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<doc docid="6" genre="lectures">
<doc docid="6" genre="lectures">
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<url>http://www.ted.com/talks/craig_venter_on_dna_and_the_sea</url>
<url>http://www.ted.com/talks/craig_venter_on_dna_and_the_sea</url>
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<keywords>talks, DNA, biodiversity, biology, biotech, ecology, entrepreneur, genetics, invention, oceans, science, technology</keywords>
<keywords>talks, DNA, biodiversity, biology, biotech, ecology, entrepreneur, genetics, invention, oceans, science, technology</keywords>
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<speaker>Craig Venter</speaker>
<speaker>Craig Venter</speaker>
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<talkid>6</talkid>
<talkid>6</talkid>
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<title>Craig Venter: Sampling the ocean's DNA</title>
<title>ูƒุฑูŠุบ ูู†ุชุฑ: ุฃุฎุฐ ุนูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ู„ู„ู…ุญูŠุท</title>
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<description>TED Talk Subtitles and Transcript: Genomics pioneer Craig Venter takes a break from his epic round-the-world expedition to talk about the millions of genes his team has discovered so far in its quest to map the ocean's biodiversity.</description>
<description>TED Talk Subtitles and Transcript: ูŠุฃุฎุฐ ุฑุงุฆุฏ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ูƒุฑูŠุฌ ูู†ุชุฑ ูุชุฑุฉ ุฑุงุญุฉ ู…ู† ุฑุญู„ุงุชู‡ ุงู„ุจุทูˆู„ูŠุฉ ุญูˆู„ ุงู„ุนุงู„ู… ู„ูŠุชุญุฏุซ ุนู† ู…ู„ุงูŠูŠู† ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุฃูƒุชุดูู‡ุง ูุฑูŠู‚ู‡ ุงู„ุจุญุซูŠ ุญุชู‰ ุงู„ุขู† ููŠ ุณุนูŠู‡ู… ู„ุฑุณู… ุฎุฑูŠุทุฉ ู„ู„ุชู†ูˆุน ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠ ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุญูŠุท.</description>
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At the break, I was asked by several people about my comments about the aging debate.
ููŠ ูุชุฑุฉ ุงู„ุฑุงุญุฉุŒ ุณุฃู„ู†ูŠ ุงู„ุนุฏูŠุฏ ู…ู† ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ุญูˆู„ ุชุนู„ูŠู‚ุงุชูŠ ุญูˆู„ ุฌุฏู„ ุงู„ุดูŠุฎูˆุฎุฉ.
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And this will be my only comment on it.
ูˆู‡ุฐุง ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ุชุนู„ูŠู‚ูŠ ุงู„ูˆุญูŠุฏ ุญูˆู„ู‡ุง.
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And that is, I understand that optimists greatly outlive pessimists.
ูˆู‡ูˆุŒ ุฃู†ุง ุฃูู‡ู… ุฃู† ุงู„ู…ุชูุงุฆู„ูˆู† ูŠุนูŠุดูˆู† ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุจูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุชุดุงุฆู…ูŠู†.
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What I'm going to tell you about in my 18 minutes is how we're about to switch from reading the genetic code to the first stages of beginning to write the code ourselves.
ู…ุง ุณุฃู‚ูˆู… ุจุงุฎุจุงุฑูƒู… ุจู‡ ููŠ ุฏู‚ุงุฆู‚ูŠ ุงู„ 18 ู‡ูˆ ูƒูŠู ุฃู†ู†ุง ุจุตุฏุฏ ุงู„ุฅู†ุชู‚ุงู„ ู…ู† ู‚ุฑุงุกุฉ ุงู„ุดูุฑุงุช ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฎุทูˆู… ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ู‰ ู„ุจุฏุงูŠุฉ ูƒุชุงุจุฉ ุงู„ุดูุฑุฉ ุจุฃู†ูุณู†ุง.
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It's only 10 years ago this month when we published the first sequence of a free-living organism, that of haemophilus influenzae.
ู„ู‚ุฏ ู…ุฑู‘ุช 10 ุณู†ูˆุงุช ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุดู‡ุฑ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ู†ุดุฑู†ุง ุฃูˆู„ ุชุณู„ุณู„ ู„ูƒุงุฆู† ุญูŠ ุญูุฑุŒ ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ู„ู„ุงู†ููˆู„ู†ุฒุง ุงู„ู…ุณุชุฏูŠู…ุฉ.
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That took a genome project from 13 years down to four months.
ุฃุฎุฐ ุฐู„ูƒ ู…ุดุฑูˆุน ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ู…ู† 13 ุณู†ุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุฃุฑุจุนุฉ ุฃุดู‡ุฑ.
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We can now do that same genome project in the order of two to eight hours.
ูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ุง ุงู„ุขู† ุชู†ููŠุฐ ู†ูุณ ู…ุดุฑูˆุน ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุจู…ุนุฏู„ ุณุงุนุชูŠู† ุฅู„ู‰ ุซู…ุงู†ูŠ ุณุงุนุงุช.
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So in the last decade, a large number of genomes have been added: most human pathogens, a couple of plants, several insects and several mammals, including the human genome.
ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูููŠ ุงู„ุนู‚ุฏ ุงู„ุฃุฎูŠุฑุŒ ุชู… ุฅุถุงูุฉ ุนุฏุฏ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู…: ู…ุนุธู… ู…ุณุจุจุงุช ุงู„ุฃู…ุฑุงุถ ุงู„ุจุดุฑูŠุฉุŒ ุงู„ุนุฏูŠุฏ ู…ู† ุงู„ู†ุจุงุชุงุชุŒ ุญุดุฑุงุช ูˆุซุฏูŠุงุช ุนุฏูŠุฏุฉ ุŒ ูˆุชุดู…ู„ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุงู„ุจุดุฑูŠ.
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Genomics at this stage of the thinking from a little over 10 years ago was, by the end of this year, we might have between three and five genomes sequenced; it's on the order of several hundred.
ูŠููƒุฑ ุนู„ู… ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ููŠ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ู…ุฑุญู„ุฉ ู…ู† ู…ุง ูŠุฒูŠุฏ ู‚ู„ูŠู„ุง ุนู„ู‰ 10 ุนุงู…ุง ูˆุจุญู„ูˆู„ ู†ู‡ุงูŠุฉ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุนุงู… ุŒ ุฑุจู…ุง ู†ุญุตู„ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุง ุจูŠู† ุซู„ุงุซุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุฎู…ุณุฉ ุชุณู„ุณู„ุงุช ุฌูŠู†ูˆู…. ุฅู†ู‡ ุจู…ุนุฏู„ ุนุฏุฉ ู…ุฆุงุช.
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We just got a grant from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation to sequence 130 genomes this year, as a side project from environmental organisms.
