAILWAY 8TATION. MAIN STREET, ZEEHAN. QTOEITSTOTOT QCL Lyell), TASMANIA. Largest and Most Commodious and only brick hotel on the West Coast, ACCOMMODATION FOR 100 VISITORS. ALL ROOMS WELL VENTILATED. SANITATION PERFECT. Baths, 8am pie Rooms. Attendant meets all trains. Letters and Telegrams promptly attended to. TERMS MODERATE. PARER & HIGGINS, PROPRIETORS. 98 FURNER'S COMMERCIAL HOTEL, OSOTBI ICAZXT STBBZT, ZBEEAN. Within 2 minutes walk of the Post Office and Public Building. Tram pass every few minutes. Latest Plans and Charts of the various Mining Centres kept posted. FIR8T-CLA88 ACCOMMODATION FOR VI8ITOR8. Superior Cuisine. 8pacious 8ample Rooms. Letters and Telegrams promptly attended to. TELEPHONE No. 38. F. S. PTJB1TEB, Proprietor. Leading Commercial and Mining Hotel, LARGE 8AM PLE ROOM. ^fSgl g©is^ CUISINE Excellent. Private 8itting Room for Boarders. Plunge and Shower Bathe. BILLIARD SALOON. D. SULLIVAN, Proprietor. MAIN STREET (nearly opposite P.O.), ZEEHAN. MACQUARIE HARBOUR HOTEL, WEST COAST, TASMANIA. mST-OLASSFAjm.TBOTBL. OSAEGBS ttOSS&ATB. All Letters and Telegrams punctually attended to. Porter in Attendance on all Beats and Train. S. ft. 0LA8SE, Proprietor, Late Of Zeehan. 99 SrffiH • Baa • Retifojagj. DIRECT OVERLOAD ROUTE TO MOUNT LYELL, ZEEHAN, ROSEBERY, MOUNT READ, HERCULES, COLEBROOK, DUNDAS, ALSO MOUNT BISCHOFF, MAGNET, ROCKY RIVER, Etc. Short Comfortable Sea Passage, MELBOUENE to BURNIE (Emu Bay). FULL PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION AT MELBOURNE & BTTH1TIE Offices. 300689 100 GEO. a 8ANDEMAN 8ON8 A CO.. § 8ANDEMAN A CO.. Oporto. 6ANDEMAN. BUCK. A CO:, leres. 8ANDEMAN BROS . Lisbon. BARTON A OUE8T1ER. Bordeaux. a H.'m6Am; fthelms. ' ' ' AaENTS FOR JOHN ROBERTSON A 80N, Dundee. ' J. and J. VICKER8 A CO.. London. PINET.CA8TILLON.ACO..Cosnae. J. and T. BEUKER, Schiedam. RED CRO88 LAQER. FbfoLER'8-PRE8TONPAN'8 ALE8 SANDEMAN'S AUSTRALIAN WINES. '6 OBTAIN pare, sound, and well-matured Australian Wine at a r ea son ab le price, has hitherto been a matter of the greatest difficulty, and yet we are living in a land admirably adapted, both as as to soil and climate, for the production of the Very Ohoicest and Fineet Winee. In this connection we claim, as one of the Oldest and Largest Wine Purchasing Houses in the World, to have secured many of the best vintages of this century, and as we are thoroughly conversant with the tastes and requirements of the Australian Publio, our Cellars are only stocked with carefully matured and sound Wines. Some of the Finest Wines yet produced in Australia are in our bands, and we are thus able to guarantee strict uniformity in quality at prices whereby all lovers of a good wine can now afford to make it a household commodity. It is well known that, until recently, the Medical Profession has not advocated the use of Australian Wines, but readers will find by the following Extract from the London Medical Timet of March 18, 1898, that they now recommend their use : — .... "Australian Vines are being now widely prescribed by Medical Ken and fifive universal satisfaction." .... We have pleasure to invite a Gall of Inspection of our Cellars, and a sampling of our Stock by intending Purchasers ; and our Wines may always be obtained from every Wine Merchant and at all Hotels throughout the Colonies, by asking for Bandsman's Australian Wine. SANDEMAN, Wine and Spirit Merchants, 241 PITT-STREET, SYDNEY. 101 BY APPOINTMENT. PHOTOGRAPHS TASMANIA N SCENERY. — - — —^■qqmqqqe— 7/re LARGEST and most COMPREHENSIVE Collection iir the Colony. ' The Series comprises all PLACES OF INTEREST, BEAUTY SPOTS, and the WEST COAST MININQ fields: ■» • • Unmounted, or Mounted in Albums, or as 0PALINE8 or MEDALLIONS. BTERE08COPIC VIEWS: -Large Series being constantly added to. MAQIC LANTERN -8L1DE8.— This department is a specialty of oars, and obtains our utmost care and attention. The Slides are prepared by the Wet •Collodion Process only, and are admitted to be the finest Slides south of the Line. Slides made from any of our negatives, or specially from custo- mers' own pictures. TA8MANIAN ABORIGINALS.-" The Lost Tasmanian Race." A very •complete collection, embracing almost all the Photographs taken of tbii extinct people. Of immense value to Anthropologists. NORFOLK I8LANO AND MELANE8IA.— These illustrate the Melanesia^ Mission, are full of interest, and most suitable for Lantern purposes. HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF TASMANIA.— We endeavour to secure every available inte<estiug memento of bygone colonial days, and by reproducing them by photography we rescue a great deal of the pictorial past of the colony from irretrievable Joss, and are building up a most inter- esting and valuable Historical Series, which will not only be useful to •tbe historian, but will be of great all-round educational value. Lists of -subjects on application. PHOTOGRAPH8 OF THE PUBLIC MEN OF THE COLONY.— •Governors, Politicians. Clergy, <fec. WE ARE BUYER8 of Old Colonial Newspaper, Books, Manuscripts, and Anything relating to early Colonial Days. J. W. BE ATT IE, PHOTOGRAPHER TO THE GOVERNMENT OF TASMANIA. WELLINGTON BRIDGE, 62 ELIZABETH STBSET, SOBABT. 102 Tjje Worid'g pictorial l^outB. HOMEWARD tfi* AMERICA (Via 8AN FRANCI8COX BY THE ROYAL MAIL STEAMERS OF THE A. & A. ROUTE. If you contemplate a Trip, » TRAVEL via New Zealand, Try a New Roate. So(jth Sea /</gm/ - This is the Trip of a I AMERICA, embracing Life Time - \| San Francisco, COMFORT IN TRAVEL J Salt Lake City, Denver, Through the Finest Cities / -, . and most Magnificent ) Mioago, Scenery of the \ Los Angeles, NEW WORLD. (W Canons, CHOICE of 12 Distinct \ Kansas City , Routes. ) Niagara Falls, CHOICE of numerous J Washington, SteamersA New y orflf CHOICE of interesting \ Boston, PLACES Worth Visiting. I Philadelphia, ~~ CHOICE of Railways from i ,. , Eto ' Etc -' Eto " San Francisco eastwards.! , " Msn{jMS j GREAT BRITAIN Break journey privileges ( O-nd the throughout entire trip.l CONTINENT OF EUROPE, For Maps, Illustrated Guide Books, and further information, apply to any of the Offices and Agencies of THE UNION STEAM SHIP COMPANY OF N.Z. LTD, 103 f. d. 1 1 6 2 2 6 3 3 6 4 4 6 5 GITT OF EOBAET GAB FARES, 1899. BY DISTANCE. For any distance within 1 mile Above I mile and not exceeding 1 mile and a half Above I mile and a half and not exceeding 2 miles Above 2 miles and not exceeding 2 miles and a half Above 2 miles and a half and not exceeding 3 miles Above 3 miles and not exceeding 3 miles and a half Above 3 miles and a half and not exceeding 4 miles Above 4 miles and not exceeding 4 miles and a half Above 4 miles and a half and not exceeding 5 miles Return fare, if the same party (and not having detained the cab more than fifteen minutes), to be half the above. BT TIME. For any time within 30 minutes „c ••• » Above 30 minutes and not exceeding 45 minutes Above 45 minutes and not exceeding one hour • ... Above 1 hour and not exceeding 1 hour and 20 minutes Above I hour antl 20 mins. and not exceeding 1 hour and 40 mins. Above 1 hour and 40 minutes and not exceeding 2 hours Above 2 hours and not exceeding 2 hours and 20 minutes Above 2 hours and 20 mins. and not exceeding 2 hours and 40 mins. Above 2 hours and 40 mins. and not exceeding 3 hours Above 3 hours and not exceeding 3 hours and 20 minutes Above 3 hours and 20 mins. and not exceeding 3 hours and 40 mins Above 3 hours and 40 minutes and not exceeding 4 hours And for any further time after at the rate of 6d. for every 20 minutes. One-half more than the above fares for any petfiod during which such Cab «hall be employed between the hours of 10 o'clock at night and 6 o'clock in the morning. The hjrer of any Licensed Cab may elect to pay such Face either by time or by distance, but MUST do so at^ the time of hiring. Faros beyond the said fire miles to be f n the same proportion a* within the distance, unless otherwise agreed upon ; but no driver can tte compelled to go beyom} the said five miles jmiess he has agreed „to do so. No Return Fare allowed, except same person shall return, when half-fare to be paid. If hired " by time," the time shall tie computed from the hour the Cab is ta^en from the stand ; and if ' by distance," thfe distance from the stand to the place of " taking up " to be reckoned as part of the distance. A Casd of the above Fares to-be suspended, and to be continued suspended, la £he Cab in a conspUuous place That every drive of any such vehicle as aforesaid sjsall have and shall on demand produce to any passenger or passengers a Card oh which shall be legibly {Hinted toe Fares authorised to be taken by him : and if any such driver shall fail so to have, or ojkm demand to brpdu«e, such Card, every sneb driver shall 4» conviction of such offence forfeit and pay a penalty not exceeding Twe Pounds, Bjf or&tr of the Munioipal Council. J. W. C. HAMILTON, Dated this 6th day of December, 1898. Town CUrit, 2 8 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 7 6 9 9 6 10 6 11 104 pious Dock & Engineering 60. Ltl WORT'S BAY, BALMAIfi, SYDNEY. Engineers, Boiler Makers, Ship & Bridge Builders r Iron, Brass, and Steel Founders, Coppersmiths, ETC., ETC .•••"»•*•■».*. «".•-*•«■'%••.• %# # ,"#***,\. -".*» Manufacturers of all Classes of Mining Machinery,, including Gold Dredging Plant, Stamper Batteries, Winding and Pumping Gear, all Classes of Engines and Boilers. SPECIAL FACILITIES FOR 8HIP REPAIRS. GRAVING AND FLOATING BOOKS, and PATENT SLIPS,, capable of accommodating: vessels from 70 to 5,000 tons gross measurement. JO&HIgT W0(JIATI0]J. THE TOUEIST EOOlfr AT THE TASMANIAN MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY, Corner of Macquarie and Argyle Streets, Hobart, OPEN FREE TO THE PUBLIC FROM 10 a.m. to 5 p.m, Grand Collection of VIEWS OF TASMANIAN SCENERY. taken specially by J. W. Beattie, Hon.- Photographer, to the Tas- manian Government, Union Steam Ship Co.'s Time Tables, Guide Books, and all information as to Union Co.'s Routes, Etc. Writing Material supplied Free of Cost. GRAY & GRAY, Ship Chandlers and General Importers. T. & W. SMITH'S "A" FLEXIBLE and "B" SPECIAL FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPES. <The Only Agents & Depot in New South Wales.) Gonroclc Bopeork Cninpauj'R Canvas, Twines, to. Wilson £ t'unninghnm'a Canvas, Ao. Iut & Wonson's. Baltimore & Woolaev's Copper Paints. lest Yacht and Boat Gear, Ships' Ri(-gm«. AMbara,Chelne.Peinti,Oils,Tar,PitcE, Datum, Cutw, Twine, Block, Bon ting. Engineers' St orea, Haiti's Metal, Hotel Rode and Nails, Ac , &c Beady Miied Painte, L:fa Buoy Brand. 9vbrv, Searls & Co. 'a 3 8 Octagon StaaL MntculeBiMaUlPolish&B.illi James Dai.«onj Son's Leather Belting, Luces. &c. EeroMni Oil— Snowflake Brand. 62, 39 & 41 SUSSEX ST SVDNEy. JOHN BOOTH Sm CO. X^txX Balmaln Steam Snw Mills, Joinery Works and Timber Yards SYDNEY OFFIOE: 182 SUSSEX STREET. Telephone No. 41. Cable Addrau, "Boot," Sydney. ABO Code. SMITH & KOPSEN, IMPORTERS OF SHIP CHANDLERY- ™ " ""' -CEirrs ran Cunningham '3 invas and Twines. " Composition for ps' Bottoms. EXPORT STUCK OF d & Black Steel ■rs and Chains. ge oi all kinds. 'ars in all line. IS I IOUCITK0. 68 . 70 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY. WARBURTON & SON COAL CONTRACTOR?, Ship-Owners, Steam Tug and Winch Proprietors. Ships Supplied with Bunker or Galley Coal on the Shortest Notice. All kinds of FUEL Delivered in Sydney & Suburbs lu large and small quantities at reasonable rates. Hwl Office: FYR^ONT. BRANCHES at NORTH SYDNEY & WOOLLOOMOOLOO. Established Half- a- Century. H.& A.A.GRIFFITHS, -im-Bnal WHOLESALE : ruit Merchants:> -AND- Importers of Foreign and Colonial Fruits, fltctid PrniM . Lackey-St, Darling Hariraub —AND— N.S.Wales Fralf Exchange, Barker St., Sf dfieyi SHIPS' SUPPLIES A SPECIALITY. 108 J. byNCH 8c (a, Wine and Spirit jflen ghantg, ^P . . IMPORTERS OF . . ^^ Bushmill's Celebrated Pure Malt Irish Whisky. Large Aacortment of Beat Selected Australian Wines 1b Stock CORNER OP QROSVENOR & HARRINGTON STS., Church Hill, Sydney. Telephone 1941. AUSTRALIAN COPPER & BRASS WORKS T«l«phon« »49». Established 1850. William Robison, ENGINEER. BRAS5 FINISHER, COPPERSMITH, MACHINIST, BRASSFOUNDER, IRONWORKER, PLUMBER, &c, &c. REPAIRS— Workmanship Guaranteed and Executed A SPECIALTY. with Despatch. Manufacture and Importer of Diving Gear, Diving Gear for Salt or Hire. WILLIAM ROBISON, 65 & 67 Sussex St, AND DAY STREET. SYDNEY. 109 N.S.W. Fresh Pood & Ice 60. 1 Limited. PIO NEERS OF . . . THE COUNTRY MILK TRADE. THE PACTORY SYSTEM OP BUTTER MAKINQ (which has done so much for the Colony and Colonies) . THE CREAMERY SYSTEM of BUTTER MAKINQ (which has done more). REFRIGERATION. ICE-MAKING. (The Company sells only the vbby best articles. Supplying all the principal places of Sydney with MILK, OREAM, ICE, BUTTER, FISH, GAME, POULTRY. PASTRY, Etc VISIT THE CITT DEPOTS (Refreshment) pa KING STREET ) for.. * ' V MP* AFTERNOON 3 ROYAL ARCADE J w ^ . . tea. Note. — Arrangements may be made at either of these Depdts for After noon Teas for Private Parties. ! THE FISH SHOP AT 135 KINQ STREET IS ONE OP THE BEST IN THE WORLD. Send Orders to the " Heap Office," 25 Harbour Street— They will receive Prompt Attention. Agent* Everywhere. H. PATE50N, Manager. SUPERIOR TOURIST & FAMILY ACCOMMODATION. Tin Prinitpkl. «nd Mort'dintrnHf. :«i»»sd iH«tI M -till .lbs -»rindil BitMi.— Qreat Zig-Zag, Jetiolatt Caves, Govett's Leap, Mt. Wilaon, Mt. York, Fairy Bower, Ue«ra»d Wentworth Fads. Th« Hotel studs on nicely-laid-oat .«tMBi», »nd itaol™"" "---'- Court mud HowHiiif Gi a. CMFBB, Proprietor. r Blue Mountains & Jendlan Caves COOPER'S TOURS to the I iNCuroiHa all tax Principal Places of Intsiwt. TJadsr SpooJsl i.Tt%ottmmt »l N.S.W. QoTsrams&t. BLUE MOUNTAINS— First Day: Leave Sydney by s.asp.m.trl. for Mount Victoria, supper and stay night at GRAND HOTEL. Second Day — After Breakfast, drive via Govett's Leap, Katoomba and Wentworth Falls ; lunch at Toll's Hotel, and return by the 1.44 p.m. train, which is timed to reach Sydney at 4.28 p.m. Total Cost, including all Travelling and Hotel Accommodation, £1 16a. SPECIAL TR I P.-r Fridays : Leave Sydney by 5^5 p.m. train tor Mount Victoria; supper and stay night at GRAND HOTBL. •Satur- day—After Breakfast, drive to Govett's Leap, Katoomba, and Wentworth Halls; lunch at Toll's Hotel, and return to Sydney by this 3-44 pan. tauu. Coat (including all Travelling and Hotel Accommodation), with First Class Kail, £1 ia». ; Second Class Rail, £1 5s. JJENOLAN OAVES.— First Day: Leave Sydney by 3,^5 p.m-tsain Gar Mount Victoria; supper and stay night at GRAND -HOTEL. Second Day — Drive lo Jeoolan Caves, arrive. in rime for afternoon in- spection. Third Day— Visit Caves, making two inspections. Fourth ttay— Drive to Mount Victoria, stay-night .at GRAND HOSBL. PMCfc Day — Leave by 6.15 a.m. train for Sydney, arriving at 8.53 a.m. Coat, Including all Travelling and Hotel Accommodation, £3 13s. CombinUon Tfckatt tor say of th* ■boT» Trlpg cu be had from oar Aftmfe— T. P. HUGHKB, Bookstall, Hotel Hetrovol. from T. 90 to 10.30 s.m., and a to 7p.m. Bookstall, Hotel Australia, from V s m. to B p.m. dally. Ill THE EDISON & SWAN s= Dnitefl flectec Light Coy., Ltd. -M.nuf.ctur.r. of . . :s ^Jt%R3^* Incandescence f^unps & Electric Light Fittings. Australasian Branch : 16 Carringion Street, Wynyard Square, ^SYDNEY.O- Telephone, No. 1807. 0. R. HODSON, Manager. Qp^SNSt-AND Depot : Central Buildings, Edward Street, Brisbane. j&AD Qfficks : Ediswan Buildings, 36 & 37 Queen Street, London,. EiC. Works : Ponder's End, Middlesex, England. THOMAS PLAYFAIR, SHIPPING ^ &d k BUTCHER. Telephone xisS. Established i860. 103 aBORGE STREET NORTE. By Special Appointment to H.R.H. THE DUKE OF EDINBURGH, and Hie Excellency LORD BRASSEY. PURVEYOR TO THE ROYAL AMD FOREIGN NAVIES, P. ft O. Steam NaT. Co. North Ger. Lloyd's S.S.Co. Mesa. Maritime! S.S. Co. Ger. Anst Jftaam 8. Co. Aberdeen white Star Line Britiah-India 8. N. Co. Huddart, Parker ft Co. Strath Line British ft Colonial Lin* Canadian-Anst. S. 8. Co. China Narigation Co. Anglo.-Aust. 8. N. Qo. Eastern ft Anst. 8. N. Co. Anst. United 8. N. Co. Union Steam 8. Co. Lund's Bine Anchor Line Sf aer Line of Steamers onlder Bros., Ltd. Mcllirraith, M^E^phern Japan Mail Line J. ft A. Brown Melb. Steam S. Co. OORNED BEEF, PORK. MUTTON. In Tierce), Barrels and Kege, a Speciality. OX TONGUES, SHUTS TONGUES, TRIFE in Jara, BREAD, MILK, POTATOES, VEGETABLES, and LIVE STOCK always on hand. NOTE.— Harter had a LINDE Refrigerating Machine fitted, np on my premises, I tar .ygfjared to anppjyjmefts in prime condition dnrjng.alljaeasona eftjh^yej^. 112 Siemens Bros. * and Qo. Ltd, ELECTRICHL mwn a ptrum Electric Lighting Installations arranged and carried out in Ships, Mills, Factories, Mines, &c. ESTIMATES FREE ON APPLICATION, SYDNEY OPP1CBS: MELBOURNE OFFICES: 65 PITT STREET. 33 MARKET STREET TOURISTS ! ! . WATERPROOF . SOILED LINEN BAGS, 10/fi u With Lock and Key, I «£./ O caCtt. Sponge Bags, Holdalls, Knapsacks, Game Bags, Fishing Stockings dnd Trousers, Waders, &c. SILVERTOWN GOLF AND TENNIS BALLS. Write for Lists trom the MHNUFfteTLTRERS, Th< India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Co., fetd. SYDNEY BRANCH : 383 QEOROE ST. John . . . Dynon, Son and Co., China Hall, 265 GEORGE-ST., SYDNEY. (Opposite Bond street) JOHN DYNON & SONS, I JOHN DYNON & CO., Lonsdale St., Melbourne. Perth, W. Australia. GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS. Importers of * CHINA, GLASS and EARTHENWARE. Continental Novelties and Modern Dinner-table Decorations by each mail. Sole Agents for Brown Lichfield Dinner-Ware. We invito visits of inspection. Our lang experience as the Oldest House in the Trait offers buyers Special Advantages. London Office E.C — 25 Ely Place, Holborn Circus. 414 NEPTUNE lu bricating Oil s. DEPOT: 337 KENT STREET. SYDNEY. Contractors to the N.S.W. Govt. Railways, The Union 5.8. Co. of New Zealand, And the Principal Intercolonial Steamship Companies, Engineering Works, Saw Mills, &c. HARVESTING, SEPARATOR, HYDRAULIC RAM, COMPOUND CASTOR, AH REFRIGERATING 0IL&-4»~ A SPECIALITY. mm DRINK FOSTERS ALE and STOUT BUGLE BRAND. In Splendid Condition. Obtainable on all Steamers. 115 Telephone 284. CabU Addreis, " BUnl#y. w BstablidMd ISO. STANLEY & CO. Wholesale & Retail Gardeners, FRUITERERS, GREENGROCERS, AND SHIPPING PROVIDORES. Importers and Exporters, Agents for Artificial Manures. ^12, 44 &. 45^m> QUEEN VICTORIA MARKETS, SYDNEY. ALWAYS USE ^^^\ PARSONS' Med Oatmeal. Pore Jams & Pickles. COOKED ROLLED OATS. Table Jelly Squares. Plum Puddings. ELEPHANT & PASHA COFFEE. ffOWKEO. COCOA. 'D. 5. F. MUSTARD. Excll«nc« oif Quality Guaranteed. Mills & EactOBtea: -SENT & HARRQUR OTS., SYDNEY 116 jtf ?Yi?ap'g v Steam Iiaundpi], OSWALD LANE. OFF BAYSWATER ROAD, ^ nTrmiM^UTiDCT Contractor to the following Companies — THE ORIENT STEAMSHIP CO. THE UNION STEAMSHIP CO. THE OCEANIC STEAMSHIP CO. (A. A. Route San Franciso* Royal Mail Line) THE CANADIAN-AUSTRALIAN ROYAL MAIL LINE. WILLIAM HOWARD-SMITH & SONS Lt And others too numerous to mention. DONALD MCVIGAR, Proprietor Anderson Sc Irving, ENGINEERS, BLACKSMITHS, Qoil^rmaltfrs and Shipstniths* LIME STREET, SYDNEY. Wool Stowing Screw Jacks & Stevedoring Gear a Specialty. ESTIMATES GIVEN •^ <4 i > DC mo feO H — MT \| 50 > Oi EE c/j —I tlM ten awarded sained, l-ir-it of the boy in the Junior Public three yean out of the five, and five Enhibitio™ sained. Head Matter: REV. H. H. ANDERSON, B.A., UN. TASMANIAN CIDER. MURDOCH'S CHAMPAGNE CIDER is without doubt the most REFRESHING and POPULAR BEVERAGE in AUSTRALASIA, being nude rom the PURE JUICE of the APPLE, and is Absolutely Free from Chemicals. MANTTFACTtrEED at " MUBR AYBTELIV Glenorohy, near Eobart. 2* u u O Z < is P a he IS km « 7.. c S. D H 1 S «3 s ,j s ^a 2i « K < 3 w (fl SI g. Is l u s > 1 1 -a \| sU K ^ ill S H5 £ . s5\|» ISEtl-l 100 rf 11 sis ill -.= , Ell lis Hi- si - =ai s 5 15 k. 2 -if CO flS of lis 13* AUSTRAUAN luteal Jtwiitytt (ESTABLISHED 1840.) For Life Assurance on the purtty Mutual Principle. THE OLDEST, WEALTHIEST, AND MOST PROSPEROUS AUSTRALASIAN LIFE OFFICE. The only Mutual Life Office in Australasia which divides Profits Annually Policies are Free from all harassing restrictions. Members may Travel all over the World or Reside in any part thereof without payment of extra premium. Polioies in Force 136,000 Total Assurances (with Bonuses) in force 460)000,000 Accumulated Funds - 14,600,000 Annual Inoome over 8000,000 Total Claims Paid 0,000,000 Gash Bonuses Divided ... ~. 9$P00,000 STBHTOSHT RESERVES. AHOTAL BOOTSES. DIRECTORS IN TASMANIA: HON. 8IR P. O. FY8H, K.C.M.G., M.H.A., Chairman. HON. W. CROSBY, M.L.C., Deputy-Chairman. HON. N. E. LEWIS, M.H.A. HON. Q. H. BUTLER, M.R.C.8.,E., M.L.C. CHARLES BOOTH, Resident Secretary. HEAD OFFICE FOR TASMANIA: 41 Elizabeth Street, Hobart. District Offices in Launceston, Devonport, and Zeehan, r i 18 LIMITED. -♦♦♦- Established 1832. ♦•♦ — CAPITAL: £600,000 IN 60,000 SHARES of £10 Each. Subteribod, A665,070. Paid-up, £141,492 10s. Boatrvo Fun. 1 ., £190,000. HEAD OFFICE HOBART. DIRECTORS: C. J. BARCLAY, Esq. THOMAS LEWIS, Esq. C. E. WALCH, Esq, C. J. BARCLAY, Managing Director. D. BARCLAY, Manager. C. J. MAXWELL, Accountant J. W. TARLETON, Inspector of Branches. -•- BRANCHES: LAUNCE8TON-Local Director, The Hon. W. Hart. Manager, W. G. Baird. DELORAINE - A. 8. DOUGLAS, Mgr. QEORQE8 BAY H. P. SORELL, „ LATROBE - - C. A. DRAKE, „ LONQFORD - J. Bbveridge, „ OATLAND8 • P. H. PARSONS, Mgr. ULVER8TONE- E. C. CHAMPION, „ WE8TBURY - J. H. STEWART, „ ZEEHAN- • - A. J. Parker, „ AGENCIES. LONDON.- Bank of New South Wales, Australian Joint Stock Bank Limited, Bank of New Zealand, Bank .of Victoria Limited, City Bank Limited, Com mercial Bank of Australia Limited, .Commercial Banking Co. of Sydney Limited, London and South Western Bank Limited, National Bank of Aus- tralasia Limited, National Bank of New Zealand Limited, Union Bank of London Limited. VICTORIA.- Bank of New South Wales, Bank of New Zealand, Bank of Vic- toria Limited, Colonial Bank of Australasia Limited, Commercial Bank of Australia Limited, National Bank of Australasia Limited, Royal Bank of Australia Limited. 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I mm i THE NEW YORK r-;r.L'.CLl3RAK^ « fV.». I.F.VOX AND 1 i \ i' . * n ft ^ j s THB NBW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY RBPBRBNCB DBPARTMBNT This book it under no oironmttanoot to bo token from tbo — i - - - - • • - - - x A farm «!• M APR 1 1926 ';!'■• 'i : .; \ X v .£1 J' ' X -r. 7. -- X •. -< — ►* V 0r > ■»«' t; .7. >+ :.. «« 4 <(v ,»» • > . *•> I»«"	i don't know
"""Cinderella Rockefella"" was a Number One single in 1968 for Esther and Abi (who)?"	Esther & Abi Ofarim - Cinderella Rockefella (live in France, 1968) - YouTube Esther & Abi Ofarim - Cinderella Rockefella (live in France, 1968) Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Dec 19, 2011 Category	Beit Aryeh-Ofarim
In the Famous Five stories by Enid Blyton which of the children owns Timmy the dog?	Esther and Abi Ofarim Born Abraham Reichstadt on 5/10/1937 in Zafed. At age 12 attended ballet school; at age 15 made first stage appearance (Haifa); at age 17 was arranging own choreography; at age 18 had his own dance studio. The career of Esther and Abi Ofarim began in Israel. They made appearances there for 4 years before launching their career in Europe, appearing in Italy, Poland, Germany and Switzerland. They embarked upon a tour of the USA, performing some 70 concerts. They made over 500 television broadcasts in Europe, including a weekly show for the BBC. (above text from " Hits in Germany ", hrsg. von Siegmund Helms, 1972, Breitkopf & Haertel, Wiesbaden) They began performing in 1959 at an Israeli theatre club. In 1961 they won a Song Festival in Tel Aviv, by which time they were married. In 1963 Esther Ofarim won second place (for Switzerland) in the "Eurovision Song Contest" with the song "T'en vas pas". This represented a break through for both of them. Abi arranged the songs, and accompanied Esther on the guitar. In 1966, they released a duet, "Noch einen Tanz", which became their first hit in Germany. More German success came in 1967 with the song "Morning Of My Life". In 1968 their greatest success came with the international hit "Cinderella Rockefella". This recording reached No 1 in the United Kingdom, and there followed appearances in London and New York. During 1969 they presented a weekly show on BBC tv in the UK. However, despite this major success, there was a private crisis in their marriage, and the pair separated in November 1970. Esther made a number of solo albums, but these days Esther is living a quite life, away from showbiz, has invested in property, and lives in Tel Aviv. Abi has worked as a manager, composer, arranger and a director. He later established the company PROM in Munich, which is a music production company, a publishing house, a talent agency and technical school for budding artists. In his role as a producer, he works with, amongst others, the prima ballerina, Margot Werner. (above text from "Star Scene '77 - 1000 of Top star pop singers from Ilja judge", VN publishing house company for Reference Books Ltd., rope nut taunusstein, 1977) Esther Ofarim is more than a star - she is an experience. When she steps on the stage, in front of the television camera or before the microphone, she projects an honest enthusiasm which is met with total admiration. People of all age groups, pop fans, lovers of classical music and followers of avantgardism, will experience an interpretation of art, which overwhelms everyone. At 13 years of age, Esther began performing in the theatre. At 17 she went to Haifa, and a year later moved to the National Theatre in Tel Aviv to further advance her career. It was there that she met her future husband Abi, who was a dancer and choreographer. He immediately saw Esther's great abilities, and decided to give up his own career, in order to form a singing duo with her. Hollywood director Otto Preminger saw them in Israel, and immediately engaged Esther for a role in his film "Exodus". The artist stock exchanges in the USA now noticed a new name. Frank Sinatra also came to Israel and saw Esther. He immediately gave her a contract for the first of six planned television shows. She was such a great success that she appeared on all six of the shows. Following the success of America, offers came in from all of Europe. Esther and Abi established themselves in Switzerland, became interested in European folk music, and were becoming much admired by older people as well. In 1962, Esther Ofarim won the first prize in the international music festival in Zoppot (Poland). In the same year their entry for the "Eurovision Song Contest" triumphed, and they performed at a folk music festival in Freiburg (Switzerland). Representing Switzerland, they came second in the 1963 "Eurovision Song Contest", held in London. In 1964 they were awarded The Silver Rose of Montreux by Eurovision, for their tv performances. During 1965 they gave 43 concerts in 32 German cities, which were all sell-outs, and they won the Edison prize in the same year. They have also given charity concerts, which they perform every two or three years. Finally, in 1966 Esther was awarded the "International Recording Grand Prix", in Paris. (above text from the album "Esther & Abi Ofarim 2 - Philips' club special edition" 75,597) A) Du machst Dir Sorgen B) Von dir hat man gar nichts Philips 345 839 PF (1965) A) Sing Hallelujah	i don't know
By what name was Barbara Gordon known in DC Comics from 1967 to the mid-1980s?	Barbara Gordon \| Batman Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Batgirl (1966–1988) Batgirl. Editor Julius Schwartz claimed that when planning the new Batgirl's comic book debut, he had considered the character to be a vehicle that might attract a female viewership to the Batman television series of the sixties. When producers William Dozier and Howie Horowitz saw rough concept artwork by artist Carmine Infantino during a visit to DC offices, they optioned the character in a bid to help sell a third season to the ABC television network. Actress Yvonne Craig portrayed the character in the show's third season. When interviewed on his involvement with creating Batgirl, Infantino states- Batgirl came up in the mid-’60s. The “Batman” TV producer called Julie and said Catwoman was a hit, could we come up with more female characters? Julie called me and asked me to do that. I came up with Batgirl, Poison Ivy and one I called the Grey Fox, which Julie didn’t like as much. Bob Kane had a Bat-Girl for about three stories in the ’50s, but she had nothing to do with a bat. She was like a pesky girl version of Robin . I knew we could do a lot better, so Julie and I came up with the real Batgirl, who was so popular she almost got her own TV show. Barbara Gordon and alter ego Batgirl debuted in Detective Comics #359 (cover-dated 1967, although the comic was actually released in late 1966) as the daughter of Gotham City's Police Commissioner James Gordon . Barbara Gordon’s Batgirl had been preceded by an earlier Bat-Girl character, which was depicted as niece and sidekick to Batwoman. Gordon exceeded these earlier figures in popularity, and readers requested for her to appear in other titles. In an open letter to readership in Detective Comics #417 (1971), DC responded to the fan-based acclaim and criticism of the new character. I'd like to say a few words about the reaction some readers have to Batgirl. These are readers who remember Batwoman and the other Bat-girls from year's back... They were there because romance seemed to be needed in Batman's life. But thanks to the big change and a foresighted editor, these hapless females are gone for good. In their place stands a girl who is a capable crime-fighter, a far cry from Batwoman who constantly had to be rescued from Batman . Barbara as Batgirl defeats her first villain, Killer Moth . Following the comic book debut of Barbara Gordon, Yvonne Craig also promoted the comic book incarnation of her character. The actress was featured in photo shoots reading her “favorite comic of all time,” "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl." While actress Yvonne Craig as Batgirl appeared every week in the new season of Batman, DC Comics featured Batgirl on several covers of Detective Comics, often overshadowing Batman and Robin in order to promote the new heroine. On the cover of Detective Comics #369, Batgirl argues with Batman over whose sidekick Robin should be. Batgirl became a lighthearted departure from the tortured characters of Batman and Robin, each depicted as fighting crime to avenge the death of their parents. Gordon's motivation for crime fighting was written as being completely altruistic and, unlike Batwoman and Bat-Girl, independent of a male superhero. In her civilian identity, Dr. Barbara Gordon Ph.D. is not only depicted as an independent woman with a doctorate in library science, she is head of Gotham City public library; "presumably one of the largest public libraries in the DC Comics version of reality." The character's civilian career as a library professional, coupled with her alter-ego as a crime-fighter is considered to be symbolic of the women's empowerment movement of the 1960s. Barbara as Batgirl Batgirl continued to appear in DC Comics publications throughout the late sixties and seventies as a supporting character in Detective Comics, in addition to guest appearances in various titles such as Justice League of America, World's Finest Comics, The Brave and the Bold, Action Comics and Superman. The character was also given a starring role in DC's Batman Family comic book which debuted in 1975. The original Robin Dick Grayson became her partner in the series and the two were frequently referred to as the "Dynamic Duo: Batgirl & Robin." Although this series ended after three years of publication, Batgirl continued to appear in back up stories published in Detective Comics until DC officially retired the heroine in the one-shot comic Batgirl Special #1 (1988). Although permanently retired, Barbara Gordon's incarnation as Batgirl remains one of the most popular and high profile characters of the Silver Age of Comic Books. Batman: The Killing Joke (1988) As the years went on, however, Barbara found her role as Batgirl less and less fulfilling, and she eventually more or less retired. That's when The Joker showed up at her house, shooting and paralyzing her and when he kidnapped her Uncle Jim. Batman rescued Jim Gordon, but 19-year-old Barbara Gordon's career as a crime fighter was over. She spent a month in a deep depression. During the early eighties, Batman editors sporadically put Batgirl into retirement; the character resumed her role for special cases. In 1988, Alan Moore discussed writing The Killing Joke with editor Len Wein, and the two agreed that Barbara Gordon, currently in retirement, was disposable enough for the character’s career to come to a permanent end. Although events in The Killing Joke exert a great impact on the character, the story has little to do with Gordon. She is deployed as a plot device to cement the Joker’s vendetta against Commissioner Gordon and Batman. Critical reception of The Killing Joke has been mixed — while some commentators have been appalled by the treatment of Barbara Gordon, others have regarded The Killing Joke as one of the greatest Batman stories of all time. Despite Moore's writing, Valerie D'Orazio, a former editor at Acclaim Comics and DC Comics has denounced the book, citing "It doesn't take the perspective of a woman into account. It doesn't take into account that some women might be so very disgusted with the book [and] what happens to Barbara Gordon in it." In response, Laura Hudson, Senior editor of Comic Foundry Magazine comments, "You’re supposed to be disgusted with what happens to Barbara Gordon...because it’s disgusting...As a woman and as an adult, I can deal with fictional characters performing reprehensible acts towards women... When they’re used not gratuitously but for a purpose, as I believe they were in The Killing Joke, that's exactly what they're supposed to do." The Joker’s aggravated assault of Barbara Gordon has become a classic example of Women in Refrigerators syndrome, in which “severe injury or death of a female comic book character [occurs] as a means to antagonize a male superhero.” Following the release of the graphic novel, comic book editor and writer Kim Yale discussed how distasteful she found the treatment of Barbara Gordon with her husband, fellow comic writer John Ostrander. Rather than allow the character to fall into obscurity, the two decided to revive her as a character living with a disability. Oracle (1988–2011) Recognizing she could no longer be the kind of superhero she had been, she instead devoted all her time to developing one of the world's most complex and powerful computer systems and set to work accumulating information, renaming herself "Oracle." Blessed with a photographic memory, Barbara reads dozens of the world's top newspapers and magazines daily. She's also constantly gathering information from other, less public sources, such as the CIA's mainframe, not to mention the data networks of the FBI, NSA and Interpol (all without their knowledge or consent). Oracle has proven an absolutely invaluable resource to the Batman and his allies, as well as countless other superheroes, few of whom know anything about the person behind the name. Oracle has formed an alliance with fellow heroes Black Canary and The Huntress to aid those in need. Together, they are the Birds of Prey , combining their unique abilities and skills in the war against crime and terror. Both Yale and Ostrander would oversee the development of Barbara Gordon's new persona as Oracle for the next several years. The character made her first comic book appearance as Oracle in Suicide Squad #23, anonymously offering her services to the government's Task Force X. In the following two years, Oracle, under pen of Ostander and Yale, made guest appearances in various DC titles until her identity was revealed to be Barbara Gordon in Suicide Squad #38 (1990) and she officially becomes a member of the Squad in issue #48 following an invitation from fictional government agent Amanda Waller. In 1992, Dennis O’Neil gave Barbara Gordon’s Oracle a starring role in Batman: Sword of Azrael #1, where she became Batman’s sole source of information. This newly forged partnership established Oracle’s status as Batman's intellectual equal. Oracle. The success of Chuck Dixon’s Black Canary/Oracle: Birds of Prey (1996) lead to the comic series Birds of Prey starring the two title characters. Kim Yale and John Ostrander tell the origin of Oracle in "Oracle: Year One," a story arc contained in Batman Chronicles #5. Since the launch of Birds of Prey, the Oracle character has become a high-profile figure in the DC Comics universe - moving beyond her ties to the Batman Family and forging alliances with groups such as the Justice League of America . Gail Simone took over as writer of Birds of Prey with issue #56, taking the series in a "Bold New Direction!" In an interview with Columnist Jennifer Contino, Simone explains her fondness of Barbara Gordon: Kim Yale and John Ostrander picked up the character and made her into a brilliant master computer operator and one of the most fascinating characters in comics. From there, Chuck Dixon did wonderful things with her in his Birds of Prey run...She’s fantastic because even just sitting in a chair in a dark room by herself, she’s tremendously compelling. The DCU without her would be a much less interesting place. Throughout the course of the character's history, Barbara Gordon's intelligence has been one of the character's defining attributes. According to BusinessWeek, Oracle is listed as one of the top ten most intelligent fictional superheroes appearing in American comics and is the only female character to appear on the list. Critical and Editorial Commentary Despite the establishment of Gordon's persona as Oracle, some observers have argued for the character's mobility to be restored. Reacting to Batman: The Killing Joke and Barbara Gordon's later character development as Oracle in Batman: Gotham Knights, Ray Tate, a reviewer at Comics Bulletin, writes, Let's get this out of the way first. There is absolutely no reason why Barbara Gordon should be in a wheelchair. Alan Moore and Brian Bolland meant The Killing Joke as an imaginary tale dealing with the iconography of Batman and the Joker...[Batman] himself is a certifiable genius in biochemistry. There are countless examples of Batman employing that which is only theoretical in his fight against crime. His knowledge of stem cell technology should surpass that of the real world. There is simply no reason for Barbara Gordon to be confined to that wheelchair. Regarding Gordon's representation as a character living with a disability, and her effectiveness as a hero compared to her incarnation as Batgirl, Tate comments, It's ridiculous to think somebody wakes up thinking how lucky they are to be confined to a wheelchair, and yet the attitude around DC and among the fans is that Oracle is the better character over Batgirl because of her handicap. Rubbish. Batgirl has fought more crime and done more to aid Batman as Batgirl than she has as Oracle. Batgirl has saved Batman's life on numerous occasions. Oracle has not. Barbara in this incarnation is not a bad character, but she is not better because she no longer hunts the night in cape and cowl. Alex Ross and Paul Dini have made attempts to return the character to her original conception. Ross explains in an interview: Paul Dini had this idea of putting Barbara Gordon in the Lazarus Pit to revive her...I thought it was a great idea, and we pitched then-Batman editor Denny O'Neil with these drawings of that costume design. The idea of using the red instead of the traditional yellow was meant to invoke the idea that coming from the Lazarus Pit, she was in a way, more compromised as a character...And...that went nowhere. Denny shot it down, because, according to him, everybody loves Barbara Gordon as Oracle and as a handicapped character. The theory was that DC didn't have enough handicapped characters, so they weren't going to do anything with Barbara as she was. And the design went into the drawer." Kate Kane , the modern Batwoman introduced during 52, wears a variant of Gordon's Batgirl costume designed by Ross. Some argue that the Barbara Gordon character provides a greater service to DC Comics and its readers in her current status, regardless of the events which preceded Oracle's creation. DC Senior Vice President Dan DiDio comments, "Some stories... are so strong that undoing them would be a crime. The DCU would be a lesser place without Barry's sacrifice, or the crippling of Barbara at the hands of the Joker." Although critical reception of Barbara Gordon's evolution into Oracle have been mixed among critics and other observers, according to John Ostrander- "We have, over the years, on those occasions when I have worked with the character, gotten some letters from those who have disabilities of one stripe or another and all have been very supportive. I feel very proud for my part in creating Oracle." Ostrander has also spoken about the value of Oracle to both DC Comics and its fan base: What makes the runaway success of the Oracle character more remarkable is that it began during an era where bleak heroes with big guns were ruling the day. Without much fanfare, Barbara Gordon has become the most popular handicapped character since Charles Xavier. In fact, Oracle's nature as a handicapped superhero and a role model is almost never mentioned by the company or fans...There WAS some idea of her being a role model, I think... We wanted her to cope with what had happened to her and becoming, in many ways, more effective as Oracle than she ever was as Batgirl. And we knew that others with disabilities might look at her and feel good reading about her...I don't think people 'dance around' her disabilities as they don't want to focus on them but on her character. These shouldn't be stories about a disabled person; they are stories about a compelling fascinating character who HAPPENS to be in a wheelchair and I think that's correct. Barbara isn't her handicap; there's more to her than that. Silver Age Barbara Gordon's classic Batgirl costume was designed by artist Carmine Infantino. In her original adventures during the Silver Age of Comics, Batgirl is depicted as a librarian by day, and a spirited crime-fighter by night. In her debut story, while driving to a costume ball dressed as a female version of Batman, Barbara Gordon intervenes in a kidnapping attempt on Bruce Wayne by the villainous Killer Moth, attracting the Dark Knight's attention and leading to a crime-fighting career. After a handful of guest appearances in Batman stories, she was given her own back-up strip in Detective Comics. The character was fleshed out considerably, with the shy, mousy, bookworm version of Barbara Gordon giving way to a more modern, confident character. Devoid of her plain-Jane glasses and hair bun, Barbara dates a succession of boyfriends, including Vietnam-veteran-turned-private-investigator Jason Bard . In addition to her appearances in both Detective Comics and Batman, Batgirl made a guest appearance in World's Finest Comics #169 (1967) where she met Superman, Supergirl, Bat-Mite, and Mxyzptlk for the first time. She also fights alongside the Justice League of America against the villainous Queen Bee. Supergirl and Batgirl encounter again in Adventure Comics #381 (1969) when both heroines separately investigate a female criminal gang. Her back-up stories appear sporadically in Detective Comics until the mid-1970s. Although she occasionally partners with Robin, she more frequently works with Jason Bard, a Vietnam War veteran with a chronic knee injury who becomes a private detective. Bard is a romantic interest of Barbara's, as well. Batgirl reveals her secret identity to her father (who had already discovered it on his own), and serves as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. She moves to Washington, D.C., intending to give up her career as Batgirl and in June 1972, appeared in a story entitled "Batgirl's Last Case." Editor Julius Schwartz brought her back a year later in Superman #268 (1973), in which she has a blind date with Clark Kent, establishing their friendship, and fights alongside Superman. Batgirl and Superman team up twice more, in Superman #279 and DC Comics Presents #19. Batgirl also guest-starred in other Superman related titles such as #453 of Adventure Comics, and in Superman Family #171, where she teams with Supergirl. Bronze Age In 1975, DC created the Batman Family comic book, which ran for 20 issues. Batgirl was one of the main features in the book, frequently teaming with Robin. Batgirl meets Batwoman in Batman Family #10, when the retired superheroine returns to crime-fighting. The two fight Killer Moth and The Cavalier , and learn about each other's secret identities. When Batman Family ended at issue #20, stories featuring these characters were merged with Detective Comics, beginning with issue #481 in 1979, and Batgirl continued her adventures there. Even after the "Batman Family" feature left Detective Comics, Batgirl continued to appear in the back-up stories through issue #519 (October 1982). Barbara Gordon as portrayed early in her Batgirl career. Crisis on Infinite Earths, a limited mini-series published in 1985, was written in order to reduce the complex history of DC Comics to a single continuity. Although Batgirl is a featured character, her role is relatively small- she delivers Supergirl's eulogy at the conclusion of the story. The conclusion of Crisis on Infinite Earths changed DC Universe continuity in many ways. Following the reboot, Barbara Gordon is born to Roger and Thelma Gordon, and she is Jim Gordon's niece/adopted daughter in current canon. Post-Crisis, Supergirl does not arrive on Earth until Gordon has established herself as Oracle; many adventures she shared with Batgirl are now retroactively described as having been experienced by Power Girl. In Secret Origins #20: Batgirl and the Golden Age Dr. Mid-Nite (1987), Barbara Gordon's origin is rebooted by author Barbara Randal. Within the storyline, Gordon recounts the series of events that lead to her career as Batgirl, including her first encounter with Batman as a child, studying martial arts under the tutelage of a sensei, memorizing maps and blue prints of the city, excelling in academics in order to skip grades and pushing herself to become a star athlete. Modern Age: Exit Batgirl, Enter Oracle The Modern Age of Comic Books had significant changes to the comic book industry as characters became darker and psychologically complex, abandoning the light-hearted themes of earlier ages. After her back-up series of stories ended, Barbara Gordon continued to be Batgirl, but increasingly felt inconsequential in a world filled with super-powered heroes. After capturing the Commorant in Batgirl Special #1 (1988), Gordon retires her Batgirl persona. In Batman: The Killing Joke (1988), the Joker shoots Barbara, intending to drive her father James Gordon into madness. The bullet severs her spine, permanently paralyzing her from the waist down. Gordon is grief-stricken upon learning the extent of her injuries, as is her ally and off-on again lover Dick Grayson, the original Robin currently known as Nightwing. Initially, Gordon's paralysis plunges her into a state of reactive depression. However, she soon realizes that her aptitude for and training in information sciences have provided her with tremendous skills that could be deployed to fight crime. In a world increasingly centered on technology and information, she possesses a genius-level intellect; photographic memory; deep knowledge of computers and electronics; expert skills as a hacker; and graduate training in library sciences. One night, Gordon has a dream in which an all-knowing woman (similar to Oracle at Delphi of Greek mythology) has her own face, it's then that she adopts "Oracle" as her codename. She serves as an information broker, gathering and disseminating intelligence to law enforcement organizations and members of the superhero community. In "Oracle: Year One," Oracle also trains under the tutelage of Richard Dragon, one of DC's premier martial artists, to engage in combat (using eskrima) from her wheelchair. She develops her upper-body strength and targeting skills with both firearms and batarangs. In her second appearance as a hacker in the DC Comics universe, Oracle is featured in the 12-issue mini-series The Hacker