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{
"en": "After the downfall of the Rokkaku clan, Nobunaga ODA dispatched a daikan (local governor) to Otsu with the approval of Yoshiaki ASHIKAGA and brought the region under his rule.",
"ja": "六角氏滅亡後、織田信長が足利義昭の許可を得て大津に代官を派遣して支配下に置いた。"
} |
{
"en": "In 1600, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA appointed Kanbei SUEYOSHI as Otsu-bugyo and separated the bugyo and daikan posts the following year with the appointment of Nagayasu OKUBO as Otsu-daikan.",
"ja": "徳川家康は、慶長5年（1600年）に末吉勘兵衛を大津奉行、翌年には大久保長安を大津代官に任命して奉行と代官を分離した。"
} |
{
"en": "In 1615, Otsu-bugyo was positioned as ongoku-bugyo (magistrate placed in important areas for direct government control) and Otsu-daikan was placed under its command, but they were both abolished in 1722 when they were absorbed into Kyoto machi bugyo (Kyoto City Magistrates).",
"ja": "元和(日本)元年（1615年）に大津奉行を遠国奉行として大津代官をその指揮下としたが、享保7年（1722年）にともに廃止されて京都町奉行に統合された。"
} |
{
"en": "The junkenshi is an envoy of the Edo shogunate dispatched for surveillance of the daimyos (feudal lords) and hatamotos (shogunal retainers), and for research on the situation.",
"ja": "巡見使（じゅんけんし）とは、江戸幕府が諸国の大名・旗本の監視と情勢調査のために派遣した上使のこと。"
} |
{
"en": "The junkenshi can be classified broadly into goryo-junkenshi sent to inspect the kogi-goryo (tenryo [shogunal properties]) and hatamoto fiefdoms and shokoku-junkenshi responsible for surveillance of the daimyos of domains.",
"ja": "大きく分けると、公儀御料（天領）及び旗本知行所を監察する御料巡見使と諸藩の大名を監察する諸国巡見使があった。"
} |
{
"en": "The Edo shogunate introduced the Genna Military Service Order in 1616 to make military service compulsory to the daimyos and the hatamotos, in order to maintain this system, the hatamotos were required to be stationed permanently in Edo (Jofu), except under special assignments, and in 1635, the daimyos were governed under the Sankinkotai system (amendment of the Buke shohatto, or the code of warrior households), in which the lords were required to reside in Edo in alternate years, instead of stationing permanently in Edo.",
"ja": "江戸幕府においては元和_(日本)2年（1616年）の元和軍役令を制定して、大名・旗本に軍役・奉仕の義務付けを行ったが、この体制の維持のために旗本は職務による例外を除いては江戸常駐（定府）を命じ、大名には寛永12年（1635年）には、江戸常駐の代替として参勤交代制の導入（武家諸法度改正）を行った。"
} |
{
"en": "The office of junkenshi was created for the Edo shogunate to directly inspect the hatamotos whether they had established the political and military foundations in their respective fiefs for providing military service to the shogunate and was regarded as a pair with the Sankinkotai system.",
"ja": "巡見使は旗本のこうした軍役・奉仕義務を行うための政治的・軍事的な地盤をそれぞれの知行で確立できているかを幕府側が直接確認することを目的としてとして導入されたものであり、参勤交代とは対として考えられていた。"
} |
{
"en": "On November 19, 1615, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA unveiled the new policy of 'kunimawari-haken' (dispatch of inspectors to feudal domains) to be conducted once every 3 years in order to examine whether the Buke shohatto code and ikkoku ichijo sei (allowing only one castle per domain) were being observed faithfully but implemented the policy only once with inspectors sent to the Aizu region.",
"ja": "元和元年11月19日(旧暦)、徳川家康は武家諸法度・一国一城制が遵守されているかを確かめるために、3年に1度諸国の監察を行う「国廻り派遣」の方針を打ち出したが、会津地方への監察が1度行われたのみに終わった。"
} |
{
"en": "8 years later, in 1623, Hidetada TOKUGAWA dispatched 'kuni-metsuke' for surveillance of Tadanao MATSUDAIRA, his nephew (adopted son-in-law) exiled to Bungo Province, which was also a type of 'kunimawari-haken.'",