ู„ู‚ุฏ ุญุตู„ู†ุง ู„ู„ุชูˆ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ู†ุญุฉ ู…ู† ู…ุคุณุณุฉ ุบูˆุฑุฏูˆู† ูˆุจูŠุชูŠ ู…ูˆุฑูŠ ู„ุนู…ู„ ุชุณู„ุณู„ุงุช ู„ 130 ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุณู†ุฉุŒ ูƒู…ุดุฑูˆุน ุฌุงู†ุจูŠ ู„ู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุจูŠุฆูŠุฉ.
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So the rate of reading the genetic code has changed.
ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูู…ุนุฏู„ ู‚ุฑุงุกุฉ ุงู„ุดูุฑุฉ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ู‚ุฏ ุชุบูŠู‘ุฑ.
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But as we look, what's out there, we've barely scratched the surface on what is available on this planet.
ู„ูƒู† ุจูŠู†ู…ุง ู†ู†ุธุฑุŒ ู„ู…ุงุฐุง ู‡ู†ุงูƒุŒ ูู†ุญู† ุจุงู„ูƒุงุฏ ู†ู„ู…ุณ ุงู„ุณุทุญ ู„ู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ู…ุชุงุญ ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ.
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Most people don't realize it, because they're invisible, but microbes make up about a half of the Earth's biomass, whereas all animals only make up about one one-thousandth of all the biomass.
ู…ุนุธู… ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ู„ุง ูŠุฏุฑูƒูˆู†ู‡ุงุŒ ู„ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุบูŠุฑ ู…ุฑุฆูŠุฉุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุงู„ู…ูŠูƒุฑูˆุจุงุช ุชุดูƒู„ ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ ู†ุตู ุงู„ูƒุชู„ุฉ ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ ู„ู„ุฃุฑุถุŒ ุญูŠุซ ุชุดูƒู„ ูƒู„ ุงู„ุญูŠูˆุงู†ุงุช ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ ูˆุงุญุฏ ุนู„ู‰ ุฃู„ู ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุชู„ุฉ ุงู„ุญูŠูˆูŠุฉ.
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And maybe it's something that people in Oxford don't do very often, but if you ever make it to the sea, and you swallow a mouthful of seawater, keep in mind that each milliliter has about a million bacteria and on the order of 10 million viruses.
ูˆุฑุจู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ุดุฆ ู„ุง ูŠูุนู„ู‡ ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ููŠ ุฃูˆูƒุณููˆุฑุฏ ุฏุงุฆู…ุงู‹ุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุฅู† ูƒู†ุช ู‚ุฏ ุฐู‡ุจุช ู…ุฑุฉ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุญุฑุŒ ูˆุดุฑุจุช ุฌุฑุนุฉ ู…ุงุก ู…ู† ุงู„ุจุญุฑุŒ ุถุน ููŠ ุฅุนุชุจุงุฑูƒ ุฃู† ููŠ ูƒู„ ู…ู„ูŠู…ุชุฑ ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุจุงูƒุชุฑูŠุง ูˆู…ุชุณูˆุท 10 ู…ู„ุงูŠูŠู† ู…ู† ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณุงุช.
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Less than 5,000 microbial species have been characterized as of two years ago, and so we decided to do something about it.
ุฃู‚ู„ ู…ู† 5000 ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ู…ุงูŠูƒุฑูˆุณูƒูˆุจูŠุฉ ุชู… ูˆุตูู‡ุง ุฎู„ุงู„ ุงู„ุณู†ุชูŠู† ุงู„ู…ุงุถูŠุชูŠู†ุŒ ูˆู„ุฐุง ูู‚ุฏ ู‚ุฑุฑู†ุง ูุนู„ ุดุฆ ุญูŠุงู„ู‡ุง.
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And we started the Sorcerer II Expedition, where we were, as with great oceanographic expeditions, trying to sample the ocean every 200 miles.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ุจุฏุฃู†ุง ุงู„ุฑุญู„ุฉ ุงู„ุฅุณุชูƒุดุงููŠุฉ ุณูˆุฑูƒุฑุฑ 2ุŒ ุญูŠุซ ูƒู†ุงุŒ ูƒู…ุง ู‡ูˆ ุญุงู„ ุญู…ู„ุงุช ุชุตูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ุจุญุงุฑ ุงู„ุฅุณุชูƒุดุงููŠุฉ ุงู„ูƒุจูŠุฑุฉุŒ ู†ุญุงูˆู„ ุฃุฎุฐ ุนูŠู†ุงุช ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุญูŠุท ูƒู„ 200 ู…ูŠู„ุงู‹.
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We started in Bermuda for our test project, then moved up to Halifax, working down the U.S. East Coast, the Caribbean Sea, the Panama Canal, through to the Galapagos, then across the Pacific, and we're in the process now of working our way across the Indian Ocean.
ู„ู‚ุฏ ุจุฏุฃู†ุง ููŠ ุจุฑู…ูˆุฏุง ู„ุฃูˆู„ ุฅุฎุชุจุงุฑุงุช ู…ุดุฑูˆุนู†ุง. ุซู… ุงู†ุชู‚ู„ู†ุง ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ุงู„ูŠูุงูƒุณุŒ ูˆุนู…ู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุณุงุญู„ ุงู„ุดุฑู‚ูŠ ู„ุฃู…ุฑูŠูƒุงุŒ ูˆุงู„ุจุญุฑ ุงู„ูƒุงุฑูŠุจูŠุŒ ูˆู‚ู†ุงุฉ ุจู†ู…ุงุŒ ุนุจุฑ ุฌุฒุฑ ุบุงู„ุงุจุงุบูˆุณ ุŒ ุซู… ุนุจุฑ ุงู„ู…ุญูŠุท ุงู„ู‡ุงุฏุฆ ุŒ ูˆู†ุญู† ุงู„ุขู† ููŠ ู†ุนุฏ ู„ู„ุนู…ู„ ููŠ ุทุฑูŠู‚ู†ุง ุนุจุฑ ุงู„ู…ุญูŠุท ุงู„ู‡ู†ุฏูŠ.
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It's very tough duty; we're doing this on a sailing vessel, in part to help excite young people about going into science.
ุฅู†ู‡ ุนู…ู„ ุตุนุจ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ. ูˆู†ุญู† ู†ูุนู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุชู† ุณููŠู†ุฉ ู…ุจุญุฑุฉุŒ ููŠ ุฌุฒุก ู…ู†ู‡ ู„ู„ู…ุณุงุนุฏุฉ ููŠ ุฅุซุงุฑุฉ ุงู„ุดุจุงุจ ู„ู„ุฎูˆุถ ููŠ ู…ุฌุงู„ุงุช ุงู„ุนู„ูˆู….
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The experiments are incredibly simple.
ุงู„ุชุฌุงุฑุจ ุจุณูŠุทุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ.
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We just take seawater and we filter it, and we collect different size organisms on different filters, and then take their DNA back to our lab in Rockville, where we can sequence a hundred million letters of the genetic code every 24 hours.