Files (1993). In 2003, comic book authors Scott Beatty and Chuck Dixon revised Barbara Gordon’s origin with the mini-series Batgirl: Year One Gordon is a highly gifted child having graduated from high school early, but initially desires to join law enforcement as opposed to vigilantism in the previous origin myths. Former Batgirl Birds of Prey Following her paralysis and recovery from depression, Oracle founds the Birds of Prey, a team of female heroes, whom she employs as agents and extended members of the Batman team. After her unsuccessful partnership with Power Girl, Oracle later joins forces with the superheroine Black Canary. During Chuck Dixon's crossover series Hunt for Oracle, Barbara Gordon and Dinah Lance meet in person and establish a long-term friendship. They form the nucleus of the Birds of Prey organization. While Oracle serves as the basic head of operations, Black Canary becomes her full-time employee and field agent. During the 2004 cross-over event War Games, Black Mask commandeers Oracle's computers and satellites and engages in a fight to the death with Batman. In order to prevent Batman from killing his adversary, Oracle initiates the Clock Tower's self-destruct sequence, provoking Batman to rescue her rather than continue the battle. This results in the destruction of Gordon's home and headquarters in the clock tower. Subsequently, Oracle decides to move on, and leaves Gotham City altogether. She cuts her ties with Batman, and after a temporary world trip with her team, relocates to Metropolis. In the events comprising Gail Simone's Birds of Prey: Between Dark and Dawn (2005), and Birds of Prey: The Battle Within (2005), Oracle is possessed by arch-villain Brainiac, an artificial intelligence entity, in order to become a biological being. Although Oracle overpowers Brainiac and expels him from her body, the advanced virus delivered by him remains despite his absence. The virus steadily causes cybernetic attachments to sprout all over her body. Oracle develops cyberpathic powers that allow her to psychically interact with computer information systems. Although she loses these abilities after the virus is rendered dormant following an operation by Doctor Mid-Nite, she discovers she can move her toes. However, this proves to be short-lived; Gordon remains paralyzed. During the company wide cross-over Infinite Crisis (2005), Oracle teams with the Martian Manhunter in Metropolis to coordinate a counterstrike to the Secret Society's global jailbreak. The renewed romance between Barbara Gordon and Dick Grayson is also cut short by the Infinite Crisis storyline. When DC continuity jumps forward one year after the events of Infinite Crisis, Oracle and her team continue to work in Metropolis. Oracle works with Batman, although not on a regular basis as before. Oracle continues to lead the Birds of Prey, and expands the ranks of the operation. In Birds of Prey #99, Black Canary leaves the team and The Huntress becomes the team's de facto field leader, while Big Barda has been brought in as the group's heavy-hitter alongside a larger, rotating roster; Oracle also makes an attempt to reforge her alliance with Power Girl, however, when Oracle invites her to rejoin the team, she replies that she'll do so "when Hell freezes over." In "Whitewater," Gail Simone's final story arc on Birds of Prey (2007), Oracle and her team struggle for power with Spy Smasher, a government agent who has taken over the Birds of Prey organization. Eventually, Spy Smasher is forced to admit her defeat and returns control of the Birds of Prey organization to Oracle. At the conclusion of the arc, Oracle also adopts Misfit into the Birds of Prey. In Countdown (2007), Oracle dispatches the Question and Batwoman to capture Trickster and Piper following their role in the murder of the Flash. She struggles to keep the identities of the world's heroes from being stolen and coordinates the response to a global crisis engineered by the Calculator, a villainous hacker and information broker. In issue #5 of the comic book series The All-New Booster Gold (2007), the title hero is given the mission of traveling back in time in order to prevent "a tragedy that he discovers never should've happened — the Joker shooting and paralyzing Barbara Gordon, Batgirl." Although Booster Gold makes several attempts to prevent the events which took place in Batman: The Killing Joke, he ultimately fails and Barbara Gordon's chronological history remains unchanged. Final Crisis and Beyond In the Final Crisis storyline, Darkseid , who has finally gained control of the Anti-Life Equation attempts to put the mind-control equation on the Internet. Both Oracle and Mister Terrific make desperate attempts to stop Darkseid, even attempting to shut down the entire Internet. Unfortunately, they both fail and those affected ended up mindless slaves of Darkseid. Freed from Darkseid's control after the restoration of the Multi-verse, she attempts to shut down the criminal Unternet set up by her opposite number, the Calculator, as a Darkseid-free replacement for the regular Internet and still used by tech-savvy criminals. However, the Calculator, preventing her moves, takes control of the Kilg%re, gaining the ability to thrive in cyberspace by controlling digital and cybernetic avatars, and tracks Oracle down with his newfound powers. Even though Oracle foils him, she starts doubting her abilities and fears she's losing her edge and brilliance, which results in her disbanding the Birds of Prey team to do some soul-searching. Following the events of Batman: RIP and the Final Crisis, Oracle has returned back to Gotham City, and although the Birds of Prey are disbanded, she continues to summon them to help Nightwing and Robin deal with the growing crime in Gotham following the supposed death of Bruce Wayne. The Calculator's plans finally come to their fruition, and Kuttler, hoping to save her dying daughter Wendy takes on the Babbage alias and begins prowling the digital world of Alta Viva, a virtual world game, for fragments of the Anti-Life Equation unleashed by Darkseid. Barbara, now living in a dilapidated apartment in Gotham, becomes aware of Kuttler's activities when Cheesefiend, one of her informants, is brutally killed, with the Anti-Life Equation itself, after coming in contact with Babbage. Hoping to stop the Calculator and prevent him from piecing together the fragments of the Anti-Life Equation in his possession, Oracle travels to Hong Kong, hoping to steal them back by the means of an advanced supercomputer programmed to track the chunk of data left behind by Babbage. However the Calculator discovers her attempts, swearing vengeance upon her. She manages to defeat Calculator, curing the Anti-Life Equation's fragments. Working with Leslie Thompkins, Barbara has begun to mentor the Calculator's daughter, Wendy, who was crippled following an attack at Titans Tower, which took the life of her brother Marvin. Recently it came to Barbara's attention (thanks to Dick Grayson) that Cassandra Cain has once again stepped down from the role of Batgirl, and has been replaced by Stephanie Brown . Still seeing Stephanie as an impulsive young girl, Barbara tries to talk her out of being Batgirl. When a new recreational drug known as "Thrill" is hitting the streets of Gotham, Barbara and Stephanie work together to stop the drug trade which they discover to be run by Scarecrow and Black Mask. After Dick discovers that Barbara has approved of Stephanie as Batgirl, he and Barbara had an intense argument over Barbara's decision which eventually made him leave to resume his patrol in the city. Her father has been trying to set Barbara up on a blind date with Gotham PD's newest recruit from Coast City, Detective Nicholas Gage. After they've finally meet there was a miscommunication between the two: as Barbara thought the detective was discriminating her because of her disability but it is really because Gage senses Barbara wants to be with someone else (Dick Grayson). His instincts prove to be somewhat true, as Dick and Barbara begin working together on a kidnapping case, and despite some early attitude, begin to flirt playfully like they used to. Blackest Night During Blackest Night, Green Lantern crashes into the Bat-Signal after a fight with the Black Lantern Martian Manhunter. Barbara and Commissioner Gordon are both present. After sending Green Lantern's intel to every superhero community across the planet of the Black Lanterns, the Gordon's find themselves being attacked by the original Dark Knight's deceased rogue gallery members, whom are all reanimated by the Black Lantern Corps. Barbara and her father are forced to fight for their lives as they witness the Black Lanterns are massacring everyone on sight at Gotham Central. During the crisis, Barbara falls under the control of Deadman , channeling Barbara's athletic capability and apparently using his own super-natural ability to allow her to stand on her own two legs, to save Commissioner Gordon from the reanimated King Snake and the Trigger Twins . After being rescued by Dick Grayson, Damian Wayne, and Tim Drake, the Gordon's are later being attacked by Dick and Tim's parents with their saviors, the reanimated Grayson's and the Drake's. While Grayson and Drake battle the Black Lanterns, Robin takes the Gordon's to their underground base where Alfred Pennyworth tends her and her father's wounds. Barbara is later approached by Huntress and Renee Montoya (the new Question) for help in tracking down a mysterious criminal who ordered a hit on them through Philo Zeiss . DCnU Babs explains how she regained the use of her legs After the events of Flashpoint, Barbara Gordon has recovered from her injuries by the hands of Joker, and has returned to the streets as Batgirl. One of her nights back in action as Batgirl has her stopping a trio of crooks attempting to murder a couple. The fight almost turns sour when one of the crooks launches himself and her out the window. Thankfully, the couple rescued the two before they could fall (though Barbara had to correct them as they accidentally called her Batwoman). The next morning, despite James Gordon's parental protests, Barbara moves away from home, moving in with another girl with a more independent streak. However, the settling in had to wait - there was an attack at a hospital where the criminal she had stopped earlier was staying at. Arriving at the scene, she found herself confronting a murderer known as The Mirror, whose modus operandi was to kill people who survived major accidents. Barbara attempted to stop him from taking the man's life, but she found herself paralyzed when he aimed his gun at her gut, allowing him to launch the man out the window. The police officer there opted to brand her a murderer for not being able to stop him. Back with the Birds. After she reclaimed the Batgirl mantle, Barbara handed over the reigns of the Birds of Prey to Black Canary . When Dinah formed a new team of Birds, Barbara initially declined membership, though agreed to be a part-time member as of issue 6. Powers and abilities Martial artistry According to the character's fictional biography, Barbara Gordon took numerous self-defense classes in judo and karate prior to her tenure as Batgirl and is described as being a "star athlete." Following the events of The Killing Joke, Barbara Gordon continued to train in the martial arts as Oracle, despite being paralyzed from the waist down. She has extensive skills with eskrima fighting sticks, small firearms and batarangs; she customarily keeps a pair of eskrima sticks stored in the armrests of her wheelchair as a contingency. Technological skill Prior to the character's career as a vigilante, Barbara Gordon developed many technological skills, including vast knowledge of computers and electronics, expert skills as a hacker, and graduate training in library sciences. Gordon is also written as having a genius-level intellect and naturally possessing a photographic memory. Like Batman, Barbara Gordon originally used a wide variety of computer electronics and gadgets during her early adventures as Batgirl. These included an infrared scanner built into the cowl of her costume, various bat-inspired weaponry and the "Batgirl Cycle." According to Gail Simone, Oracle maintains control over the twelve technologically advanced satellites that were created by Lex Luthor during his tenure as President of the United States. Information broker Oracle places her considerable skills and knowledge at the disposal of many of the DC universe's heroes. She is a skilled hacker, capable of retrieving and dispersing information from private satellites, military installations, government files, and the properties of Lex Luthor. Batman, himself a genius with a wide knowledge base and access to vast information resources, routinely consults Oracle for assistance. Romance Barbara Gordon has been romantically linked to Dick Grayson , aka Nightwing. At a young age they shared their passion as Robin and Batgirl. Nightwing was shocked and disturbed to learn of the effects of the Killing Joke, resulting in Barbara's paralysis. After the events of No Man's Land , the two fall in love. Before Infinite Crisis, Nightwing drops to one knee and proposes. Barbara tearfully accepts. During the Crisis, Grayson was shocked by raw energy, and was taken into care of Barbara's arms. When Batman asks Nightwing to help him rediscover himself, Dick is hesitant due to his engagement to Barbara. She allows him to go, telling him they were not ready for marriage. Dick sends her engagement ring with a picture of them as Robin and Batgirl, promising to return to her when the time is right. Both show genuine romantic affection towards the other, though not as a couple anymore. Grayson is rejoining the JLA with Starfire, however a recent issue of Titans stated that Dick has moved on of his past relationship with her. Barbara's father has start trying to set her up with a hotshot young detective who've just transferred from Coast City, Nicholas Gage, although he's apparently more interested in the newest Batgirl ( Stephanie Brown ) along with the fact that Barbara senses he keeps secrets despite being a supposedly honest police officer. Another brief romance was with Jason Bard, her ex-fiancee. When Grayson left Gotham and rejoined Koriand'r , Babs found comfort in the young man's arms. The relationship fizzled and the engagement was cancelled. In a Birds of Prey comic book, the two are reunited on a mission. However, this does not last as Babs shoves him out of her life once again in favor of Grayson. In the new 52, Grayson and Babs have never officially dated, though it is clear they both seem to have feelings for each other. Gallery	Batgirl
"Brothers Simon and Stephen Cornwell were two of the executive producers on the BBC TV drama ""The Night Manager"". Who wrote the novel on which the drama was based?"	1000+ images about DC:: Barbara Gordon on Pinterest \| Batgirl costume, Supergirl and Phil noto Pinterest • The world’s catalog of ideas DC:: Barbara Gordon 193 Pins167 Followers Barbara Gordon, the second Batgirl made and one of the most popular thanks to 1960's Batman with Yvonne Craig. She is the duaghter of Commissioner Gordon and partner to Batman. She first came a long with the alias of Batgirl and worked side by side with Batman and Robin(Dick Grayson) until she was shot in the spine paralyzing her for life by Joker in the Killing Joke when he came for her father. After that she took up the alter ego of Oracle, helping the bat family from the bat computer.	i don't know
Reading down group 18 (noble gases) on the periodic table, the symbols for elements 10 and 18 form which word defined as 'at a time or place not far away'?	Torah Foundations of the Periodic Table: Kabbalah and Chemistry – GalEinai – Revealing the Torah's Inner Dimension Lr Figure 1 From the early rudimentary groupings of chemical compounds to our modern classification that recognizes the periodicity of atomic elements together, chemical tables are usually based on an implicit theory of the composition of matter . These theories have shared a common axiom: that all of the matter in the Universe is composed of a finite variety of basic building blocks. These building blocks have been known from the ancient Greeks to the present as atoms. In our modern table of the chemical elements, the different atoms are identified and ordered by their atomic number. Atoms are defined as the smallest unit of an element that can combine with another element. Atoms are theorized as composing of a nucleus, made of protons and neutrons, and electrons that move around the nucleus. The atomic number identifies the number of protons in an element’s nucleus. Atoms can lose or gain electrons, and the ease with which they do so is a measure of their reactivity. In our modern periodic table of elements, elements are arranged in columns and rows. As its name implies, the modern table is periodic in nature, meaning that elements are placed in it based on their shared and recurring (periodic) characteristics. Periodicity of element properties is found to be strongest down columns of the table. Primary among these periods is that of the 6 noble (or inert) gases which populate the far right column of the table. The property shared by the inert gases is a lack of reactivity ensuing from their inability to gain or lose electrons. Another example: the first element in the table, Hydrogen (H) is a gas, the second, Helium (He), is a noble gas, and the third, Lithium (Li), is a soft, reactive metal. Going down the table, we find eight elements later Fluoride (F), Neon (Ne) and Sodium (Na), a gas, a noble gas, and a soft, reactive metal, and eight elements later, Chloride (Cl), Argon (Ar) and Potassium (K)—again: a gas, a noble gas, and a soft, reactive metal. The remarkable predictability of element properties revealed by the periodic table allowed chemists to ‘describe’ as yet unidentified elements based on their supposed location in the table. Such was the case when in 1871 Dimitry Mendeleev, the Russian chemist who originally formulated the periodic law, correctly described the properties of the element between Silicon (14) and Tin (50) which he called ekasilicon. The element in question was not identified until 1886 by a German chemist who dubbed it Germanium. 2. The Kabbalistic counterparts to the Periodic Table It is our goal in this article to present an exact and full analogy to the modern periodic table within Torah. The motivation for this goal is explained in preceding chapters. To do so in a methodological manner, we must first ascertain that the Torah does indeed include examples of the two central concepts underlying the content and form of the Periodic Table: (1)atoms and (2) periodicity. The notion of the entirety of creation being constructed out of a finite variety of basic building blocks is central to the earliest Kabbalistic source known (and incidentally the first book of Hebrew grammar)—the Book of Formation (Sefer Yetzirah). From there this notion assumes a central role throughout the entire Kabbalistic and esoteric tradition within Torah. Specifically, the Book of Formation turns to Genesis and, following a (spiritually) linguistic perspective, identifies 32 non-corporeal elements or atoms. They are the 10 sefirot [which correspond to the 10 utterances (ma’amarim, מאמרים ) spoken by God when He created the world ] and the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet [out of which the utterances are constructed]. Together, these 32 atoms form the basis for language and speech, the conduits of the creative act itself. However, though the Book of Formation provides us with the notion of basic building blocks of the Universe, the atoms it identifies are ill suited for our purposes of correspondence. First, because they are of two separate categories: one (utterances) clearly hierarchically above the other (letters). Second, because we are searching for a one-to-one correspondence between the atoms of the periodic table and some corresponding unit in Torah. However, one piece of valuable insight to be gained from the Book of Formation is the idea that should the Torah’s equivalent of elements or atoms be found, it would be in the first chapter of Genesis, where the act of creation is described. What better place to search for the Torah atoms from which Creation is constructed? * * * To explain the correspondence we have found, let us first mention that of the more than 100 elements, only 92 are naturally occurring. Atoms of elements with atomic number higher than 92 can be artificially synthesized, however, they are generally not stable and undergo nuclear rearrangement resulting in radioactive decay shortly after being synthesized. And now to our correspondence: one of the most important contributions to Jewish scholarship in the recent past has been the work of Rabbi Zalman Pinchas Horowitz . Rabbi Horowitz was (to the best of our knowledge) the first to correctly count the number of times the Tetragrammaton (YHVH) appears in the Pentateuch: 1820 times. Even more surprising and innovative was Rabbi Horowitz’s cataloging of all the distinct words in the Pentateuch, which he also found to be exactly 1820 in number. This equality still warrants much research, but here we will note a fact related to our own particular interest: of the total 1820 unique words in the Pentateuch, the section describing creation (Genesis 1:1 to 2:3, inclusive) contains exactly 92 distinct words. Indeed, as mentioned already, this section of the Torah literally describes the creation of matter in the universe—it is only fitting that it is here that we find our sought after parallel for the 92 natural elements identified by modern science. Before proceeding let us copy the familiar periodic table of elements with the 92 distinct words of Genesis placed in order: 1 103 Lr Following our methodology, we should now seek periodicity, the second organizing principle identified above. To do so, we will first examine and understand in-depth the periodic nature of the structure and form of the table of elements and the model used to explain this periodicity. We will then explore parallel spiritual models found in Kabbalah and Chassidut. In a forthcoming article we will use our findings to examine the periodicity inherent in our parallel Torah table of elements pictured above. 3. On the relationship between spiritual and mundane in the Torah Before starting our analysis, let’s take a few steps back to say a few words about the rationale for looking to the Torah for models that can describe (directly or indirectly) natural phenomena. The physical world and its attributes are often spoken of as a reflection or manifestation of the spiritual realm, and as such, by studying the physical we may come to know more about the spiritual worlds, and ultimately our Creator. It is explained in Jewish tradition that there are two ways to describe the relationship between the Torah and physical reality: The first, more commonly held view, is that the Torah speaks of mundane matters (e.g. laws of commerce, liability, etc.) but as it were, these mundane matters are also to be found reflected in the higher (or inner) spiritual dimensions of the universe. So we might say that the Torah can be interpreted as saying something about the spiritual worlds as well as the mundane. This interpretation can be as simple as talking about the spirit of the law (as opposed to the letter or the law). Or, it can form the basis of a complex and intricate (anthropomorphic) analysis of the Divine, based on the Torah. The second approach, advocated by Chassidism, holds that the Torah’s actual subject matter are the higher (or inner) spiritual dimensions of the universe, and it is actually they that are also reflected, or mimicked, in the lower mundane material dimensions . Thus we may say that the literal meaning of the Torah is spiritual, while a non-literal, or allegorical interpretation of this meaning teaches about the mundane physical world. The second approach may seem troubling because the Torah does not seem to employ ‘spiritual’ language (note the lack of mention of angels or any other ‘heavenly’ artifacts). In fact, the opposite is more the case—the stories related and the commandments of G-d found in it all seem to speak directly about physical reality as it was a few thousand years ago. The response to this point comes in the shape of the Talmudic dictum that “Torah speaks in the language of men” . In other words, though the subject matter of the Torah is indeed spiritual, its language is mundane—“the language of men”—such that it employs language that refer to objects and states of affair familiar to humans. Armed with these two basic notions regarding the subject matter and language of Torah, we argue that by studying the physical world using scientific methods (which should hopefully give us a clear picture of physical phenomena) we expect to find parallels between the Torah’s ‘physical’ terminology and the findings of experimental science regarding those phenomena. Relating our knowledge about such physical phenomena to the Torah’s vocabulary (or other non-linguistic forms of communication, as will be explained) will, in turn, lead us to a better understanding of the ‘spiritual’ issues, which are the Torah’s ‘actual’ subject matter. Thus we come to learn more about the spiritual realm using scientific knowledge. The Torah contains varied types of communicable information, alluded to by the famous acronym: PaRDeS. PaRDeS stands for the four types of textual analysis traditionally used to explore the Torah in order to recover its informative content. These are: pshat (literal analysis), remez (symbolic, or numerical analysis), drash (hermeneutic analysis) and sod (associative, or model-based analysis). In order to quickly orient the reader we will note that drash (hermeneutic analysis) was utilized in the study and development of Halachah (Jewish Law). Sod (associative, model-based) analysis was most fully developed in Lurianic Kabbalah. Our present study will make use of all four types of textual analysis. At times, we refer to the knowledge arrived at using remez and sod analysis as the ‘inner (or esoteric) wisdom of the Torah.’ 4. Nature and the Divine One of the most basic findings in the Torah using remez analysis (numerical, in this case) is that the numerical value of the hebrew word for nature (הטבע , hateva) = 86 – is equal to the numerical value of the name of G-d associated with the creation of the natural world: Elokim (א־להים ) = 86. This numerical equivalency is usually understood to indicate that there is an aspect of Divinity that is enclothed within the natural world. As we shall see, this basic equivalency will form the backdrop for much of our present discussion. 5. 92 naturally occurring elements The first possibility would be to map each element to its corresponding Hebrew root, simply based on order of appearance (see Table 1 in Appendix A). Further reflection though reveals an alternative. The 92 distinct roots of the story of creation are divided such that the first 86 appear in the verses relating the first six days of creation (Genesis 1:1 through 1:31), while the last 6 are found in the verses relating the Sabbath (ibid 2:1 through 2:3). This motivates us to correspond the 6 noble gases with the 6 distinct roots found in the Sabbath section in Genesis, while the remaining 86 elements will be corresponded in order to the distinct roots found in the 6 Days section of Genesis. We mention this second possible mapping here because of our interest in the inert gases, as follows. 6. Inert and non-Inert Elements Scientifically speaking, there are many ways in which the chemical elements can be arranged to accent different attributes of their periodicity. Briefly, when looking at a periodic table, the elements are normally presented with their name, atomic number, and often their valence electron configuration. The commonly found table of elements highlights various types of periodicity, one of the most central ones being that of the noble or inert gases. One of the most important and outstanding features of the 92 naturally occurring elements is that they may be divided into two groups, based upon their ability to form compounds: there are 6 which do not form compounds, also known as inert (or noble) gases, while the other 86 do form compounds with other elements. On the periodic table in Figure 1, the inert gases form the far right hand column. Graphically, our modern version of the table of elements is structured such that the periodicity of the inert gases is highlighted, though, as we shall see below, the table could be (and historically was) arranged entirely around this periodicity. This basic division into 6 and 86 observed in the naturally occurring elements is to be found (again, using a non-literal analysis of the Torah text) in the very first verse of the Torah:בראשית ברא אלקים את השמים ואת הארץ (usually translated as “In the beginning G-d created the heavens and the earth”). The first chapter of the Torah recounts the act of creation of the natural world. It is important to note that G-d here is referred to as Elokim alone (and not by His other names), thus leading to the association of this name with ‘nature’. The 6 letters of the first word, Bereishit (בראשית ) can be split into 2 separate words, each with 3 letters and read as ‘barah sheet’ (ברא שית ), meaning “created six” (in Aramaic, the lingua franca of the ancient near-east). The next two words in the verse are ‘barah Elokim’. As noted above, the numerical value of Elokim, one of the names of G-d is 86. We have then that the first 3 words can be understood to say: ‘six were created’ (“barah sheet”) and ‘86 were created’ (“barah Elokim”). The sum of these two acts of creation is 86 ^ 6 = 92, the number of the naturally occurring elements. As mentioned above, 86, the value of Elokim, is also the numerical value of the word hateva in Hebrew, or ‘nature’. Thus “barah Elokim” can be read as “created nature” as well. There is yet another appearance of the name Elokim regarding the 6 inert gases: The atomic numbers of the inert gases are 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86. The heaviest inert gas, radon (Rn), has an atomic number of 86 = Elokim. 7. Spiritual ‘Wholeness’ We now turn to reflect on the spiritual parallel to the presence of both inert and non-inert elements in the natural world. The spiritual (or psychological) counterpart of physical inertness in the elements can be found in the Torah’s description of Jacob and Lavan’s (Jacob’s father-in-law) working relationship. Regarding the wages that Jacob received for tending Lavan’s flocks the Torah writes (Genesis 30:42): והיֻה העטֻפים ללבן והקשֻרים ליעקב This is usually translated literally as: the weaker (atufim) [flocks] were to Lavan and the stronger (k’shurim) [flocks] were to Jacob. The literal meaning is that the sheep were characterised as stronger or weaker; the weaker remained the property of Lavan, the stronger were given to Jacob as wages. However, Rashi, the basic (literal) Medieval commentary on the Torah interprets the meaning of atufim differently. This Hebrew word can be analyzed to stem from the root atf(עטף ) that yields the infinitive la’atof, to wrap. It would then mean “those that are wrapped”. Likewise, K’shurim the word used to describe the type of flocks given to Jacob, can be analyzed to stem from the root k.sh.r. (קשר ) and the infinitive likshor, to bind. Its meaning would then be “those that are bound” If these characteristics of the sheep are seen as metaphors for two different types of personalities, then an atuf describes one who is wrapped in wool, keeping warm all to himself, while a kashur symbolizes one who is incomplete without forming bonds with others outside of himself. A ‘wrapped’ (atuf) individual is not in need of a mate and finds sufficient warmth alone. Such an individual needs not receive from nor give to another. On the other hand, a person with a ‘tied’ (kashur) personality seeks completion in relationships with others, at times giving at times receiving. For the sake of rigor we note that spiritually speaking, these two types of personalities are usually associated with negative and positive qualities, respectively. An atuf attitude (especially in the present case where these flocks are indicated as being the property of Lavan) is considered analogous to that found in Biblical Sodom : “That which belongs to me is mine, that which belongs to you is yours.” While a kashur attitude is normally associated with holiness (though at times it can drift to an extreme form of wantonness which is of course negative). However, in Chassidic writings it is explained that a truly whole individual is one who has both qualities. To better understand why how this is so we may take the kaballistic principle stated by Rabbi Abraham Abulafia (1240 – c.1291), the 13th century philosopher and mystic: “being whole is being one and a half”. Or in the famous words of Rebbe Nachman of Bretzlov: “nothing is more whole than a broken heart”. We coin the term whole and half (שלם וחצי , shalem va’chetzi) to designate this special quality of wholeness. A truly whole (and holy) person is does not feel self sufficient, thereby not requiring others, but rather one who is, existentially speaking, both complete and incomplete at the same time. By virtue of their half-ness, they need to connect or bond with others. By virtue of their whole-ness they are able to offer support and help to others. Real wholeness (and holiness) comes by virtue of an existential feeling of incompleteness – of insufficiency and inadequacy to single-handedly prevail, empowered and strengthened by a sense of whole-ness which saves one from a sense of an inability to rise to the task at hand. Scientifically speaking, we can immediately note the analogy between these two basic definitions of atuf and kashur and the distinction between inert and non-inert elements. Bond formation is possible only when an electron orbital is half or incomplete. But when an orbital is whole or filled, the element in question is not in need of accepting or receiving electrons and thus does not form bonds. Yet, both exist in nature. Nature reflects these two basic qualities. The inert gases are also called the Noble gases. The mark of nobility is the air of whole-ness surrounding it. The ‘nobility’ of the elements do not react with any other elements. It is only the 86, Elokim, elements that can do so. Nonetheless, the six noble gases form a sort of axis around which the other 86 elements revolve. 8. Whole-ness of the Patriarchs The attribute of bonding is found to be associated with the name Elokim in another manner: Elokim is the name of G-d related most closely with the Patriarch Isaac as both manifest the quality of judgment (or din – דין ). When departing from Lavan, his father-in-law, Jacob says: לולי אלקי אבי אברהם ופחד יצחק היה לי, כי עתה ריקם שלחתני… If the G-d of my father, the G-d of Abraham, the fear of Isaac, was not with me, then you would have sent me away empty-handed… Jacob refers to the way in which Isaac (his father) knew G-d as ‘the fear of Isaac’ (pachad Yitzchak, פחד יצחק ). The numerical value of pachad, or fear, is 92, which is again Elokim (86) plus six – the total number of naturally occurring elements. Yet, Isaac was not always whole in the sense of being both whole and half at the same time. The sages tell us that Isaac was actually 37 years old at the time that Abraham (his father) was commanded to sacrifice him to G-d (see Genesis 22), known as the ‘test of the Akeida’ – the test of the binding of Isaac. The Zohar, the basic book of the inner teachings of the Torah, relates that Isaac was entirely whole, exclusively of ‘noble’, or inert, character and was therefore not suited for marriage, not suited to bond with another. It was the Akeida – literally, ‘the binding’ – which brought him to complete his character with the quality of half-ness. It was only then that he became suited for marriage, to bond with a wife. Thus pachad Yitzchak (= 92) can be understood as the attribute of Elokim (86) plus another 6, the addition of something to Yitzchak’s own wholeness. By the same token the Zohar explains that Abraham was not truly whole either, as he did not have the quality of Might orJudgment. It was the act of the Akeida – the binding of Jacob – done out of fear and awe of God (as the angel spoke to him following the binding: “for now I know that you are indeed fearful of God” (Genesis 22:12) which complemented his essence with this quality. 9. Inert Periodicity Historically Now that we have spent some time studying the periodicity of the inert elements, let us delve a bit into its history. Using the periodicity of the inert elements as the basis for the table of chemical elements was first proposed in 1895 by J. Thomsenand was itself based on an earlier model by T. Bayley (1882). A table similar to Thomsen’s appears in Figure 2. Note that the principal disadvantages of this table was the large space required by the period of 32 elements and the difficulty of tracing a sequence of closely similar elements (for purposes of illustration the inert elements have been marked in blue, and the non-metals, marked in green, in the contemporary table form a triangular shape, but here do not align similarly). 1 Table 1 10. Orbital Filling of the 6 Inert Gases It was only in 1922 that Niels Bohr proposed the quantum-theoretical model that forms the basis for our current understanding of the subatomic construct of the elements, and explains the observed periodicity of the inert gases. According to Bohr’s model, the structure of each atom could be singularly described using 4 quantum numbers to identify the ‘orbitals’ in which electrons organize around the atom’s nucleus. The orbitals (sometimes called sub-shells) are grouped into shells, the shells being designated by the letters: K, L, M, N,…, or simply 1, 2, 3, 4,…. Every orbital is classified by two quantum numbers: the primary quantum number and the angular momentum quantum number. The angular momentum quantum number is replaced by the letters s, p, or d. Two other quantum numbers – themagnetic quantum number and the spin quantum number – determine the number of electrons that can ‘fit’ in an orbital. Looking at the periodic table using Bohr’s model, we find that the naturally occurring elements can be described exhaustively using 7 shells and 4 orbitals, namely (designating the shells by their number, not letter): 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 6s, 6p, 7s. The number of electrons that can fit in each orbital is: 2 in s orbitals, 6 in p orbitals, 10 in d orbitals, 14 in f orbitals To truly understand the theoretical basis for Bohr’s model is beyond our scope. However, we would like to take a closer look at the mathematical regularities that this model produces. So let us order the elements in a table that will show us how their electrons ‘fill’ the various shells and orbitals: Shells i(26) Table 2 The rows designate the Shells, while the columns the orbitals in each shell. Thus for instance, the first shell (K) can accommodate up to 2 electrons and therefore has room for 2 elements. The second shell (L) can accommodate 8 electrons and therefore has room for 8 elements, and so on. In the K shell, all the electrons are available in the s orbital only. In the L shell, electrons ‘spots’ are available in both the s and p orbitals. Note that shells are not filled entirely before the next shell is started, due to the fact that electrons in elements always seek the lowest possible energy state they can reach. This is clear if we follow the elements in this table. Up to Argon (Ar), the first shell (K) and second shell (L) are filled completely. Then the s orbital of the third shell (M) is filled, followed by a complete filling of its p orbital. Argon then is the 18th element in the table with electrons completely filling the 3p [3rd shell (M), p orbital] orbital. But the next element, Potassium (K) does not continue to fill the 3rd shell’s d orbital, but rather skips to the 4th shell’s (N) s orbital, because electrons in that orbital actually have a lower energy level then electrons in the 4d orbital. This is due to the interactions between the electrons themselves, an effect known as ‘shielding’. So Potassium’s ‘extra’ electrons do not locate in the 3d orbital but rather in the lower-energy orbital 4s. The rest of the table follows this general trend, with electrons always vying for the lowest energy level orbitals. There are two interesting facts about this table that should be noted are: that the number of ‘spots’ in each orbital is equal to the differences between the total number of elements that can populate each shell. all the orbitals that are used are ‘filled’ or ‘populated’ to capacity by elements except for the 5th shell’s f orbital. Though 5f has room for 14 electrons, only 4 ‘spots’ are used by the heaviest naturally occurring elements from Actinium (89) to Uranium (92). The first fact is the reason that we have drawn the table as 7 x 7 even though the entire g, h and i orbitals have been left blank. Let us explicitly write the first fact out: The total numbers of electrons in the shells are (We designate these as set A): A = {2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98} The numbers of electrons in each orbital are (we will designate these as set B): B = {2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26} Now note that the numbers in set B are the differences between the numbers in set A. This can be clearly illustrated by writing the two sets, A and B, one beneath the other, as follows: total electrons in shells 26 This is truly one of the most astonishing mathematical properties of the periodic table. But, arranging the elements in the above table also reveals an interesting property of the inert gases and that is that an inert gas is formed each time the p orbital fills. The p orbital of each and every shell has room for 6 electrons. That is to say that each time 6 electrons fill the p orbital, an inert gas if created (excluding Helium, which does not use the p orbital). Recollect that above we noted that in the story of creation, the first word of the Torah, Bereishit, which can be understood to mean ‘created 6’, should be seen as corresponding to the formation of the 6 inert gases! In fact, the excluded inert gas Helium, is hinted to in the word Bereishit as the letter bet, the first letter of the word is written in the Torah scroll as a large bet (בית רבתי , bet rabati) and the numerical value of the letter bet is 2. 11. Mathematical Patterns in Inert Elements Let us now look at the numbers of the inert gases from another perspective. If we take the atomic numbers of the inert elements and note the differences between them we can construct the following table: element 4 Table 3 The rightmost column shows that the differences between the elements are all values, in order, of the mathematical series f[n] = 2n2 (n starting at 0). These numbers are known in the inner teachings of the Torah as the double squares (רבועים כפולים , ribu’im k’fulim). Their significance is related to the 32 paths of Wisdom (ל”ב נתיבות חכמה , lamed beit netivot chochmah). The Book of Formation, mentioned above, begins: ב-לב נתיבות פליאות חכמה חקק י-ה הוי’ צבאות וברא את עולמו בשלשה ספרים בסופר וספר וסיפור Using 32 wondrous paths of wisdom Kah Havayah [God] Lord of Hosts engraved… and created His world, using three books: author and book and story It is known that the textual source in the Torah for these 32 paths of Wisdom is to be found in the 32 times that the name Elokim is used in the verses describing the six days of Creation. This, again, is the Name which we have recognized as central in our discussion of the periodic table. We note that no other Name of the Almighty appears in the creation story,and it appears exactly 32 times. 32 is thus the number associated with Wisdom (chochmah). In the inner teachings of the torah we find the number 50 associated with Understanding: 50 Gates of Understanding (חמשים שערי בינה , chamishim sha’arei binah). There is also another, less well known concept of 72 Bridges (ע”ב גשרים , ayin beit gesharim). Actually, all three of these concepts are closely related and are part of one larger picture. This basic conceptual scheme identifies the type of energy related to each sefirah and the type of conduit through which it flows: Thus the energy of Wisdom is identified as ‘mind’ that flows through a path (נתיב , nativ); the energy of Understanding is identified as ‘intelligence’ that flows through a gate (שער , sha’ar); finally the energy of Knowledge is termed ‘psyche’ and flows through a bridge (גשר , gesher). This model is summarized in Table 2. sefirah 72 Table 4 Of course, 72 is also a double square (particularly, 72 = 2 . 62). We have thus, so far, found the mental significance of thedouble squares for n = 4, n = 5 and n = 6. To complete our understanding of the significance of double squares we need to complete the series beginning with n = 1. The basic model of the sefirot in Kabbalah indicates that above Wisdom resides the Crown (כתר , keter) that is explained in the Zohar to consist of three heads (תלת רישין שבכתר , tlat reishin sheba’keter). In our present model we will map these 3 parts of the Crown to correspond to the first 3 values of n. Continuing our previous discussion regarding the various mental powers we note that Wisdom marks the first conscious mental power. Thus, the Crown – which resides, both figuratively and in our Kabbalistic model, above the head – corresponds to the super-conscious faculties. The three heads of the Crown, or the 3 super-conscious mental powers are known as: Belief (אמונה , emunah), Pleasure (תענוג , ta’anug) and Will (רצון , ratzon). Table 3 illustrates the double squares for values of n from 1 to 6 with their corresponding mental faculties. sefirah 72 Table 5 Using the sefirot as a model for the series of double squares, we could continue the series until n = 13. For example, corresponding to the double square 128 (n = 8) we would have the sefirah of Might (גבורה , gevurah). For 338 (n = 13) we would have the sefirah of Kingdom (מלכות , malchut). We have now taken a look at the series of double squares, the differences between the atomic numbers of the inert gases. This series is essentially the backbone of the whole periodic table of the elements. Extrapolating from our knowledge of double squares in the periodicity of inert elements we would expect the next inert element to be of quantum number: 86 (Radon) ^ 32 = 118. This element has been dubbed Uuo (Ununoctium) by the International Union of Applied Chemists (IUPAC) until its existence is proven at which time its properties will be ascertained. We would expect to find the next inert element at quantum number: 118 ^ 50 = 168. This element has been dubbed Uho (Unhexoctium). 12. Metals and non-metals Another important periodicity represented in the periodic table is that of the non-metallic elements. Whereas the periodicity of the inert elements was defined by the double squares (as explained above), the periodicity of the non-metals is recognizable by the triangular shape they form on the periodic table, as highlighted in the next table (non-metals are shaded in turquoise). 1 Lr Table 6 Of the 86 non-inert elements 15 are classified as non-metals. The other 71 elements are classified as metals. We note that hydrogen is sometimes placed in a class of its own, something we shall address below. Generally speaking, though not always, metals act as electron donors and non-metals as electron recipients in chemical compounds. As mentioned above, the non-metals form a triangle in the right-hand side of the periodic table: 5 elements in the first row of the triangle, 4 in the second, 3 in the third, 2 in the fourth and finally 1 in the last. 5 15 is a triangular number. The function that generates triangular numbers is: n(n ^ 1) 2 f[n] = We designate triangular numbers by the special symbol Dn. Thus, D5 = 15. Another way to define the nth triangular number is as the sum of all numbers from 1 to n. It is therefore also true that: Dn = n ^ D(n-1) D5 = 5 ^ D4 But, D4 = 10, so that D5 = 5 ^ 10. Thus, the 5th triangular number has the property of whole and half that we saw above (§5). The number 10, the 4th triangular number (and the whole part of D5), has a special reference in the inner teachings of the Torah. It is sometimes as designated as: שיר פשוט, שיר כפול, שיר משולש, שיר מרובע simple song, double song, triple song, quadruple song This idiom alludes to the number 10 as the sum of 1 (simple), 2 (double), 3 (triple) and 4 (quadruple). In our particular case, we have 5 elements above 4, or in Hebrew letters we have a heh (ה = 5) over a yud (י = 10). Recall that 86 – the number of natural elements excluding the inert gases – is numerically equivalent to the Divine name, Elokim (אלהים ). This name has five letters, with numerical values are as follows: letter ם 40 The 15 non-metals thus correspond to the two letter heh (ה , 5) and yud (י , 10) of the five letters of the name Elokim, the seminal name of the periodic table. 