"ja": "8年後の元和9年（1623年）に、徳川秀忠は豊後国に配流された甥（娘婿）松平忠直の状況視察を目的として「国目付」を派遣しているが、これも「国廻り派遣」の1種であった。"
} |
{
"en": "The inspection tours were resumed in earnest by Iemitsu TOKUGAWA in the second year of his direct rule, when he decided on the implementation of the kunimawari-haken on January 6 (based on the old calendar), 1633, on the grounds that the Keicho map of Japan required revision.",
"ja": "本格的な派遣再開は徳川家光が親政を始めて1年後の寛永10年1月6日(旧暦)（1633年）に慶長日本図の校訂を理由として「国廻り派遣」を行うことを決めた。"
} |
{
"en": "It is said that the first dispatch was on February 8 (based on the old calendar), when 6 with fudai daimyo (hereditary vassals to the Tokugawa Family) status, namely, Yoshichika KOIDE, Nagamasa ICHIHASHI, Yoshikatsu MIZOGUCHI, Mitsumasa KOIDE, Kazunao KUWAYAMA and Mitsunobu WAKEBE, were sent as official envoys to various parts of the country.",
"ja": "2月8日(旧暦)に、小出吉親・市橋長政・溝口善勝・小出三尹・桑山一直・分部光信の6名の譜代大名格を正使として各地に派遣したのが最初とされている。"
} |
{
"en": "Each envoy was accompanied by one hatamoto each from tsukaiban (responsible for order and patrol), koshogumi (page corps) or shoinban (castle guard) offices, serving as vice-envoys.",
"ja": "この際には副使として使番・小姓組あるいは書院番に属する旗本からそれぞれ1名ずつが付けられた。"
} |
{
"en": "In addition to revision of the map, these envoys are believed to have been on the mission of confirming the travel routes to be taken by the daimyos and their retinues in the Sankinkotai that had already been in planning at that time.",
"ja": "彼らは地図の校訂を行うと同時に当時既に構想されていた参勤交代実施時の大名行列のルートを確認する意図があったとされている。"
} |
{
"en": "Although the practice was once again discontinued in later years, it re-emerged when Shogun Ietsuna TOKUGAWA issued on April 5, 1664 (based on the older calendar), the Kanbun Shuinjo (a vermillion seal letter) to all daimyos (Kanbun no Shuin Aratame), requiring all lords to organize inquisitions for suppressing Christianity in the same year.",
"ja": "その後、再びこの制は途絶えていたが、徳川家綱の代に入った寛文4年4月5日(旧暦)に全ての大名に対して寛文朱印状が交付され（寛文朱印改）、同年に宗門改が全ての領主に対して義務付けられた。"
} |
{
"en": "In order to confirm the state of progress in the inquisition, the shokoku-junkenshi system was introduced on February 18, 1667 (based on the old calendar).",
"ja": "それらの実施状況を確かめる事を名目として寛文7年2月18日_(旧暦)に諸国巡見使の制が導入されたのである。"
} |
{
"en": "According to the system introduced in 1667, the envoys were led by a wakadoshiyori (junior elder) as supervisor, with one tsukaiban as official envoy reporting directly to the wakadoshiyori, accompanied by one from koshoban (inner guards) and another from shoinban serving as vice-envoys.",
"ja": "寛文7年の制によれば、責任者を若年寄としてその指揮監督にあたり、若年寄の支配下にあった使番1名を正使、同じく小姓番と書院番からそれぞれ1名ずつを副使として派遣することとした。"
} |
{
"en": "The envoys were accompanied by their attendants to inspect and rate the state of political rule of the private lands (feudal domains) and kogi-goryo as 'excellent, fair, poor and bad,' as well as to survey the state of enforcement of shogunal laws, including the ban on Christianity, and the state of prices, market conditions, maritime shipping, ocean defense, etc., in each domain.",
"ja": "彼らは従者を連れて管轄する諸国の監察を行い、私領（諸藩）及び公儀御料の政治の実態を「美政・中美政・中悪政・悪政」などと格付けした他、キリスト教禁止令などの幕府法令の実施状況、領内の物価や相場、船舶や海防についてなどを調査した。"
} |
{
"en": "This was followed by shokoku-junkenshi dispatch by Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA in 1681 (start of Tenna era), the year following his accession to power, establishing the practice of order and implementation of dispatching junkenshi within one year of accession of a new shogun.",