ู†ุญู† ู†ุฃุฎุฐ ูู‚ุท ู…ูŠุงู‡ ุงู„ุจุญุฑ ูˆู†ู‚ูˆู… ุจูู„ุชุฑุชู‡ุงุŒ ูˆู†ู‚ูˆู… ุจุฃุฎุฐ ุฃุญุฌุงู… ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุฑุดุญุงุช ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ. ุซู… ู†ุฃุฎุฐ ุญู…ุถู‡ุง ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ุฅู„ู‰ ู…ุฎุชุจุฑู†ุง ููŠ ุฑูˆูƒููŠู„ูŠุŒ ุญูŠุซ ูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ุง ุณู„ุณู„ุฉ ู…ุฆุงุช ุงู„ู…ู„ุงูŠูŠู† ู…ู† ุฑู…ูˆุฒ ุงู„ุดูุฑุฉ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ูƒู„ 24 ุณุงุนุฉ.
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And with doing this, we've made some amazing discoveries.
ูˆุจุงู„ู‚ูŠุงู… ุจู‡ุฐุงุŒ ุญู‚ู‚ู†ุง ุจุนุถ ุงู„ุฅูƒุชุดุงูุงุช ุงู„ู…ุฐู‡ู„ุฉ.
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For example, it was thought that the visual pigments that are in our eyes -- there was only one or two organisms in the environment that had these same pigments.
ุนู„ู‰ ุณุจูŠู„ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„ุŒ ูƒุงู† ูŠุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู† ุงู„ุฃุตุจุงุบ ุงู„ุจุตุฑูŠุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ููŠ ู†ุธุฑู†ุง -- ูƒุงู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ูู‚ุท ูƒุงุฆู† ุฃูˆ ุฃุซู†ูŠู† ููŠ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ู†ูุณ ุงู„ุฃุตุจุงุบ ุงู„ุจุตุฑูŠุฉ.
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It turns out, almost every species in the upper parts of the ocean in warm parts of the world have these same photoreceptors, and use sunlight as the source of their energy and communication.
ู„ู‚ุฏ ุฃุชุถุญุŒ ุฃู† ูƒู„ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ุนู„ูˆูŠ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุญูŠุท ููŠ ุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ุฏุงูุฆ ู…ู† ุงู„ุนุงู„ู… ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ู†ูุณ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„ุงุช ู„ู„ุตูˆุฑุŒ ูˆูŠุณุชุฎุฏู…ูˆู† ุถูˆุก ุงู„ุดู…ุณ ูƒู…ุตุฏุฑ ู„ุทุงู‚ุชู‡ู… ูˆู„ู„ุชูˆุงุตู„ ููŠู…ุง ุจูŠู†ู‡ู….
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From one site, from one barrel of seawater, we discovered 1.3 million new genes and as many as 50,000 new species.
ู…ู† ู…ูˆู‚ุน ูˆุงุญุฏุŒ ู…ู† ุจุฑู…ูŠู„ ูˆุงุญุฏ ู…ู† ู…ุงุก ุงู„ุจุญุฑ ุฃูƒุชุดูู†ุง 1.3 ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุฌูŠู† ุฌุฏูŠุฏ ูˆู…ุง ูŠุตู„ ู„ 50ุŒ000 ูƒุงุฆู† ุฌุฏูŠุฏ.
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We've extended this to the air now with a grant from the Sloan Foundation.
ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุชูˆุณูŠุน ู‡ุฐุง ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ู‡ูˆุงุก ุงู„ุขู† ู…ุน ู…ู†ุญุฉ ู…ู† ู…ุคุณุณุฉ ุณู„ูˆุงู†.
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We're measuring how many viruses and bacteria all of us are breathing in and out every day, particularly on airplanes or closed auditoriums.
ู†ุญู† ู†ู‚ูŠุณ ูƒู… ู…ู† ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณุงุช ูˆุงู„ุจุงูƒุชุฑูŠุง ู†ู‚ูˆู… ุฌู…ูŠุนุงู‹ ุจุฅุณุชู†ุดุงู‚ู‡ุง ูŠูˆู…ูŠุงู‹ุŒ ุจุงู„ุชุญุฏูŠุฏ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุทุงุฆุฑุงุช ุฃูˆ ุงู„ู‚ุงุนุงุช ุงู„ู…ุบู„ู‚ุฉ.
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We filter through some simple apparatuses; we collect on the order of a billion microbes from just a day filtering on top of a building in New York City.
ู†ู‚ูˆู… ุจุงู„ุชุตููŠุฉ ุจุฃุฌู‡ุฒุฉ ุจุณูŠุทุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ. ู†ู‚ูˆู… ุจุงู„ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุจู…ุนุฏู„ ู…ู„ูŠุงุฑ ู…ุงูŠูƒุฑูˆุจ ู…ู† ู†ุงุชุฌ ูŠูˆู… ูˆุงุญุฏ ุนุจุฑ ุฑุดุญ ู‚ู…ุฉ ู…ุจู†ู‰ ููŠ ู…ุฏูŠู†ุฉ ู†ูŠูˆูŠูˆุฑูƒ.
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And we're in the process of sequencing all that at the present time.
ูˆู†ุญู† ููŠ ุนู…ู„ูŠุฉ ุณู„ุณู„ุฉ ูƒู„ ุฐู„ูƒ ููŠ ุงู„ูˆู‚ุช ุงู„ุฑุงู‡ู†.
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Just on the data collection side, just where we are through the Galapagos, we're finding that almost every 200 miles, we see tremendous diversity in the samples in the ocean.
ูู‚ุท ููŠ ุฌุงู†ุจ ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุงู„ุจูŠุงู†ุงุชุŒ ุชู…ุงู…ุงู‹ ุญูŠุซ ู†ู…ุฑ ุนุจุฑ ุฌุฒูŠุฑุฉ ุบุงู„ุงุจุงุบูˆุณุŒ ู†ุญู† ู†ุฌุฏ ุฃู†ู‡ ูƒู„ 200 ู…ูŠู„ ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ุŒ ู†ุญู† ู†ุดู‡ุฏ ุชู†ูˆุนุงู‹ ู…ุฐู‡ู„ุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ุนูŠู†ุงุช ููŠ ุงู„ุจุญุฑ.
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Some of these make logical sense, in terms of different temperature gradients.
ุจุนุถ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุชู‚ุฏู… ุชูุณูŠุฑุงู‹ ู…ู†ุทู‚ูŠุงู‹ุŒ ุจุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ู„ุฅุฎุชู„ุงู ุชุฏุฑุฌ ุฏุฑุฌุงุช ุงู„ุญุฑุงุฑุฉ .
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So this is a satellite photograph based on temperatures -- red being warm, blue being cold -- and we found there's a tremendous difference between the warm water samples and the cold water samples, in terms of abundant species.