13. Metals and Hydrogen After accounting for the 15 non-metals we now remain with 71—these are known as metals. However, in many renditions of the periodic table, hydrogen, the element with atomic number 1, is classified by itself, implying that hydrogen for various reasons does not fall within one or the other category of metals and non-metals. How should we understand the role of hydrogen among the elements? To give an answer, we must first reintroduce the classical model of the four elements of antiquity and its modern-day correspondence. As explained elsewhere in length,each of the four classic ‘elements’—fire, air, water and earth—corresponds with a specific modern chemical element (see table 6). classical ’element’ Knowledge (דעת , da’at) Table 7 This correspondence is based on the ‘essence’ that each of the classical ‘elements’ was meant to represent, and the major role that each of the modern-day elements plays in nature. Thus, oxygen is the most important component of Air for human beings; hydrogen, our subject of interest (together with oxygen, which we have already corresponded with Air) makes up water , upon which we will elaborate in a moment; nitrogen is the earth’s major nutrient used by plant life; and the earliest human fires were of the type that burns carbon. Looking at the atomic numbers of these elements we note that the sum of their ‘triangular’ numbers = 86: ∆1 ^ ∆6 ^ ∆7 ^ ∆8 = 1 ^ 21 ^ 28 ^ 36 = 86! The classical element ‘water’ naturally corresponds to hydrogen (e.g. in modern nomenclature, the prefix ‘hydro’ denotes a ‘watery’ characteristic). During the time period that Kabbalah was being developed, the accepted chemical analysis was based on the 4 classic elements. Classic water was brought down as corresponding to the sefirah of Wisdom. Thus, in our modern chemical analysis, hydrogen that corresponds to classic water would also correspond to the sefirah of Wisdom.Regarding Wisdom we find an important verse (Psalms 104:24): כולם בחכמה עשית You made them all with Wisdom Analyzing this using sod, where Wisdom is the sefirah of hydrogen, we can say that all chemical elements begin with hydrogen, but that hydrogen remains in a category of its own. Thus hydrogen would parallel the first letter, aleph, in the Name Elokim, the essential Name of the Periodic Table. Moreover, the numerical value of aleph is 1, as is the atomic number of hydrogen, strengthening our identification. As we have already accounted for the letters aleph, heh and yud of the name Elokim we are left with two letters: lamed and mem. We are also left with 70 elements not accounted for (as either inert gases, non-metals, or hydrogen). The numerical value of lamed is 30, the numerical value of mem is 40, their sum equal to 70. Thus we can complete our correspondence of the elements with the name Elokim by noting that the number of metals equals the letter lamed and mem. Our completed analysis is presented in Table 8. letter(s) of nameElokim Table 8 Elokim As Creative Consciousness Our analysis of the name Elokim as the central pivot of the periodic table would not be complete without us spending a few moments looking at the spiritual significance of this phenomenon. Though the usual usage of the word Elokim is as the ‘natural’ name of God, it does have other uses in the Bible. In discussing civil suits, the Torah refers to the court or the judge as an ‘Elokim’ (Exodus 22:8, 22:27). In the Book of Psalms (82:6) we find another usage of the name Elokim to refer to Adam, the first human being: אני אמרתי אלהים אתם ובני עליון כלכם I had said, You are Elokim and all of you are sons of the Most High This verse serves as the source from which the Arizal teaches that each and every Jew literally has a Divine element within them. The verb “said” (אמרתי ) here does not mean that God literally commanded Adam to be ‘an Elokim’, but rather, as it at times means in Biblical Hebrew, that God had “wanted” or had “hoped” that man would ascend to the heights of being an Elokim—“sons of the Most High”. The Edenic serpent, the catalyst for Adam and Eve’s downfall and transgression, clearly voiced this ‘destiny’ of mankind as a reason for eating from the Tree of Knowledge (Genesis 3:4-5): ויאמר הנחש אל האשה לא מות תמתון. כי ידע אלהים כי ביום אכלכם ממנו ונפקחו עיניכם והייתם כאלהים ידעי טוב ורע And the serpent said to the woman: You shall not surely die. For God knows that on the day you eat of it, then your eyes shall be opened, and you shall be as Elokim, knowing good and evil. Without going in length into the difference between God’s hope for mankind, and the serpent’s description of mankind’s destiny, let us merely say that due to Adam’s sin, this desire of The Holy One Blessed Be He was not yet to be realized. God willing, in the times of the Messiah it will be fulfilled. But how would we describe the state of humanity hoped for by God and termed ‘Elokim’. Until now we have studied the natural (mundane) world as a reflection of the spiritual worlds of the Divine. Here we find that an element of the mundane world, albeit a spiritual element—the soul—shares the same name—Elokim—as the pivotal name of the Periodic Table. If until now we have seen the Periodic Table as reflecting the Divine, we now understand that it also reflects the spiritual element within man. This is not entirely surprising as we know that the soul is itself a ‘part’ of the Divine. As the name Elokim is the central building block for the Periodic Table of the physical elements, so we say that within man the name Elokim is instrumental in the expansion and development of consciousness. Consciousness is to mankind as the physical world is to God, and both are constructed using the pivotal name of Elokim. This is the meaning of the saying of the sages: “I create worlds, you also will create worlds. I wanted that just as I create, you will create.” The serpent tricked Eve into thinking that she could reach this level of creative consciousness through theft. This could only fail. Yet, the Creator wants this, for us to reach creative consciousness. Thus all of our meditation on the Name Elokim is really about our souls (נשמה, neshamah). Each level, the aleph, the hei, the yud, the lamed-mem, and the axis of six about which all the 86 (86 = Elokim) elements revolve, belongs to the soul of the Jew. By studying the periodic table, we are studying aspects of our own souls. 14. Hydrogen As the Source of All Elements It was mentioned above that hydrogen corresponds to the sefirah of Wisdom, and that by Wisdom God created all in the universe, as noted in the verse: You have made them all with Wisdom (Psalms 104:24). This idea—that Wisdom, or its elemental parallel, hydrogen, is the source of all other matter in the universe—corresponds to the accepted contemporary theory of nucleosynthesis (element formation), which theorizes that all elements are created in the fusion reaction of hydrogen stars like our sun. In the cores of stars, hydrogen is fused into helium, helium into carbon (and sometimes into oxygen) and may include the formation of elements as heavy as iron (atomic number 26). In our analysis of the Periodic Table we have seen that hydrogen corresponds to the letter aleph of the name Elokim. The Ba’al ShemTov, the founder of Chassidut, taught that all the other 21 letters of the alphabet originate from the letter aleph, another parallel to the theory of nucleosynthesis. 15. The Mathematical Series of the Element Groupings We now have a complete structural scheme for understanding the spiritual correspondence of each of the 92 naturally occurring elements in the Periodic Table. We have seen that they can be divided into 4 basic groupings: hydrogen, the 6 inert gases, 15 non-metals and 70 metals. We now have a series of 4 numbers (which we have found by categorizing the 92 elements): 1, 6, 15, 70. With this series in hand, we now turn to one of the most basic techniques of numerical analysis used in the inner wisdom of the Torah: series calculus. Whenever we have a series of numbers such as this, it is important, from both mathematical and Kabbalistic perspectives, to find the base of the series. Doing this is technically very simple as all that we need to do is find the differences between the numbers of the series, then the differences between the differences, and finally, in our case where we begin with 4 numbers, the difference between those, as follows: numbers in series final difference / base of series 42 Thus the base of our series is 42. The Name with which the universe was created, is the 42 letter Name. The very number that is the base of our analysis of the periodic table is the number that is the most related to the Creation by the sages, of which it is said “this is the gate to God, the righteous will come through it,” it is the name of 42 letters, with which the higher and the lower were created. 16. Group 1B Periodicity: Copper, Silver, and Gold Following our analysis of the major periods in the Periodic Table, we now turn to a more local periodicity—that of the elements in Group 1B. Group 1B contains the three precious metals Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au). Apart from their being known as the 3 precious metals, these three elements were of particular significance in the construction of the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:1 – 26:30) as we shall see. These elements’ group name—IB—signifies that the elements in the group share a similar orbital configuration to those in Group 1A (Hydrogen, Lithium, Sodium, etc.). More specifically, elements in Group IB always have one electron to donate—or, in our terminology, they are always just a little bit more than whole (shalem). The outer orbital configurations of these elements are: Cu 3d104s1 Ag 4d105s1 Au 5d106s1 We see from the orbital configuration that these metals, copper, silver and gold, have an aspect of finishing a cycle and beginning a new one. In each of them, the specific d orbital is filled (completed) while the next s orbital commences filling. ‘Naye saider’ is a Yiddish idiom that expresses this same sentiment—where one phenomenon is completed and a new one commences, particularly in regards to stages or cycles in history. We might say of the IB elements that they reflect such a point in the Periodic Table, where one orbital completes and a new one begins. At this point a new beginning is made, a new derech, path. It is acknowledged within the circles of Chassidut that when the Ba’al Shem Tov was born, a new order began in the world. Likewise, when the Messiah will come, a new order will begin as well . By having only one electron in the s orbital, these elements, like their Group 1A counterparts, are the epitomic electron donors, or influencers (mashpi’im). Due to the outer s-orbital having only one electron, these three metals of Group IB, which served to build the Holy Temple, combine in theory with oxygen in the same manner as hydrogen, as explained above. More specifically, they would combine with Oxygen at a ration of 2:1 (2 atoms from group IB, for every Oxygen atom). Noting that each of the group IB metals commence the filling of another s orbital, we may take a closer look specifically at the outer orbital configurations of the transition metals before and after copper (Cu): element 3d104s2 Table 9 Preceding copper (Cu), orbitals which have been filled are 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,and 3p. In copper we find that 3d—the sixth orbital is completed while 4s—the seventh orbital—begins to be filled. Thus the seventh orbital is started with copper. There is a well-known principle in Torah that “all sevenths are beloved” (כל השביעין חביבין ). Here we see this principle beautifully applied. The Tabernacle signifies the most ‘beloved’ place for God to dwell in the mundane world. It is only fitting that it be constructed from copper—the element commencing the filling of the seventh orbital. Continuing our examination of copper specifically, let us quote from Exodus, where the Torah describes the offering required by the Children of Israel for the construction of the Tabernacle: And God spoke to Moses, saying: Speak to the Children of Israel that they should bring me an offering: of every man whose heart prompts him to give, you shall take my offering. And this is the offer that you shall take from them: gold and silver and copper… In the original Hebrew text, the word for “copper” (נחשת ) is the 29th word from the beginning of the parshah. 29 is, of course, the elemental number of copper. In the Torah, in the text just quoted, the group IB elements are ordered by heaviness (atomic mass): gold (79) silver (47) copper (29), the heaviest—gold—listed first. This order corresponds to reading the group IB elements from bottom to top. In Aramaic, the only non-Hebrew language to which the sages have contributed a measure of sanctity, the Hebrew word for heavy (כבד , kaved) means precious (in Hebrew יקר , yakar). Some of this meaning has also been retained in the Hebrew word kavod, which means “importance” or “honor.” In any case, it is established that in Hebrew that which is heavy is also precious. We see this in the Group IB elements. The heavier the element, the more precious it is considered. Gold is the most treasured , then silver, and, copper, the lightest is the least precious. Another approach for analysing the significance of these three metals is their correspondence with the sefirot. In descending order of ‘heaviness’, gold is associated with the sefirah of Might (גבורה , gevurah); silver associated with loving-kindness (חסד , chesed); copper corresponds to Beauty (תפארת , tiferet). It is well known that the 3 patriarchs, Abraham Isaac and Jacob also correspond to these 3 sefirot, as follows: loving-kindness (chesed) copper Table 10 As we can see, gold the most precious corresponds with the patriarch Isaac. This parallel between Isaac and gold becomes meaningful when considering the future building of the 3rd Holy Temple. Of that time it is said (Isaiah 63:16): כי אתה אבינו כי אברהם לא ידענו וישראל לא יכירנו אתה ידוד אבינו גאלנו מעולם שמך For you are our father, for Abraham has not known us, and Israel has not recognized us, You God are our father, our savior, Your name is forever. The sages (Shabbat 89b) explain this verse to mean that of all 3 patriarchs (Jacob is also known as Israel), it will be Isaac that will show special mercy on the Jewish people, his offspring, and will thus be the primary patriarch. The sages also relate that the 3rd Temple will be constructed entirely of gold. * Based on two lectures given by Rabbi Ginsburgh, 9th of Elul 5753 (27/8/93) and 15th of Iyar 5761 (7/5/01); Transcribed and translated by Batya Eshel. 1. For a more thorough discussion of these ontological schemes in the 19th century see Nye, ch. 3. 2. Most notably in chapter 1 of part III of the Tanya, the basic work of abad assidism. 3. Avot 5:1; see BT Megillah 21b and elsewhere. For the identification of the 10 sefirot with the 10 ma’amarot, see Alter Rebbe’s Torah Or 53a, 82d and elsewhere. For a correspondence between the the 10 ma’amarot and the 10 Aristotlean philosophical categories see Maimonides, Introduction to Logic 10§4. For a correspondence between these 10 philosophical categories and thesefirot, see our audiotape (Hebrew) “Ten Types of Consciousness,” (Kfar abad: Gal Einai Publications, 1998). 4. Recently, new experimentation has led to the discovery of so-called ‘islands of stability’ in the superheavy elements; see Oganessian et. al., “Voyage to Superheavy Island” in Scientific American 282:1 (January 2000), pp. 45-49. 5. See his volume Ahavat Torah (Podgorza, 1905). 6. Meaning words that stem from different roots (שרשים , shorashim), the 2 or 3 letter combinations which serve to form words in semitic languages like Hebrew [technically, 2 letter roots are known as gates (שערים , sha’arim)]. 7. Mar’eh Ha-adam ch. 3 (folio 2a). 8. Based on this view, R. Israel Ba’al Shem Tov, the founder of the Chassidic movement in 18th century Ukraine, taught that the Torah is universal in the sense that it is “relevant to every person at every moment in every location” (quoted ubiquitously in Toldot Yaakov Yosef by the Ba’al Shem Tov’s student, R. Yaakov Yosef the Maggid of Polanah). 9. In the original Hebrew these two viewpoints are: 1) תורה מדברת בתחתונים ורומזת בעליונים 2) תורה מדברת בעליונים ורומזת בשניות בתחתונים ; these specific idioms are from Asarah Ma’amarot, Ma’amar Chikur Din, III, ch. 23 by R. Moshe Azaria (Ramah) of Pano. They are originally based on R. Yishayah Horowitz, author of the Shnei Luot Habrit (Biozepaf, 5639) folios 10c – 11a. The second, Chassidic approach, seems to fit much better with the well known midrash (hermeneutic) statement: “He [God] looked in the Torah and created the world” (see Bereisheet Rabba 1:1) 10. “דברה תורה בלשון בני אדם” ; Berachot 31b and elsewhere. 11. Note that following the first viewpoint, where the Torah is literally speaking of the mundane, this Talmudic dictum has no (or at most trivial) meaning. 12. The source of this non-Biblical word to describe nature warrants a discussion to itself, which is unfortunately beyond the scope of the present article. 13. As this name is considered one of the 7 sacred names of God, in most circumstances, it may not be pronounced as it is written. We have thus used the usual substitution Elokim for the original lettering. Where the numerical value of specific letters in this name are used, we have resorted to the original lettering, so as not to unnecessarily confuse the reader. 14. Rashi, ad. loc. 17. Genesis 31:42. 18. See Zohar I, 120a-b. 19. Hans Peter Jorgen Julius Thomsen (1826-1909), a Danish chemist, Professor of chemistry at the Polytechnic University in Copenhagen, most famous for his work in thermochemistry. 20. Sefer Yetzirah 1:1. 21. Genesis 1:1-31. 22. Most traditional commentaries on the Torah explain that chapter 2 of Genesis does not relate an ‘alternate’ story of creation, but is rather a second account, elucidating the first. 23. See Zohar III, 227a; Alter Rebbe’s Likutei Torah III, 36d. 24. The source for the sefirah of Crown being sub-divided into 3 ‘heads’ or ‘crowns’ is Zohar III, 288a ff. See also Mishnah Avot4:13: “R. Shimon says: there are 3 crowns – the Crown of Torah, the Crown of Priesthood and the Crown of Sovereignty”. In Hassidut it is explained that the 3 ‘heads’ or ‘crowns’ in the sefirah of Crown are alluded to in the 3 laurels found in the vessels of the Holy Sanctuary built by Moshe in the desert. These laurels were made to encircle the Ark of the Covenant (seeExodus 25:11), the Table (ibid 25:24) and the Altar of Incense (ibid 30:3). 25. Conway and Guy (1996: 33-8) designate triangular numbers in a somewhat different manner as: Dn. We retain our original notation here and throughout. 26. Israel Omer Fromansky, The Four Elements and the Seven metals. Audio Tape (Rehovot, Israel: Gal Einai Publications, 1993). 27. Meiman (מימן ), like its english equivalent—hydrogen, actually derives from the Hebrew word for water (מים , mayim). 28. Additional mathematical equivalencies to the Periodic Table arise from this equation: Note that 86, the ‘sum of triangles,’ can be split: ∆1 ^ ∆6 ^ ∆7 = 50, while ∆8 = 36. This division of 86 into 50 and 36 plays a major role in the Kabbalistic exposition of the Name Elokim (see Tikunei Zohar §49, folio 85b; Zohar I, 1b; ibid II, 231b-232a), based on the verse: “Lift up your eyes on high and behold who has created these things” (Isaiah 40:26), or in the Hebrew original: שאו מרום עיניכם וראו מי ברא אלה . מי (who) = 50 and אלה (these things) = 36. Additionally, the ‘sum of squares’ of 1, 6, and 7 = 12 ^ 62 ^ 72 = 86; while 82 = 64. This reveals the important relationship between 86 and 64: 86 = Elokim (אלהים ) and 64 = Din (דין ). The Name of Elokim is directly related to the the sefirah of Might(גבורה , gevurah)—it is sometimes even called the Name of Might—which is also referred to as Judgment (דין , din). 29. For a more rigorous discussion of this mathematical tool, see appendix B. 30. Psalms 118 31. Zohar II, 234a; III, 256b. One form [see Tikunei Zohar, §69 (fs. 103b-104a)] of the Name of 42 Letters is recited a number of times in the daily prayers. In the Talmud (Tractate Kidushin 71a), we find a direct reference to the Name of 42 letters: Said Rav Yehuda, said Rav: the Name of 42 letters is not to be given but to one who is modest and is humble and stands in mid-life and does not anger nor get drunk, and does not act harshly. And he who knows the name, and is careful with it, and keeps it pure, is beloved above and liked below and is feared by all creatures and inherits two worlds, this world and the coming world. 32. The Messiah is destined to reveal a completely new understanding in the Torah, about which the sages have said that “the Torah of our day is like naught when compared to the Torah of the Messiah.” Of course, the text of the Torah will not change, only its understanding. 33. It is interesting to note that the objective basis for the value we attribute to gold is not clear at all. For more on this question see “Puzzling Over Gold’s Allure” in Johns Hopkins Magazine, June 2000 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University) or internet, www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0600web/oncampus.html.	NEAR Shoemaker
Who defeated Wladimir Klitschko to win the world heavyweight boxing title last November?	PPT - Chapter 3 Atoms and the Periodic Table PowerPoint Presentation - ID:5479690 Chapter 3 Atoms and the Periodic Table Reactivity Groups reactivity METALS As orbits are added the electrons move further away from nucleus and become easier to lose , thus as you move down the group the elements become more reactive Nonmetals need electrons therefore the elements closer to the nucleus are more capable of accepting electrons and the elements moving up the group become more reactive More information Elements moving from left to right in a period becoming smaller due to the pull of the nucleus. Elements moving down a group become larger in size due to adding orbits The most reactive families have fewer electrons to lose or gain, therefore groups 1 and 17, why not 18? Group 2 more reactive than 3 ;;group 16 more reactive than 15 Gases on periodic table All of 18 are gases known as the noble gases Other gases that are found naturally H, N, O, F, Cl, When these gases appear by themselves they are written as diatomic gases What are Atoms? defined - are tiny units that determine the properties of all matter an atom is the smallest part of an element that still has the element's properties introduction lived in the 4th century B.C. suggest that the universe made of invisible units called atoms defined - Greek word meaning "unable to divide" believed that the changes he observed was due to the movement of the atoms unable to provide the evidence needed to convince people that atoms existed Atoms are the building blocks of molecules John Dalton atomic theory in 1808 English school teacher widely supported due to supporting evidence three parts every element is made of tiny unique particles called atoms that cannot be subdivided atoms of the same element are exactly alike atoms of different elements can join to form molecules What is in an atom? introduction less than a 100 years after Dalton published his atomic theory scientist determined that atoms could be split further today we know there are many different parts of an atom but only three are used in everyday chemistry of most substances In the nucleus - dense center of the atom protons - 1 positive charge with a mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit) neutrons - 0 charge (neutral) with a mass of 1 amu Electron cloud - made of very tiny moving particles electrons - 1 negative charge with very little mass 0 amu Atoms have no over all charge because they have an equal number of protons and electrons example He (helium) atom charge of 2 protons +2 charge of 2 neutrons 0 charge of 2 elections -2 total charge 0 Models of the Atom introduction like most scientific models and theories the model of the atom has been revised many time to explain each new discovery Bohr's model Niels Bohr - Danish scientist in 1913 electrons move in set paths around the nucleus like the planets orbit the sun each electron has a certain energy that is determined by its path around the nucleus energy level the path of the possible energies an electron may have in an atom electrons must gain energy to move to a higher energy level Modern theory by 1925 Bohr's model no longer explained all observations electrons no longer moved in definite paths electrons behave like waves vibrating on a string than like particles impossible to determine the exact location, speed, and direction like a fan blade try to determine location by shading the darker the shading the better the chance to find an electron the whole shaded region is called an electron cloud electrons are found in an orbital within each energy level (orbit or shell) orbital - the region in an atom where electrons are found exist only when an electron occupies it four different kinds of orbitals "s" orbital based on repeating properties and atomic mass he arranged the known elements and left blank spaces for unknown elements Henry Mosley the first to group atoms by protons Organization of the Periodic Table similar elements grouped together makes it easier to predict the properties of an element based on where it is in the periodic table elements represented by their symbols order based on the number of protons the atom has in its nucleus Hydrogen has one proton and is the first elements listed in the Periodic Table Period law properties of elements tend to change in regular pattern when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, or number of protons in their nucleus atomic numbers equals the number of protons increases from left to right and top to bottom Using the Periodic Table to determine electronic arrangement Periods have the same number of valence electrons Groups 1 and 2 electrons are going in the s orbital Group 1 only one electron in the outer most energy level 1 electron in the s orbital these elements have 1 valence electron Group 2 2 electrons in the outer most energy level 2 electrons in the s orbital and it is now full these elements have 2 valence electrons Groups 13 to 18 are placing electrons in the p orbitals of the outer most energy level these elements have 3 to 8 valence electrons Group 13 elements have 3 valence electrons Group 18 elements have 8 valence electrons this is the maximum number of valence electrons the p orbitals are full Valence electrons equals the last digit of the Group number Groups 3 to 12 are placing electrons in the d orbital of the next lower energy level they have 2 valence electrons as far as this class is concerned The Lanthanoid Series and Actinoid Series are placing electrons in the f orbital of the energy level 2 place back they have 2 valence electrons as far as this class is concerned Atoms in Group 18 have full outer energy levels 8 is the maximum for an outer level except for level 1 He has 2 non reactive (inert) united video Elements of Chemistry: The Periodic Table (20:00 min.) http://www.unitedstreaming.com/search/assetDetail.cfm?guidAssetID=F59A819C-DB1B-48E6-90D7-DF3829C74230 Elements are reactive because their outer most energy levels are only partially filled. Some Atoms Form Ions Ionization defined - atoms that may gain or lose valence electrons so that they have a full outermost energy level no longer the same number of protons and electrons it has a net electrical charge ion defined - an atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained one or more electrons and therefore has a net electric charge cation defined - an ion with a positive charge example: Li has 1 valence electron 2 electrons in the 1st energy level 1 electron in the 2nd energy level when the valence electron is removed Li becomes a positive ion Li+ Li+ ionLi atom3 protons +3 3 protons +32 electrons -2 3 electrons -3 charge +1 0 the other elements in Group 1 form +1 cations by having only one valence electron anion defined - an ion with a negative charge example: F has 7 valence electrons 2 electrons in the 1st energy level 7 electrons in the 2nd energy level easier to gain 1 electron than lose 7 electrons to become a negative ion. F- ionF atom 9 protons +9 9 protons +910 electrons -10 9 electrons -9charge - 1 0 the other elements in Group 17 form -1 anions by having 7 valence electrons How Do the Structures of Atoms Differ Atomic number defined - the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom remember atoms are always neutral because they have equal number of protons and electrons the simplest atom H has only 1 proton and 1 electron atomic number is 1 the largest naturally occurring atom U has 92 protons and 92 electrons atomic number is 92 defined - the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom F has 9 protons and 10 neutrons for a mass number (A) = 19 the mass number can vary from atom to atom of the same element Isotopes defined - atoms having the same number of protons but different number neutrons example: H has 2 isotopes the first is the protium the atom of H (the most common) has only one proton and 0 neutrons a mass number of 1 the second isotope is Deuterium sometimes called "heavy Hydrogen" 1 proton and 1 neutron a mass number of 2 only 1 out of every 6000 H are Deuterium the third isotope is Tritium 1 proton and 2 neutrons mass number of 3 All three are hydrogen, only one proton, but have different masses due to the neutrons. Calculating the number of neutrons in an atom average atomic mass defined - the weighted average of the masses of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element This is found under the Symbol on the Periodic Table round this number to the nearest whole number subtract the atomic number average atomic mass 12.011 = 12 mass number atomic number- 6number of neutrons 6 this is for the most common Carbon atoms (carbon - 12) the isotopes for C will be those with different number of neutrons like carbon - 14 Mass number 14atomic number - 6neutrons 8 Rules for Electron configuration Find the total number of electrons (atomic number). Find the number of energy levels (the period number). Draw the orbits Find the electrons in the last energy level. For Groups 1& 2 use the Group number. For Groups 13 - 18 use the last digit of the Group number (3 - 8). For He always 2 electrons. For Group 3 - 12 assign 2 electrons Subtract the electrons from the total as you place them in their energy level. Fill in the inner energy levels with the remainder of the electrons starting with the first energy level. Use the following pattern when they are the inner energy levels. 1st energy level - 2 electrons 2nd energy level - up to 8 electrons 3rd energy level - 8 or 18 electrons 4th energy level - 8, 18, or 32 electrons 5th energy level - 8, 18, or 32 electrons 6th energy level - 8 or 18 electrons Remember to subtract as you add them to their energy levels. Examples: Br K and Bi Page 85 Ca - animals shells, limestone, marble, bones, and teeth Mg - airplane frames, activates enzymes, flares, Epson salt, and milk of magnesia Transition Metals or Elements located in Groups 3 - 12 conducts heat and electricity like other metals form multiple cations some up to 4 different cations frequently form colorful compounds such as rubies and emeralds uses Ag – a better conductor than Au Au does not corrode or tarnish under ordinary conditions great for connectors for computers and other electronic devices Fe, Co, Cu and Mn play important roles in our body chemistry Hg the only metal that is a liquid at room temperature flows easily does not stick to glass makes it good for thermometers Fe, Co, and Ni the only metals that can be magnetized Cu, Ag, and Au Mole is used for counting very small particles abbreviated mol. a collection of 602 213 670 000 000 000 000 000 particles usually written as 6.022 x 1023 particles per mole known as Avagodro's number or constant named for Amedeo Avagodro an Italian that lived from 1776 - 1856 a lawyer interested in mathematics and physics 1st to make a distinction between atoms and molecules This constant was determined by Joseph Loschmidt German physicist in 1865 1 mole of popcorn kernels would cover the entire US to a height of 500 km (310 mi) not a good way to count popcorn Molar mass defined - the mass in grams of 1 mol of a substance The molar mass of an element in grams is the same as its average atomic mass in amu conversion factor defined - a ratio equal to one that expresses the same quantity in two different ways 10 gumballs = 21.4 g can be written as 10 gumballs / 21.4 g or 21.4 g / 10 gumballs What is the mass of 50 gumballs? 50 gumballs x 21.4 g / 10 gumballs = 107 g p. 98 practice factors 1 - 3 Relating moles to grams 1 molar mass of element or 1 mol of element 1 mol of element 1 molar mass of element Fe has 55.85 amu therefore 55.85 g Fe 1 mol Fe determine the mass in grams of 5.5 mol of iron. 5.50 mol Fe x 55.85 g Fe = 307 g Fe 1 mol Fe p. 99 practice converting Amount to mass 1 & 4 Converting mass to amount Determine the amount of iron present in 352 g of iron. 352 g Fe x 1 mol Fe = 6.3 mol Fe 1 55.85 g Fe How many moles are in 536 g of copper? 536 g Cu x 1 mol Cu = 8.44 mol Cu 1 63.55 g Cu How many moles are present in 12.1 g of sulfur. 12.1 g S x 1 mol S = .377 mol S 1 32.07 g S	i don't know
Which town in Northern Ireland lies on the stretch of river between Upper Lough Erne and Lower Lough Erne?	Lough Erne - 必应 Sign in Lough Erne Lough Erne or Loch Erne (pronounced lokh airn, from Irish: Loch Éirne) is the name of two connected lakes in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. It is the second-biggest lake system in Northern Ireland and Ulster, and the fourth biggest in Ireland. The lakes are widened sections of the River Erne, which flows north and then curves west into the Atlantic. The smaller southern lake is called the Upper Lough (as it is further up the river) or South Lough. The bigger northern lake is called the Lower Lough or North Lough. The town of Enniskillen lies on ... (展开) the short stretch of river between the lakes. The lake has 154 islands along with many coves and inlets. When windy, navigation on Lower Lough Erne, running for 26 miles almost to the Atlantic, can be something of a challenge with waves of open-sea dimensions. Shallow Upper Lough Erne, spreading southeast of Enniskillen for about 12 miles, is a maze of islands. The River Erne is 80ml (129 km) long and drains an area of about 4,350 km2. Welcome to the Official Website for the Five star, Lough Erne Resort, located in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. Explore our website & learn more about our luxurious ... www.lougherneresort.com Lough Erne Resort offers five-star accommodations ideal for any trip including a romantic getaway, family vacation, or group golf weekends. Beautifully decorated with luxurious ... www.preferredhotels.cn/hotel_new/enniskillen/lough-erne... Voted one of the top golf resorts in Ireland, the Lough Erne Resort, provides the ultimate 36-hole golf experience. Featuring two championship golf courses including ... www.loughernegolfresort.com 恩尼斯基林的Lough Erne Resort—保证以最优惠价格预订！213条评语和 30张照片正等您探索。 ... 网站反馈 www.booking.com/hotel/gb/lough-erne-golf-resort.zh-cn.html Here at Lough Erne Resort, we've got amazing Special Offers on five star accommodation, view a complete list of our exclusive offers online here on our Official Website. www.lougherneresort.com/special-offers.html	Enniskillen
Offa was King of which Anglo-Saxon Kingdom from 757 to 796?	River Cruise Lough Erne - Ireland - Cruising Boat Hire Attractions Lough Erne refers to two lakes in Northern Ireland, situated along the River Erne. The waterway is mostly situated in County Fermanagh. The river begins by flowing north, and then curves west into the Atlantic. The southern-most lake is further up the river and so is named Upper Lough Erne. The northern lake is Lower Lough Erne. A canal exists between the upper end of the River Shannon and the River Erne, allowing boat movements from the Shannon estuary in South West Ireland. Lough Erne is a particularly scenic waterway in Ireland, it is renowned for the beautiful setting. The area is also popular for angling. The town of Enniskillen is situated between the lakes. Interestingly, it escaped the Irish Potato Famine better than any other county. Because it has so many islands, the potato blight had difficulty travelling over the water to those islands, compared to the green hills of most of Ireland. Those Erne islands produced surprising amounts of potatoes (the staple diet on the over-populated island, from 1845-1849), whilst the mainland was largely starving in comparison. Navigation 0.0 km Belturbet - Belturbet is a lively and bustling town on the River Erne. there is a good selection of shops, restaurants and pubs here. There is also plenty to do in Belturbet with Bike hire, a 9 hole golf course and a 13th century Anglo-Norman motte and bailey on Turbet Island. The Festival of the Erne is a very popular annual event taking place from at the end of July/early Aug annually. With the famed Lady of the Erne pageant, live music, talent competition, marching bands, fireworks and the most popular fancy dress party in the county, the festival is not to be missed. 5.6 km Bunamunery. Junction with the River Finn. 10.2 km Crom Castle and entrance to Upper Lough Erne. See below for details of Crom Castle and Nature Reserve. 14.9 km Ross Ferry bridge 17.4 km Carrandillar Ferry 83.2 km Belleek - See Attractions section 84.0 km Belleek Sluices and end of navigation Islands The lakes contain many small islands and peninsulas also called "islands" because of the highly convoluted shoreline and also because many of them were also islands prior to two extensive drainage schemes in the 1880's which dropped the water level by 1.5 metres. I have listed the islands in alphabetical order rather than navigational order. Islands in Lower Lough Erne include: Boa Island - Boa Island is on the north shore of the Lough. At the west end of the Island is Caldragh, an ancient Christian churchyard. In this graveyard stands two pagan idols. The largest stands 72.5cms high. It is a strange two sided Janus figure. (Janus meaning two-faced not the Roman God Janus). The smaller stone is similar and comes originally again from an early Christian graveyard on Lusty More Island near by. Whether these strange stone figures with their unusually big heads represent an earlier pre-Christian religious site or early Christians including older beliefs in the grave sites of the ‘new religion’ is unsure. Several other examples of what are considered to be pagan sculptures have been found on early Christian sites e.g. The Tandragee Idol and other sculptures in St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Armagh. Cleenishmeen Island Crevinishaughy Island Cruninish Island Devenish Island - In the Middle Ages there was a chain of island monasteries in Lough Erne. Devenish, where a 12th-century round tower stands sentinel, was an important port of call. From the tower's high windows the monks could see approaching strangers. In times of trouble they rang their bells and hid their sacred relics. The island also has a tiny church of about the same date, and a ruined Augustinian abbey. Ely Island Horse Island Inish Davar - This island has attractive woodland paths and good wooden jetty that provides easy access for boating folk. From the jetty a nice fifteen minute walk takes one around the island. Inish Doney Inish Lougher Inish More Inishmacsaint - Another one of the many monastic sites on the Erne and Shannon navigations. Of particular interest is the undecorated High Cross. Inishmakill Lusty Beg Island Lusty More Island White Island - Situated in Castle Archdale Bay off the East shore of lower Lough Erne is White Island. A small ruined monastery dated about A.D. 1200 lies within an earthen enclosure. Very little is known of the early history of the monastery. The main reason for visiting the monastery are the six stone figures set up against the north wall and a late Romanesque south facing door. The six statues are fine examples of early Christian carving. They are all carved in quartzite by a master craftsman. Most authorities agree that they predate the door. The date of these very unusual figure carvings have caused considerable debate. They are highly stylised with possible pre-Christian influences. The figures are different from those found on the Irish high crosses and are thought therefore to pre-date them. Most archaeologists agree that they could date any time from the 9th to the 11th century. Islands in Upper Lough Erne include: Belle Isle - The Annals of Ulster were written in the late 15th century on Belle Isle. Bleanish Island Dernish Island Gad Island - Crichton Tower on Gad island is a stone folly built as a Famine relief project c.1847 to serve as an observatory. Inishcorkish Attractions Crom Castle Set in rolling parkland amidst an archipelago of wooded islands and peninsulae in tranquil Upper Lough Erne, the Crom Estate in County Fermanagh, the historic seat of the Earls of Erne for over 350 years, enjoys an unrivalled location in the heart of Ireland's Lake District. The demeasne incorporates 2 castles, National Trust Visitor Centre, Tea rooms, a small shop and a slipway for boat access. Since 1987 nearly 2,000 acres at Crom have been managed by the National Trust, giving the public an opportunity to experience the tranquillity and beauty of this nature reserve. With its wetlands, farmland and parkland, Crom is a unique habitat with one of the largest areas of semi-natural woodland remaining in Ireland and one of the most important freshwater habitats in the British Isles Crom houses the largest surviving area of oak woodland in Ireland. The wealth of wildlife in the estate is shown by the presence of two rare butterflies - the purple hair streak and wood white, the elusive pine-marten and the largest heronry in Ireland. Look out too for flocks of wild geese and the parkland deerAn overnight bird and mammal watching hide can be arranged through the Visitor Centre. Pike fishing on the Green Lake and Coarse Fishing on Lough Erne, can also be arranged with the National Trust . Castle Coole Castle Coole, sited in open parkland on the edge of Enniskillen and upper Lough Erne, is the family home of the Earls of Belmore. Designed by James Wyatt in the late 18th century, it is one of the finest neo-classical houses in IrelandSet in a 1200 acre wooded estate, it is owned and managed by the National Trust. Castle Coole was constructed between 1789 and 1798 as the summer retreat of Armar Lowry-Corry, the 1st Earl of Belmore. Lord Belmore was the Member of Parliament for Tyrone in the former Irish Houses of Parliament The siting on the comparatively small estate in County Fermanagh was primarily due to its unspoilt rural location and natural beauty amongst ancient oak woodland and small lakes, yet with close proximity to the market town of Enniskillen. In 1951, the 7th Earl of Belmore sold the mansion to the National Trust, prompted by two sets of death duties or inheritance tax when his cousins, the 5th and 6th Earls of Belmore, died without issue 18 months apart. The National Trust opens the mansion to visitors during the summer months, and the estate can be visited year-round. Between 1980-1988, the mansion was closed to the public while the National Trust undertook restoration work involving the dismantling of the façade to replace metal connectors holding it in placeNotable aspects of the mansion include the Portland stone façade, floorings and double-return cantilever staircase. An unused State Bedroom, prepared for King George IV in 1821 (who failed to arrive) retains original furnishings and flock wallpaper. A Drawing Room, furnished in a French Empire style, a Grecian staircase hall and a Ladies Workroom furnished in a Chinese style, reflect the importance of worldly knowledge and awareness during the Regency period. Derived from the Irish Gaelic cúil meaning seclusion, Lough Coole, “the secluded lake”, is nestled in a basin surrounded by the Killynure hills. A ráth here and a crannog in Lough Coole itself are reminders that the area has been settled since prehistoric times. Other lakes on the estate include Lough Yoan and Brendrum Lough. Much of the native oak woodland remains, although a considerable portion of the estate has been given over to agriculture. Numerous out-buildings can be found on the estate, those of interest include a Grand Yard, a general workplace housing stables, a Tallow House originally used for candle-making, now a gift shop and reception area, a Servants Tunnel leading ultimately to the basement of the mansion and the only route from which servants could enter and exist the main building, a Laundry House, a Dairy and an Ice House. A ha-ha, a sunken ditch to control livestock movements without the disturbance on the landscape resulting from a fence or a wall, can be found near the mansion. Admission to Castle Coole is by guided tour only. Please consult the National Trust 's webpage for opening times. Florence Court Florence Court is a large 18th century house and estate located 8 miles south-west of Enniskillen. It is set in the foothills of Cuilcagh Mountain. It is owned and managed by the National Trust.Florence Court was the family home of the Cole family, who were known as the Earls of Enniskillen. The National Trust acquired Florence Court in 1953, shortly before a devastating fire destroyed the upper floors of the house. Extensive restoration efforts have since returned Florence Court to much of its former glory, although some rooms on the upper floors remain closed. The house is best known for its exquisite rococo decoration and fine Irish furniture. Many original items of furniture, previously sold, have been re-acquired and returnedThe estate includes a walled garden with displays of both temperate and semi-tropical plants, a working water-powered sawmill, an ice house, and a natural spring well. The Larganess River flows through the estate. Pasture lands and forestry occupy much of the estate. It is a prime source of Irish yew wood. Marble Arch Caves Marble Arch Caves are one of Europe's finest showcaves allowing visitors to explore the magnificent Mesozoic limestone caves, natural underworld rivers, waterfalls, and winding passages, from a boat. In 2004 Marble Arch Caves and the nearby Cuilcagh Mountain park were jointly recognized as a Unesco Global Geopark. The Visitors Centre also has details of a number of walking and hiking trails in the area. They vary in length and difficulty from gentle strolls to serious mountain hikes. Castlecaldwell Forest And Islands Castlecaldwell located on the northern shores of Lower Lough Erne is a National Nature Reserve with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . Species include: breeding garden, grasshopper, sedge and willow warblers, siskin, tufted duck, red-breasted merganser, heron, Sandwich terns on islands, pine martens, badgers, otters and red squirrels. Castle Archdale Castle Archdale Park is a natural wonderland and is ideal for children. Features within the park include a red deer enclosure, wildfowl ponds, nature trail, butterfly garden and wildflower meadow. Castle Archdale has a long history dating back to 1615 when the first Castle was built, the remains of which can be seen. The present Castle, dating back to 1776, now houses a Visitor's Centre, a museum of Farm machinery, an Amateur Naturalist Exhibition, a History of the Archdale Family and a War Museum. There are maps of the park and its walks available at the Visitors Centre. The Yellow Walk will appeal to boaters as it passes by the marina and close to many interesting features including the Information Centre, Exhibition Centre, Castle Gardens, Bath House, Bog Garden, Deer Pen, Rare Breeds Collection, Butterfly Garden, and Wildfowl Ponds before returning along the shore to the marina. Those interested in a slightly longer walk will enjoy the walk to the Old Castle. The castle is now in ruins. There is also a walk around the peninsula named Tom's Island which is well worth the effort. The park also includes a marina, campsite, shop, diner and playgrounds. Belleek Pottery Belleek Pottery is Ireland's oldest pottery, famous for crafting the world's most distinctive Parian China creations. One of Ireland's top attractions the award winning Visitor Centre offers guided tours of the renowned company which has become a global icon for Irish design and crafts. Belleek Pottery website	i don't know