"ja": "続いて徳川綱吉が将軍職についた翌年の天和(日本)元年（1681年）にも諸国巡見使が派遣され、以後新将軍が就任してから1年以内に巡見使発遣令と実際の発遣が行われることとなった。"
} |
{
"en": "At the same time, jurisdiction was also defined by dividing the country into 8 districts.",
"ja": "また、全国を8の区域に分割して管轄区域を定めた。"
} |
{
"en": "In accordance with the system established in the Kanbun and Tenna eras, dispatch of envoys in behalf of the new shogun became established practice, excluding the case of Ietsugu TOKUGAWA, who died in childhood.",
"ja": "以後、幼少で没した徳川家継を例外として、寛文・天和の制度に則って将軍の代替わりの恒例行事として制度化された。"
} |
{
"en": "Exemplified by the forfeit of samurai rank and property from Takanaga KORIKI of Shimabara Domain in the inspection of 1667, there was possibility of punitive action for 'bad' daimyo, and these inspection tours stirred fears among the feudal lords.",
"ja": "なお、寛文7年の巡見では、実際に島原藩の高力隆長が改易処分にされるなど、「悪政」と評価された大名には処罰の可能性があり、各藩ではこれを強く恐れた。"
} |
{
"en": "For this reason, the feudal lords attempted to ingratiate themselves to the junkenshi, organizing receptions that could be regarded extreme and imposing great burden on villages along the route that the envoys passed.",
"ja": "そのため、諸藩は巡見使に機嫌を取ることに気を配り巡見使に対して過度とも言える接待が行われて巡見使が通過する村々に対して負担が命じられた。"
} |
{
"en": "Furthermore, they created Q&A manuals known as 'junken-ogi.'",
"ja": "更に「巡見扇」などと呼ばれる想定質疑集も作成されるなどした。"
} |
{
"en": "In addition, junkenshi inspection had its limitations because domains that had not violated shogunate policy were allowed a measure of autonomy.",
"ja": "更に幕藩体制においては幕府の方針に違反しない限りは藩に対しては一定の自主性が認められていたため、巡見使の監察にも限度があった。"
} |
{
"en": "Since the Kanbun inspection, there had been 8 such tours until 1838 for Ieyoshi TOKUGAWA.",
"ja": "寛文の巡察以後、徳川家慶の天保9年（1838年）まで計8回行われた。"
} |
{
"en": "In Iesada TOKUGAWA's reign, the tour had been postponed until 1857 due to the arrival of the Black Ships from the US and outbreak of a natural disaster but eventually not conducted due to aggravation of Iesada's illness (and his death in the following year).",
"ja": "だが、徳川家定の時には黒船来航や災害などを理由に安政4年（1857年）まで延期されたものの、家定の病状悪化（翌年死去）によって派遣されなかった。"
} |
{
"en": "The tour was postponed once again until 1862 in the reign of Iemochi TOKUGAWA for similar reasons but was cancelled when the Sankinkotai system was suspended temporarily on November 29 (based on the old calendar) with Bunkyu Reform of the same year, because it was regarded as a pair with Sankinkotai.",
"ja": "徳川家茂の時には文久2年（1862年）まで同様の理由で延期されたものの、同年の文久の改革によって参勤交代が一時停止された事を受けて、11月29日(旧暦)にこれと対として考えられていた巡見使発遣の見合わせが決定された。"
} |
{
"en": "On September 21, 1867 (based on the old calendar), the second year of the reign of Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA, junkenshi itself was terminated on grounds of confusion within the country and fiscal decline in feudal domains.",
"ja": "そして徳川慶喜の就任翌年である慶応3年9月21日(旧暦)に国内の混乱と諸藩の疲弊を理由に巡見使そのものの停止が決定されたのである。"
} |
{
"en": "It was only one month later that the Taisei Hokan (return of power to the Emperor) took place.",
"ja": "それからわずか1ヶ月後に大政奉還が行われる事になる。"
} |
{
"en": "The following shows the dates when shokoku-junkenshi dispatch order were issued after accession of a new shogun and the actual years when the tours were dispatched.",
"ja": "ここでは将軍就任後に諸国巡見使の発遣令が出された日及び実際の発遣年を掲げる。"
} |
{