ู„ุฐุง ูู‡ุฐู‡ ุตูˆุฑ ุจุงู„ุฃู‚ู…ุงุฑ ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠุฉ ุจู†ุงุก ุนู„ู‰ ุฏุฑุฌุฉ ุงู„ุญุฑุงุฑุฉ-- ูŠุดูŠุฑ ุงู„ู„ูˆู† ุงู„ุฃุญู…ุฑ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฏูุกุŒ ูˆุงู„ุฃุฒุฑู‚ ุฅู„ู‰ ุงู„ุจุฑูˆุฏุฉ-- ู„ู‚ุฏ ุฃูƒุชุดูู†ุง ุฃู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุฅุฎุชู„ุงู ุดุงุณุน ุจูŠู† ุนูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ู…ูŠุงู‡ ุงู„ุฏุงูุฆุฉ ูˆุนูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ู…ูŠุงู‡ ุงู„ุจุงุฑุฏุฉุŒ ููŠู…ุง ูŠุฎุชุต ุจูˆูุฑุฉ ุงู„ุฃู†ูˆุงุน.
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The other thing that surprised us quite a bit is these photoreceptors detect different wavelengths of light, and we can predict that based on their amino acid sequence.
ุงู„ุดุฆ ุงู„ุขุฎุฑ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูุงุฌุฃู†ุง ุจู‚ุฏุฑ ูƒุจูŠุฑ ููŠ ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„ุงุช ุงู„ุตูˆุฑ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุฃู†ู‡ุง ุนุซุฑุช ุนู„ู‰ ุฃุทูˆุงู„ ู…ูˆุฌุงุช ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ู„ู„ุถูˆุกุŒ ูˆูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ุง ุงู„ุชู†ุจุค ุจุฐู„ูƒ ุจู†ุงุก ุนู„ู‰ ุณู„ุณู„ุฉ ุฃุญู…ุงุถู‡ุง ุงู„ุฃู…ูŠู†ูŠุฉ.
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And these vary tremendously from region to region.
ูˆู‡ุฐุง ูŠุฎุชู„ู ุจุดุฏุฉ ู…ู† ู…ู†ุทู‚ุฉ ู„ู…ู†ุทู‚ุฉ ุฃุฎุฑู‰.
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Maybe not surprisingly, in the deep ocean, where it's mostly blue, the photoreceptors tend to see blue light.
ุฑุจู…ุง ู„ูŠุณ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุณุชุบุฑุจุŒ ููŠ ุฃุนู…ุงู‚ ุงู„ุจุญุงุฑุŒ ุญูŠุซ ูƒู„ ุดุฆ ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ ุฃุฒุฑู‚ ูุฃู† ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„ุงุช ุงู„ุตูˆุฑ ุชู…ูŠู„ ู„ุฑุคูŠุฉ ุงู„ุถูˆุก ุงู„ุฃุฒุฑู‚.
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When there's a lot of chlorophyll around, they see a lot of green light.
ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ูŠูƒูˆู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒู„ูˆุฑูˆููŠู„ ุญูˆู„ู‡ุง ุŒ ูุฃู†ู‡ู… ูŠุฑูˆู† ุงู„ูƒุซูŠุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุถูˆุก ุงู„ุฃุฎุถุฑ.
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But they vary even more, possibly moving towards infrared and ultraviolet in the extremes.
ู„ูƒู†ู‡ุง ุชุฎุชู„ู ุญุชู‰ ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุŒ ูˆุฑุจู…ุง ุชุชุญุฑูƒ ู†ุญูˆ ุงู„ุฃุดุนุฉ ุชุญุช ุงู„ุญู…ุฑุงุก ูˆููˆู‚ ุงู„ุจู†ูุณุฌูŠุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ู†ู‡ุงูŠุงุช.
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Just to try and get an assessment of what our gene repertoire was, we assembled all the data -- including all of ours thus far from the expedition, which represents more than half of all the gene data on the planet -- and it totaled around 29 million genes.
ูู‚ุท ู„ู…ุญุงูˆู„ุฉ ุงู„ุญุตูˆู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุชู‚ุฏูŠุฑ ู„ู…ุง ูƒุงู†ุช ุนู„ูŠู‡ ุฐุฎูŠุฑุชู†ุง ู…ู† ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุชุŒ ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุชุฌู…ูŠุน ูƒู„ ุงู„ุจูŠุงู†ุงุช -- ูˆุชุดู…ู„ ูƒู„ ู…ุง ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ุญูŠู†ุฆุฐ ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฑุญู„ุฉุŒ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชู…ุซู„ ุฃูƒุซุฑ ู…ู† ู†ุตู ูƒู„ ุงู„ุจูŠุงู†ุงุช ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ-- ูˆู‚ุฏ ุจู„ุบ ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนู‡ุง ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ 29 ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุฌูŠู†.
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And we tried to put these into gene families to see what these discoveries are: Are we just discovering new members of known families, or are we discovering new families?
ูˆู‚ุฏ ุญุงูˆู„ู†ุง ูˆุถุน ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ููŠ ุนุงุฆู„ุงุช ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ู„ู†ุนุฑู ู…ุงู‡ูŠุฉ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฅูƒุชุดุงูุงุช: ู‡ู„ ู†ุญู† ู†ูƒุชุดู ุฃุนุถุงุก ุฌุฏุฏ ู„ุฃุณุฑ ู…ุนุฑูˆูุฉุŒ ุฃู… ู‡ู„ ู†ุญู† ู†ูƒุชุดู ุนุงุฆู„ุฉ ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉุŸ
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And it turns out we have about 50,000 major gene families, but every new sample we take in the environment adds in a linear fashion to these new families.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ูˆุถุญ ุฃู† ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ 50ุŒ000 ุนุงุฆู„ุฉ ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ ุฑุฆูŠุณูŠุฉุŒ ู„ูƒู† ูƒู„ ุนูŠู†ุฉ ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉ ู†ุฃุฎุฐู‡ุง ููŠ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ุชุถูŠู ู„ู†ุง ุนุงุฆู„ุงุช ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉ ุจุตูˆุฑุฉ ุฎุทูŠุฉ.
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So we're at the earliest stages of discovery about basic genes, components and life on this planet.
ู„ุฐุง ูู†ุญู† ููŠ ู…ุฑุงุญู„ ู…ุจูƒุฑุฉ ู„ู„ุฅูƒุชุดุงู ุญูˆู„ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉุŒ ุงู„ุนู†ุงุตุฑ ูˆุงู„ุญูŠุงุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ.
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When we look at the so-called evolutionary tree, we're up on the upper right-hand corner with the animals.
ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ู†ู†ุธุฑ ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุง ูŠุณู…ู‰ ุจุดุฌุฑุฉ ุงู„ุชุทูˆู‘ุฑ ูˆุงู„ู†ุดูˆุกุŒ ูู†ุญู† ุฃุนู„ู‰ ููŠ ุงู„ุฌุฒุก ุงู„ุฃูŠู…ู† ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ู†ุงุตูŠุฉ ู…ุน ุงู„ุญูŠูˆุงู†ุงุช.