Odumegwu Ojukwu was President of which state that seceded from Nigeria in 1967?	Ojukwu, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Encyclopedia > History > Biographies > African History: Biographies Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu Ojukwu, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu (chōkˌwōāmāˈkä ōdōmāgˈwä ōjōkˈwä) [ key ], 1933–2011, Nigerian general and secessionist. Of Igbo background, he joined (1957) the Nigerian army and rose to become (1966–67) military governor of E Nigeria. That region seceded (1967) from Nigeria as the Republic of Biafra , with Ojukwu as head of state. He held office during the bloody war (1967–70) between Biafra and Nigeria and then went into exile in Côte d'Ivoire upon Biafra's defeat. Pardoned, he returned to Nigeria in 1982 but was imprisoned for a time after the military coup in 1983. He was an unsuccessful candidate for president in 2003 and 2007. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.	Biafra
"The Neil Simon plays ""The Prisoner of Second Avenue"" and ""Brighton Beach Memoirs"" are set in which city?"	Former Nigerian Leader Pays Tribute to Late Secessionist Ojukwu Former Nigerian Leader Pays Tribute to Late Secessionist Ojukwu November 27, 2011 7:00 PM James Butty Lieutenant Colonel C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, then military governor of East Nigeria, center, is pictured addressing a press conference at the state house in Engu, Nigeria, in this May, 1967 file photo. Share Email to a Friend Print Yakubo Gowon, who was head of state during the Biafran war, says he and Ojukwu became reconciled friends to move Nigeria forward Former Nigerian head of state General Yakubo Gowon, in power during the three-year civil war in Biafra, has expressed sadness over the death of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, leader of the secessionist state. Ojukwu died Saturday in a London hospital after a protracted illness. He was 78. Ojukwu led the Igbo secession effort between 1967 and 1970. Gowon, who was head of state during the civil war, said he and Ojukwu became reconciled friends committed to move Nigeria forward after the civil war. “Let me say how sorry and sad I am to hear the passing away of my old colleague and friend and aspirant partner during the period of our crisis. But, both of us were reconciled friends in the end. He certainly will be missed by all, especially the family and partisans and friends and other well-wishers. I pray for the repose of his soul and may God grant his soul everlasting rest,” he said. Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan, in a statement praised the late Ojukwu for his “immense love for his people, justice, equity and fairness which forced him into the leading role he played in the civil war.” Gowon said, while the treatment of the Igbos at the time was undesirable, he does not think it was necessary for the region to secede. “Let us say that the civil was for the unity of the country. If there was no secession, there would not have been a civil war. Although all men of good will to Nigeria will admit that, yes, what happened to the Igbos in Nigeria at the time, it was really bad enough, but I do not think that it should get [to] the stage whereby any leader of a people would wish to take his people out of nation,” Gowon said. He said he was happy that, in the end, there was no clear victor. Despite today’s militant agitation in the Niger Delta and the Islamist sect Boko Haram in the north, Gowon said he does not think Nigeria is on the brink of another insurrection like the Biafran civil war. “I think these are some of the problems that any nation, or many nations, goes through before they have the total peace and stability that they want. I don’t think that these problems are going to lead to any secession,” Gowon said. He said, even if today’s problems in Nigeria would lead to another insurrection like the Biafran civil war, he believes “there are enough men and women of good will who would be able to negotiate a solution that is fair and just to all concerned,” Gowon said.	i don't know
"According to the lyrics of the song ""Fairytale of New York"", what were 'the boys of the NYPD choir singing'?"	Fairytale Of New York Lyrics - Kirsty Maccoll It was Christmas eve babe In the drunk tank An old man said to me, won't see another one And then he sang a song The rare old mountain dew I turned my face away And dreamed about you Got on a lucky one Came in eighteen to one I've got a feeling This year's for me and you So happy Christmas I can see a better time When all our dreams come true They've got cars big as bars They've got rivers of gold But the wind goes right through you It's no place for the old When you first took my hand On a cold Christmas eve You promised me Broadway was waiting for me You were handsome Queen of new york city When the band finished playing They howled out for more Sinatra was swinging, All the drunks they were singing We kissed on a corner Then danced through the night [Chorus] The boys of the nypd choir Were singing "galway bay" And the bells were ringing out For Christmas day	Galway Bay
"Who made the cake on the cover of the album ""Let It Bleed"" by The Rolling Stones?"	P.S. I Love You [2007] ... - Fairytale Of New York Lyrics It was Christmas Eve babe In the drunk tank An old man said to me, we won't see another one And then he sang a song A rare old mountain dew I turned my face away And dreamed about you Got on a lucky one Came in eighteen to one I've got a feeling This year's for me and you So happy Christmas I can see a better time When all our dreams come true They've got cars big as bars They've got rivers of gold But the wind goes right through you It's no place for the old When you first took my hand On a cold Christmas Eve You promised me Broadway was waiting for me You were handsome Queen of New York City When the band finished playing They howled out for more Sinatra was swinging, All the drunks they were singing We kissed on a corner Then danced through the night The boys of the NYPD choir were singing "Galway Bay" And the bells were ringing out For Christmas day	i don't know
"What was the setting for the BBC TV comedy ""Early Doors""?"	BBC - Comedy - Early Doors Early Doors Early Doors It was originally intended that this sitcom, set in a typical northern local pub called The Grapes, would be written jointly by Craig Cash and Caroline Aherne. Aherne, however, quit England and so Cash asked his old friend Phil Mealey to come on board. Together they produced a low-key modern classic, taking the dowdy, naturalistic feel of The Royle Family, but placing it in a setting which provided a more eclectic bunch of characters. Landlord Ken has been left by his wife (for his best friend), but lives with his adopted daughter Melanie and mother Jean. Jean browbeats her canny home help Winnie, whilst Melanie has a naïve young boyfriend called Liam (although James McAvoy's burgeoning career lead to him vanishing and being replaced by new beau Dean for series two). The pub regulars were written and cast to perfection, each instantly believable: cheeky chappies Joe and Duffy, whose close friendship dates back to childhood; dull couple Joan and Eddie: the latter alarmingly knowledgeable about local traffic flow; Old Tommy, the typical grumpy, avaricious old soak; single mother Janice and Phil and Nige: indolent and crooked local Bobbies. The big theme of series one was Melanie's search for her biological father, which allowed Henshaw to display genuine pathos as he wrestled with his conflicting emotions. The second series concerned itself with whether the pub would be re-branded beyond recognition: displaying just how much this mini-community relied on the pub and each other. The gently paced yet sharp comedy revolved around such everyday pub occurrences as blocked urinals, drawing the football card and missing Maltesers. Early Doors crept in under the radar, but soon picked up superb reviews and maintained a healthy following, as well as winning the Best Writing Award two years running at The North West Comedy Awards.	Microsoft Publisher
A replica of whose statue of David stands outside the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence - the original is in the Galleria del Accademia?	Early Doors: Ten years since last orders at The Grape - Manchester Evening News View gallery Ten years have passed since the BBC called last orders at The Grapes and closed down Early Doors for good. But despite only running for two series the gang have not been forgotten – repeats run to this day, and it has racked up hundreds of thousands of YouTube views. With fans still clamouring for a fresh series of the hit show we look back at how tranquil life in a Stockport pub became such a success. Whether it was crooked coppers Phil and Nige spouting out regular catchphrase “Crime won’t crack itself” or Ken, the landlord everyone has met in their local, Early Doors lives on in memories across the North West. After the runaway success of the Royle Family Craig Cash, who found fame as Dave on the Royle sofa, established himself as comedy circuit royalty when he co-scripted his new series alongside Phil Mealey back in 2003. As Joe and Duffy they spoke to thousands who could relate to their life in a sleepy pub where pints of bitter were served to the same old faces day in, day out. Early Doors characters, l-r Duffy (Phil Mealey) and Joe (Craig Cash) But while not a lot happened hilarity was found in the day-to-day lives of protagonists played by the likes of John Henshaw and Maxine Peake. The show also helped launch the career of a young James McAvoy – the actor who has gone on to take Hollywood by storm in blockbusters including the recent X-Men films. Having established themselves as a class act Craig and Phil went on to write three-part series Sunshine starring Steve Coogan in 2008, but have not revealed whether they’ll give in to fans’ demands and bring back The Grapes. Fan forums online have branded it one of the best British comedies ever made, and users of the IMDB website have given it a corking eight stars out of ten. Watch some of the best of Phil and Nigel the policemen. Caution: Strong language. Video Loading Click to play Tap to play The video will start in 8Cancel Play now One reviewer puts its success down to salt of the earth characters telling it like it is: “The beauty is its simplicity. A pub full of half wits and cretins talking rubbish about things of no consequence – i.e. exactly what a good pub should be.” Others say it still gets watched because it represented a simpler time, before pub closures accelerated and some of the last bastions of community life were shut down. Where else can you go to have a conversation with Eddie about the unending problem of temporary traffic lights, see miserable old Tommy or wonder why on earth Tanya has the hots for Ken? Our favourite quotes from Early Doors Early Doors cast, with Craig Cash (second left at bar) Eddie, telling Ken he and Joan have been together for 19 years: “The great trainrobbers didn’t get that eh, Ken eh?” Nige, after Ken turns down cannabis: “You know, if you were any squarer Ken, you’d be an Oxo cube.” After calling last orders, Ken has a go at Tommy for being miserable: “Come on, everybody, party’s over, lets be having ya. And you, Tommy, come on you better hurry up your mates’ll lock the gates back at the cemetery.” Tommy railing at the quality of modern television: “That pillock from Sainsbury’s was on again, he’s never off him, cooking another pan full of s*e that only his mates will eat. “And then I flicked over to the other side and there were a bunch of nobodies sitting in a house and we’re expected to watch them eat, sleep and st and then as soon as they say anything interesting they put a load of bird noises on. I tell ya, I don’t know what the world’s coming to.” During Joan and Eddie’s anniversary: Joan: “I’ve just been on the toilet Eddie.” Eddie: “Number one or number two Joan?” Joan: “Number two.” Eddie: “Why not, it’s our anniversary – treat yourself.” Like us on Facebook	i don't know
Chinook, chum and sockeye are species of what type of fish?	Salmon (Chinook, Chum, Coho, Pink, Sockeye) \| SeaChoice Salmon (Chinook, Chum, Coho, Pink, Sockeye) From: Method: Wild, drift gillnet, purse seine, troll Pacific salmon in Alaska is among the most intensively managed species in the world, with excellent monitoring of both the fish populations and the fishery. Alaskan salmon dominates the West Coast salmon market. Over the past 20 years, Alaska has landed roughly 10 times as much salmon as California, Oregon and Washington combined. Freshwater habitats in Alaska have remained relatively pristine, and salmon originating in Alaska does not face the same damming, deforestation and development challenges as those in California and the Pacific Northwest. The current abundance of Alaska salmon and its habitat reflects the success of the state’s management practices. For these reasons, wild-caught salmon from Alaska is ranked as a “Best Choice.” Report Sushi Name(s)Sake/Ikura (roe) Common Name(s)Chinook, Chum, Coho, Pink or Sockeye Salmon Scientific Name(s)Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Chinook), Oncorhynchus keta (Chum), Oncorhynchus kisutch (Coho), Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Pink), Oncorhynchus nerka (Sockeye) Similar Rankings	Salmon
In which city was Ludwig van Beethoven born?	Science - North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission What is an Anadromous Fish? Anadromous fish migrate from freshwater where they hatch to the ocean where they spend most of their lives and grow large before returning to freshwater to spawn. Common anadromous fish include salmon, smelt, sturgeon, and lamprey. For the purposes of NPAFC, anadromous fish that migrate into the Convention Area and are listed in the Convention Annex include pink, chum, sockeye, coho, Chinook, and cherry salmon and steelhead trout. What are Pacific Salmon? Pacific salmon are anadromous fish of the genus Oncorhynchus spp. that are hatched in freshwater and spend most of their lives rearing in the ocean before returning to freshwater to spawn. Pacific salmon are semelparous, meaning that after spawning once, all the adults die. There are six species of Pacific salmon: pink , chum , sockeye , coho , Chinook , and cherry salmon . Steelhead trout are also in the genus Oncorhynchus. A steelhead is the anadromous form of the rainbow trout and can make extensive oceanic migrations in the North Pacific. Unlike Pacific salmon, which are semelparous, steelhead are iteroparous, meaning they can survive spawning and repeat the migration to the ocean and return to freshwater to spawn more than once. Pacific Salmon Species Горбуша (Gorbusha) Russian Pink salmon are the most abundant species of Pacific salmon and originate both in Asia and North America. Upon emergence, pink salmon fry migrate quickly to the sea and grow rapidly as they make extensive feeding migrations. Pink salmon have a fixed two-year life cycle. After eighteen months in the ocean, maturing fish return to their river of origin to spawn. An odd-year dominance cycle of pink salmon exists in many regions of the North Pacific, meaning that the number of adults returning to freshwater in an odd-numbered year is much higher than the number returning in an even-numbered year. Adults are the smallest Pacific salmon and range from 45-55 cm in length and 1.0-2.5 Kg in weight. Pink salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Pink salmon have large oval black spots on the back (dorsolaterally) of the body and on both lobes of the tail fin. Scales are very small. A large hump develops on the back of maturing males. The meat is pink, relatively soft, and is relatively low in fat content compared with Chinook and sockeye salmon. Кета (Keta) Russian Chum salmon are the second most abundant species of Pacific salmon and originate both in Asia and North America. The fish spawn in streams and the fry migrate to the sea soon after emergence from the gravel. Immature chum salmon distribute themselves widely over the North Pacific Ocean, and the maturing adults return to the home streams in summer or autumn at various ages, usually after spending 2 to 5 winters at sea. Adults have been reported up to 108.8 cm in length and 20.8 kg in weight. Chum salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Chum salmon do not have spots on the body or tail. The tail fin has distinct silver streaks. Compared with other Pacific salmon, the caudal peduncle is relatively narrow and the pupil of the eye is relatively large. The meat is pale pink, slightly firm, and relatively low in fat content compared with Chinook and sockeye salmon. Нерка (Nerka) Russian Sockeye salmon are the third most abundant species of Pacific salmon and originate both in Asia and North America. Typically juvenile sockeye salmon utilize lakes for rearing areas for one to three years after emergence from the gravel, but some populations can utilize stream areas for rearing and may migrate to sea soon after emergence. Sockeye salmon spend 1-4 years in the ocean before returning to fresh water to spawn. Body size of adults is variable, but can range 45-60 cm in length and 1.6-3.2 Kg in weight. Sockeye salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Sockeye salmon do not have black spots present on the body or tail. Scales are neatly arranged in regular rows on the body. Meat color is bright red, relatively firm, and high in fat content compared to chum and pink salmon. Кижуч (Kizhutch) Russian Coho salmon originate both in Asia and North America. Coho salmon fry generally remain in freshwater for one to two years and then migrate to the ocean. After approximately 18 months at sea, the fish return to their freshwater spawning areas. The adult size is variable with lengths ranging from 40-88 cm and weights from 1.2-6.8 kg. Coho salmon die after spawning (semelparous). How to distinguish the ocean phase: Coho salmon have small black spots on the back that may be also present on the upper lobe of the tail. The tail has bright but not well-demarcated silver coloration. The caudal peduncle is relatively broad and the base of the teeth in the lower jaw is white. The meat is pink and firm and can have a drier texture than other Pacific salmon species when cooked. Чавыча (Tshawytscha) Russian Chinook salmon originate both in Asia and North America. Chinook salmon are not as abundant as chum, pink, and sockeye salmon and can grow to a body size larger than other Pacific Salmon. Their life history includes an array of variations. All Chinook salmon die after spawning (semelparous). "Stream-type" Chinook salmon spend one year as fry or parr in fresh water before migrating to the sea. Typically, this type will return to their natal river in the spring or summer several months prior to spawning. "Ocean-type" Chinook salmon migrate to sea during their first year of life, normally within three months after emergence from the river gravel, and return to their natal river in the fall shortly before spawning. The length of adults varies from 58 to 89 cm, or larger. The typical weight range of the Chinook salmon is 4.5 to 22.5 kg. How to distinguish the ocean phase: Chinook salmon have small round black spots on the back and both lobes of the tail fin and black color along the base of the teeth in the lower jaw. Meat color is pink, although some Chinook salmon have white meat due to the difference in how they process pigments in the food they consume. The meat is quite firm and has a relatively high fat content compared to chum and pink salmon. Сима (Sima) Russian Cherry salmon originate only in Asia. Most of them mature at three or four years of age, after spending one or more years in rivers and one winter in the ocean. All anadromous cherry salmon die after spawning (semelparous). They return to the natal river in March-May, spend the summer in the river, and move to headwaters for spawning in the fall. The size of adults varies greatly, generally 50 cm or more in length and 2-2.5 Kg or more in weight. How to distinguish the ocean phase: Cherry salmon most closely resemble coho salmon. Cherry salmon have small black spots on the back and a dark underlying hue under its silvery scales. The meat is bright red and has a firm texture, and it is more moist and fatty than coho salmon. Steelhead Trout Стальноголовая форель, микижа (Raduzhnaya forel) Russian Steelhead trout is the anadromous form of rainbow trout. Steelhead trout originate both North America and Asia. Most steelhead remain in freshwater for 2-3 years, spend 2-3 years in the ocean, and return to the natal river to spawn. Some steelhead may spawn more than once (iteroparous). Typical sizes of adults range 50-58 cm in length and 1.4-6.8 Kg in weight. How to distinguish the ocean phase: Steelhead trout have small black spots present on the head, back, and tail fin. Silver marking on the tail is confined to the center area. The head is relatively small and the tail relatively large as compared to Pacific salmon. The tail is not forked. Meat is light pink and the texture is firm. For salmon recipes, click here . How Atlantic salmon is different from Pacific Salmon Atlantic salmon is one species Salmo salar. (Pacific salmon comprise six species.) Prior to introductions by humans, Atlantic salmon historical distribution is the North Atlantic, breeding in rivers of Western Europe, Iceland, Greenland, and the East coast of North America. Atlantic salmon is iteroparous, unlike Pacific salmon which is semelparous. Iteroparous means that Atlantic salmon, like steelhead, can survive spawning, return to the ocean, and repeat the migration to freshwater and spawn more than once. Ocean-run Atlantic salmon have large conspicuous black spots above the lateral line, and on the top and sides of the head on the gill cover. (Pacific salmon do not have black spots on the gill cover.) The North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization is the international organization responsible for the conservation, restoration, and national management of wild Atlantic salmon stocks (NASCO; www.nasco.int ) Wild Atlantic salmon catch comprises less than 0.1% of farmed Atlantic salmon harvest while wild Pacific salmon catch exceeds farmed Pacific salmon production (mostly coho and Chinook) by more than 5 times.	i don't know
Which animal of the Chinese Zodiac represents the year that began this February?	The Chinese Zodiac, 12 Zodiac Animals, Find Your Zodiac Sign The Chinese animal zodiac, or shengxiao (/shnng-sshyaoww/ ‘born resembling’), is a repeating cycle of 12 years, with each year being represented by an animal and its reputed attributes. Traditionally these zodiac animals were used to date the years. The 12 Animals of the Chinese Zodiac In order, the 12 animals are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig. What Your Chinese Zodiac Animal Sign Is Your Chinese Zodiac sign is derived from your birth year, according to the Chinese lunar calendar. See the years of each animal below or use the calculator on the right to determine your own sign. Rat: 2008, 1996, 1984, 1972, 1960 Ox: 2009, 1997, 1985, 1973, 1961 Tiger: 2010, 1998, 1986, 1974, 1962 Rabbit: 2011, 1999, 1987, 1975, 1963 Dragon: 2012, 2000, 1988, 1976, 1964 Snake: 2013, 2001, 1989, 1977, 1965 Horse: 2014, 2002, 1990, 1978, 1966 Goat: 2015, 2003, 1991, 1979, 1967 Monkey: 2016, 2004, 1992, 1980, 1968 Rooster: 2017 , 2005, 1993, 1981, 1969 Dog: 2018, 2006, 1994, 1982, 1970 Pig: 2019, 2007, 1995, 1983, 1971 Find Your Chinese Zodiac Sign Choose your date of birth and find out about your Chinese zodiac sign. You are a: Love: Health: Those born in January and February take care: Chinese (Lunar) New Year moves between 21 January and February 20. If you were born in January or February, check whether your birth date falls before or after Chinese New Year to know what your Chinese zodiac year is. Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility — Is He/She Right for You? People born in a certain animal year are believed to have attributes of that animal, which could either help or hinder a relationship. An important use of Chinese Zodiac is to determine if two people are compatible, in a romantic relationship or any kind of relationship. In ancient times people were faithful to Chinese Zodiac compatibility and often referred to it before a romantic relationship began. Even nowadays some people still refer to it. Take our online test on the right and find how suitable you and your partner are. See our Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Charts Chinese Zodiac Love Compatibility Test Is she/he compatible with you? Take the test and see... Boy's Name: Date of Birth: It’s BAD LUCK When Your Zodiac Year Comes Around! As the Chinese zodiac recurs every 12 years, your animal year will come around when you are 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, etc. According to ancient Chinese superstition, in your birth sign year, he will offend the God of Age, and will have bad luck during that year. The best way to avoid bad luck during this year is by wearing something red given by an elder (relative), such as socks, a neck cord, underwear, a waistband, a bracelet, or an anklet. Read more on How to be Lucky in Your Zodiac Year . Chinese Zodiac Years Have Two Different Starts! There are two dates a Chinese zodiac year could be said to start on, and neither is January 1! China traditionally uses two calendars: the solar calendar and the lunar calendar. The traditional solar calendar has 24 fifteen-day solar terms, and the first, called ‘Start of Spring’, falls on February 4 (or 5). The lunar calendar has 12 or 13 months and starts on Chinese New Year, which is somewhere in the period January 21 to February 20. Most Chinese people use lunar New Year as the start of the zodiac year. But for fortune telling and astrology, people believe ‘Start of Spring’ is the beginning of the zodiac year. Chinese Zodiac Origins — Why 12 Animals The 12 animals were chosen deliberately, after many revisions. The zodiac animals are either closely related to ancient Chinese people’s daily lives, or have lucky meanings. The ox, horse, goat, rooster, pig, and dog are six of the main domestic animals raised by Chinese people. The other six animals: rat, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, and monkey are all loved by the Chinese people. Why the 12 Zodiac Animals Are in That Order The 12 Chinese Zodiac animals are in a fixed order according to Chinese Yin and Yang Theory and perceived attributes. The yin or the yang of the animals is defined based on the odd or even number of their claws (or toes, hoofs). The animals are then arranged in an alternating (complementary) yin-yang sequence. Usually an animal has is the same number of claws on its front and rear legs. However the rat has four toes on its fore legs and five on its hind legs. As the old saying goes, “a thing is valued in proportion to its rarity”, so the Rat ranks first of the 12 zodiac animals. It uniquely combines the attributes of odd (yang) and even (yin). 4+5=9, and yang is dominant, so the Rat is classified as odd (yang) overall. Zodiac Animal Amiability without fidelity leads to immorality. Chinese Zodiac Hours — Each Hour is Associated with a Zodiac Animal Chinese zodiac hours It is widely known that each year is associated with a Chinese zodiac animal, but in Chinese culture the 12 zodiac animals are also associated with hours of a day. In ancient times, in order to tell the time, people divided a day into twelve 2-hour periods, and designated an animal to represent each period, according to each animal’s “special time”. According to Chinese astrology, though not popularly used, a person’s personality and life is more decided by his/her birth hour than year. The zodiac hour is widely used for character and destiny analysis. Rat	Monkey (song)
The date October 21st 2015 played a significant part in which 1989 film?	Chinese New Year: What Do Those Zodiac Animals Really Mean? \| Mic Copyright © Mic Network Inc. All rights reserved. One World Trade Center, 285 Fulton Street 83rd Floor, Suite G, New York, NY 10007 Copyright © Mic Network Inc. All rights reserved. Chinese New Year: What Do Those Zodiac Animals Really Mean? PIN Happy Lunar New Year! The Year of the Snake is five days away, so now is the time to brush up on your Chinese zodiac, and no, I'm not referring to the horribly fabulous Jackie Chan movie . 1. Rat (1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008): Ambitious, wary, honest, magnanimous, angered easily, spendthrift, and overly critical. Rats get well along with Dragons and Monkeys, but should avoid Horses. 2. Ox (1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009): Honest, unyielding, stubborn, natural-born leaders, patient, inspiring, easy-going and conservative. Ox gets along with Snakes and Roosters but not Sheep. 3. Tiger (1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010): Sensitive yet aggressive, daring, unpredictable, charming, openly emotional, courageous, and great lovers. Tigers get along with a Horse or a Dog but never a Monkey. 4. Rabbit (1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011): Caring, talented, gracious, value peace, sentimental, cautious and conservative. Their best life partners are Sheep or Pigs but not Roosters. 5. Dragon (1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012): Intelligent, talented, imaginative, bossy, garish, and enthusiastic. Most compatible with a Snake or Rooster, and least with a Sheep. 6. Snake (1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013): Clever, animated, determined, romantic, intense, charming, intuitive, prone to procrastination, vain and penny-pinchers. Most compatible with a Rooster or Ox, not a Pig. 7. Horse (1918, 1930, 1942, 1954,1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014): Hardworking, intelligent, gregarious, cheerful, popular, impatient, selfish, cunning, energetic. They get along with Tigers and Dogs, but not Rats. 8. Sheep (1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015): Creative, passionate, elegant, kind, honest, apprehensive, scattered, and vulnerable. They are compatible with Rabbits or Pigs, but never with an Ox. 9. Monkey (1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016): Intelligent, innovative, clever, entertaining, alluring, opportunist. The best matches are Dragons or Rats while the worst are Tigers. 10. Rooster (1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017): Brave, diligent, shrewd, arrogant, reckless, selfish, boastful and eccentric. Harmonious with Snakes and Oxen but Rabbits cause trouble. 11. Dog (1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018): Honest, intelligent, generous, stubborn, loyal, introverted, diligent, anxious, and critical. Tigers and Horses are most compatible, and Dragons should be kept at bay. 12. Pig (1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019): Curious, reliable, sincere, patient, demure, affectionate, kind, impulsive, and naive. Pigs are wary of other Pigs but compatible with Sheep and Rabbits. Like us on Facebook:	i don't know
Which baseball player began his career in 1914 as a pitcher for the Boston Red Sox?	Babe Ruth Biography - ESPN Babe Ruth Biography Personal Babe Ruth is a former Major League Baseball player, widely considered to be the greatest baseball player of all-time, starting his career as a pitcher with the Boston Red Sox. In a controversial deal with the New York Yankees, Ruth was sold for $100,00 in a trade that would later be known as "The Curse of the Bambino." With the Yankees, Ruth moved to the outfield and transformed into one of the greatest hitters of all time. He was the first player to hit 60 home runs in a season. Ruth ended his career with a .342 batting average and 714 home runs, which was a record until Hank Aaron surpassed him in 1974. Ruth was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936. Early Years George Herman Ruth Jr. was born on Feb. 6, 1895 in Baltimore, Md., to Kate Schamberger-Ruth and George Herman Ruth, Sr. Only two of their eight children survived past infancy: Ruth, and his sister, Mamie. At age seven, Ruth was sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory and orphanage. Ruth spent 12 years at the school, rarely seeing his family. It was at St. Mary's that Ruth started playing baseball. He played a variety of positions but played catcher mostly until the age of 15. Ruth started pitching and switched between pitcher and catcher on the St. Mary's varsity baseball team. Professional Career Minor league career During a game in 1913 between St. Mary's and Mount St. Mary's University, Ruth's pitching skills caught the attention of Washington Senators pitcher Joe Engel. Engel told Jack Dunn, owner of the then-minor league Baltimore Orioles, about the prospect, and Dunn signed Ruth to a contract on Feb. 14, 1914. Ruth earned the nickname of "Babe" after teammates referred to him as Jack Dunn's newest babe. The nickname stuck with Ruth for the rest of his career. On July 7, 1914, Ruth was nearly sold to the Philadelphia Athletics along with Ernie Shore and Ben Egan for $10,000. Athletics owner and manager Connie Mack refused to spend $10,000 on the trio. Ruth was eventually sold to the Boston Red Sox. Boston Red Sox (1914-19) Babe Ruth made his major league debut on July 11, 1914, for the Boston Red Sox. Ruth appeared in five games during the 1914 season, pitching in four of them. On the mound, Ruth went 2-1 with a 3.91 ERA, and he went just 2-for-10 with two RBI at the plate. Ruth spent a majority of the season with the Providence Grays in the minor leagues. Ruth landed a spot in the Red Sox pitching rotation during the 1915 season. In his first full season as a starter, Ruth went 18-18 with a 2.44 ERA in 28 starts. Ruth showed his first glimpse of power at the plate, slugging four home runs and driving in 21 runs. Ruth made his postseason debut in the 1915 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies, grounding out in his only at-bat. In 1916, Ruth led the American League in earned run average (1.75), games started (41) and shutouts (9). He went 23-12, including four victories over Washington Senators great Walter Johnson. The Red Sox won their second-straight World Series championship in 1916. Ruth pitched a 14-inning complete game in Game 2 against the Brooklyn Robins. Ruth had his best season as a pitcher in 1917, going 24-13 with a 2.01 ERA and 35 complete games. On June 23, 1917, against the Senators, Ruth threw a punch at an umpire after walking the leadoff hitter. He received a 10-game suspension for his actions. In 1918, Ruth started to shift his playing time from the mound to the outfield. At the plate, Ruth led the league in home runs with 11 and batted .300 with 66 RBI. On the mound, Ruth started Game 1 of the 1918 World Series, throwing a 1-0 shutout over the Chicago Cubs. In Game 4, Ruth pitched eight innings, allowing just two earned runs and striking out six in a 3-2 victory. The Red Sox won the World Series in six games. Ruth hit .322 with 29 home runs and 114 RBI in 1919, which turned out to be his final season with the Red Sox. The 29 home runs was a single-season record at the time. In his last season as a starting pitcher, Ruth went 9-5 with a 2.97 ERA. Ruth wanted an increase in his salary following the 1919 season, but Frazee refused to pay him and decided to trade his star player. Finding a team to make a deal was a problem as Frazee had only two options in the Chicago White Sox and the New York Yankees. The White Sox offered the Red Sox "Shoeless" Joe Jackson and $60,000 for Ruth. The Yankees offered the Red Sox $100,000 in cash. New York Yankees (1920-34) Boston Red Sox owner Harry Frazee sold Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees on Dec. 26, 1919. Frazee received $25,000 up front along with three promissory notes of $25,000 each at six percent interest. Frazee also received a loan for $300,000 against the mortgage of Fenway Park as collateral. The deal was eventually known as the "Curse of the Bambino," as the Red Sox wouldn't win another World Series title until 2004. It was claimed that Ruth was sold to the Yankees in order for Frazee to finance "No, No, Nanette" on Broadway. According to author Leigh Montville, who wrote "The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth," he discovered that "No, No, Nannette" was indeed financed by the sale of Ruth to the Yankees. On the Yankees, Ruth completed his transition from a pitcher to an outfielder, pitching in just 36 games over the next 15 seasons in New York. Ruth hit .376 with 54 home runs and 137 RBI in his first season with the Yankees in 1920. He nearly doubled his home run record he set the season before with the Red Sox. Only the Philadelphia Phillies hit more home runs as a team than Ruth. Ruth led the Yankees to a first-place finish in the American League in 1921, hitting .378 with 59 home runs and 171 RBI. It was arguably one of the greatest seasons of Ruth's career, as the player set records in total bases (457), extra base hits (119) and times on base (379). Ruth broke Roger Connor's home run record of 138 on July 18, 1921, against the Detroit Tigers. In the 1921 World Series, the Yankees won the first two games before Ruth injured his elbow in Game 2. Doctors advised Ruth not to play the rest of the series. Ignoring doctor's orders, Ruth started and played the next three games in the World Series before coming off the bench as a pinch-hitter in Game 8. Ruth hit .313 with one home run and four RBI in the series, but the Yankees lost to the Giants in eight games. Baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis suspended Ruth for the first six weeks of the 1922 season after he participated in a barnstorming tour following the World Series. Ruth made his season debut on May 20, 1922, as the captain of the Yankees. Just five days later, Ruth was stripped of his captaincy after he was ejected from a game for throwing dirt on an umpire and confronting a fan in the stands. Despite missing more than 40 games, Ruth still managed to hit 35 home runs with 99 RBI. The Yankees faced the Giants again in the World Series but lost in five games, partly because of Ruth's .118 average. 1923 was the first season at Yankee Stadium after moving from the Polo Grounds. In a stadium nicknamed "The House That Ruth Built," Ruth hit the first-ever home run at Yankee Stadium on Apr. 18, 1923, against the Red Sox. Thanks to a career-high .393 batting average, 41 home runs and 131 RBI, Ruth won the only American League Most Valuable Player award in his career. The Yankees finally knocked off the Giants in the 1923 World Series for their first World Series in franchise history. Ruth hit three home runs in the six-game series. Ruth finished eight RBI short of winning the AL Triple Crown in 1924, leading the league with a .378 average and 46 home runs. When he wasn't busy hitting home runs, Ruth enlisted for three years in the 104th field artillery of the National Guard of New York. Ruth's career hit a low during the 1925 season. He was having problems at home with his marriage and spent the offseason eating and partying. When he arrived to Spring Training, Ruth was sick and out of shape. During a road trip in Asheville, N.C., Ruth collapsed. It was rumored that he had the flu, but the headlines claimed Ruth overindulged on soda and hot dogs. Ruth's illness was dubbed "The Bellyache Heard 'Round the World." Ruth underwent an operation for an "intestinal abscess," and he missed the first part of the season while he recovered. Ruth played in only 98 games, hitting .290 with 25 home runs and 66 RBI as the Yankees finished in next-to-last place. A healthy Ruth bounced back in 1926, hitting .372 with 47 home runs and 146 RBI. In the 1926 World Series, Ruth slugged three home runs in Game 4 against the St. Louis Cardinals. Ruth promised Johnny Sylvester, an 11-year-old hospitalized after a horseback riding accident, that he would hit a home run for him in Game 4. Sylvester's condition improved after Ruth's three home runs. With the Yankees trailing 3-2 with two outs in the bottom of the ninth of Game 7, Ruth was thrown out trying to steal second base. Ruth set a career high and major league record 60 home runs in 1927. Seventeen of his 60 home runs came in the month of September. His season record stood until Roger Maris hit 61 in 1961. Ruth was part of one of the greatest lineups in baseball history along with Earle Combs, Mark Koeing, Lou Gehrig, Bob Meusel and Tony Lazzeri. The Yankees went 110-44 in the regular season and swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in the World Series. Ruth followed up his 60-homer season with 54 home runs in 1928. He had a chance of breaking the record he set the season before, but Ruth battled an ankle injury towards the end of the season. In the 1928 World Series, Ruth hit .625 (10-for-16) with three home runs (all three in Game 4) as the Yankees swept the St. Louis Cardinals. Ruth hit .345 with 46 home runs and 154 RBI in 1929. Yankees manager Miller Huggins died on Sept. 25, 1929, of erysipelas. Ruth had interest in managing the Yankees, but former Chicago Cubs manager Joe McCarthy was hired, instead. Ruth made his final postseason appearance in 1932 with the Yankees. New York went 107-47 in the regular season under McCarthy and swept the Chicago Cubs in the World Series. Ruth hit .333 with two home runs and six RBI. One of Ruth's two home runs was in Game 3, which was known as Babe Ruth's called shot. Ruth made a gesture towards center field and hit a home run on a 2-2 pitch off Cubs pitcher Charlie Root. The home run was Ruth's last World Series hit. He finished with a lifetime World Series average of .326 with 15 home runs and 33 RBI in 41 games. Major League Baseball honored Ruth's World Series success in 1949 with the Babe Ruth Award for the player with the best World Series performance. Ruth was elected to the first All-Star game in 1933, hitting .301 with 34 home runs and 103 RBI on the season. In the 1933 All-Star Game, Ruth hit the first home run in the game's history at Comiskey Park in Chicago. The former pitcher made his final appearance on the mound during the 1933 season, pitching a complete-game victory against the Boston Red Sox and improving his record to 5-0 as a pitcher for the Yankees. Ruth's final season with the Yankees came in 1934, hitting .288 with 22 home runs and 84 RBI. Ruth wanted to manage the Yankees, but McCarthy was entrenched in the manager's job. He was offered the managerial position with the Newark Bears, the Yankee's top minor-league affiliate, but Ruth turned the offer down. Boston Braves (1935) Babe Ruth was traded to the Boston Braves on Feb. 26, 1935. Along with playing, Ruth would be the Braves' vice president and assistant manager. But after leaving the Yankees, Ruth's on-the-field skills declined sharply. His last glimpse of greatness occurred on May 25, 1935, against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Ruth went 4-for-4 with three home runs and six RBI. On May 30, 1935, Ruth played in his final game, striking out in his only at-bat before leaving with a knee injury. On June 2, 1935, Ruth announced his retirement. Ruth retired with 714 career home runs, which was the most in baseball until Hank Aaron broke his record on April 8, 1974. Post-playing career After retiring from playing, Ruth was the first base coach of the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1938 but he lasted only one season before quitting. Ruth appeared in nearly a dozen movies during the silent film era. His acting debut came in 1920 in "Headin' Home." Ruth also appeared in "Speedy," "Perfect Control," and "Over The Fence." He was also a mainstay on radio programs. He appeared on "The Adventures of Babe Ruth," produced by the Blue Network, in 1934. It was a series of 15-minute programs that featured Ruth telling fully dramatized episodes from his career. Ruth was also featured on "Here's Bath Ruth," the comedy-drama "Alibi Ike," and "Baseball Quiz." Ruth became ill in 1946 after doctors discovered he had a malignant tumor in his neck. While in the hospital, Ruth lost 80 pounds from the radiation therapy. With Ruth still ailing, he was treated with a new medicine called teropterin (which eventually led to the creation of methorexate, which is used to treat cancer). It wasn't until after Ruth's death that it was discovered he was suffering from nasopharyngeal carcinoma, a rare tumor that's located in the back of the nose. Ruth's health continued to decline in 1948. The Yankees held a "Babe Ruth Day" on April 27, 1947. Ruth spoke in front of 60,000 fans. His final appearance at Yankee Stadium came on June 13, 1948, for the 25th anniversary celebration of the ballpark. On Aug. 16, 1948, Ruth passed away from pneumonia at 63. Over 100,000 fans came out to Yankee Stadium to pay their final respects as Ruth's casket was on display. Ruth was buried at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, N.Y. Legacy Babe Ruth was one of the first five players elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936. Formally the Little Bigger League, the Babe Ruth League was founded in 1951 as a youth baseball program. The name was changed to the Babe Ruth League in 1954 after Ruth's widow, Claire Ruth, gave the organization permission. The league serves more than 1 million young players from ages 4-18 across the United States. The Curtiss Candy Company created the "Baby Ruth" candy bar, originally called "Kandy Kate." The Curtiss Candy Company changed the name in 1921 to "Baby Ruth" and claimed it was named after Ruth Cleveland, the daughter of President Glover Cleveland. Ruth Cleveland had passed away 17 years prior to the name change. It was also around the same time when Babe Ruth was emerging as a baseball superstar. The Curtiss Candy Company capitalized from Ruth's success without having to pay the slugger royalties, an early example of ambush sports marketing. Personal Babe Ruth married Helen Woodford on Oct. 17, 1914. Babe and Helen adopted a baby girl named Dorothy in 1921. In a book titled, "My Dad, The Babe," Dorothy claimed she was Ruth's biological child with a woman named Juanita Jennings. Helen passed away in 1929 from a house fire in Watertown, Mass. Ruth remarried later that year to model Claire Merritt Hodgson. Ruth adopted Julia Hodgson, the daughter of his wife, Claire. SPONSORED HEADLINES	Babe Ruth