"en": "Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川綱吉"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on March 18, 1681, and envoys sent in the same year.",
"ja": "－天和元年1月28日(旧暦)（1681年3月18日）→同年発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Ienobu TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川家宣"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on March 30, 1710, and envoys sent in the same year.",
"ja": "－宝永7年3月1日(旧暦)（1710年3月30日）→同年発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Yoshimune TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川吉宗"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on September 28, 1716, and envoys sent during the same year and the following year.",
"ja": "－享保元年7月18日(旧暦)（1716年9月28日）→同年及び翌享保2年（1717年）発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Ieshige TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川家重"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on November 21, 1745, and envoys sent in the following year.",
"ja": "－延享2年10月28日(旧暦)（1745年11月21日）→翌延享3年（1746年）発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Ieharu TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川家治"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on August 21, 1760, and envoys sent during the same year and the following year.",
"ja": "－宝暦10年7月11日(旧暦)（1760年8月21日）→同年及び翌宝暦11年（1761年）発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Ienari TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川家斉"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on May 14, 1787, and envoys sent during 1788 and 1789.",
"ja": "－天明7年3月27日(旧暦)（1787年5月14日）→翌天明8年（1788年）及び寛政元年（1789年）発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Ieyoshi TOKUGAWA",
"ja": "徳川家慶"
} |
{
"en": "Order issued on August 16, 1837, and envoys sent in the following year.",
"ja": "－天保8年7月16日(旧暦)（1837年8月16日）→翌天保9年（1838年）発遣"
} |
{
"en": "Although shokoku-junkenshi was initially in charge of inspecting kogi-goryo as well, the dispatch of Kanhasshu junkenshi for the 8 provinces of Kanto region in 1671 to examine the state of rule by the local governors and peasant control in the region led to wider application of such inspection on the nationwide scale in 1712, leading to the creation of the goryo-junkenshi envoys representing the kanjo (accounting) office under the roju (shogunate elders) and kachimetsuke (security patrol and intelligence) office under the wakadoshiyori.",
"ja": "当初は諸国巡見使が公儀御料（天領）の巡見も行っていたが、寛文11年（1671年）に関東地方の代官及び農民支配を目的として関八州巡見使が独自に派遣され、正徳(日本)2年（1712年）に関八州から全国規模に拡大され、老中支配の勘定・支配勘定と若年寄支配の徒目付による御料巡見使が派遣された。"
} |
{
"en": "Due to kogi-goryo being scattered widely in many parts, the country was divided into 11 territories.",
"ja": "公儀御料は各地に散らばっているために全国を11の区域に分けて行われた。"
} |
{
"en": "After the first dispatch, goryo-junkenshi tours were conduced 7 times in 1713, 1716, 1746, 1769, 1789 and 1839.",
"ja": "以後、同3年（1713年）・同6年（1716年）・延享3年（1746年）・宝暦11年（1769年）・寛政元年（1789年）・天保9年（1839年）の合わせて7回の御料巡見使が派遣された。"
} |
{
"en": "Starting in 1746, the goryo-junkenshi were dispatched simultaneously with shokoku-junkenshi at the change of shogun.",
"ja": "延享以後、将軍の代替わりに諸国巡見使と同時に派遣される事となった。"
} |
{
"en": "Because the performance of the goryo-junkenshi impacted the state of finance for both the shogunate and the hatamotos and kogi-goryo and hatamoto domains were under the direct supervision by shogunate, unlike the feudal domains that were granted a measure of autonomy, the goryo-junkenshi held greater power than the shokoku-junkenshi.",