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Of those roughly 29 million genes, we only have around 24,000 in our genome.
ู…ู† ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ 29 ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุฌูŠู† ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ุŒ ู†ุญู† ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ูู‚ุท ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ 24ุŒ000 ููŠ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุฎุงุตุชู†ุง.
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And if you take all animals together, we probably share less than 30,000 and probably maybe a dozen or more thousand different gene families.
ูˆุฅุฐุง ุฃุฎุฐุช ูƒู„ ุงู„ุญูŠูˆุงู†ุงุช ู…ุฌุชู…ุนุฉุŒ ููŠุญุชู…ู„ ุฃู†ู†ุง ู†ุชุดุงุฑูƒ ุฃู‚ู„ ู…ู† 30ุŒ000 ูˆุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ ุฑุจู…ุง ุงู„ู‚ู„ูŠู„ ุฃูˆ ูŠุฒูŠุฏ ุนู„ู‰ ุนุฏุฉ ุขู„ุงู„ุงู ุนุงุฆู„ุฉ ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ.
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I view that these genes are now not only the design components of evolution.
ุฃู†ุง ุฃุฑู‰ ุฃู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุขู† ู„ูŠุณ ูู‚ุท ุชู‚ูˆู… ุจุชุตู…ูŠู… ุนู†ุงุตุฑ ุงู„ุชุทูˆู‘ุฑ.
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And we think in a gene-centric view -- maybe going back to Richard Dawkins' ideas -- than in a genome-centric view, which are different constructs of these gene components.
ูˆู†ุญู† ู†ููƒู‘ุฑ ุจูˆุฌู‡ุฉ ู†ุธุฑ ู…ุญูˆุฑู‡ุง ุงู„ุฌูŠู†-- ุฑุจู…ุง ู†ุนูˆุฏ ู…ุฌุฏุฏุงู‹ ู„ุฃููƒุงุฑ ุฑูŠุชุดุงุฑุฏ ุฏุงูˆูƒูŠู†ุฒ-- ุนูˆุถุงู‹ ุนู† ูˆุฌู‡ุฉ ู†ุธุฑ ู…ุญูˆุฑู‡ุง ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู…ุŒ ูˆุงู„ุชูŠ ู‡ูŠ ู‡ูŠุงูƒู„ ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ู„ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ู…ูƒูˆู†ุงุช ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ.
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Synthetic DNA, the ability to synthesize DNA, has changed at sort of the same pace that DNA sequencing has over the last decade or two, and is getting very rapid and very cheap.
ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠ ุŒ ูˆุงู„ู‚ุฏุฑุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุชูˆู„ูŠู ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠุŒ ู‚ุฏ ุชุบูŠู‘ุฑ ุจู†ูุณ ุงู„ูˆุชูŠุฑุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู…ุฑู‘ ุจู‡ุง ุชุณู„ุณู„ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ุฎู„ุงู„ ุงู„ุนู‚ุฏ ุฃูˆ ุงู„ุนู‚ุฏูŠู† ุงู„ู…ุงุถูŠูŠู†ุŒ ูˆู‡ูŠ ุชุตุจุญ ุณุฑูŠุนุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ ูˆุฑุฎูŠุตุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ.
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Our first thought about synthetic genomics came when we sequenced the second genome back in 1995, and that from mycoplasma genitalium.
ุฃูˆู„ ุฃููƒุงุฑู†ุง ุญูˆู„ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠ ุฌุงุกุช ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุณู„ุณู„ุฉ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุงู„ุซุงู†ูŠ ุนุงู… 1995ุŒ ูˆุฐู„ูƒ ู…ู† ุฌุฑุซูˆู…ุฉ ู…ูŠูƒูˆุจู„ุงุฒู…ุง ุงู„ุชู†ุงุณู„ูŠุฉ.
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And we have really nice T-shirts that say, you know, "I heart my genitalium."
ูˆู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ู‚ู…ุตุงู† ุฌู…ูŠู„ุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ ุชู‚ูˆู„ุŒ ุชุนู„ู…ูˆู†ุŒ " ุฃู†ุง ุฃุญุจ ุฌุฑุซูˆู…ุชูŠ ุงู„ุชู†ุงุณู„ูŠุฉ."
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This is actually just a microorganism.
ู‡ุฐุง ููŠ ุงู„ูˆุงู‚ุน ูู‚ุท ูƒุงุฆู† ุญูŠ ุฏู‚ูŠู‚.
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But it has roughly 500 genes.
ู„ูƒู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ ุชู‚ุฑูŠุจุงู‹ 500 ุฌูŠู†.
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Haemophilus had 1,800 genes.
ู„ุฏู‰ ุงู„ุฃู†ูู„ูˆู†ุฒุง ุงู„ู…ุณุชุฏูŠู…ุฉ 1ุŒ800 ุฌูŠู†.
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And we simply asked the question, if one species needs 800, another 500, is there a smaller set of genes that might comprise a minimal operating system?
ูˆู‚ุฏ ุทุฑุญู†ุง ุจุจุณุงุทุฉ ุณุคุงู„ุงู‹ุŒ ุฅู† ูƒุงู† ุฃุญุฏ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ูŠุญุชุงุฌ 800ุŒ ูˆุขุฎุฑ 500ุŒ ูู‡ู„ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุฉ ุฃุตุบุฑ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ู‚ุฏ ุชุดูƒู„ ุงู„ุญุฏ ุงู„ุฃุฏู†ู‰ ู„ู†ุธุงู… ุชุดุบูŠู„ุŸ
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So we started doing transposon mutagenesis.
ู„ุฐุง ูู‚ุฏ ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุนู…ู„ ุทูุฑุงุช ุชุญูˆูŠู„ูŠุฉ.
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Transposons are just small pieces of DNA that randomly insert in the genetic code.
ุงู„ุทูุฑุงุช ู‡ูŠ ู…ุฌุฑุฏ ู‚ุทุน ุตุบูŠุฑุฉ ู„ู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุถุนู‡ุง ุนุดูˆุงุฆูŠุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ุดูุฑุฉ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูŠุฉ.
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And if they insert in the middle of the gene, they disrupt its function.
ูˆุฅุฐุง ุชู… ูˆุถุนู‡ุง ููŠ ู…ู†ุชุตู ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุŒ ูุฃู†ู‡ุง ุชุนุทู‘ู„ ูˆุธูŠูุชู‡.
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So we made a map of all the genes that could take transposon insertions and we called those "non-essential genes."
ู„ุฐุง ูู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ุฌุฒู†ุง ุฎุงุฑุทุฉ ู„ูƒู„ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ูŠู…ูƒู† ุฃู† ุชุณุชู‚ุจู„ ุทูุฑุงุช ูˆู‚ุฏ ุฃุทู„ู‚ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุฃูˆู„ุฆูƒ " ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ู„ูŠุณุช ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ."