Which European country has the Leu as its currency?	MLB's No. 2 Worst Trade in History: Boston Trades the Bambino \| Bleacher Report MLB's No. 2 Worst Trade in History: Boston Trades the Bambino Next ARTICLE » Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse more stories Before building his famous house in the Bronx, Babe Ruth was a top pitcher for the Boston Red Sox who played in the outfield on days he didn't pitch. 37.5K 3 Comments Well, here we are. Just one more trade until I discuss what I believe is the worst one in baseball history and for No. 2, I’ve picked a good one. This trade needs no introduction. It’s a DOOZY. Books have been written about it. Baseball historians have discussed it for decades. There is nothing else I can say about this trade that would make its introduction any better. Oh, by the way…it’s when the Boston Red Sox traded Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees . I can imagine what most of you are thinking. This trade dramatically changed the histories of the two teams involved. One went on to become the most successful franchise in sports history, and the other (up until recently), was for decades considered to be a group of lovable losers. Yet, while a lot of people know about the trade itself, what they don’t know is the story behind it. That’s where I come in, so let’s get started Now, I know that most baseball fans know how Babe Ruth is best known for his years spent with the Yankees and how during that time, he set records with his home run hitting. But before he was the Sultan of Swat, Babe Ruth was a standout player for the Boston Red Sox. Making his debut in 1914, Ruth made an immediate impact for the Red Sox not as an outfielder, but rather has a starting pitcher. Looking at his pitching statistics, I’m honestly surprised that he made the switch. His career record is astounding: 94 wins compared to 46 losses. His career ERA is just as impressive at 2.28! His talent on the mound led the Red Sox to consecutive World Series titles in 1915 and 1916. Rather then receive players in the Babe Ruth trade, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee only asked for cash, which he used to finance a Broadway show So now there are some readers who are probably wondering, “OK, Josh, you’ve shown us Ruth’s pitching statistics and they’re pretty good, but he’s still known primarily as an outfielder. Why is that?” I’m glad you asked! One thing that we need to understand regarding Ruth’s switch to the outfield is the era in which he played. There were two leagues, American and National, but they were basically one and the same. Why? The designated hitter rule wasn’t around yet! As a result, Ruth was in the batting order whenever he pitched, and his offense was not what people expected of a pitcher at the time. Team management took notice of Ruth’s talent at the plate, and started playing him in the outfield on days he didn’t pitch. Boston’s offense became even more powerful as the team won the World Series in 1918, the first season in which Ruth consistently played in the outfield. However, the team’s successes were short-lived. The Red Sox finished in sixth place in 1919, and the house fell down. Even before the collapse of 1919, the Red Sox had been looking for a reason to get Ruth off of the team. Both on and off the field, he had temper issues. He drank, smoked, got into fights, and didn’t do a particularly good job of taking care of himself. So, after the 1919 season, team owner Harry Frazee finally had a reason to unload his controversial All-Star player. At the time, the Red Sox were basically trading away all of their star players, and getting other players in return; you know, NORMAL trading practices. Since the trade, the Yankees have gone on to win 27 World Series titles However, Frazee did something a bit unconventional in trading Ruth. Now, apart from owning the Red Sox, Harry Frazee was also a producer of Broadway shows. At the time, he needed money to finance a play. What did he do? He traded Babe Ruth to the New York Yankees. Who did the Red Sox get in return? Well, it’s more a question of what than who. The Yankees received Babe Ruth, and in return sent $100,000 cash money to Boston. No players, no draft picks (since that concept hadn’t been invented yet), just cold hard cash. Now, given how this is a website frequented by sports fans, I don’t think I need to go into too much detail regarding the aftermath of this trade. Long story short, Ruth goes on to finish his career with 714 career home runs, sets all sorts of records, retires as the greatest hitter of all time, makes the Hall of Fame. The Red Sox spend the next 80-something years as perennial underachievers until they finally win another World Series in 2004. End of tale. Yet, I don’t think that we can fully understand how bad this trade is until we look at it compared to some similar ones made in the modern age. Today, if a team trades a player for “cash considerations,” it usually means that the player involved is a mediocre one at best and that a fair agreement can’t be reached using other players. A good example of this occurred this past season, when the Cleveland Indians traded relief pitcher Kerry Wood to the Yankees for cash considerations, although low-level minor leaguers were also involved in that deal. Just the same, it was a case of one team looking to get rid of one player for a low price. After trading Babe Ruth, the Red Sox went over 80 years without winning a World Series If Harry Frazee tried to trade Babe Ruth today, he could have gotten much more back in return, regardless of whether Ruth was a pitcher or an outfielder. In 2010, Ruth could have been worth a star outfielder, plus a couple of minor league prospects. He would be an elite player, and he wouldn’t come cheap if another team was looking to acquire him. Just imagine how much money he’d demand as a free agent! If the Babe Ruth trade hadn’t happened, there’s no telling how differently baseball history would have panned out. Maybe the Red Sox would have gone on to be the most successful team in sports history, rather than my beloved Yankees. Babe Ruth might not have become one of the greatest home run hitters of all time. Don’t get me wrong. I know that bad trades are bound to happen, but trading a top player to finance a Broadway show?! Harry Frazee, wherever you are, I hope you’re kicking yourself for this horrible mistake (or blessing, if you’re a Yankees fan like I am!). Anyway, that’s No. 2, folks. Tune in tomorrow for No. 1!	i don't know
Which much loved British actress portrayed Mollie Weasley, mother of Ron in the Harry Potter series of films?	Julie Walters - Biography - IMDb Julie Walters Biography Showing all 99 items Jump to: Overview (3) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Spouse (1) \| Trade Mark (1) \| Trivia (66) \| Personal Quotes (27) Overview (3) 5' 3" (1.6 m) Mini Bio (1) For decades, Brit actress and comedienne Julie Walters has served as a sturdy representation of the working class with her passionate, earthy portrayals on England's stage, screen and TV. A bona fide talent, her infectious spirit and self-deprecating sense of humor eventually captured the hearts of international audiences. The small and slender actress with the prominent cheekbones has yet to give an uninteresting performance. She was born Julia Mary Walters on February 22, 1950 in Smethwick, West Midlands, England, the youngest of three children and only daughter of Mary Bridget (O'Brien), an Irish-born postal clerk from County Mayo, and Thomas Walters, an English-born builder, from Birmingham. Convent schooled in Birmingham, she expressed an early desire to act. Her iron-willed mother had other ideas, however, and geared her towards a nursing career. Dutifully applying at Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Birmingham, Julie eventually gave up nursing when the pull to be an actress proved too strong. Studying English and Drama at Manchester Polytechnic, she subsequently joined a theatre company in Liverpool and apprenticed as a stand-up comic. A one-time company member of the Vanload improv troupe, she made her London stage debut in the aptly-titled comedy "Funny Peculiar" in 1975, and went on to develop a successfully bawdy act on the cabaret circuit. While at Manchester, Julie befriended aspiring writer/comedienne Victoria Wood and the twosome appeared together in sketch comedy. A couple of their works, "Talent" and "Nearly a Happy Ending," transferred to TV and were accompanied by rave reviews. Eventually they were handed their own TV series, Wood and Walters (1981). In 1980, Julie scored a huge solo success under the theatre lights when she made her London debut in Willy Russell 's "Educating Rita." For her superlative performance she won both the Variety Critic's and London Critic's Circle Awards as the young hairdresser who vows to up her station in life by enrolling in a university. She conquered film as well when Educating Rita (1983) transferred to the big screen opposite Michael Caine as her Henry Higgins-like college professor, collecting a Golden Globe Award and Oscar nomination. Reuniting with Victoria Wood in 1984, the pair continue to appear together frequently on TV, most recently with the award-winning series Dinnerladies (1998). On stage Julie has impressed in a variety of roles ranging from the contemporary ("Fool for Love," "Frankie and Johnny at the Clair de Lune") to the classics ("Macbeth," "The Rose Tattoo" and "All My Sons"), winning the Olivier Award for the last-mentioned play. Following her success as Rita, she immediately rolled out a sterling succession of film femmes including her seedy waitress-turned-successful brothel-owner in Personal Services (1987); the unsophisticated, small-town wife of Phil Collins in Buster (1988); a boozy, man-chasing mum in Killing Dad or How to Love Your Mother (1990); and Liza Minnelli 's abrasive tap student in Stepping Out (1991). Playing a wide variety of ages, she also mustered up a very convincing role as the mother of Joe Orton in the critically-acclaimed Prick Up Your Ears (1987). She capped her career in films as the abrasively stern but encouraging dance teacher in Billy Elliot (2000) which earned her a second Oscar nod and a healthy helping of quirky character parts, including her charming, charity-driven widow who poses à la natural in Calendar Girls (2003), and the maternal witch-wife Molly Weasley in the J.K. Rowling "Harry Potter" series. For her work on film and TV, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts has honored Julie five times, including four awards in a row (2001-2004). Married to Grant Roffey since 1997 after a 12-year relationship, the couple tend to a 70-acre organic farm they bought in Sussex. They have one child. Julie was honored with an OBE for her services to drama in 1999. A biography was published in 2003 entitled "Julie Walters: Seriously Funny." - IMDb Mini Biography By: Gary Brumburgh / [email protected] Spouse (1) Born at 3:00pm-BST She ranked first in the 2001 Orange Film Survey of Greatest British Films actresses. She was awarded an O.B.E (Officer of the Order of the British Empire)in the 1999 Queen's Birthday Honors List for her services to drama. She was awarded the Laurence Olivier Theatre Award in 2001 (2001 season) for Best Actress for her performance in "All My Sons" at the Royal National Theatre, Cottesloe. Julie's strong-minded mother, who wished a nursing career for her daughter, was openly upset by Julie's switch of professions to acting. When her mother died in 1989, Walters found among her possessions a box stuffed with newspaper clippings that had recorded Julie's many successes. Julie's child Maisie was stricken with leukemia at the age of two. The girl miraculously recovered and inspired Walters to write the book "Baby Talk" in 1990. Julie's birth was complicated, the umbilical cord was wrapped round her neck and a priest was actually called to give both mother and baby the Last Rites. Miraculously she was delivered safely and survived. A former boyfriend of Julie's noticed her acting ability and encouraged her to pursue an acting career. He later proposed marriage to her but she turned him down, having finally discovered her vocation in life and realising that marriage at that point would have held her back She was awarded the C.B.E. (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) in the 2008 Queen's New Years Honors List for her services to drama. Confessed in a British magazine interview that the worst job she ever had was testing ill people's stools. Former girlfriend of Pete Postlethwaite . Despite playing her mother on Dinnerladies (1998), Walters was only 3 years older than Victoria Wood . Gave birth to her only child at age 38 by Caesarean section (due to her diabetes), a daughter Maisie Mae Roffey on April 26, 1988. Child's father is her boyfriend (now husband), Grant Roffey. Daughter of Thomas Walters (b. 1909). Sister of Tom Walters and Kevin Walters. She now holds more BAFTAs than any other actress. Six competition award BAFTAs, one special award for television in 2003, and the fellowship in 2014. Sister-in-law of Jill Walters. Niece of Martin John. Niece of Joe John. Granddaughter of Patrick Walters. Shaved her head for her role in Mo (2010). She never went out in public with a shaven head: the costume department made her a wig so that she could look like herself again. In 2009, she received a star in the Birmingham Walk of Stars on Birmingham's Golden Mile, Broad Street. Auditioned for a part in Dance with a Stranger (1985), but Miranda Richardson was cast instead. Injured herself whilst filming the "Dancing Queen" musical sequence in Mamma Mia! (2008), by tripping over some rocks on a cobbled street. According to Meryl Streep , Walters "soldiered on" and completed the scene. Peter Morgan wrote the female barrister role in The Jury (2002) with Walters in mind. Has portrayed two witches; Molly Weasley in seven 'Harry Potter' films and The Witch in Brave (2012). Featured in all the Harry Potter films, but one; The fourth entry, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005), in which her character was cut from the script, due to a script of excessive length. Walters was admittedly hurt by the exclusion but delighted to returned for the fifth installment. Based her eccentric performance in Paddington (2014) on her make-up artist from the production. Sports seven different hairstyles throughout Educating Rita (1983). Before she played the main character in Educating Rita (1983), she originated the role in Royal Shakespeare Company's West End stage production in 1980. However, when the film adaptation began production she wasn't considered bankable enough for the part and the producers considered replacing her with Dolly Parton . Walters was eventually given the part after Michael Caine was cast and she went on to receive her first Oscar nomination for the part. Wished to keep her wand from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 2 (2011), but left it behind when several people told her that keeping the props was not allowed. However, by the time of the film's release she discovered that many of her co-stars kept several props from the production. Her most important performing college was Liverpool's Everyman Theatre in the mid-1970s, where she met Willy Russell, who created Educating Rita (1983) for her, and Alan Bleasdale, who wrote her a part in his television series Boys from the Blackstuff (1982). Suffers from yeast allergy. Beat out Lesley Nicol for the part of Molly Weasley in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (2001). Married her husband after an 11-year long relationship. In 2010, she achieved the rare feat of being nominated against herself in the Bafta Best Actress category, when she was double nominated for both Mo (2010) and A Short Stay in Switzerland (2009). Her autobiography, "That's Another Story", secured her a record-breaking £1.6 million advance from her publisher. Burt Reynolds personally offered her Candice Bergen 's part in Stick (1985), but she turned it down because she disliked the script. She passed on Sharon Stone 's part in King Solomon's Mines (1985). Around 2010, she briefly considered the possibility of retiring, until Nicholas Hytner at the National Theatre sent her the script of Stephen Beresford's debut play The Last of the Haussmans, offering her the role of a former hippie in old age. With her husband, she owns an organic farm in West Sussex. Appears in three of the five highest grossing British films at the UK box office; Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (2001), Mamma Mia! (2008) and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 2 (2011). She is the only performer to achieve this feat. Has turned down Hollywood several times. After her breakout role in Educating Rita (1983) she was given an agent in the US and offered several scripts. However, she disliked most of them and decided on a career in the UK, which focused on stage plays and television projects. It wasn't until the new millennium that she began pursuing film roles and appeared in several movies that were box office hits in her native UK, such as Billy Elliot (2000), Calendar Girls (2003) and Mamma Mia! (2008). The "Waterloo" sequence in Mamma Mia! (2008) was her favorite scene to film during the production. Has worked with two of her on-screen sons from the 'Harry Potter' series, outside of the franchise: She portrayed Rupert Grint 's mother in Driving Lessons (2006) and co-starred with Domhnall Gleeson in Brooklyn (2015). Made her stage debut in a school play production of A Midsummer Night's Dream in 1962. Started playing the ukulele when she was three years old. Took a seven year long break from acting in theatre, mostly in order to offer time to her ill daughter. Ranked amongst the 30 most powerful women in British TV and radio, in a 2014 list drawn up by the Radio Times. Was expelled from Holly Lodge Grammar School, at a young age, due to misbehavior. A popular guest on The Graham Norton Show (2007). She became the most ubiquitous guest in 2015, when she visited the show three times within one year. Among her many infamous moments on the show, she has performed rap music in front of rappers Tinie Tempah and 50 Cent and felt also felt the bullet wound on the latter's tongue. Hosted the opening of the new breast unit at Birmingham's Women's Hospital in December 2002. Claims to be occasionally confused with Jane Seymour , Judi Dench and Julie Andrews . Spent seven years developing her novel 'Maggie's Tree'. In a 2001 survey by Orange, sponsors of the Bafta awards, she was voted the most popular female star in the UK. She and Sean Connery were subsequently voted the on-screen collaboration most desired to happen. Walters herself was in a Sean Connery fan club when she was young. Had no previous experience with ballet before she performed the teacher in Billy Elliot (2000). Admittedly, while filming, she went through menopause and hereby struggled with the moves and hot sweats. She even compared herself with the hippopotamus from Fantasia (1940). Her husband Grant Roffey has worked variously as an AA man, a long-distance lorry driver and as a sociology student. Her daughter's illness drew a lot of media attention. Several fabricated stories were created and photographers camped out on their private property. Eventually, Walters decided to go public about Maisie's illness and auctioned an exclusive interview for which a London newspaper paid $30,000 the fee went straight to the Royal Marsden's children's unit. The interview gained Walters a lot of sympathy and she was even approached by Princess Diana who asked about her daughter's wellbeing. Mary Norton 's children's book "The Borrowers" is her favorite novel. Had a near-death experience on a vacation in Corfu, when she was swimming to a rock off the coast where a lot of people were sunbathing. A storm whipped up and in the midst of the ocean she felt too exhausted to finalize her swim to the rock. She thought it was her final moments until a man nearby man pulled her out. Filmed three films back-to-back all co-starring frequent collaborator Jim Broadbent ; The Harry Hill Movie (2013), Paddington (2014) and Brooklyn (2015). Had minor qualms before filming her nude scene for Calendar Girls (2003), because it highlights her least favorite part of her body; Her shoulders. In 2014, she was the subject of an hour-long in-depth TV special commissioned by BBC Two, Julie Walters: A Life on Screen (2014). It aired Christmas Eve and was seen by 1.74 million people. In January 2016, she presented the tomosynthesis machine at Royal Surrey County Hospital during a special ceremony. The tool is new 3D breast screening equipment, which is better at detecting cancerous tumours than traditional breast imaging. Daughter of Thomas Walters (1909-1971) and Mary Bridget Walters (née O'Brien) (1915-1989).	Julie Walters
A Tayberry is a hybrid of a Raspberry and which other fruit?	Julie Walters \| Biography and Filmography \| 1950 Voiced The Witch in Disney Pixar animated feature "Brave" 2011 Appeared on the ITV drama "The Jury II" 2010 Reprised role of Molly Weasley for the seventh and final installment of the series directed by David Yates, "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1" 2009 Returned to play Molly Weasley for "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince" 2008 Featured in the film version of the ABBA musical "Mamma Mia!" 2007 Portrayed Jane Austen's mother in the period film "Becoming Jane" 2006 Played the lead role in "Driving Lessons" alongside Rupert Grint (who played her son Ron in the "Harry Potter" series) 2005 Cast in Richard E. Grant's directorial debut "Wah-Wah" 2004 Once again played Mrs. Weasley in "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" 2003 Played a widow determined to make some good come out of her husband's death in "Calendar Girls" 2002 Reprised role of Molly Weasley for "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets" 2001 Cast as Mrs. Weasley in "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" 2000 Played the title character's supportive ballet teacher in "Billy Elliot"; earned a Supporting Actress Academy Award nomination 2000 Acted on the London stage in a revival of "All My Sons" 1999 Played Mrs. Mann in the miniseries remake of "Oliver Twist" (PBS) 1998 Offered a strong performance as a 1970s Belfast housewife who tries to negotiate a peace in "Titanic Town" 1998 Played Victoria Wood's mother on the BBC comedy series "Dinnerladies" 1997 Landed featured role in the miniseries "Melissa" (Channel 4) 1996 Co-starred with Rupert Graves in "Intimate Relations" 1994 Garnered praise for her performance in "Sister, My Sister" 1993 Starred in British TV-movie "Wide-Eyed and Legless" (released in the U.S. as "The Wedding Gift") 1992 Headlined her own British TV special "Julie Walters and Friends" (ITV) 1991 First U.S. film role, opposite Liza Minnelli in "Stepping Out" 1991 Played Robert Lindsay's mother on the Channel 4 series "GBH" 1991 Starred opposite Ken Stott in the West End revival of "The Rose Tattoo" 1989 Played lead role in British stage production of "Frankie and Johnnie in the Clair de Lune" 1985 Joined cast of the BBC variety series "Victoria Wood As Seen On TV" 1985 Played the mother on the British TV series "The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole" 1984 Appeared opposite Ian Charleson in British stage production of "Fool for Love" 1983 Reprised stage role for the film version of "Educating Rita"; earned first Best Actress Academy Award nomination 1982 Co-starred with Victoria Wood in the Granada TV series "Wood and Walters" 1982 Cast on the BBC2 comedy-drama "Boys from the Black Stuff" 1980 Appeared in the West End production of "Educating Rita" 1979 Landed early TV appearance on the British series "Screenplay" 1976	i don't know
Nicknamed “King of the Kippax”, Colin Bell made 394 appearances and scored 117 goals for which English football club between 1966 and 1979?	Colin Bell \| Top Class Football Player \| Biography 2 National team caps and goals correct as of 2005. * Appearances (Goals) In 1970 Bell, along with Manchester City team mate Francis Lee, earned a place in the England squad for the World Cup in Mexico. To help the players acclimatize to the heat of Mexico, the team staged an inter-squad mini-olympics which saw Bell win every event. During the tournament, Bell saw action in the quarter final when he replaced Bobby Charlton in the 2-3 defeat to West Germany. The substitution was deemed by some to be the negative (for England) turning point of the game. However, Charlton has argued that it was not the substitution which changed the game, and pointed out that West Germany scored their first goal before Charlton was substituted, and also that the West German team at the time had a habit of coming back in games indicates that it is wrong to blame the substitutions for England's defeat. Later career In total Bell won 48 caps and scored nine goals for England. He also captained the national team for a game in 1972, a defeat to Northern Ireland. Despite these successes, Bell was upset that he was unable to better make his name on the world stage when England failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1974, a failure which also forced England Alf Ramsey's departure. Bell's former manager at Manchester City Joe Mercer took over as caretaker of the national side and chose Bell to play in every game that he was in charge. Bell is regarded as one of England's finest ever midfield players, being described by one commentator as 'the most finished article in the modern game'. His finest performances for his country included scoring twice in the 7-0 demolition of Austria, and also helping England defeat World Champions West Germany 2-0 in 1975 at the one hundredth international game played at Wembley Stadium. The team that beat the West Germans in that game consisted of a forward line-up of Mick Channon, Kevin Keegan, Malcolm Macdonald, Alan Hudson and Alan Ball as well as Bell. Channon has commented that he did not understand why then manager Don Revie did not continue with this line-up which he considered was as good as any forward line England had had since 1970. Injury and Retirement Tragically, in 1975 at the age of 29 Bell severely injured his right knee against Manchester United in a challenge from Martin Buchan during a League Cup match at Old Trafford. He attempted a return in 1977, but called time on a magical career in 1979 having never recaptured the form which guided Manchester City to the 1968 League Title, 1969 FA Cup, 1970 League Cup and 1970 European Cup Winners' Cup and a second League Cup victory in 1976, after collecting a runners up medal in the same competition two years earlier. Then Manchester City Chairman Peter Swales described Bell as the 'finest tuned athlete' and 'irreplaceable'. This latter sentiment turned out to be true as Malcolm Allison who managed Manchester City again in the late 1970s was not able to find a trio of talented players the calibre of Bell, Summerbee and Lee like he had done in the past with Joe Mercer. In 1980 Bell tried to resurrect his career with NASL side San Jose Earthquakes. The move didn't succeed as he only played 5 games for the club. After football Bell later continued his service with the Maine Road club by working with the youth team, but left before returning during the 1990s as an ambassador for the club. In 2004 the West Stand at Manchester City's new stadium, The City of Manchester Stadium, was renamed "The Colin Bell Stand" in honour of their greatest ever player. This is a unique honour, as the East, North and South stands all remain nameless, although one of the roads leading to the stadium is called "Joe Mercer Way" in honour of Manchester City's most successful and greatest ever manager. Bell was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2005 in recognition of his contribution to the English game. He was also awarded an MBE that year in recognition of his work for charity. He also released his autobiography entitled 'Colin Bell: Reluctant Hero' in 2005. In the book, Bell reveals how his mother died of bowel cancer when he was too young to remember. She was only 39. Colin Bell's son, a surgeon, gave the book to his boss who, when reading about Colin's mother, suggested that the football legend be examined as the disease may be hereditary. Colin was examined and it was discovered that he had early symptoms of the disease. He has subsequently been treated. Legacy England and Manchester City fans alike have fond memories of the football talents of Colin Bell, and many other great players have highlighted Bell as one of the best. In his foreword to Colin Bell's autobiography, Bobby Charlton has stated that 'Colin Bell was unquestionably a great player'.[1] Alan Mullery, another of Bell's former England team mates stated that Bell would 'still be a star in today's football' and 'would fit into any team'.[2] Yet another England team mate of Bell's, Kevin Keegan, has stated that Bell 'had it all'.[3] Former England legend Tom Finney stated that 'Colin Bell was as good as anything I've ever seen'.[4]	Manchester City F.C.
Which variety of solo card game patience takes its name from a gold rush location in the Yukon Territory?	Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Bobby Moore - No Moore Heroes Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-hooded-sweatshirt-p4200"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-hooded-sweatshirt-p4200-13883_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore - No Moore Heroes Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-hooded-sweatshirt-p4200">Bobby Moore - No Moore Heroes Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Great design for West Ham legend Bobby Moore, with a little pun nod to the Stranglers' 1977 hit single "No More Heroes". A true meaning of Punk Football, Hammers fans everywhere will love this instant classic of one of England's best ever in the game! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-hooded-sweatshirt-p4200 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Bobby Moore - No Moore Heroes T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-t-shirt-p4198"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-t-shirt-p4198-13874_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore - No Moore Heroes T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-t-shirt-p4198">Bobby Moore - No Moore Heroes T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Great design for West Ham legend Bobby Moore, with a little pun nod to the Stranglers' 1977 hit single "No More Heroes". A true meaning of Punk Football, Hammers fans everywhere will love this instant classic of one of England's best ever in the game! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-no-moore-heroes-t-shirt-p4198 Tue, 03 Jan 2017 12:02:41 +0000 Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-sweatshirt-p4183"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-sweatshirt-p4183-13757_thumb.jpg" alt="Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-sweatshirt-p4183">Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> A tribute design to one of Liverpool's finest! Steven Gerrard spent his entire English football career with his beloved Liverpool, from joining the youth team in 1987, graduating to the senior team in 1998 all the way up to his move to LA Galaxy in 2015 - a total of 27 years at Anfield! While the former Liverpool captain had many memorable moments, none probably stand out more than the Champions League final in 2005 (pictured in the design), where Liverpool came from 3-0 down to level 3-3 against A.C. Milan in just 6 minutes with Gerrard scoring one of the three goals in the miracle comeback. Liverpool went on to win the trophy after a penalty shootout - Gerrard never got to participate as he was the 5th designated penalty taker, and the Kop had already won it before that could happen. Gerrard announced his retirement in November 2016 - and although he wasn't able to capture a Premier League title, he will forever remain a legend to the red of Merseyside! An absolute must-have for any Liverpool fan! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-sweatshirt-p4183 Tue, 03 Jan 2017 12:01:18 +0000 Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p4182"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p4182-13749_thumb.jpg" alt="Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p4182">Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> A tribute design to one of Liverpool's finest! Steven Gerrard spent his entire English football career with his beloved Liverpool, from joining the youth team in 1987, graduating to the senior team in 1998 all the way up to his move to LA Galaxy in 2015 - a total of 27 years at Anfield! While the former Liverpool captain had many memorable moments, none probably stand out more than the Champions League final in 2005 (pictured in the design), where Liverpool came from 3-0 down to level 3-3 against A.C. Milan in just 6 minutes with Gerrard scoring one of the three goals in the miracle comeback. Liverpool went on to win the trophy after a penalty shootout - Gerrard never got to participate as he was the 5th designated penalty taker, and the Kop had already won it before that could happen. Gerrard announced his retirement in November 2016 - and although he wasn't able to capture a Premier League title, he will forever remain a legend to the red of Merseyside! An absolute must-have for any Liverpool fan! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p4182 Tue, 03 Jan 2017 11:58:22 +0000 Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-t-shirt-p4180"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-t-shirt-p4180-13737_thumb.jpg" alt="Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-t-shirt-p4180">Steven Gerrard (Liverpool Legend) T-Shirt</a></p> <p> A tribute design to one of Liverpool's finest! Steven Gerrard spent his entire English football career with his beloved Liverpool, from joining the youth team in 1987, graduating to the senior team in 1998 all the way up to his move to LA Galaxy in 2015 - a total of 27 years at Anfield! While the former Liverpool captain had many memorable moments, none probably stand out more than the Champions League final in 2005 (pictured in the design), where Liverpool came from 3-0 down to level 3-3 against A.C. Milan in just 6 minutes with Gerrard scoring one of the three goals in the miracle comeback. Liverpool went on to win the trophy after a penalty shootout - Gerrard never got to participate as he was the 5th designated penalty taker, and the Kop had already won it before that could happen. Gerrard announced his retirement in November 2016 - and although he wasn't able to capture a Premier League title, he will forever remain a legend to the red of Merseyside! An absolute must-have for any Liverpool fan! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/steven-gerrard-liverpool-legend-t-shirt-p4180 Sat, 14 Jan 2017 02:05:53 +0000 Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2489"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2489-4525_thumb.jpg" alt="Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2489">Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Brian Clough and Peter Taylor - the dream duo that helped Nottingham Forest to the league title! It started in 1965, when Clough appointed Taylor as his assistant when he began managing Hartlepool United, before the pair moved on to Derby County - leading them to the league title. Both resigned from Derby in 1973, but would be re-united in 1976 at Nottingham Forest, where again they would go on to take the league title - making Clough one of only four managers to win the league title with two different teams (Tom Watson and Herbert Chapman before him, and Kenny Dalglish after). Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. Celebrate the dream team with this design today! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2489 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 14:46:48 +0100 Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-sweatshirt-p2488"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-sweatshirt-p2488-4518_thumb.jpg" alt="Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-sweatshirt-p2488">Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Brian Clough and Peter Taylor - the dream duo that helped Nottingham Forest to the league title! It started in 1965, when Clough appointed Taylor as his assistant when he began managing Hartlepool United, before the pair moved on to Derby County - leading them to the league title. Both resigned from Derby in 1973, but would be re-united in 1976 at Nottingham Forest, where again they would go on to take the league title - making Clough one of only four managers to win the league title with two different teams (Tom Watson and Herbert Chapman before him, and Kenny Dalglish after). Celebrate the dream team with this design today! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-sweatshirt-p2488 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p2487"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p2487-4513_thumb.jpg" alt="Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p2487">Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Brian Clough and Peter Taylor - the dream duo that helped Nottingham Forest to the league title! It started in 1965, when Clough appointed Taylor as his assistant when he began managing Hartlepool United, before the pair moved on to Derby County - leading them to the league title. Both resigned from Derby in 1973, but would be re-united in 1976 at Nottingham Forest, where again they would go on to take the league title - making Clough one of only four managers to win the league title with two different teams (Tom Watson and Herbert Chapman before him, and Kenny Dalglish after). Celebrate the dream team with this design today! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p2487 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p2485"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p2485-4501_thumb.jpg" alt="Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p2485">Clough & Taylor - The Dream Team (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Brian Clough and Peter Taylor - the dream duo that helped Nottingham Forest to the league title! It started in 1965, when Clough appointed Taylor as his assistant when he began managing Hartlepool United, before the pair moved on to Derby County - leading them to the league title. Both resigned from Derby in 1973, but would be re-united in 1976 at Nottingham Forest, where again they would go on to take the league title - making Clough one of only four managers to win the league title with two different teams (Tom Watson and Herbert Chapman before him, and Kenny Dalglish after). Celebrate the dream team with this design today! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/clough-taylor-the-dream-team-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p2485 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 14:46:48 +0100 Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2484"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/cyrille-regis-west-brom-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2484-4495_thumb.jpg" alt="Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2484">Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Tribute to West Bromwich Albion's Cyrille Regis. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. Regis played 241 games from West Brom over a 7 year period, finding the net 81 times in that period. Following his time with the Baggies, he then moved on to Coventry City - spending another 7 years there but with three less appearances, he only scored 47 times. Spells with Aston Villa, Wolves, Wycombe Wanders and Chester City would wind up his 19 year league career. Regis also played for England on five occasions - however he was unable to score any goals in those games. Celebrate a star of Football with this design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2484 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 14:46:48 +0100 Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-sweatshirt-p2483"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/cyrille-regis-west-brom-sweatshirt-p2483-4488_thumb.jpg" alt="Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-sweatshirt-p2483">Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Tribute to West Bromwich Albion's Cyrille Regis. Regis played 241 games from West Brom over a 7 year period, finding the net 81 times in that period. Following his time with the Baggies, he then moved on to Coventry City - spending another 7 years there but with three less appearances, he only scored 47 times. Spells with Aston Villa, Wolves, Wycombe Wanders and Chester City would wind up his 19 year league career. Regis also played for England on five occasions - however he was unable to score any goals in those games. Celebrate a star of Football with this design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-sweatshirt-p2483 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-hooded-sweatshirt-p2482"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/cyrille-regis-west-brom-hooded-sweatshirt-p2482-4480_thumb.jpg" alt="Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-hooded-sweatshirt-p2482">Cyrille Regis (West Brom) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Tribute to West Bromwich Albion's Cyrille Regis. Regis played 241 games from West Brom over a 7 year period, finding the net 81 times in that period. Following his time with the Baggies, he then moved on to Coventry City - spending another 7 years there but with three less appearances, he only scored 47 times. Spells with Aston Villa, Wolves, Wycombe Wanders and Chester City would wind up his 19 year league career. Regis also played for England on five occasions - however he was unable to score any goals in those games. Celebrate a star of Football with this design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-hooded-sweatshirt-p2482 Mon, 07 Nov 2016 02:07:18 +0000 Cyrille Regis (West Brom) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-t-shirt-p2480"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/cyrille-regis-west-brom-t-shirt-p2480-4469_thumb.jpg" alt="Cyrille Regis (West Brom) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-t-shirt-p2480">Cyrille Regis (West Brom) T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Tribute to West Bromwich Albion's Cyrille Regis. Regis played 241 games from West Brom over a 7 year period, finding the net 81 times in that period. Following his time with the Baggies, he then moved on to Coventry City - spending another 7 years there but with three less appearances, he only scored 47 times. Spells with Aston Villa, Wolves, Wycombe Wanders and Chester City would wind up his 19 year league career. Regis also played for England on five occasions - however he was unable to score any goals in those games. Celebrate a star of Football with this design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/cyrille-regis-west-brom-t-shirt-p2480 Mon, 23 May 2016 14:05:22 +0100 Tony Adams (Arsenal) Quote T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tony-adams-arsenal-quote-t-shirt-p2463"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tony-adams-arsenal-quote-t-shirt-p2463-4397_thumb.jpg" alt="Tony Adams (Arsenal) Quote T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tony-adams-arsenal-quote-t-shirt-p2463">Tony Adams (Arsenal) Quote T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Great design of Arsenal legend Tony Adams! "Play for the name on the front of the shirt, and they'll remember the name on the back." - never a truer word spoken! This is a must for all Arsenal fans and your collection! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tony-adams-arsenal-quote-t-shirt-p2463 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Zinedine Zidane (France) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2274"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2274-3418_thumb.jpg" alt="Zinedine Zidane (France) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2274">Zinedine Zidane (France) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of World Cup winner Zinedine Zidane. Winning the 1998 World Cup with France, Zidane played for Cannes, Bordeaux, Juventus and Real Madrid. "Zizou" was also an ambassador for the 2022 bid for Qatar to host the World Cup, which was successful. Zidane's career came to a controversial end however, being sent off in the 2006 World Cup final against Italy for headbutting Marco Materazzi. Vintage Wash for that "Lived In" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2274 Sat, 30 Apr 2016 02:05:55 +0100 Bobby Moore (West Ham) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-west-ham-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2272"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-west-ham-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2272-3399_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore (West Ham) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-west-ham-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2272">Bobby Moore (West Ham) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of Bobby Moore, the captain for England during their only World Cup win in 1966. He also made 544 appearances for West Ham, scoring 24 goals from his defenders position. He is one of England's most capped players, appearing in 108 games for his nation. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-west-ham-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2272 Wed, 31 Aug 2016 14:05:25 +0100 Jairzinho (Brazil) 70's Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2271"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2271-3391_thumb.jpg" alt="Jairzinho (Brazil) 70's Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2271">Jairzinho (Brazil) 70's Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of the Brazilian footballer Jair Ventura Filho, better known as Jairzinho. He made 81 appearances for his country, scoring 33 goals. As a coach, he was the man who spotted Ronaldo, who in turn would become a Brazilian legend himself. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2271 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Eric Cantona "King Eric" Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2270"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2270-3383_thumb.jpg" alt="Eric Cantona "King Eric" Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2270">Eric Cantona "King Eric" Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of the Manchester United legend Eric Cantona, who won four Premier League titles in five years at the club but with a poor disciplinary record. He played 143 games for United, scoring 64 goals and was considered one of the men to have been integral to the Manchester United revival of the 90's. Since retiring, Cantona has taken to a small bit of acting here and there and has appeared on TV commercials too. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2270 Wed, 12 Oct 2016 14:05:38 +0100 Socrates (Brazil) 80's Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2269"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2269-3375_thumb.jpg" alt="Socrates (Brazil) 80's Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2269">Socrates (Brazil) 80's Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of the Brazilian player Socrates Brasileiro Sampaio de Souza Vieira de Oliveira. He scored 22 goals for his nation, and was also captain during the 1982 World Cup. Socrates, interestingly, played his final senior career game some 15 years after his full-time career ended with a one-off appearance for Garforth Town in 2004 - he played the final 12 minutes of the game! Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2269 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Kenny Dalglish "King Kenny" Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2268"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2268-3367_thumb.jpg" alt="Kenny Dalglish "King Kenny" Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2268">Kenny Dalglish "King Kenny" Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of Liverpool legend "King" Kenny Dalglish. Player, Player-Manager and Manager for the club, Liverpool fans nicknamed him "King Kenny" for his success with the club throughout the years. He scored 118 goals for the club in 355 appearances for them between 1977 and 1990. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2268 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:33 +0000 Billy Bremner (Leeds) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2267"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2267-3359_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner (Leeds) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2267">Billy Bremner (Leeds) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of Leeds legend and PunkFootball favourite Billy Bremner. Bremner captained Leeds through their most successful period, winning eight different trophies. He made 587 appearances for the group, scoring 91 goals from a midfield position. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2267 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Neville Southall (Everton) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2266"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2266-3351_thumb.jpg" alt="Neville Southall (Everton) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2266">Neville Southall (Everton) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of goalkeeper Neville Southall, who spent the majority of his career at Everton. He set a club record 578 appearances for the team, and has also briefly delved in and out of manager roles since his playing career ended. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. Perfect for Everton fans! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2266 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Don Revie (1972) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2265"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2265-3343_thumb.jpg" alt="Don Revie (1972) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2265">Don Revie (1972) Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of Don Revie, who managed Leeds from 1961-1974. The image also includes the quote "You get nowt for being second" - which was then also a book title for Billy Bremner! Revie also scored 11 times for Leeds in 76 appearances for them - it was the team which he finished his career with. Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2265 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Matt Le Tissier: Le God Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2264"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2264-3335_thumb.jpg" alt="Matt Le Tissier: Le God Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2264">Matt Le Tissier: Le God Vintage Poster Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage Poster T-Shirt of Southampton legend Matt Le Tissier. His loyalty to the club was unwavering, despite offers from Tottenham and Chelsea, Le Tissier stayed with Southampton throughout his entire league footballing career - earning him the nickname "Le God". Vintage Wash for that "lived in" look. Perfect tribute shirt to a man Southampton fans will never forget! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2264 Tue, 30 Aug 2016 14:05:27 +0100 Bobby Moore (West Ham) 60's Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-west-ham-60s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2252"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-west-ham-60s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2252-3225_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore (West Ham) 60's Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-west-ham-60s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2252">Bobby Moore (West Ham) 60's Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster of Bobby Moore, the captain for England during their only World Cup win in 1966. He also made 544 appearances for West Ham, scoring 24 goals from his defenders position. He is one of England's most capped players, appearing in 108 games for his nation. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-west-ham-60s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2252 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Jairzinho (Brazil) 70's Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2251"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2251-3211_thumb.jpg" alt="Jairzinho (Brazil) 70's Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2251">Jairzinho (Brazil) 70's Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster for Brazilian footballer Jair Ventura Filho, better known as Jairzinho. He made 81 appearances for his country, scoring 33 goals. As a coach, he was the man who spotted Ronaldo, who in turn would become a Brazilian legend himself. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jairzinho-brazil-70s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2251 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Eric Cantona "King Eric" Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2250"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2250-3197_thumb.jpg" alt="Eric Cantona "King Eric" Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2250">Eric Cantona "King Eric" Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster for Manchester United legend Eric Cantona, who won four Premier League titles in five years at the club but with a poor disciplinary record. He played 143 games for United, scoring 64 goals and was considered one of the men to have been integral to the Manchester United revival of the 90's. Since retiring, Cantona has taken to a small bit of acting here and there and has appeared on TV commercials too. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/eric-cantona-king-eric-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2250 Sun, 28 Aug 2016 02:06:02 +0100 Socrates (Brazil) 80's Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2249"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2249-3183_thumb.jpg" alt="Socrates (Brazil) 80's Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2249">Socrates (Brazil) 80's Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster of the Brazilian player Socrates Brasileiro Sampaio de Souza Vieira de Oliveira. He scored 22 goals for his nation, and was also captain during the 1982 World Cup. Socrates, interestingly, played his final senior career game some 15 years after his full-time career ended with a one-off appearance for Garforth Town in 2004 - he played the final 12 minutes of the game! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/socrates-brazil-80s-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2249 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Kenny Dalglish "King Kenny" Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2248"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2248-3169_thumb.jpg" alt="Kenny Dalglish "King Kenny" Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2248">Kenny Dalglish "King Kenny" Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster for Liverpool legend "King" Kenny Dalglish. Player, Player-Manager and Manager for the club, Liverpool fans nicknamed him "King Kenny" for his success with the club throughout the years. He scored 118 goals for the club in 355 appearances for them between 1977 and 1990. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/kenny-dalglish-king-kenny-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2248 Tue, 09 Aug 2016 14:05:27 +0100 Billy Bremner (Leeds) Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2247"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2247-3155_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner (Leeds) Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2247">Billy Bremner (Leeds) Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of Leeds legend and PunkFootball favourite Billy Bremner. Bremner captained Leeds through their most successful period, winning eight different trophies. He made 587 appearances for the group, scoring 91 goals from a midfield position. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2247 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Neville Southall (Everton) Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2246"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2246-3141_thumb.jpg" alt="Neville Southall (Everton) Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2246">Neville Southall (Everton) Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of goalkeeper Neville Southall, who spent the majority of his career at Everton. He set a club record 578 appearances for the team, and has also briefly delved in and out of manager roles since his playing career ended. Perfect for Everton fans! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/neville-southall-everton-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2246 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Don Revie (1972) Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2245"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2245-3127_thumb.jpg" alt="Don Revie (1972) Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2245">Don Revie (1972) Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of Don Revie, who managed Leeds from 1961-1974. The image also includes the quote "You get nowt for being second" - which was then also a book title for Billy Bremner! Revie also scored 11 times for Leeds in 76 appearances for them - it was the team which he finished his career with. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/don-revie-1972-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2245 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Zinedine Zidane (France) Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2244"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2244-3407_thumb.jpg" alt="Zinedine Zidane (France) Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2244">Zinedine Zidane (France) Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of World Cup winner Zinedine Zidane. Winning the 1998 World Cup with France, Zidane played for Cannes, Bordeaux, Juventus and Real Madrid. "Zizou" was also an ambassador for the 2022 bid for Qatar to host the World Cup, which was successful. Zidane's career came to a controversial end however, being sent off in the 2006 World Cup final against Italy for headbutting Marco Materazzi. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2244 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Frank McAvennie & Tony Cottee (1986) Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/frank-mcavennie-tony-cottee-1986-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2243"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-mcavennie-tony-cottee-1986-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2243-3103_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank McAvennie & Tony Cottee (1986) Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/frank-mcavennie-tony-cottee-1986-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2243">Frank McAvennie & Tony Cottee (1986) Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage poster T-Shirt of West Ham duo Frank McAvennie and Tony Cottee from 1986. The two proved quite a formidable striking force for the team, with Frank scoring 26 league goals and Tony 20 in their time together. A must have for West Ham fans! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/frank-mcavennie-tony-cottee-1986-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2243 Wed, 02 Nov 2016 02:06:43 +0000 Billy Bonds (1976) Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bonds-1976-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2242"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bonds-1976-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2242-3093_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bonds (1976) Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bonds-1976-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2242">Billy Bonds (1976) Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage Poster T-Shirt of Billy Bonds, legendary West Ham player. Bonds spent an incredible 21 years playing for West Ham United, before spending a further 4 years as the manager. He scored 48 goals in 663 games for West Ham, playing as defender and midfielder. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bonds-1976-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2242 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Matt Le Tissier: Le God Vintage Poster T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2241"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2241-3079_thumb.jpg" alt="Matt Le Tissier: Le God Vintage Poster T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2241">Matt Le Tissier: Le God Vintage Poster T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Vintage Poster T-Shirt of Southampton legend Matt Le Tissier. His loyalty to the club was unwavering, despite offers from Tottenham and Chelsea, Le Tissier stayed with Southampton throughout his entire league footballing career - earning him the nickname "Le God". Perfect tribute shirt to a man Southampton fans will never forget! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-le-god-vintage-poster-t-shirt-p2241 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2240"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2240-3075_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2240">Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p2240 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 90's Eric Cantona (As Worn By Morrissey) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-hooded-sweatshirt-p2222"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-hooded-sweatshirt-p2222-2947_thumb.jpg" alt="90's Eric Cantona (As Worn By Morrissey) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-hooded-sweatshirt-p2222">90's Eric Cantona (As Worn By Morrissey) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Retro Eric Cantona 90's design as worn by Morrissey Frenchman Cantona made 143 appearances for Manchester United between 1992-97, scoring 64 goals - more than at any other club in his professional career. Musician Morrissey was associated with supporting quite a few football teams, including Manchester United. United fans, and fans of Morrissey alike will love this product! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-hooded-sweatshirt-p2222 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 02:06:48 +0000 90's Eric Cantona (As Worn By Morrissey) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-t-shirt-p2220"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-t-shirt-p2220-2923_thumb.jpg" alt="90's Eric Cantona (As Worn By Morrissey) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-t-shirt-p2220">90's Eric Cantona (As Worn By Morrissey) T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Retro Eric Cantona 90's design as worn by Morrissey Frenchman Cantona made 143 appearances for Manchester United between 1992-97, scoring 64 goals - more than at any other club in his professional career. Musician Morrissey was associated with supporting quite a few football teams, including Manchester United. United fans, and fans of Morrissey alike will love this product! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/90s-eric-cantona-as-worn-by-morrissey-t-shirt-p2220 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Luis Suarez (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2213"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2213-2859_thumb.jpg" alt="Luis Suarez (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2213">Luis Suarez (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Argentina's Luis Suarez in a cool coke style font. The striker, who has played for the likes of Barcelona and Liverpool, has caused as much controversy as he has moments of genius on the pitch! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2213 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Luis Suarez (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2211"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2211-2850_thumb.jpg" alt="Luis Suarez (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2211">Luis Suarez (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Argentina's Luis Suarez in a cool coke style font. The striker, who has played for the likes of Barcelona and Liverpool, has caused as much controversy as he has moments of genius on the pitch! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/luis-suarez-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2211 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Charlie George (Arsenal) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2183"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2183-2665_thumb.jpg" alt="Charlie George (Arsenal) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2183">Charlie George (Arsenal) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Arsenal's Charlie George in a cool coke style font. Gunners legend was with the team between 1966 and 1975, being part of the group that took Arsenal to the double in 1971. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2183 Fri, 06 Jan 2017 02:07:13 +0000 Charlie George (Arsenal) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2181"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2181-2655_thumb.jpg" alt="Charlie George (Arsenal) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2181">Charlie George (Arsenal) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Arsenal's Charlie George in a cool coke style font. Gunners legend was with the team between 1966 and 1975, being part of the group that took Arsenal to the double in 1971. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/charlie-george-arsenal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2181 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Jeff Astle (West Brom) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2178"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2178-2641_thumb.jpg" alt="Jeff Astle (West Brom) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2178">Jeff Astle (West Brom) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> West Bromwich Albion's Jeff Astle in a cool coke style font. Astle played 361 games for West Bromwich Albion, scoring 174 goals, and was one of the most iconic players in the history of the club. A fans favourite, it was the supporters who nicknamed him "The King". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2178 Mon, 07 Nov 2016 02:07:18 +0000 Jeff Astle (West Brom) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2176"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2176-2632_thumb.jpg" alt="Jeff Astle (West Brom) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2176">Jeff Astle (West Brom) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> West Bromwich Albion's Jeff Astle in a cool coke style font. Astle played 361 games for West Bromwich Albion, scoring 174 goals, and was one of the most iconic players in the history of the club. A fans favourite, it was the supporters who nicknamed him "The King". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jeff-astle-west-brom-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2176 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Dave Mackay (Spurs) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2173"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2173-2618_thumb.jpg" alt="Dave Mackay (Spurs) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2173">Dave Mackay (Spurs) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Tottenham Hotspur's Dave Mackay in a cool coke style font. During his time with Spurs and Derby, Mackay earned the reputation of a "hard man". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2173 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Dave Mackay (Spurs) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2171"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2171-2608_thumb.jpg" alt="Dave Mackay (Spurs) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2171">Dave Mackay (Spurs) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Tottenham Hotspur's Dave Mackay in a cool coke style font. During his time with Spurs and Derby, Mackay earned the reputation of a "hard man". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dave-mackay-spurs-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2171 Tue, 05 Apr 2016 15:00:49 +0100 Matthew Le Tissier (Southampton) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2168"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2168-2595_thumb.jpg" alt="Matthew Le Tissier (Southampton) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2168">Matthew Le Tissier (Southampton) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Southampton's Matthew Le Tissier in a cool coke style font. Southampton legend Matt Le Tissier, who spent his entire professional club career with the Saints. His loyalty garnered special affection from Southampton's fans, who nicknamed him "Le God". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2168 Wed, 10 Aug 2016 02:06:15 +0100 Matthew Le Tissier (Southampton) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2166"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2166-2585_thumb.jpg" alt="Matthew Le Tissier (Southampton) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2166">Matthew Le Tissier (Southampton) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Southampton's Matthew Le Tissier in a cool coke style font. Southampton legend Matt Le Tissier, who spent his entire professional club career with the Saints. His loyalty garnered special affection from Southampton's fans, who nicknamed him "Le God". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matthew-le-tissier-southampton-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2166 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Stan Bowles (QPR) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2163"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2163-2572_thumb.jpg" alt="Stan Bowles (QPR) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2163">Stan Bowles (QPR) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Queens Park Rangers' Stanley Bowles in a cool coke style font. The epitome of 70's football - skillful and flamboyant - Stanley Bowles. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2163 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Stan Bowles (QPR) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2161"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2161-2563_thumb.jpg" alt="Stan Bowles (QPR) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2161">Stan Bowles (QPR) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Queens Park Rangers' Stanley Bowles in a cool coke style font. The epitome of 70's football - skillful and flamboyant - Stanley Bowles. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/stan-bowles-qpr-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2161 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Tom Finney (Preston North End) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2158"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2158-2549_thumb.jpg" alt="Tom Finney (Preston North End) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2158">Tom Finney (Preston North End) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Preston North End's Tom Finney in a cool coke style font. Local boy Finney played his whole career out at Preston playing 433 times and scoring 187 goals as well as earning 76 England caps (30 goals). </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2158 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Tom Finney (Preston North End) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2156"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2156-2540_thumb.jpg" alt="Tom Finney (Preston North End) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2156">Tom Finney (Preston North End) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Preston North End's Tom Finney in a cool coke style font. Local boy Finney played his whole career out at Preston playing 433 times and scoring 187 goals as well as earning 76 England caps (30 goals). </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/tom-finney-preston-north-end-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2156 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 John Robertson (Nottingham Forest) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2153"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2153-2516_thumb.jpg" alt="John Robertson (Nottingham Forest) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2153">John Robertson (Nottingham Forest) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Nottingham Forest's John Robertson in a cool coke style font. Robertson played for Nottingham Forest when they were at the peak of their success under manager Brian Clough, notably scoring the only goal in a 1-0 victory in the 1980 European Cup Final against Hamburg. Robertson also played for his country Scotland making 28 Caps. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2153 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 John Robertson (Nottingham Forest) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2151"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2151-2506_thumb.jpg" alt="John Robertson (Nottingham Forest) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2151">John Robertson (Nottingham Forest) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Nottingham Forest's John Robertson in a cool coke style font. Robertson played for Nottingham Forest when they were at the peak of their success under manager Brian Clough, notably scoring the only goal in a 1-0 victory in the 1980 European Cup Final against Hamburg. Robertson also played for his country Scotland making 28 Caps. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/john-robertson-nottingham-forest-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2151 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Alan Shearer (Newcastle/Blackburn) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2148"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2148-2492_thumb.jpg" alt="Alan Shearer (Newcastle/Blackburn) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2148">Alan Shearer (Newcastle/Blackburn) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Newcastle & Blackburn's Alan Shearer in a cool coke style font. Alan Shearer is the Premier League's top goalscorer of all time, finding the back of the net 260 times! Available in black for Newcastle fans and blue for Blackburn fans. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2148 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Alan Shearer (Newcastle/Blackburn) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2146"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2146-2482_thumb.jpg" alt="Alan Shearer (Newcastle/Blackburn) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2146">Alan Shearer (Newcastle/Blackburn) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Newcastle & Blackburn's Alan Shearer in a cool coke style font. Alan Shearer is the Premier League's top goalscorer of all time, finding the back of the net 260 times! Available in black for the Newcastle fans and blue for the Blackburn fans. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/alan-shearer-newcastle-blackburn-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2146 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Ian Callaghan (Liverpool) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2143"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2143-2469_thumb.jpg" alt="Ian Callaghan (Liverpool) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2143">Ian Callaghan (Liverpool) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Liverpool's Ian Callaghan in a cool coke style font. Liverpool legend Ian Callaghan's midfield play was the catalyst in Liverpool's success in the 60's and 70's. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2143 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Ian Callaghan (Liverpool) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2141"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2141-2459_thumb.jpg" alt="Ian Callaghan (Liverpool) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2141">Ian Callaghan (Liverpool) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Liverpool's Ian Callaghan in a cool coke style font. Liverpool legend Ian Callaghan's midfield play was the catalyst in Liverpool's success in the 60's and 70's. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ian-callaghan-liverpool-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2141 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Billy Bremner (Leeds) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2138"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2138-2446_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner (Leeds) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2138">Billy Bremner (Leeds) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Leeds' Billy Bremner in a cool coke style font. Leeds United and Scotland Legend Billy Bremner is most noted for his captaincy of the Leeds United team of the 1960s and 1970s. He has since been voted Leeds United's greatest player of all time and has a statue outside the South East corner of Elland Road. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2138 Wed, 17 Aug 2016 14:05:21 +0100 Billy Bremner (Leeds) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2136"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2136-2437_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner (Leeds) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2136">Billy Bremner (Leeds) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Leeds' Billy Bremner in a cool coke style font. Leeds United and Scotland Legend Billy Bremner is most noted for his captaincy of the Leeds United team of the 1960s and 1970s. He has since been voted Leeds United's greatest player of all time and has a statue outside the South East corner of Elland Road. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/billy-bremner-leeds-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2136 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be le Tissier Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-hooded-sweatshirt-p2133"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-hooded-sweatshirt-p2133-2423_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be le Tissier Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-hooded-sweatshirt-p2133">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be le Tissier Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be le Tissier - then always be le Tissier" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Southampton fans alike will love this Matt le Tissier design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-hooded-sweatshirt-p2133 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be le Tissier T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-t-shirt-p2131"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-t-shirt-p2131-2413_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be le Tissier T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-t-shirt-p2131">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be le Tissier T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be le Tissier - then always be le Tissier" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Southampton fans alike will love this Matt le Tissier design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-le-tissier-t-shirt-p2131 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Zola Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-hooded-sweatshirt-p2128"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-hooded-sweatshirt-p2128-2400_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Zola Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-hooded-sweatshirt-p2128">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Zola Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Zola - then always be Zola" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Chelsea fans alike will love this Gianfranco Zola design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-hooded-sweatshirt-p2128 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:39 +0000 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Zola T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-t-shirt-p2126"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-t-shirt-p2126-2391_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Zola T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-t-shirt-p2126">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Zola T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Zola - then always be Zola" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Chelsea fans alike will love this Gianfranco Zola design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-zola-t-shirt-p2126 Sun, 20 Nov 2016 02:06:36 +0000 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Stein Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-hooded-sweatshirt-p2123"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-hooded-sweatshirt-p2123-2378_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Stein Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-hooded-sweatshirt-p2123">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Stein Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Jock Stein - then always be Jock Stein" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Celtic fans alike will love this Jock Stein design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-hooded-sweatshirt-p2123 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Stein T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-t-shirt-p2121"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-t-shirt-p2121-2369_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Stein T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-t-shirt-p2121">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Stein T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Jock Stein - then always be Jock Stein" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Celtic fans alike will love this Jock Stein design! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-stein-t-shirt-p2121 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Giggs Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-hooded-sweatshirt-p2118"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-hooded-sweatshirt-p2118-2356_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Giggs Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-hooded-sweatshirt-p2118">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Giggs Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Giggs - then always be Giggs" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle One that fans of the Manchester United stalwart will want to get their hands on! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-hooded-sweatshirt-p2118 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Giggs T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-t-shirt-p2116"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-t-shirt-p2116-2346_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Giggs T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-t-shirt-p2116">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Giggs T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Giggs - then always be Giggs" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle One that fans of the Manchester United stalwart will want to get their hands on! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-giggs-t-shirt-p2116 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Hoddle Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-hooded-sweatshirt-p2113"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-hooded-sweatshirt-p2113-2333_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Hoddle Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-hooded-sweatshirt-p2113">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Hoddle Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Hoddle - then always be Hoddle" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle A must buy for all fans of Spurs and the icon! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-hooded-sweatshirt-p2113 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Hoddle T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-t-shirt-p2111"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-t-shirt-p2111-2324_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Hoddle T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-t-shirt-p2111">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Hoddle T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Hoddle - then always be Hoddle" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle A must buy for all fans of Spurs and the icon! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-hoddle-t-shirt-p2111 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Dalglish Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-hooded-sweatshirt-p2108"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-hooded-sweatshirt-p2108-2310_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Dalglish Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-hooded-sweatshirt-p2108">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Dalglish Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Dalglish - then always be Dalglish" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Liverpool fans of the legend will love this! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-hooded-sweatshirt-p2108 Thu, 27 Oct 2016 14:05:32 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Dalglish T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-t-shirt-p2106"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-t-shirt-p2106-2300_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Dalglish T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-t-shirt-p2106">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Dalglish T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Dalglish - then always be Dalglish" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Liverpool fans of the legend will love this! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-dalglish-t-shirt-p2106 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Messi Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-hooded-sweatshirt-p2103"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-hooded-sweatshirt-p2103-2287_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Messi Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-hooded-sweatshirt-p2103">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Messi Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Messi - then always be Messi" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Perfect for all fans of the Argentinian Maestro! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-hooded-sweatshirt-p2103 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Messi T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-t-shirt-p2101"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-t-shirt-p2101-2278_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Messi T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-t-shirt-p2101">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Messi T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Messi - then always be Messi" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle Perfect for all fans of the Argentinian Maestro! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-messi-t-shirt-p2101 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Clough Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-hooded-sweatshirt-p2098"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-hooded-sweatshirt-p2098-2250_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Clough Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-hooded-sweatshirt-p2098">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Clough Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Brian Clough - then always be Brian Clough" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle The perfect design for fans of the legend from both Derby (in black) and Nottingham Forest (in red)! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-hooded-sweatshirt-p2098 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Clough T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-t-shirt-p2096"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-t-shirt-p2096-2230_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Clough T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-t-shirt-p2096">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Clough T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Brian Clough - then always be Brian Clough" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle The perfect design for fans of the legend from both Derby (in black) and Nottingham Forest (in red)! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-clough-t-shirt-p2096 Wed, 07 Dec 2016 02:05:55 +0000 Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Cantona T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-cantona-t-shirt-p2091"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-cantona-t-shirt-p2091-2207_thumb.jpg" alt="Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Cantona T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-cantona-t-shirt-p2091">Always Be Yourself - Unless You Can Be Cantona T-Shirt</a></p> <p> "Always be yourself - unless you can be Cantona - then always be Cantona" Based on the novel "The Last Unicorn" by Peter S. Beagle The ex-Manchester United player most certainly is someone to be if being yourself doesn't quite work out! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/always-be-yourself-unless-you-can-be-cantona-t-shirt-p2091 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Johnny Haynes (Fulham) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2088"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2088-2191_thumb.jpg" alt="Johnny Haynes (Fulham) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2088">Johnny Haynes (Fulham) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Fulham's Johnny Haynes in a cool coke style font. A tribute to one of the games best ever players and the first £100 per week footballer. A legend and a must for all Fulham fans. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2088 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Johnny Haynes (Fulham) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2087"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2087-2185_thumb.jpg" alt="Johnny Haynes (Fulham) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2087">Johnny Haynes (Fulham) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Fulham's Johnny Haynes in a cool coke style font. A tribute to one of the games best ever players and the first £100 per week footballer. A legend and a must for all Fulham fans. </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/johnny-haynes-fulham-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2087 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Robin Friday (Cardiff) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2084"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2084-2172_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday (Cardiff) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2084">Robin Friday (Cardiff) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p> Tribute to Cardiff's Robin Friday in a cool coke style font. A real maverick 70's footballer and icon. Most fans who saw him play in the flesh said he was better than George Best. However in one particular game, when playing against Mark Lawrenson, Friday became agitated with the erstwhile BBC pundit. He kicked Lawrenson in the face and received a red card before defecating in Lawrenson's kitbag! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2084 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 14:19:38 +0000 Robin Friday (Cardiff) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2082"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2082-2163_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday (Cardiff) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2082">Robin Friday (Cardiff) Enjoy-Style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Tribute to Cardiff's Robin Friday in a cool coke style font. A real maverick 70's footballer and icon. Most fans who saw him play in the flesh said he was better than George Best. However in one particular game, when playing against Mark Lawrenson, Friday became agitated with the erstwhile BBC pundit. He kicked Lawrenson in the face and received a red card before defecating in Lawrenson's kitbag! </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/robin-friday-cardiff-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2082 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Peter Osgood (Chelsea) Enjoy-style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2079"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2079-2150_thumb.jpg" alt="Peter Osgood (Chelsea) Enjoy-style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2079">Peter Osgood (Chelsea) Enjoy-style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p>Chelsea legend Peter Osgood's name in a cool coke style font.. In 1971, Osgood was part of the Chelsea team which lifted the European Cup Winners' Cup, defeating Real Madrid 2-1 in a replay in Athens after the original tie had finished 1-1, with Osgood scoring Chelsea's goal in that game. In the replay he scored again, the opener, as they went on to win 2-1. He was taken to the hearts of the Chelsea faithful, who nicknamed him "the Wizard of Os".</p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2079 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Peter Osgood (Chelsea) Enjoy-style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2077"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2077-2141_thumb.jpg" alt="Peter Osgood (Chelsea) Enjoy-style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2077">Peter Osgood (Chelsea) Enjoy-style T-Shirt</a></p> <p> Chelsea legend Peter Osgood's name in a cool coke style font. In 1971, Osgood was part of the Chelsea team which lifted the European Cup Winners' Cup, defeating Real Madrid 2-1 in a replay in Athens after the original tie had finished 1-1, with Osgood scoring Chelsea's goal in that game. In the replay he scored again, the opener, as they went on to win 2-1. He was taken to the hearts of the Chelsea faithful, who nicknamed him "the Wizard of Os". </p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/peter-osgood-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2077 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Jose Mourinho (Chelsea) Enjoy-style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2074"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2074-2128_thumb.jpg" alt="Jose Mourinho (Chelsea) Enjoy-style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2074">Jose Mourinho (Chelsea) Enjoy-style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p>Chelsea's "Chosen One", Jose Mourinho, in a cool coke style font.</p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p2074 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:01:35 +0100 Jose Mourinho (Chelsea) Enjoy-style T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2072"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2072-2119_thumb.jpg" alt="Jose Mourinho (Chelsea) Enjoy-style T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2072">Jose Mourinho (Chelsea) Enjoy-style T-Shirt</a></p> <p>Chelsea's "Chosen One", Jose Mourinho, in a cool coke style font.