"ja": "御料巡見の成否は幕府及び旗本財政の動向にも関わること、統治に関して一定の自主性が認められていた諸藩と違って、公儀御料・旗本領には幕府権力が直接行使できた事から、御料巡見使には諸国巡見使以上の権限が与えられていた。"
} |
{
"en": "Reports for surveillance of remote domains submitted by the Oniwaban (intelligence officers) show findings of the behavior of the junkenshi during their inspections at feudal domains.",
"ja": "御庭番が提出した遠国御用の報告書の中には巡見使の現地での振る舞いについて調査したものが伝わっている。"
} |
{
"en": "The Oniwaban appear to have been assigned surveys of the junkenshi as part of their intelligence activities.",
"ja": "隠密調査の一つとして御庭番に巡見使の調査が発令されたものと考えらている。"
} |
{
"en": "Tsukaiban is a post in the Edo shogunate.",
"ja": "使番（つかいばん）とは、江戸幕府の職名。"
} |
{
"en": "In older times, it was also called tsukai-yaku.",
"ja": "古くは使役（つかいやく）とも称した。"
} |
{
"en": "Under the command of the wakadoshiyori, the officer earned executive allowance of 500 koku (rice yield) and salary of 1,000 koku, was of Hoi (commoner) rank and was stationed to be at the side of the southern door of the Kiku-no-ma Hall.",
"ja": "若年寄の支配に属し、役料500石・役高は1,000石・布衣格・菊之間南際襖際詰であった。"
} |
{
"en": "The post originates from the function of the military officer in the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States), who served as messenger and scout in the battlefield and messenger to the enemy army.",
"ja": "その由来は戦国時代(日本)において、戦場において伝令や監察、敵軍への使者などを務めた役職である。"
} |
{
"en": "The post stayed in the Edo shogunate.",
"ja": "これがそのまま江戸幕府においても継承された。"
} |
{
"en": "The post was made official in 1617, but except during the Shimabara Rebellion, never took part in major warfare and began to focus on surveillance of shogunate administrators such as ongoku-bugyo (the collective name of the magistrates placed at important areas directly controlled by the government in the Edo period) and daikan (governors) who executed shogunate policy in remote locations along with metsuke (inspectors).",
"ja": "元和(日本)3年（1617年）に定制化されたが、皮肉にもその後島原の乱以外に大規模な戦乱は発生せず、目付とともに遠国奉行や代官などの遠方において職務を行う幕府官吏に対する監察業務を担当する事となる。"
} |
{
"en": "Later, the officer became responsible for service as kunimetsuke (inspector of feudal domains), shokoku-junkenshi (envoy responsible for surveillance of the daimyo), supervision of shogunate administrators at Nijo-jo Castle, Osaka-jo Castle, Sunpu-jo Castle, Kofu-jo Castle, etc., as well as supervision of daimyo hikeshi (daimyo's firefighters) and jobikeshi (firefighters under the direct control of the Edo shogunate) in case of fire outbreak in Edo.",
"ja": "以後は国目付・諸国巡見使としての派遣、二条城・大坂城・駿府城・甲府城などの幕府役人の監督、江戸市中火災時における大名火消・定火消の監督などを行った。"
} |
{
"en": "The number of such officers was believed to be 28 (or 25, according to some sources) in the Genna era and was gradually increased to around 50 in the Bunka era, shooting up to 112 in the last years of the Edo Period.",
"ja": "定員は元和期には28名を定員とした（25名説もある）が、次第に増員されて文化(日本)年間には50名前後、幕末に入ると一気に急増して最大で112名に達した。"
} |
{
"en": "For this reason, the number was halved to 56 in 1866, and salary was revised in the following year, with executive allowance kept at 500 ryo (gold pieces) for those earning more than 1000 koku and half the amount for lower-rank earners.",
"ja": "そのため、慶応2年（1866年）に定員を半分の56名に削減し、翌年には役料を1,000石以上には金500両、以下にはその半分と改めた。"
} |
{