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But it turns out the environment is very critical for this, and you can only define an essential or non-essential gene based on exactly what's in the environment.
ู„ูƒู† ูˆุถุญ ุฃู† ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ู‡ูŠ ุนุงู…ู„ ู…ู‡ู…ุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ ู„ู‡ุฐุงุŒ ูˆูŠู…ูƒู†ูƒ ูู‚ุท ุชุนุฑูŠู ุฌูŠู† ุฃุณุงุณูŠ ุฃูˆ ุบูŠุฑ ุฃุณุงุณูŠ ุจู†ุงุก ุนู„ู‰ ู…ุง ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ุจุงู„ุถุจุท.
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We also tried to take a more directly intellectual approach with the genomes of 13 related organisms, and we tried to compare all of those, to see what they had in common.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ุญุงูˆู„ู†ุง ูƒุฐู„ูƒ ุฃุฎุฐ ู…ู‚ุงุฑุจุฉ ู…ุจุงุดุฑุฉ ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุฐูƒุงุกู‹ ู…ุน ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ู„ 13 ูƒุงุฆู† ู…ุชุฑุจุท ุจุจุนุถุŒ ูˆุญุงูˆู„ู†ุง ู…ู‚ุงุฑู†ุฉ ูƒู„ ู…ู† ุฃูˆู„ุฆูƒุŒ ู„ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ู…ุงุฐุง ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ู…ู† ุนูˆุงู…ู„ ู…ุดุชุฑูƒุฉ.
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And we got these overlapping circles. And we found only 173 genes common to all 13 organisms.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ุญุตู„ู†ุง ุนู„ู‰ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฏูˆุงุฆุฑ ุงู„ู…ุชุฏุงุฎู„ุฉ. ูˆู‚ุฏ ุนุฑูู†ุง ูู‚ุท 173 ุฌูŠู† ู…ุดุชุฑูƒุฉ ู…ุง ุจูŠู† ูƒู„ ุงู„ 13 ูƒุงุฆู†.
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The pool expanded a little bit if we ignored one intracellular parasite; it expanded even more when we looked at core sets of genes of around 310 or so.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ุชูˆุณุน ุงู„ุญูˆุถ ู‚ู„ูŠู„ุงู‹ ุฅู† ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุชุฌุงู‡ู„ ุทููŠู„ ูˆุงุญุฏ ุฏุงุฎู„ ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง. ูˆุฅู†ู‡ ูŠุชูˆุณุน ุฃูƒุซุฑ ุญุชู‰ ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ู†ู†ุธุฑ ููŠ ู…ุฌู…ูˆุนุงุช ุฃุณุงุณูŠุฉ ู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช 310 ุฃูˆ ูŠุฒูŠุฏ.
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So we think that we can expand or contract genomes, depending on your point of view here, to maybe 300 to 400 genes from the minimal of 500.
ู„ุฐุง ูู†ุญู† ู†ุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ู‡ ูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ุง ุชูˆุณุนุฉ ุฃูˆ ุชุถูŠูŠู‚ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู…ุŒ ุฅุนุชู…ุงุฏุงู‹ ุนู„ู‰ ูˆุฌู‡ุฉ ู†ุธุฑูƒ ู‡ู†ุงุŒ ู…ู† ุฑุจู…ุง 300 ุฅู„ู‰ 400 ุฌูŠู† ู…ู† ุงู„ุญุฏ ุงู„ุฃุฏู†ู‰ ู„ 500 ุฌูŠู†.
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The only way to prove these ideas was to construct an artificial chromosome with those genes in them, and we had to do this in a cassette-based fashion.
ุงู„ุทุฑูŠู‚ ุงู„ูˆุญูŠุฏ ู„ุฅุซุจุงุช ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฃููƒุงุฑ ูƒุงู†ุช ุจุจู†ุงุก ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุณูˆู…ุงุช ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠุฉ ุชุดู…ู„ ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุชุŒ ูˆูŠู†ุจุบูŠ ุนู„ูŠู†ุง ูุนู„ ู‡ุฐุง ุจุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ู…ุจู†ูŠุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุดุฑูŠุท.
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We found that synthesizing accurate DNA in large pieces was extremely difficult.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ูˆุฌุฏู†ุง ุฃู† ุชูˆู„ูŠู ุญู…ุถ ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ ููŠ ู‚ุทุน ูƒุจูŠุฑุฉ ูƒุงู† ุตุนุจุงู‹ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ.
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Ham Smith and Clyde Hutchison, my colleagues on this, developed an exciting new method that allowed us to synthesize a 5,000-base pair virus in only a two-week period that was 100 percent accurate, in terms of its sequence and its biology.
ู‡ุงู…ุณ ุณู…ูŠุซ ูˆูƒู„ุงูŠุฏ ู‡ูˆุชุดูˆุณูˆู†ุŒ ุฒู…ู„ุงุฆูŠ ููŠ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุฃู…ุฑุŒ ู‚ุงู…ุง ุจุชุทูˆูŠุฑ ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ุฌุฏูŠุฏุฉ ู…ุซูŠุฑุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุฃุชุงุญุช ู„ู†ุง ุจุชุตู†ูŠุน 5000 ุฒูˆุฌ ู…ู† ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณุงุช ููŠ ูุชุฑุฉ ุฃุณุจูˆุนูŠู† ูู‚ุท ุงู„ุชูŠ ูƒุงู†ุช 100% ุฏู‚ูŠู‚ุฉุŒ ุจุงู„ู†ุณุจุฉ ู„ุชุณู„ุณู„ู‡ุง ูˆุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุชู‡ุง.
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It was a quite exciting experiment -- when we just took the synthetic piece of DNA, injected it in the bacteria and all of a sudden, that DNA started driving the production of the virus particles that turned around and then killed the bacteria.
ูˆู‚ุฏ ูƒุงู†ุช ุชุฌุฑุจุฉ ู…ุซูŠุฑุฉ ู„ู„ุบุงูŠุฉ -- ุนู†ุฏู…ุง ุฃุฎุฐู†ุง ุงู„ู‚ุทุน ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠุฉ ูู‚ุท ู„ู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠุŒ ูˆู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุญู‚ู†ู‡ ููŠ ุงู„ุจูƒุชุฑูŠุง ูˆูุฌุฃุฉุŒ ุจุฏุฃ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ุจุชู‚ุฏูŠู… ุฅู†ุชุงุฌ ุฃุฌุฒุก ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุญูˆู„ุช ุซู… ู‚ุงู…ุช ุจู‚ุชู„ ุงู„ุจูƒุชุฑูŠุง.
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This was not the first synthetic virus -- a polio virus had been made a year before -- but it was only one ten-thousandth as active and it took three years to do.