</p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/jose-mourinho-chelsea-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p2072 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Denis Law - I am the Law vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1444"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1444-1897_thumb.jpg" alt="Denis Law - I am the Law vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1444">Denis Law - I am the Law vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1444 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Denis Law - I am the Law vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/scotland-c18/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1445"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1445-1899_thumb.jpg" alt="Denis Law - I am the Law vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/scotland-c18/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1445">Denis Law - I am the Law vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/scotland-c18/denis-law-i-am-the-law-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1445 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Johnny Haynes Tribute vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/johnny-haynes-tribute-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1447"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johnny-haynes-tribute-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1447-1905_thumb.jpg" alt="Johnny Haynes Tribute vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/johnny-haynes-tribute-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1447">Johnny Haynes Tribute vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/johnny-haynes-tribute-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1447 Sat, 10 Dec 2016 02:06:50 +0000 Billy Bremner - Hard vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bremner-hard-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1448"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-hard-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1448-1906_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner - Hard vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bremner-hard-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1448">Billy Bremner - Hard vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bremner-hard-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1448 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Dixie Dean Goal Machine vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c45/dixie-dean-goal-machine-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1449"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dixie-dean-goal-machine-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1449-1909_thumb.jpg" alt="Dixie Dean Goal Machine vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c45/dixie-dean-goal-machine-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1449">Dixie Dean Goal Machine vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c45/dixie-dean-goal-machine-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1449 Tue, 27 Sep 2016 02:06:38 +0100 Allan Sniffer Clarke vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/allan-sniffer-clarke-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1450"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/allan-sniffer-clarke-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1450-1919_thumb.jpg" alt="Allan Sniffer Clarke vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/allan-sniffer-clarke-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1450">Allan Sniffer Clarke vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/allan-sniffer-clarke-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1450 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Frank Worthington - Rock Star vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-rock-star-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1451"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-worthington-rock-star-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1451-1922_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank Worthington - Rock Star vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-rock-star-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1451">Frank Worthington - Rock Star vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-rock-star-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1451 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Geordie Legend Hughie Gallacher vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1452"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1452-1930_thumb.jpg" alt="Geordie Legend Hughie Gallacher vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1452">Geordie Legend Hughie Gallacher vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1452 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Matt Le Tissier (Southampton Legend) vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1438"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1438-1860_thumb.jpg" alt="Matt Le Tissier (Southampton Legend) vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1438">Matt Le Tissier (Southampton Legend) vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1438 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Tom Finney - Legend vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/england-c30/tom-finney-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1441"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tom-finney-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1441-1886_thumb.jpg" alt="Tom Finney - Legend vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/england-c30/tom-finney-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1441">Tom Finney - Legend vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/england-c30/tom-finney-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1441 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Villa/Ardiles vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/villa-ardiles-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1442"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/villa-ardiles-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1442-1888_thumb.jpg" alt="Villa/Ardiles vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/villa-ardiles-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1442">Villa/Ardiles vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/villa-ardiles-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1442 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Mick Channon - Southampton Legend vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/mick-channon-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1443"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/mick-channon-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1443-1895_thumb.jpg" alt="Mick Channon - Southampton Legend vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/mick-channon-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1443">Mick Channon - Southampton Legend vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/mick-channon-southampton-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1443 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p1432"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p1432-1825_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p1432">Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-hooded-sweatshirt-p1432 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Jock Stein - Pure, Beautiful, Inventive Football hooded sweatshi <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-hooded-sweatshi-p1417"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-hooded-sweatshi-p1417-1810_thumb.jpg" alt="Jock Stein - Pure, Beautiful, Inventive Football hooded sweatshi" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-hooded-sweatshi-p1417">Jock Stein - Pure, Beautiful, Inventive Football hooded sweatshi</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-hooded-sweatshi-p1417 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Robin Friday (Reading) - Better than Best hooded sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1419"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1419-1812_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday (Reading) - Better than Best hooded sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1419">Robin Friday (Reading) - Better than Best hooded sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1419 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Robin Friday (Cardiff) - Better than Best hooded sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1420"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1420-1813_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday (Cardiff) - Better than Best hooded sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1420">Robin Friday (Cardiff) - Better than Best hooded sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-hooded-sweatshirt-p1420 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Bert Trautmann hooded sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bert-trautmann-hooded-sweatshirt-p1421"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bert-trautmann-hooded-sweatshirt-p1421-1814_thumb.jpg" alt="Bert Trautmann hooded sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bert-trautmann-hooded-sweatshirt-p1421">Bert Trautmann hooded sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bert-trautmann-hooded-sweatshirt-p1421 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-hooded-sweatshirt-p1405"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-hooded-sweatshirt-p1405-1785_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-hooded-sweatshirt-p1405">Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-hooded-sweatshirt-p1405 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) Vintage Wash T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1406"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1406-1795_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) Vintage Wash T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1406">Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) Vintage Wash T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p1406 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Celtic Lisbon Lions 1967 hooded sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/celtic-lisbon-lions-1967-hooded-sweatshirt-p1409"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/celtic-lisbon-lions-1967-hooded-sweatshirt-p1409-1802_thumb.jpg" alt="Celtic Lisbon Lions 1967 hooded sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/celtic-lisbon-lions-1967-hooded-sweatshirt-p1409">Celtic Lisbon Lions 1967 hooded sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/celtic-lisbon-lions-1967-hooded-sweatshirt-p1409 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Billy Bonds - Hard hooded sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bonds-hard-hooded-sweatshirt-p1411"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bonds-hard-hooded-sweatshirt-p1411-1804_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bonds - Hard hooded sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bonds-hard-hooded-sweatshirt-p1411">Billy Bonds - Hard hooded sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bonds-hard-hooded-sweatshirt-p1411 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Bobby Robson - Legend Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1400"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1400-1762_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Robson - Legend Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1400">Bobby Robson - Legend Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1400 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:20:58 +0100 Bobby Robson - Legend Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1401"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1401-1765_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Robson - Legend Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1401">Bobby Robson - Legend Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-robson-legend-hooded-sweatshirt-p1401 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:27:29 +0100 Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1133"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1133-231_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1133">Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1133 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1107"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1107-128_thumb.jpg" alt="Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1107">Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1107 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1108"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1108-131_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1108">Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1108 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1109"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1109-134_thumb.jpg" alt="Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1109">Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1109 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1110"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1110-137_thumb.jpg" alt="Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1110">Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1110 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1111"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1111-140_thumb.jpg" alt="Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1111">Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1111 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1097"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1097-95_thumb.jpg" alt="Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1097">Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1097 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1098"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1098-101_thumb.jpg" alt="Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1098">Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1098 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1099"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1099-104_thumb.jpg" alt="Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1099">Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1099 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1100"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1100-107_thumb.jpg" alt="Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1100">Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1100 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Johan Cruyff (Holland) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1101"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1101-110_thumb.jpg" alt="Johan Cruyff (Holland) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1101">Johan Cruyff (Holland) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1101 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-hooded-sweatshirt-p1102"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-hooded-sweatshirt-p1102-113_thumb.jpg" alt="Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-hooded-sweatshirt-p1102">Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-hooded-sweatshirt-p1102 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1103"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1103-116_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1103">Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1103 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1104"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1104-119_thumb.jpg" alt="Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1104">Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1104 Wed, 19 Oct 2016 14:05:34 +0100 Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1106"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1106-125_thumb.jpg" alt="Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1106">Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1106 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1088"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1088-68_thumb.jpg" alt="Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1088">Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1088 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1091"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1091-77_thumb.jpg" alt="Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1091">Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1091 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1092"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1092-80_thumb.jpg" alt="Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1092">Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1092 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1093"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1093-83_thumb.jpg" alt="Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1093">Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1093 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1094"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1094-86_thumb.jpg" alt="Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1094">Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1094 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1095"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1095-89_thumb.jpg" alt="Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1095">Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1095 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1096"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1096-92_thumb.jpg" alt="Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1096">Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1096 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Zinedine Zidane (France) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1087"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1087-65_thumb.jpg" alt="Zinedine Zidane (France) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1087">Zinedine Zidane (France) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p1087 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Billy Liddell - Legend vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/billy-liddell-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p972"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-liddell-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p972-1890_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Liddell - Legend vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/billy-liddell-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p972">Billy Liddell - Legend vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/billy-liddell-legend-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p972 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) Vintage Wash T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p960"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p960-233_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) Vintage Wash T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p960">Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) Vintage Wash T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p960 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 King Charles - Charlie George (Arsenal) Vintage Wash T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p964"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p964-1904_thumb.jpg" alt="King Charles - Charlie George (Arsenal) Vintage Wash T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p964">King Charles - Charlie George (Arsenal) Vintage Wash T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p964 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Flair Player - Tony Currie vintage wash t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/sheffield-utd-c213/flair-player-tony-currie-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p967"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/flair-player-tony-currie-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p967-1910_thumb.jpg" alt="Flair Player - Tony Currie vintage wash t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/sheffield-utd-c213/flair-player-tony-currie-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p967">Flair Player - Tony Currie vintage wash t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/sheffield-utd-c213/flair-player-tony-currie-vintage-wash-t-shirt-p967 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Tommy Smith t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/tommy-smith-t-shirt-p949"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tommy-smith-t-shirt-p949-1947_thumb.jpg" alt="Tommy Smith t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/tommy-smith-t-shirt-p949">Tommy Smith t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/tommy-smith-t-shirt-p949 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Dixie Dean Goal Machine t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dixie-dean-goal-machine-t-shirt-p950"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dixie-dean-goal-machine-t-shirt-p950-1948_thumb.jpg" alt="Dixie Dean Goal Machine t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dixie-dean-goal-machine-t-shirt-p950">Dixie Dean Goal Machine t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/dixie-dean-goal-machine-t-shirt-p950 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Billy Bremner - Hard t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/billy-bremner-hard-t-shirt-p955"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-hard-t-shirt-p955-1953_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner - Hard t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/billy-bremner-hard-t-shirt-p955">Billy Bremner - Hard t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/billy-bremner-hard-t-shirt-p955 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Geordie Legend Hughie Gallacher t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-t-shirt-p938"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-t-shirt-p938-1935_thumb.jpg" alt="Geordie Legend Hughie Gallacher t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-t-shirt-p938">Geordie Legend Hughie Gallacher t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/geordie-legend-hughie-gallacher-t-shirt-p938 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Johnny Haynes Tribute t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/johnny-haynes-tribute-t-shirt-p944"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johnny-haynes-tribute-t-shirt-p944-1941_thumb.jpg" alt="Johnny Haynes Tribute t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/johnny-haynes-tribute-t-shirt-p944">Johnny Haynes Tribute t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/johnny-haynes-tribute-t-shirt-p944 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Flair Player - Tony Currie t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/sheffield-utd-c111/flair-player-tony-currie-t-shirt-p945"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/flair-player-tony-currie-t-shirt-p945-1942_thumb.jpg" alt="Flair Player - Tony Currie t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/sheffield-utd-c111/flair-player-tony-currie-t-shirt-p945">Flair Player - Tony Currie t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/sheffield-utd-c111/flair-player-tony-currie-t-shirt-p945 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Punk Clough t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/punk-clough-t-shirt-p946"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/punk-clough-t-shirt-p946-1943_thumb.jpg" alt="Punk Clough t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/punk-clough-t-shirt-p946">Punk Clough t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/punk-clough-t-shirt-p946 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Allan Sniffer Clarke t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/allan-sniffer-clarke-t-shirt-p929"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/allan-sniffer-clarke-t-shirt-p929-1920_thumb.jpg" alt="Allan Sniffer Clarke t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/allan-sniffer-clarke-t-shirt-p929">Allan Sniffer Clarke t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/allan-sniffer-clarke-t-shirt-p929 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Colin Bell - King of the Kippax t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/colin-bell-king-of-the-kippax-t-shirt-p930"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/colin-bell-king-of-the-kippax-t-shirt-p930-1921_thumb.jpg" alt="Colin Bell - King of the Kippax t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/colin-bell-king-of-the-kippax-t-shirt-p930">Colin Bell - King of the Kippax t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/colin-bell-king-of-the-kippax-t-shirt-p930 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Frank Worthington - Rock Star T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-rock-star-t-shirt-p931"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-worthington-rock-star-t-shirt-p931-1923_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank Worthington - Rock Star T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-rock-star-t-shirt-p931">Frank Worthington - Rock Star T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-rock-star-t-shirt-p931 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Duncan Mckenzie t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-mckenzie-t-shirt-p932"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/duncan-mckenzie-t-shirt-p932-1925_thumb.jpg" alt="Duncan Mckenzie t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-mckenzie-t-shirt-p932">Duncan Mckenzie t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-mckenzie-t-shirt-p932 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Bert Trautmann t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bert-trautmann-t-shirt-p935"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bert-trautmann-t-shirt-p935-1929_thumb.jpg" alt="Bert Trautmann t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bert-trautmann-t-shirt-p935">Bert Trautmann t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bert-trautmann-t-shirt-p935 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Billy Liddell - Legend t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/billy-liddell-legend-t-shirt-p915"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-liddell-legend-t-shirt-p915-1891_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Liddell - Legend t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/billy-liddell-legend-t-shirt-p915">Billy Liddell - Legend t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/billy-liddell-legend-t-shirt-p915 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Ricardo Julio Villa t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ricardo-julio-villa-t-shirt-p916"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ricardo-julio-villa-t-shirt-p916-1892_thumb.jpg" alt="Ricardo Julio Villa t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ricardo-julio-villa-t-shirt-p916">Ricardo Julio Villa t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/ricardo-julio-villa-t-shirt-p916 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Jock Stein - Pure, Beautiful, Inventive Football t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-t-shirt-p917"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-t-shirt-p917-1893_thumb.jpg" alt="Jock Stein - Pure, Beautiful, Inventive Football t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-t-shirt-p917">Jock Stein - Pure, Beautiful, Inventive Football t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/jock-stein-pure-beautiful-inventive-football-t-shirt-p917 Fri, 05 Aug 2016 02:06:38 +0100 Bill Nicholson - Tribute t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bill-nicholson-tribute-t-shirt-p918"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bill-nicholson-tribute-t-shirt-p918-1894_thumb.jpg" alt="Bill Nicholson - Tribute t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bill-nicholson-tribute-t-shirt-p918">Bill Nicholson - Tribute t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bill-nicholson-tribute-t-shirt-p918 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:33:04 +0100 Mick Channon - Southampton Legend t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/mick-channon-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p919"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/mick-channon-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p919-1896_thumb.jpg" alt="Mick Channon - Southampton Legend t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/mick-channon-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p919">Mick Channon - Southampton Legend t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/mick-channon-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p919 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Dave Mackay - Hard - t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/dave-mackay-hard-t-shirt-p922"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dave-mackay-hard-t-shirt-p922-1901_thumb.jpg" alt="Dave Mackay - Hard - t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/dave-mackay-hard-t-shirt-p922">Dave Mackay - Hard - t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/dave-mackay-hard-t-shirt-p922 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Bobby Moore - Simply the Best t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-simply-the-best-t-shirt-p905"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-simply-the-best-t-shirt-p905-1876_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore - Simply the Best t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-simply-the-best-t-shirt-p905">Bobby Moore - Simply the Best t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-moore-simply-the-best-t-shirt-p905 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Brooking/Devonshire - Dynamic Midfield t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brooking-devonshire-dynamic-midfield-t-shirt-p912"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brooking-devonshire-dynamic-midfield-t-shirt-p912-1885_thumb.jpg" alt="Brooking/Devonshire - Dynamic Midfield t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brooking-devonshire-dynamic-midfield-t-shirt-p912">Brooking/Devonshire - Dynamic Midfield t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/brooking-devonshire-dynamic-midfield-t-shirt-p912 Sat, 03 Dec 2016 02:05:49 +0000 Tom Finney - Legend T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/tom-finney-legend-t-shirt-p913"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tom-finney-legend-t-shirt-p913-1887_thumb.jpg" alt="Tom Finney - Legend T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/tom-finney-legend-t-shirt-p913">Tom Finney - Legend T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/tom-finney-legend-t-shirt-p913 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Villa/Ardiles t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/villa-ardiles-t-shirt-p914"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/villa-ardiles-t-shirt-p914-1889_thumb.jpg" alt="Villa/Ardiles t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/villa-ardiles-t-shirt-p914">Villa/Ardiles t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/villa-ardiles-t-shirt-p914 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Robin Friday (Cardiff) - Better than Best t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/cardiff-c131/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-t-shirt-p898"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-t-shirt-p898-1869_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday (Cardiff) - Better than Best t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/cardiff-c131/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-t-shirt-p898">Robin Friday (Cardiff) - Better than Best t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/cardiff-c131/robin-friday-cardiff-better-than-best-t-shirt-p898 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Robin Friday (Reading) - Better than Best t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-t-shirt-p899"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-t-shirt-p899-1870_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday (Reading) - Better than Best t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-t-shirt-p899">Robin Friday (Reading) - Better than Best t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-reading-better-than-best-t-shirt-p899 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 George Best - No 7 Retro print t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/george-best-no-7-retro-print-t-shirt-p900"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/george-best-no-7-retro-print-t-shirt-p900-1871_thumb.jpg" alt="George Best - No 7 Retro print t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/george-best-no-7-retro-print-t-shirt-p900">George Best - No 7 Retro print t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/george-best-no-7-retro-print-t-shirt-p900 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Ron Harris- Too Tough To Die t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/ron-harris-too-tough-to-die-t-shirt-p884"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ron-harris-too-tough-to-die-t-shirt-p884-1853_thumb.jpg" alt="Ron Harris- Too Tough To Die t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/ron-harris-too-tough-to-die-t-shirt-p884">Ron Harris- Too Tough To Die t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/ron-harris-too-tough-to-die-t-shirt-p884 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Matt Le Tissier (Southampton Legend) t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p891"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p891-1862_thumb.jpg" alt="Matt Le Tissier (Southampton Legend) t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p891">Matt Le Tissier (Southampton Legend) t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/matt-le-tissier-southampton-legend-t-shirt-p891 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 13:56:22 +0000 Middlesbrough Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/middlesbrough-legends-t-shirt-p872"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/middlesbrough-legends-t-shirt-p872-1840_thumb.jpg" alt="Middlesbrough Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/middlesbrough-legends-t-shirt-p872">Middlesbrough Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/middlesbrough-legends-t-shirt-p872 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Leeds 70's Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/leeds-70s-legends-t-shirt-p873"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/leeds-70s-legends-t-shirt-p873-1841_thumb.jpg" alt="Leeds 70's Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/leeds-70s-legends-t-shirt-p873">Leeds 70's Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/leeds-70s-legends-t-shirt-p873 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Fulham Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/fulham-legends-t-shirt-p874"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/fulham-legends-t-shirt-p874-1842_thumb.jpg" alt="Fulham Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/fulham-legends-t-shirt-p874">Fulham Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/fulham-legends-t-shirt-p874 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Stoke Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/stoke-legends-t-shirt-p875"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/stoke-legends-t-shirt-p875-1843_thumb.jpg" alt="Stoke Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/stoke-legends-t-shirt-p875">Stoke Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/stoke-legends-t-shirt-p875 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Blackburn Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/blackburn-legends-t-shirt-p876"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/blackburn-legends-t-shirt-p876-1844_thumb.jpg" alt="Blackburn Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/blackburn-legends-t-shirt-p876">Blackburn Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/blackburn-legends-t-shirt-p876 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Portsmouth Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/portsmouth-c49/portsmouth-legends-t-shirt-p877"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/portsmouth-legends-t-shirt-p877-1845_thumb.jpg" alt="Portsmouth Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/portsmouth-c49/portsmouth-legends-t-shirt-p877">Portsmouth Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/portsmouth-c49/portsmouth-legends-t-shirt-p877 Sat, 20 Aug 2016 14:05:09 +0100 Rangers Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/rangers-c77/rangers-legends-t-shirt-p864"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/rangers-legends-t-shirt-p864-1832_thumb.jpg" alt="Rangers Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/rangers-c77/rangers-legends-t-shirt-p864">Rangers Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/rangers-c77/rangers-legends-t-shirt-p864 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Chelsea Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/chelsea-legends-t-shirt-p866"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/chelsea-legends-t-shirt-p866-1834_thumb.jpg" alt="Chelsea Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/chelsea-legends-t-shirt-p866">Chelsea Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/chelsea-legends-t-shirt-p866 Sun, 04 Dec 2016 14:05:28 +0000 West Ham 66 Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/west-ham-66-legends-t-shirt-p867"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/west-ham-66-legends-t-shirt-p867-1835_thumb.jpg" alt="West Ham 66 Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/west-ham-66-legends-t-shirt-p867">West Ham 66 Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/west-ham-66-legends-t-shirt-p867 Fri, 21 Oct 2016 02:06:31 +0100 Celtic Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/celtic-legends-t-shirt-p868"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/celtic-legends-t-shirt-p868-1836_thumb.jpg" alt="Celtic Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/celtic-legends-t-shirt-p868">Celtic Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/celtic-c83/celtic-legends-t-shirt-p868 Wed, 07 Sep 2016 14:05:18 +0100 Sunderland Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/sunderland-legends-t-shirt-p869"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/sunderland-legends-t-shirt-p869-1837_thumb.jpg" alt="Sunderland Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/sunderland-legends-t-shirt-p869">Sunderland Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/sunderland-legends-t-shirt-p869 Fri, 18 Nov 2016 02:07:03 +0000 Newcastle Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/newcastle-legends-t-shirt-p870"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/newcastle-legends-t-shirt-p870-1838_thumb.jpg" alt="Newcastle Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/newcastle-legends-t-shirt-p870">Newcastle Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/newcastle-legends-t-shirt-p870 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:50 +0100 Bolton Legends t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bolton-legends-t-shirt-p871"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bolton-legends-t-shirt-p871-1839_thumb.jpg" alt="Bolton Legends t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bolton-legends-t-shirt-p871">Bolton Legends t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bolton-legends-t-shirt-p871 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Le Tissier, Benali, Channon Chili Peppers style t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/le-tissier-benali-channon-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p855"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/le-tissier-benali-channon-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p855-1791_thumb.jpg" alt="Le Tissier, Benali, Channon Chili Peppers style t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/le-tissier-benali-channon-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p855">Le Tissier, Benali, Channon Chili Peppers style t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/le-tissier-benali-channon-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p855 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:49 +0100 Bell, Goater, Kinkladze Chili Peppers style t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/bell-goater-kinkladze-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p857"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bell-goater-kinkladze-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p857-1793_thumb.jpg" alt="Bell, Goater, Kinkladze Chili Peppers style t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/bell-goater-kinkladze-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p857">Bell, Goater, Kinkladze Chili Peppers style t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/bell-goater-kinkladze-chili-peppers-style-t-shirt-p857 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Leeds Revie's Boys t-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/leeds-revies-boys-t-shirt-p859"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/leeds-revies-boys-t-shirt-p859-1797_thumb.jpg" alt="Leeds Revie's Boys t-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/leeds-revies-boys-t-shirt-p859">Leeds Revie's Boys t-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/leeds-revies-boys-t-shirt-p859 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Cobblers Legends (Ramones Style) T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/northampton-town-c51/cobblers-legends-ramones-style-t-shirt-p850"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/cobblers-legends-ramones-style-t-shirt-p850-1786_thumb.jpg" alt="Cobblers Legends (Ramones Style) T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/northampton-town-c51/cobblers-legends-ramones-style-t-shirt-p850">Cobblers Legends (Ramones Style) T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/northampton-town-c51/cobblers-legends-ramones-style-t-shirt-p850 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Bobby Robson - Legend Tshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p835"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p835-1767_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Robson - Legend Tshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p835">Bobby Robson - Legend Tshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p835 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:49 +0100 Bob Paisley - Legend T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/bob-paisley-legend-t-shirt-p841"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bob-paisley-legend-t-shirt-p841-1776_thumb.jpg" alt="Bob Paisley - Legend T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/bob-paisley-legend-t-shirt-p841">Bob Paisley - Legend T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/mens-t-shirts-c2/bob-paisley-legend-t-shirt-p841 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:38:50 +0100 Socrates 1986 (Brazil) Yellow Ringer T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p786"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/socrates-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p786-1971_thumb.jpg" alt="Socrates 1986 (Brazil) Yellow Ringer T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p786">Socrates 1986 (Brazil) Yellow Ringer T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p786 Mon, 10 Oct 2016 02:05:31 +0100 King Charles - Charlie George (Arsenal) T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-t-shirt-p788"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-t-shirt-p788-1946_thumb.jpg" alt="King Charles - Charlie George (Arsenal) T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-t-shirt-p788">King Charles - Charlie George (Arsenal) T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/king-charles-charlie-george-arsenal-t-shirt-p788 Fri, 02 Sep 2016 14:05:28 +0100 Eusebio-Legend T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/portugal-c245/eusebio-legend-t-shirt-p766"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eusebio-legend-t-shirt-p766-1439_thumb.jpg" alt="Eusebio-Legend T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/portugal-c245/eusebio-legend-t-shirt-p766">Eusebio-Legend T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/portugal-c245/eusebio-legend-t-shirt-p766 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:39 +0000 Bobby Robson - Legend Tshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p769"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p769-1764_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Robson - Legend Tshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p769">Bobby Robson - Legend Tshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-robson-legend-tshirt-p769 Fri, 19 Aug 2016 13:56:49 +0100 Tom Finney - Legend Girl's Slim-Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/preston-north-end-c218/tom-finney-legend-girls-slim-fit-t-shirt-p757"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tom-finney-legend-girls-slim-fit-t-shirt-p757-1414_thumb.jpg" alt="Tom Finney - Legend Girl's Slim-Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/preston-north-end-c218/tom-finney-legend-girls-slim-fit-t-shirt-p757">Tom Finney - Legend Girl's Slim-Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/preston-north-end-c218/tom-finney-legend-girls-slim-fit-t-shirt-p757 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Jackie Charlton 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/leeds-united-c33/jackie-charlton-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p649"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jackie-charlton-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p649-2011_thumb.jpg" alt="Jackie Charlton 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/leeds-united-c33/jackie-charlton-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p649">Jackie Charlton 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/leeds-united-c33/jackie-charlton-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p649 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Johnny Giles 1969 (Leeds United) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/johnny-giles-1969-leeds-united-t-shirt-p652"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johnny-giles-1969-leeds-united-t-shirt-p652-296_thumb.jpg" alt="Johnny Giles 1969 (Leeds United) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/johnny-giles-1969-leeds-united-t-shirt-p652">Johnny Giles 1969 (Leeds United) T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/johnny-giles-1969-leeds-united-t-shirt-p652 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Allan Clarke 1970 (Leeds United) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/leeds-united-c33/allan-clarke-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p643"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/allan-clarke-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p643-2008_thumb.jpg" alt="Allan Clarke 1970 (Leeds United) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/leeds-united-c33/allan-clarke-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p643">Allan Clarke 1970 (Leeds United) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/leeds-united-c33/allan-clarke-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p643 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Colin Harvey 1970 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/everton-c46/colin-harvey-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p645"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/colin-harvey-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p645-287_thumb.jpg" alt="Colin Harvey 1970 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/everton-c46/colin-harvey-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p645">Colin Harvey 1970 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/everton-c46/colin-harvey-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p645 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 George Best 1968 (Man United) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/george-best-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p647"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/george-best-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p647-292_thumb.jpg" alt="George Best 1968 (Man United) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/george-best-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p647">George Best 1968 (Man United) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/george-best-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p647 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 George Graham 1971 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/arsenal-c35/george-graham-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p637"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/george-graham-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p637-2005_thumb.jpg" alt="George Graham 1971 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/arsenal-c35/george-graham-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p637">George Graham 1971 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/arsenal-c35/george-graham-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p637 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Colin Bell 1970 (Man City) Light Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-city-c47/colin-bell-1970-man-city-light-blue-t-shirt-p639"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/colin-bell-1970-man-city-light-blue-t-shirt-p639-2007_thumb.jpg" alt="Colin Bell 1970 (Man City) Light Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-city-c47/colin-bell-1970-man-city-light-blue-t-shirt-p639">Colin Bell 1970 (Man City) Light Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-city-c47/colin-bell-1970-man-city-light-blue-t-shirt-p639 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Norman Hunter 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/norman-hunter-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p641"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/norman-hunter-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p641-285_thumb.jpg" alt="Norman