"en": "In addition, there was the otsukaiban in O-oku (the inner halls of Edo Castle where the wife of the Shogun and her servants reside), who served as liaison officer between the Midaidokoro (wife of the Shogun) or other high-ranking woman servants and the shogunate administrators.",
"ja": "なお、大奥にはこれとは別個に御台所や大奥の上臈と役人との連絡にあたる「御使番」が設置されている。"
} |
{
"en": "Kahan, also called Kahan no retsu (joint surety) means originally a chief retainer who had authority to sign or put seal at carrying out an order of a lord.",
"ja": "加判（かはん）とは、加判の列とも呼び、本来の意味は主君の上意を執行するにあたって、署名・押捺を行う職権を有する重臣をいう。"
} |
{
"en": "The word had often been seen since the end of the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States).",
"ja": "戦国時代末期からよく見られるようになった語である。"
} |
{
"en": "The word Kahan was used in various meanings by the Edo Shogunate, territorial lords, hatamoto and others.",
"ja": "加判の意味は、江戸幕府・諸大名・旗本などによって、まちまちに用いられた。"
} |
{
"en": "In the Edo Shogunate, roju (senior councillor of the Tokugawa shogunate) was kahan no retsu, but in the beginning those who were qualified to attend Hyojosho (conference chamber) such as kanjo bugyo (commissioner of finance) were also considered as kahan.",
"ja": "江戸幕府にあっては老中が加判の列であるが、当初は勘定奉行など評定所に出席できる資格の有する者も、加判であるとされた時期もあった。"
} |
{
"en": "Kahan was used as follows in domains.",
"ja": "諸藩にあっては、次のような用いられかたがされている。"
} |
{
"en": "1. Kahan (or Kabanshu) was used for the same meaning as karo (chief retainer), or as the name of the social standing of a family and kakaku (family status).",
"ja": "1，加判（あるいは加判衆）とは、家老と同義、または家柄・家格の名称として用いられることがあった。"
} |
{
"en": "2. Kahan was sometimes used as an official title given to qualified people to attend a conference of chief retainers such as Hyojosho (conference chamber).",
"ja": "2，加判とは、評定所（会所）などの重臣会議に出席資格がある者に与えられる職名として、用いられることがあった。"
} |
{
"en": "In such a case, position of karo was naturally kahan, so people in lower positions (bugyo [magistrate], yonin [officer handling domestic economy]) were called kahan at the assignment.",
"ja": "この場合は、家老職が加判であることは当たり前であるため、それより下の役職の者（奉行・用人など）が任命されると加判を称した。"
} |
{
"en": "3. There was uncommon example in a domain which had more positions of karo than the size of domain that karo qualified as kahan and karo unqualified as kahan were separated.",
"ja": "3，一般的ではないが、家老職の員数が、藩の規模より多い藩では、加判たる家老職と、加判の資格がない家老職とに分けた例がある。"
} |
{
"en": "4. Sometimes, those who were from karo family were regarded as karo kahan when they became professional karo, and those who were from non karo family were regarded as karo without qualification of kahan when they became karo.",
"ja": "4，家老の家柄である者が家老本職となると、家老加判とし、家老の家柄でない者が家老となると加判の資格のない家老職とされることがあった。"
} |
{
"en": "As for hatamoto of bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), the highest rank of vassal was often not karo but yonin and in this case, the yonin was kahan.",
"ja": "また幕府の旗本にあっては、その家臣筆頭の役職が、家老ではなく用人であることが多く、この場合の用人は加判である。"
} |
{
"en": "Fudai genin were also called Fudai hokonin (servant and hereditary vassal) and meant genin (servants who served their masters as slaves) and hokonin (a servant) who were in personal slavery and served their master by providing roeki (labor service) as Fudai permanently and patrimonially in the agricultural community of modern times.",
"ja": "譜代下人（ふだいげにん）とは、譜代奉公人（ふだいほうこうにん）とも呼ばれ、近世農村において主家に人身的な隷属にあり、譜代として永代・世襲的に労役を提供する形によって奉公した下人・奉公人を指す。"
} |
{
"en": "Fudai genin were called Keho, Monya, Niwako and Uchibyakusho depending on region.",