ูƒุงู† ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณ ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠ ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ ู…ู† ู†ูˆุนู‡-- ูƒุงู† ููŠุฑูˆุณ ุจูˆู„ูŠูˆ ู‚ุฏ ุตูู†ุน ู‚ุจู„ ุณู†ุฉ ู…ู† ุฐู„ูƒ -- ู„ูƒู†ู‡ ูƒุงู† ู†ุดุทุงู‹ ุจูˆุงุญุฏ ุนู„ู‰ ุนุดุฑุฉ ูู‚ุท ูˆู‚ุฏ ุฃุณุชุบุฑู‚ ุซู„ุงุซุฉ ุณู†ูˆุงุช ู„ุชู†ููŠุฐู‡.
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This is a cartoon of the structure of phi X 174.
ู‡ุฐุง ุฑุณู… ูƒุฑุชูˆู†ูŠ ู„ุดูƒู„ Phi X-174.
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This is a case where the software now builds its own hardware, and that's the notions that we have with biology.
ู‡ุฐู‡ ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ุญุงู„ุฉ ุญูŠุซ ุชุจู†ูŠ ุงู„ุจุฑู…ุฌูŠุงุช ุงู„ุฃุฌุฒุงุก ุงู„ุตู„ุจุฉ ุฎุงุตุชู‡ุงุŒ ูˆู‡ุฐู‡ ู‡ูŠ ุงู„ููƒุฑุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ู…ุน ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุง.
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People immediately jump to concerns about biological warfare, and I had recent testimony before a Senate committee, and a special committee the U.S. government has set up to review this area.
ูŠู‚ูุฒ ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ููŠ ุงู„ุญุงู„ ู„ู…ุฎุงูˆู ุญูˆู„ ุดุฆูˆู† ุงู„ุญุฑุจ ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุฉุŒ ูˆู‚ุฏ ูƒุงู† ู„ูŠ ุดู‡ุงุฏุชูŠ ู…ุคุฎุฑุงู‹ ุฃู…ุงู… ู„ุฌู†ุฉ ุจู…ุฌู„ุณ ุงู„ุดูŠูˆุฎุŒ ูˆู‚ุฏ ู‚ุงู…ุช ู„ุฌู†ุฉ ุฎุงุตุฉ ู…ู† ุงู„ุญูƒูˆู…ุฉ ุงู„ุฃู…ุฑูŠูƒูŠุฉ ุจู…ุฑุงุฌุนุฉ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ู…ุฌุงู„.
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And I think it's important to keep reality in mind, versus what happens with people's imaginations.
ูˆุฃู†ุง ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ู‡ ู…ู† ุงู„ู…ู‡ู… ูˆุถุน ุงู„ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ููŠ ุฃุฐู‡ุงู†ู†ุงุŒ ุฃู…ุงู… ู…ุง ูŠุญุฏุซ ุจุฎูŠุงู„ ุงู„ู†ุงุณ.
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Basically, any virus that's been sequenced today -- that genome can be made.
ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุณุงุณุŒ ุฃูŠ ููŠุฑูˆุณ ุชู… ุณู„ุณู„ุชู‡ ุงู„ูŠูˆู… -- ูŠู…ูƒู† ุตู†ุน ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู….
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And people immediately freak out about things about Ebola or smallpox, but the DNA from this organism is not infective.
ูˆููŠ ุงู„ุญุงู„ ูŠุถุฌุฑ ุงู„ู†ุงุณ ุญูˆู„ ุฃุดูŠุงุก ู…ุชุนู„ู‚ุฉ ุจุงู„ุฅูŠุจูˆู„ุง ูˆุงู„ุฌุฏุฑูŠุŒ ู„ูƒู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ู…ู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ู„ูŠุณ ู…ุนุฏูŠุงู‹.
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So even if somebody made the smallpox genome, that DNA itself would not cause infections.
ู„ุฐุง ูุญุชู‰ ู„ูˆ ุตู†ุน ุดุฎุต ู…ุง ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุงู„ุฌุฏุฑูŠุŒ ูุฃู† ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ู†ูุณู‡ ู„ูŠุณ ุณุจุจุงู‹ ููŠ ุงู„ุฅุตุงุจุฉ ุจุงู„ูˆุจุงุก.
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The real concern that security departments have is designer viruses.
ุงู„ู…ุฎุงูˆู ุงู„ุญู‚ูŠู‚ูŠุฉ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู„ุฏู‰ ุงู„ุฌู‡ุงุช ุงู„ุฃู…ู†ูŠุฉ ู‡ูŠ ู…ุตู…ู…ูŠ ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณุงุช.
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And there's only two countries, the U.S. and the former Soviet Union, that had major efforts on trying to create biological warfare agents.
ูˆู‡ู†ุงูƒ ุจู„ุฏูŠู† ูู‚ุทุŒ ุงู„ูˆู„ุงูŠุงุช ุงู„ู…ุชุญุฏุฉ ูˆุงู„ุฅุชุญุงุฏ ุงู„ุณูˆููŠุชูŠ ุงู„ุณุงุจู‚ุŒ ูƒุงู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ู… ุฌู‡ูˆุฏ ูƒุจูŠุฑุฉ ููŠ ู…ุญุงูˆู„ุฉ ุชุตู†ูŠุน ุนูˆุงู…ู„ ุงู„ุญุฑุจ ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠุฉ.
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If that research is truly discontinued, there should be very little activity on the know-how to make designer viruses in the future.
ุฅู† ูƒุงู†ุช ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุจุญูˆุซ ุจุงู„ูุนู„ ู‚ุฏ ุชูˆู‚ูุชุŒ ูู‚ุฏ ูŠูƒูˆู† ู‡ู†ุงูƒ ู‚ู„ูŠู„ ู…ู† ุงู„ู†ุดุงุท ููŠ ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ุงู„ูƒูŠููŠุฉ ุชุตู…ูŠู… ุงู„ููŠุฑูˆุณุงุช ููŠ ุงู„ู…ุณุชู‚ุจู„.
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I think single-cell organisms are possible within two years.
ุฃุนุชู‚ุฏ ุชุตู†ูŠุน ุฃู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ูˆุญูŠุฏุฉ ุงู„ุฎู„ูŠุฉ ู…ู…ูƒู†ุฉ ุฎู„ุงู„ ุนุงู…ูŠู†.
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And possibly eukaryotic cells, those that we have, are possible within a decade.
ูˆู…ู† ุงู„ู…ุญุชู…ู„ ุญู‚ูŠู‚ุฉ ุงู„ู†ูˆุงุฉุŒ ุชู„ูƒ ุงู„ุชูŠ ู„ุฏูŠู†ุงุŒ ุณุชูƒูˆู† ู…ู…ูƒู†ุฉ ุฎู„ุงู„ ุนู‚ุฏ ู…ู† ุงู„ุฒู…ุงู†.