Hunter 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/norman-hunter-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p641">Norman Hunter 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/norman-hunter-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p641 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Ian Rush 1994 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/liverpool-c139/ian-rush-1994-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p631"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ian-rush-1994-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p631-2002_thumb.jpg" alt="Ian Rush 1994 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/liverpool-c139/ian-rush-1994-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p631">Ian Rush 1994 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/liverpool-c139/ian-rush-1994-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p631 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Glenn Hoddle 1988 (Spurs) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-1988-spurs-navy-t-shirt-p633"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/glenn-hoddle-1988-spurs-navy-t-shirt-p633-281_thumb.jpg" alt="Glenn Hoddle 1988 (Spurs) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-1988-spurs-navy-t-shirt-p633">Glenn Hoddle 1988 (Spurs) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-1988-spurs-navy-t-shirt-p633 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 John Richards 1981 (Wolves) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/john-richards-1981-wolves-black-t-shirt-p635"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/john-richards-1981-wolves-black-t-shirt-p635-282_thumb.jpg" alt="John Richards 1981 (Wolves) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/john-richards-1981-wolves-black-t-shirt-p635">John Richards 1981 (Wolves) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/john-richards-1981-wolves-black-t-shirt-p635 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 David Rocastle 1989 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/arsenal-c35/david-rocastle-1989-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p625"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/david-rocastle-1989-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p625-1997_thumb.jpg" alt="David Rocastle 1989 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/arsenal-c35/david-rocastle-1989-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p625">David Rocastle 1989 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/arsenal-c35/david-rocastle-1989-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p625 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 02:06:48 +0000 John Lyall 1988 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/john-lyall-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p627"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/john-lyall-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p627-279_thumb.jpg" alt="John Lyall 1988 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/john-lyall-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p627">John Lyall 1988 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/john-lyall-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p627 Wed, 16 Nov 2016 02:06:38 +0000 Kevin Beattie 1978 (Ipswich Town) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/ipswich-c127/kevin-beattie-1978-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p629"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kevin-beattie-1978-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p629-2000_thumb.jpg" alt="Kevin Beattie 1978 (Ipswich Town) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/ipswich-c127/kevin-beattie-1978-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p629">Kevin Beattie 1978 (Ipswich Town) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/championship-c9/ipswich-c127/kevin-beattie-1978-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p629 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Kevin Hector 1972 (Derby County) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/kevin-hector-1972-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p617"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kevin-hector-1972-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p617-267_thumb.jpg" alt="Kevin Hector 1972 (Derby County) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/kevin-hector-1972-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p617">Kevin Hector 1972 (Derby County) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/kevin-hector-1972-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p617 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Dave Cooper 1987 (Rangers) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/dave-cooper-1987-rangers-navy-t-shirt-p619"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dave-cooper-1987-rangers-navy-t-shirt-p619-271_thumb.jpg" alt="Dave Cooper 1987 (Rangers) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/dave-cooper-1987-rangers-navy-t-shirt-p619">Dave Cooper 1987 (Rangers) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/dave-cooper-1987-rangers-navy-t-shirt-p619 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Kerry Dixon 1988 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/kerry-dixon-1988-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p621"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kerry-dixon-1988-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p621-273_thumb.jpg" alt="Kerry Dixon 1988 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/kerry-dixon-1988-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p621">Kerry Dixon 1988 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/kerry-dixon-1988-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p621 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Nobby Stiles 1968 (Man United) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/nobby-stiles-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p623"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/nobby-stiles-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p623-1996_thumb.jpg" alt="Nobby Stiles 1968 (Man United) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/nobby-stiles-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p623">Nobby Stiles 1968 (Man United) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/nobby-stiles-1968-man-united-red-t-shirt-p623 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Ian St John 1970 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/ian-st-john-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p609"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ian-st-john-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p609-1989_thumb.jpg" alt="Ian St John 1970 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/ian-st-john-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p609">Ian St John 1970 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/ian-st-john-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p609 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Mick Mills 1970 (Ipswich Town) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mick-mills-1970-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p611"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/mick-mills-1970-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p611-265_thumb.jpg" alt="Mick Mills 1970 (Ipswich Town) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mick-mills-1970-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p611">Mick Mills 1970 (Ipswich Town) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mick-mills-1970-ipswich-town-navy-t-shirt-p611 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 David Webb 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/david-webb-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p613"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/david-webb-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p613-1992_thumb.jpg" alt="David Webb 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/david-webb-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p613">David Webb 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/david-webb-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p613 Thu, 27 Oct 2016 02:06:54 +0100 Eddie Gray 1970 (Leeds United) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/eddie-gray-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p615"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eddie-gray-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p615-1994_thumb.jpg" alt="Eddie Gray 1970 (Leeds United) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/eddie-gray-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p615">Eddie Gray 1970 (Leeds United) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/eddie-gray-1970-leeds-united-royal-blue-t-shirt-p615 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Eric Cantona 1994 (Man United) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-1994-man-united-red-t-shirt-p603"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eric-cantona-1994-man-united-red-t-shirt-p603-255_thumb.jpg" alt="Eric Cantona 1994 (Man United) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-1994-man-united-red-t-shirt-p603">Eric Cantona 1994 (Man United) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-1994-man-united-red-t-shirt-p603 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Matt Le Tissier 1994 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/southampton-c132/matt-le-tissier-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p605"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/matt-le-tissier-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p605-257_thumb.jpg" alt="Matt Le Tissier 1994 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/southampton-c132/matt-le-tissier-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p605">Matt Le Tissier 1994 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/southampton-c132/matt-le-tissier-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p605 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Ian Callaghan 1970 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ian-callaghan-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p607"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ian-callaghan-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p607-1988_thumb.jpg" alt="Ian Callaghan 1970 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ian-callaghan-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p607">Ian Callaghan 1970 (Liverpool) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/ian-callaghan-1970-liverpool-red-t-shirt-p607 Tue, 13 Sep 2016 14:05:20 +0100 Geoff Hurst 1970 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/geoff-hurst-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p597"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/geoff-hurst-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p597-247_thumb.jpg" alt="Geoff Hurst 1970 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/geoff-hurst-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p597">Geoff Hurst 1970 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/geoff-hurst-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p597 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:39 +0000 Peter Osgood 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/peter-osgood-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p599"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/peter-osgood-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p599-1985_thumb.jpg" alt="Peter Osgood 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/peter-osgood-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p599">Peter Osgood 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/peter-osgood-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p599 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Neville Southall 1994 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/everton-c46/neville-southall-1994-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p601"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/neville-southall-1994-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p601-1987_thumb.jpg" alt="Neville Southall 1994 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/everton-c46/neville-southall-1994-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p601">Neville Southall 1994 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/everton-c46/neville-southall-1994-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p601 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:11 +0100 Bobby Charlton 1970 (Man United) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-charlton-1970-man-united-red-t-shirt-p591"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-charlton-1970-man-united-red-t-shirt-p591-1981_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Charlton 1970 (Man United) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-charlton-1970-man-united-red-t-shirt-p591">Bobby Charlton 1970 (Man United) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-charlton-1970-man-united-red-t-shirt-p591 Mon, 07 Nov 2016 02:07:18 +0000 Jeff Astle 1968 (West Brom) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/west-brom-c134/jeff-astle-1968-west-brom-navy-t-shirt-p593"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jeff-astle-1968-west-brom-navy-t-shirt-p593-245_thumb.jpg" alt="Jeff Astle 1968 (West Brom) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/west-brom-c134/jeff-astle-1968-west-brom-navy-t-shirt-p593">Jeff Astle 1968 (West Brom) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/west-brom-c134/jeff-astle-1968-west-brom-navy-t-shirt-p593 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:10 +0100 Ron Harris 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/ron-harris-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p595"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ron-harris-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p595-1983_thumb.jpg" alt="Ron Harris 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/ron-harris-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p595">Ron Harris 1970 (Chelsea) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/premiership-c14/chelsea-c238/ron-harris-1970-chelsea-royal-blue-t-shirt-p595 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:11 +0100 Derek Dougan 1970 (Wolves) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/derek-dougan-1970-wolves-black-t-shirt-p585"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/derek-dougan-1970-wolves-black-t-shirt-p585-1977_thumb.jpg" alt="Derek Dougan 1970 (Wolves) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/derek-dougan-1970-wolves-black-t-shirt-p585">Derek Dougan 1970 (Wolves) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/derek-dougan-1970-wolves-black-t-shirt-p585 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:11 +0100 Marco Van Basten 1988 (Holland) Orange T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/marco-van-basten-1988-holland-orange-t-shirt-p587"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/marco-van-basten-1988-holland-orange-t-shirt-p587-1979_thumb.jpg" alt="Marco Van Basten 1988 (Holland) Orange T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/marco-van-basten-1988-holland-orange-t-shirt-p587">Marco Van Basten 1988 (Holland) Orange T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/marco-van-basten-1988-holland-orange-t-shirt-p587 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:11 +0100 Maradona 1986 (Argentina) Light Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/maradona-1986-argentina-light-blue-t-shirt-p589"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/maradona-1986-argentina-light-blue-t-shirt-p589-242_thumb.jpg" alt="Maradona 1986 (Argentina) Light Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/maradona-1986-argentina-light-blue-t-shirt-p589">Maradona 1986 (Argentina) Light Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/maradona-1986-argentina-light-blue-t-shirt-p589 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:11 +0100 Ray Stewart 1988 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/ray-stewart-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p579"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ray-stewart-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p579-235_thumb.jpg" alt="Ray Stewart 1988 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/ray-stewart-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p579">Ray Stewart 1988 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/icons-c7/ray-stewart-1988-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p579 Thu, 22 Sep 2016 13:20:32 +0100 Paul Merson 1994 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paul-merson-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p581"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/paul-merson-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p581-236_thumb.jpg" alt="Paul Merson 1994 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paul-merson-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p581">Paul Merson 1994 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/paul-merson-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p581 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:38 +0000 Francis Benali 1994 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/francis-benali-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p583"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/francis-benali-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p583-238_thumb.jpg" alt="Francis Benali 1994 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/francis-benali-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p583">Francis Benali 1994 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/southampton-c132/francis-benali-1994-southampton-red-t-shirt-p583 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:12 +0100 Kenny Burns 1980 (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/kenny-burns-1980-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p573"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kenny-burns-1980-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p573-226_thumb.jpg" alt="Kenny Burns 1980 (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/kenny-burns-1980-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p573">Kenny Burns 1980 (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/kenny-burns-1980-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p573 Mon, 28 Nov 2016 02:06:41 +0000 George Best Rogue - I Used To Go Missing A Lot... Ringer T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/george-best-rogue-i-used-to-go-missing-a-lot-ringer-t-shirt-p575"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/george-best-rogue-i-used-to-go-missing-a-lot-ringer-t-shirt-p575-230_thumb.jpg" alt="George Best Rogue - I Used To Go Missing A Lot... Ringer T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/george-best-rogue-i-used-to-go-missing-a-lot-ringer-t-shirt-p575">George Best Rogue - I Used To Go Missing A Lot... Ringer T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/george-best-rogue-i-used-to-go-missing-a-lot-ringer-t-shirt-p575 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-t-shirt-p577"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-t-shirt-p577-234_thumb.jpg" alt="Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-t-shirt-p577">Robin Friday - I am a winner (Banksy Style) T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/reading-c216/robin-friday-i-am-a-winner-banksy-style-t-shirt-p577 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p507"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p507-136_thumb.jpg" alt="Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p507">Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p507 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p508"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p508-138_thumb.jpg" alt="Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p508">Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p508 Tue, 01 Nov 2016 02:06:30 +0000 Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p509"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p509-139_thumb.jpg" alt="Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p509">Dennis Bergkamp Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/dennis-bergkamp-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p509 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p498"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p498-123_thumb.jpg" alt="Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p498">Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p498 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p499"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p499-124_thumb.jpg" alt="Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p499">Paolo Di Canio Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/paolo-di-canio-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p499 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p500"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p500-126_thumb.jpg" alt="Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p500">Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p500 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:38 +0000 Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p501"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p501-127_thumb.jpg" alt="Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p501">Glenn Hoddle Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/spurs-c241/glenn-hoddle-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p501 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:13 +0100 Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p502"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p502-129_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p502">Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p502 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:13 +0100 Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p503"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p503-130_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p503">Frank Lampard Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/chelsea-c238/frank-lampard-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p503 Wed, 31 Aug 2016 02:05:51 +0100 Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p504"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p504-132_thumb.jpg" alt="Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p504">Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p504 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:13 +0100 Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p505"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p505-133_thumb.jpg" alt="Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p505">Eric Cantona Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/eric-cantona-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p505 Sun, 23 Oct 2016 02:05:59 +0100 Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p506"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p506-135_thumb.jpg" alt="Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p506">Duncan Ferguson Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/duncan-ferguson-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p506 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p485"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p485-103_thumb.jpg" alt="Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p485">Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p485 Fri, 26 Aug 2016 02:06:31 +0100 Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p486"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p486-105_thumb.jpg" alt="Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p486">Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p486 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p487"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p487-106_thumb.jpg" alt="Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p487">Didi (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/didi-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p487 Sat, 24 Dec 2016 02:05:47 +0000 Johan Cruyff (Holland) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p488"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p488-108_thumb.jpg" alt="Johan Cruyff (Holland) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p488">Johan Cruyff (Holland) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/johan-cruyff-holland-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p488 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/general-fashion-c3/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-t-shirt-p490"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-t-shirt-p490-111_thumb.jpg" alt="Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/general-fashion-c3/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-t-shirt-p490">Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/general-fashion-c3/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-t-shirt-p490 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/general-fashion-c3/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p491"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p491-112_thumb.jpg" alt="Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/general-fashion-c3/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p491">Carlos Alberto Torres (Brazil) Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mens-c1/t-shirts-c2/general-fashion-c3/carlos-alberto-torres-brazil-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p491 Tue, 30 Aug 2016 02:06:29 +0100 Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p492"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p492-114_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p492">Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p492 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p493"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p493-115_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p493">Bobby Moore Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p493 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p494"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p494-117_thumb.jpg" alt="Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p494">Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p494 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p495"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p495-118_thumb.jpg" alt="Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p495">Franz Beckenbauer Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/franz-beckenbauer-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p495 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p473"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p473-87_thumb.jpg" alt="Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p473">Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p473 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p474"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p474-88_thumb.jpg" alt="Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p474">Diego Maradona (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/diego-maradona-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p474 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p475"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p475-90_thumb.jpg" alt="Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p475">Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p475 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:59:43 +0000 Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p476"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p476-91_thumb.jpg" alt="Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p476">Kenny Dalglish Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/liverpool-c139/kenny-dalglish-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p476 Sun, 01 Jan 2017 14:05:36 +0000 Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p477"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p477-93_thumb.jpg" alt="Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p477">Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p477 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:38 +0000 Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p478"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p478-94_thumb.jpg" alt="Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p478">Gerd Muller (Germany) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/gerd-muller-germany-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p478 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p479"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p479-96_thumb.jpg" alt="Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p479">Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p479 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p480"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p480-97_thumb.jpg" alt="Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p480">Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p480 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p481"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p481-98_thumb.jpg" alt="Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p481">Garrincha (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Hooded Sweatshirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/garrincha-brazil-enjoy-style-hooded-sweatshirt-p481 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p482"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p482-99_thumb.jpg" alt="Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p482">Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p482 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:38 +0000 Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p483"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p483-100_thumb.jpg" alt="Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p483">Franco Baresi (Italy) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/franco-baresi-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p483 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:49:14 +0100 Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p484"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p484-102_thumb.jpg" alt="Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p484">Eusebio (Portugal) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/eusebio-portugal-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p484 Sat, 17 Sep 2016 14:05:23 +0100 Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p465"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p465-75_thumb.jpg" alt="Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p465">Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p465 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p466"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p466-76_thumb.jpg" alt="Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p466">Ferenc Puskas (Hungary & Spain) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/ferenc-puskas-hungary-spain-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p466 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p467"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p467-78_thumb.jpg" alt="Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p467">Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p467 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p468"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p468-79_thumb.jpg" alt="Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p468">Michel Platini (France) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/michel-platini-france-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p468 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p469"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p469-81_thumb.jpg" alt="Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p469">Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p469 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p470"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p470-82_thumb.jpg" alt="Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p470">Lionel Messi (Argentina) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/lionel-messi-argentina-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p470 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p471"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p471-84_thumb.jpg" alt="Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p471">Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p471 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p472"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p472-85_thumb.jpg" alt="Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p472">Giuseppe Meazza (Italy) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/giuseppe-meazza-italy-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p472 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Zinedine Zidane (France) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p457"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p457-63_thumb.jpg" alt="Zinedine Zidane (France) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p457">Zinedine Zidane (France) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/zinedine-zidane-france-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p457 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p459"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p459-66_thumb.jpg" alt="Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p459">Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-t-shirt-p459 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 12:54:35 +0100 Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p460"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p460-67_thumb.jpg" alt="Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p460">Socrates (Brazil) Enjoy-Style Women's Slim Fit T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/socrates-brazil-enjoy-style-womens-slim-fit-t-shirt-p460 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Keith Houchen 1987 (Coventry City) Sky Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/keith-houchen-1987-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p44"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/keith-houchen-1987-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p44-275_thumb.jpg" alt="Keith Houchen 1987 (Coventry City) Sky Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/keith-houchen-1987-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p44">Keith Houchen 1987 (Coventry City) Sky Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/keith-houchen-1987-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p44 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 John Fashanu 1988 (AFC Wimbledon) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/john-fashanu-1988-afc-wimbledon-navy-t-shirt-p46"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/john-fashanu-1988-afc-wimbledon-navy-t-shirt-p46-278_thumb.jpg" alt="John Fashanu 1988 (AFC Wimbledon) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/john-fashanu-1988-afc-wimbledon-navy-t-shirt-p46">John Fashanu 1988 (AFC Wimbledon) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/john-fashanu-1988-afc-wimbledon-navy-t-shirt-p46 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Charlie George 1971 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/charlie-george-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p48"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/charlie-george-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p48-289_thumb.jpg" alt="Charlie George 1971 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/charlie-george-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p48">Charlie George 1971 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/charlie-george-1971-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p48 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Brian Labone 1970 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/brian-labone-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p50"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-labone-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p50-1970_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Labone 1970 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/brian-labone-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p50">Brian Labone 1970 (Everton) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/everton-c46/brian-labone-1970-everton-royal-blue-t-shirt-p50 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Francis Lee 1970 (Man City) Sky Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/francis-lee-1970-man-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p51"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/francis-lee-1970-man-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p51-294_thumb.jpg" alt="Francis Lee 1970 (Man City) Sky Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/francis-lee-1970-man-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p51">Francis Lee 1970 (Man City) Sky Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-city-c47/francis-lee-1970-man-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p51 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Bobby Moncur 1969 (Newcastle United) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moncur-1969-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p36"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moncur-1969-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p36-1965_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moncur 1969 (Newcastle United) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moncur-1969-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p36">Bobby Moncur 1969 (Newcastle United) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moncur-1969-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p36 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Kevin Keegan 1994 (Newcastle United) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/kevin-keegan-1994-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p38"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/kevin-keegan-1994-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p38-1967_thumb.jpg" alt="Kevin Keegan 1994 (Newcastle United) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/kevin-keegan-1994-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p38">Kevin Keegan 1994 (Newcastle United) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/kevin-keegan-1994-newcastle-united-black-t-shirt-p38 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Bobby Moore 1965 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-1965-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p40"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/bobby-moore-1965-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p40-269_thumb.jpg" alt="Bobby Moore 1965 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-1965-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p40">Bobby Moore 1965 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/bobby-moore-1965-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p40 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Dave Mackay 1970 (Derby County) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/dave-mackay-1970-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p42"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/dave-mackay-1970-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p42-1969_thumb.jpg" alt="Dave Mackay 1970 (Derby County) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/dave-mackay-1970-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p42">Dave Mackay 1970 (Derby County) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/dave-mackay-1970-derby-county-black-t-shirt-p42 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Tony Adams 1994 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/tony-adams-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p28"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/tony-adams-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p28-1962_thumb.jpg" alt="Tony Adams 1994 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/tony-adams-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p28">Tony Adams 1994 (Arsenal) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/arsenal-c35/tony-adams-1994-arsenal-red-t-shirt-p28 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Ernie Hunt 1970 (Coventry City) Sky Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ernie-hunt-1970-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p30"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/ernie-hunt-1970-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p30-259_thumb.jpg" alt="Ernie Hunt 1970 (Coventry City) Sky Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/ernie-hunt-1970-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p30">Ernie Hunt 1970 (Coventry City) Sky Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/ernie-hunt-1970-coventry-city-sky-blue-t-shirt-p30 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Frank Worthington 1970 (Huddersfield Town) Royal Blue T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-1970-huddersfield-town-royal-blue-t-shirt-p32"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/frank-worthington-1970-huddersfield-town-royal-blue-t-shirt-p32-1963_thumb.jpg" alt="Frank Worthington 1970 (Huddersfield Town) Royal Blue T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-1970-huddersfield-town-royal-blue-t-shirt-p32">Frank Worthington 1970 (Huddersfield Town) Royal Blue T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/frank-worthington-1970-huddersfield-town-royal-blue-t-shirt-p32 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:38 +0000 Jimmy Armfield 1970 (Blackpool) Orange T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/jimmy-armfield-1970-blackpool-orange-t-shirt-p34"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/jimmy-armfield-1970-blackpool-orange-t-shirt-p34-264_thumb.jpg" alt="Jimmy Armfield 1970 (Blackpool) Orange T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/jimmy-armfield-1970-blackpool-orange-t-shirt-p34">Jimmy Armfield 1970 (Blackpool) Orange T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/jimmy-armfield-1970-blackpool-orange-t-shirt-p34 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:02 +0100 Lothar Matthaus 1986 (Germany) Black T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lothar-matthaus-1986-germany-black-t-shirt-p18"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/lothar-matthaus-1986-germany-black-t-shirt-p18-1957_thumb.jpg" alt="Lothar Matthaus 1986 (Germany) Black T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/lothar-matthaus-1986-germany-black-t-shirt-p18">Lothar Matthaus 1986 (Germany) Black T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/lothar-matthaus-1986-germany-black-t-shirt-p18 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Mick Channon 1970 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mick-channon-1970-southampton-red-t-shirt-p20"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/mick-channon-1970-southampton-red-t-shirt-p20-249_thumb.jpg" alt="Mick Channon 1970 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/mick-channon-1970-southampton-red-t-shirt-p20">Mick Channon 1970 (Southampton) Red T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/mick-channon-1970-southampton-red-t-shirt-p20 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Billy Bonds 1970 (West Ham) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bonds-1970-west-ham-t-shirt-p22"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bonds-1970-west-ham-t-shirt-p22-1959_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bonds 1970 (West Ham) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bonds-1970-west-ham-t-shirt-p22">Billy Bonds 1970 (West Ham) T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/billy-bonds-1970-west-ham-t-shirt-p22 Thu, 08 Dec 2016 14:05:15 +0000 Clyde Best 1970 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/clyde-best-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p24"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/clyde-best-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p24-1960_thumb.jpg" alt="Clyde Best 1970 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/clyde-best-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p24">Clyde Best 1970 (West Ham) Maroon T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/clyde-best-1970-west-ham-maroon-t-shirt-p24 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:01 +0100 Billy Bremner 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/billy-bremner-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p26"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/billy-bremner-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p26-252_thumb.jpg" alt="Billy Bremner 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/billy-bremner-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p26">Billy Bremner 1969 (Leeds United) Navy T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/leeds-united-c33/billy-bremner-1969-leeds-united-navy-t-shirt-p26 Fri, 20 Jan 2017 02:07:35 +0000 Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p6"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p6-1861_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p6">Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Nottingham Forest) T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/brian-clough-the-best-manager-nottingham-forest-t-shirt-p6 Fri, 30 Sep 2016 02:07:25 +0100 Sir Alex Ferguson The Real Godfather Mens T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/sir-alex-ferguson-the-real-godfather-mens-t-shirt-p11"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/sir-alex-ferguson-the-real-godfather-mens-t-shirt-p11-1394_thumb.jpg" alt="Sir Alex Ferguson The Real Godfather Mens T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/sir-alex-ferguson-the-real-godfather-mens-t-shirt-p11">Sir Alex Ferguson The Real Godfather Mens T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/manchester-united-c16/sir-alex-ferguson-the-real-godfather-mens-t-shirt-p11 Fri, 23 Dec 2016 12:28:38 +0000 Brian Clough 1980 T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/brian-clough-1980-t-shirt-p14"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-1980-t-shirt-p14-228_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough 1980 T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/brian-clough-1980-t-shirt-p14">Brian Clough 1980 T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/nottingham-forest-c11/brian-clough-1980-t-shirt-p14 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:02 +0100 Falco 1986 (Brazil) Yellow Ringer T-Shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/falco-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p16"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/falco-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p16-241_thumb.jpg" alt="Falco 1986 (Brazil) Yellow Ringer T-Shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/falco-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p16">Falco 1986 (Brazil) Yellow Ringer T-Shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/falco-1986-brazil-yellow-ringer-t-shirt-p16 Mon, 04 Jul 2016 13:05:02 +0100 Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) T-shirt <a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-t-shirt-p5"><img src="http://www.punkfootball.com/images/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-t-shirt-p5-1796_thumb.jpg" alt="Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) T-shirt" /></a> <p><a href="http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-t-shirt-p5">Brian Clough - The Best Manager (Derby County) T-shirt</a></p> <p></p> http://www.punkfootball.com/brian-clough-the-best-manager-derby-county-t-shirt-p5	i don't know

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