"ja": "地方によっては家抱（けほう）・門屋（もんや）・庭子（にわこ）・内百姓（うちびゃくしょう）などの呼称があった。"
} |
{
"en": "Moreover, the level of subordination was also different and it was noted in \"Jikata Hanreiroku\" (a guide to regional governance) that there were various forms, for example, people who lived with their wives, people who were de facto kosakunin (a tenant farmer) given land by their masters, people who were forced to live in their masters' houses and cultivated fields under orders from their masters and so on.",
"ja": "また、従属の度合いも異なり、『地方凡例録』には夫婦を構成して生活している者や主家から土地を預けられて事実上の小作人であった者から、主家の屋敷内に住まわされてその命令下で田畑を耕す者など様々な形態があった事が知られている。"
} |
{
"en": "It is considered that the origin was successors of traditional genin since the Medieval period and reisaimin (people who lived from hand to mouth) captured by human trafficking at the time of disorder from the Sengoku period (period of warring states) to the early Edo period.",
"ja": "その由来については中世以来の伝統的な下人の後継や戦国時代(日本)から江戸時代初期にかけての混乱期に人身売買によって獲得された零細民であったと考えられている。"
} |
{
"en": "In the Sengoku period, humans were trafficked due to habit of ranbodori (pillage by soldiers after battles) but the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) prohibited human trafficking.",
"ja": "戦国時代には乱妨取の習慣による人身売買が行われていたが、江戸幕府はこれを禁じた。"
} |
{
"en": "However, enslavement due to human trafficking was widely spread in rural areas since management of agricultural village society was unstable at that time and peasant folk who were not able to manage farms and hon-byakusho (peasants) who were annoyed with lack of labor shared a mutual interest.",
"ja": "だが、当時の農村社会の経営は不安定であり、農業経営の出来なくなった小農民と労働力不足に悩まされる本百姓層の利害の一致によりこうした人身売買による隷属化が農村部において横行した。"
} |
{
"en": "As regulation of human trafficking was reinforced, shichiken hokonin (a servant put in pledge) appeared as a way to circumvent the regulation.",
"ja": "やがて人身売買に対する規制が強化されると、一種の脱法行為として人身質入による質券奉公人（しちけんほうこうにん）が出現する。"
} |
{
"en": "The principal amount (borrowing amount) written on the pledge bill was equivalent to the servant's value and the interest of the debt was equivalent to servant's labor during the debt period, and the servant was bounded by his master i.e. creditor until he as debtor wiped off the principle amount, but in fact it was fudai genin by de facto human trafficking under the name of pledge.",
"ja": "これは質券に書かれた本金（借入額）を奉公人の価格・利息の支払を債務期間中の労働に相当させ、借方である奉公人が本金を返済しない限りは身柄は修身にわたって貸方である主家に拘束されるという仕組であり、質取行為に名を借りた事実上の人身売買による譜代下人であった。"
} |
{
"en": "Due to the stabilization of the farm management after the middle of the Edo period, the fudai genin or shichiken hokonin turned out to be nenki hokonin (apprentices) in advanced agricultural areas, however, in developing areas, such fudai hokonin existed till the end of Edo period.",
"ja": "江戸時代中期以後の農業経営の安定化に伴い、先進農業地域では譜代下人や質権奉公人は、年季奉公人（ねんきほうこうにん）に転化する事例も見られたが、途上地域では幕末までこうした譜代下人が存在した。"
} |
{
"en": "Bakufu and domains officially prohibited human trafficking but in fact overlooked the existence of fudai genin since they wanted to give priority to stabilization of land tax collection caused by stability of farm management.",
"ja": "また、幕府や諸藩は表向きはこうした人身売買を禁じていたが、農業経営の安定による年貢徴収の安定化を優先させる配慮から、こうした譜代下人の存在を黙認していた。"
} |
{
"en": "An old custom, Fudai genin (in other words, Keho) ended in the Meiji period since the release of social status and the prohibition of naming were issued in an ordinance in 1872.",
"ja": "明治に入ると、旧来の慣習である譜代下人（家抱）は、身分の解禁および呼称の禁止が1872年の法令で発せられ、終焉を迎えた。"
} |
{
"en": "Shi was a collective name of Daishi and Shoshi established in Jingikan and Daijokan (Benkankyoku) under the Japanese ritsuryo legal code system.",
"ja": "史（し）とは、日本律令制において神祇官・太政官（弁官局）に設置された大史・少史の総称。"
} |
{
"en": "Shi corresponds to Sakan, the fourth rank of Shitokan.",
"ja": "四等官の4番目である主典（さかん）に相当する。"
} |
{
"en": "The corresponding court rank of Daishi of Jingikan was Junior Sixth Rank, Senior Eighth Rank and that of Shoshi of Jingikan was Junior Sixth Rank, Junior Eighth Rank, whereas that of Daishi of Daijokan was Senior Sixth Rank, Upper Grade and that of Shoshi of Daijokan was Junior Sixth Rank, Senior Seventh Rank, both of which were higher than those of Jingikan.",
"ja": "官位相当は神祇官の大史は従六位正八位、同少史は従六位従八位であるのに対して、太政官の大史は正六位上、同少史は従六位正七位とそれよりも高く位置づけられている。"
} |
{
"en": "The prescribed number for Jingikan was one for each of Daishi and Shoshi (two in total), and that for Daijokan was two for each of Daishi and Shoshi for each of Sabenkankyoku and Ubenkankyoku (eight in total.)",
"ja": "定員は神祇官は大少各1名（全2名）、太政官は左右弁官局に大少各2名（全8名）。"
} |
{
"en": "The officials who were in charge of writing were traditionally called 'Fuhito', and the kabane of Shi was sometimes conferred on the Chinese and Korean clans settled in Japan who held the post of Shi.",
"ja": "古くから文筆を掌る官を「史（ふひと）」と呼び、この職に就いた渡来人系の氏族に対して史(姓)のカバネが授けられる事があった。"
} |
{
"en": "In the ritsuryo legal code system, the duties of Shi were recording and creating official documents under the command of a senior official, examining the official documents, reading proofs and asking for instructions from the senior official.",
"ja": "律令制においては、上級者の命令を受けて公文書の記録・作成を掌り、公文書の内容を吟味して上級者の判断を仰ぎ、読申することを職掌とした。"
} |
{
"en": "Shi of Daijokan were also called Hachishi, meaning eight Shi, because they belonged to Benkankyoku headed by Benkan, which was divided into Sabenkankyoku and Ubenkankyoku, in each of which there were two for each of Sadaishi, Udaishi, Sashoshi, and Ushoshi, i.e., eight Shi in total.",
"ja": "太政官の史は、弁官が率いる弁官局に属しており、同局が左右に分かれていることから、左大史・右大史・左大史・左少史に各2名合わせて8名存在することから八史（はちし）とも呼ばれた。"
} |
{
"en": "Later, when Daishi in Benkankyoku were raised to Fifth Rank (Taifu), they were especially called Taifushi (or Shitaifu.)",
"ja": "後に弁官局の大史から五位の位階（大夫）に昇るものが現れるようになり、これを特に大夫史（史大夫）と呼んだ。"
} |
{
"en": "After OTSUKI no Tomochika was appointed Sadaishi corresponding to Fifth Rank, the Otsuki clan (the Mibu family, the Omiya family) served as Daishi Joseki, which was Kanmu, for generations, being in charge of keeping the transmission of records and documents of Daijokan under the name of 'Kanmu family.'",
"ja": "小槻奉親が五位の左大史に就任して以後、小槻氏（壬生家壬生家（小槻姓）・大宮家大宮家（小槻氏））は代々にわたって大史上席（官務）を務めたため、「官務家」と称され、太政官の記録・文書の伝領保存の任にあたるようになる。"
} |
{
"en": "Sadaishi (Senior Sixth Rank, Upper Grade): 2",
"ja": "左大史（正六位上）二名"
} |
{
"en": "Udaishi (Senior Sixth Rank, Upper Grade): 2",
"ja": "右大史（正六位上）二名"
} |
{
"en": "Sashoshi (Junior Sixth Rank, Senior Seventh Rank): 2",
"ja": "左少史（従六位正七位）二名"
} |
{
"en": "Ushoshi (Junior Sixth Rank, Senior Seventh Rank): 2",
"ja": "右少史（従六位正七位）二名"
} |
{
"en": "Sashisho: 10",
"ja": "左史生十名"
} |
{
"en": "Ushisho: 10",
"ja": "右史生十名"
} |
{
"en": "Sakajo: 2",
"ja": "左官掌二名"
} |
{
"en": "Ukajo: 2",
"ja": "右官掌二名"
} |
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