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So we're now making several dozen different constructs, because we can vary the cassettes and the genes that go into this artificial chromosome.
ุฅุฐุงู‹ ูู†ุญู† ุงู„ุขู† ู†ุนู…ู„ ุนู„ู‰ ุนุฏุฉ ุฃุดูƒุงู„ ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉุŒ ู„ุฃู†ู‡ ูŠู…ูƒู†ู†ุง ุชู†ูˆูŠุน ุงู„ุดุฑุงุฆุท ูˆุงู„ุฌูŠู†ุงุช ุงู„ุชูŠ ุชุฐู‡ุจ ู„ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุฒูˆู…ุงุช ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠุฉ.
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The key is, how do you put all of the others?
ุงู„ููƒุฑุฉ ู‡ูŠุŒ ูƒูŠู ูŠู…ูƒู†ูƒ ูˆุถุน ุจู‚ูŠุฉ ุงู„ุฃุฎุฑูŠุงุชุŸ
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We start with these fragments, and then we have a homologous recombination system that reassembles those into a chromosome.
ู†ุญู† ู†ุจุฏุฃ ุจู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ุฌุฒุฆูŠุงุชุŒ ุซู… ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ู†ุธุงู… ุฅุนุงุฏุฉ ุชุฑูƒูŠุจ ู…ู…ุงุซู„ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ูŠุฌู…ู‘ุน ุชู„ูƒ ููŠ ุงู„ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุฒูˆู….
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This is derived from an organism, deinococcus radiodurans, that can take three million rads of radiation and not be killed.
ู‡ุฐุง ู…ุณุชุฎู„ุต ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู† ุงู„ุญูŠุŒ ุจูƒุชุฑูŠุง deinococcus radiodurans ุงู„ุชูŠ ูŠู…ูƒู† ุฃู† ุชุฃุฎุฐ ุซู„ุงุซุฉ ู…ู„ุงูŠูŠู† ุดุนุงุน ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุดุนุฉ ูˆู„ุง ุชู…ูˆุช.
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It reassembles its genome after this radiation burst in about 12 to 24 hours, after its chromosomes are literally blown apart.
ุฅู†ู‡ุง ุชุนูŠุฏ ุชุฌู…ูŠุน ุฌูŠู†ูˆู…ู‡ุง ุจุนุฏ ุฅู†ูุฌุงุฑ ุงู„ุฅุดุนุงุน ููŠ ุญูˆุงู„ูŠ 12 ุฅู„ู‰ 24 ุณุงุนุฉุŒ ุจุนุฏ ุฃู† ุชูƒูˆู† ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุฒูˆู…ุงุชู‡ุง ุญุฑููŠุงู‹ ู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ูุฌุฑุช ุฌุฒุฆูŠุงู‹.
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This organism is ubiquitous on the planet, and exists perhaps now in outer space due to all our travel there.
ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู† ู…ุทู„ู‚ ุงู„ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุนู„ู‰ ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ุฃุฑุถุŒ ูˆู‡ูˆ ู…ูˆุฌูˆุฏ ุฑุจู…ุง ุงู„ุขู† ููŠ ุงู„ูุถุงุก ุงู„ุฎุงุฑุฌูŠ ุจุณุจุจ ุฑุญู„ุงุชู†ุง ุฅู„ู‰ ู‡ู†ุงูƒ.
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This is a glass beaker after about half a million rads of radiation.
ู‡ุฐุง ู‡ูˆ ูƒูˆุจ ุฒุฌุงุฌูŠ ุจุนุฏ ู†ุตู ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุดุนุงุน ู…ู† ุงู„ุฃุดุนุฉ.
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The glass started to burn and crack, while the microbes sitting in the bottom just got happier and happier.
ุจุฏุฃ ุงู„ูƒูˆุจ ููŠ ุงู„ุฅุญุชุฑุงู‚ ูˆุงู„ุชุตุฏุนุŒ ุจูŠู†ู…ุง ุงู„ู…ูŠูƒุฑูˆุจุงุช ุงู„ู‚ุงุจุนุฉ ููŠ ุงู„ุฃุณู ุชุตุจุญ ุณุนูŠุฏุฉ ูˆุฃูƒุซุฑ ุณุนุงุฏุฉู‹.
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Here's an actual picture of what happens: the top of this shows the genome after 1.7 million rads of radiation.
ู‡ุง ู‡ูŠ ุตูˆุฑุฉ ุญู‚ูŠู‚ูŠุฉ ู„ู…ุง ูŠุญุฏุซ: ูŠุธู‡ุฑ ู‚ู…ุฉ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู… ุจุนุฏ 1.7 ู…ู„ูŠูˆู† ุดุนุงุน ู…ู† ุงู„ุงุดุนุงุน.
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The chromosome is literally blown apart.
ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒุฑูˆู…ูˆุณูˆู… ุญุฑููŠุงู‹ ู‚ุฏ ุฃู†ูุฌุฑ ุฌุฒุฆูŠุงู‹.
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And here's that same DNA automatically reassembled 24 hours later.
ูˆู‡ู†ุง ู†ูุณ ุฐู„ูƒ ุงู„ุญู…ุถ ุงู„ู†ูˆูˆูŠ ูŠุนุงุฏ ุชุฌู…ูŠุนู‡ ุจุนุฏ 24 ุณุงุนุฉ ู„ุงุญู‚ุงู‹.
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It's truly stunning that these organisms can do that, and we probably have thousands, if not tens of thousands, of different species on this planet that are capable of doing that.
ุฅู†ู‡ ุญู‚ุงู‹ ู„ู…ุฐู‡ู„ ุฃู† ู‡ุฐู‡ ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ูŠู…ูƒู†ู‡ุง ูุนู„ ุฐู„ูƒุŒ ูˆุนู„ู‰ ุงู„ุฃุฑุฌุญ ุฃู† ู„ุฏูŠู†ุง ุขู„ุงู„ุงูุŒ ุฅู† ู„ู… ูŠูƒู† ุนุดุฑุงุช ุงู„ุขู„ุงู ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู†ุงุช ุงู„ู…ุฎุชู„ูุฉ ุนู„ู‰ ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ูƒูˆูƒุจ ุงู„ุชูŠ ุจู…ู‚ุฏูˆุฑู‡ุง ุงู„ู‚ูŠุงู… ุจุฐู„ูƒ.
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After these genomes are synthesized, the first step is just transplanting them into a cell without a genome.
ุจุนุฏ ุชุตู†ูŠุน ู‡ุฐุง ุงู„ุฌูŠู†ูˆู…ุŒ ูุฃู† ุงู„ุฎุทูˆุฉ ุงู„ุฃูˆู„ู‰ ู‡ูŠ ู†ู‚ู„ู‡ู… ูู‚ุท ุฅู„ู‰ ุฎู„ูŠุฉ ุจุฏูˆู† ุฌูŠู†ูˆู….
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So we think synthetic cells are going to have tremendous potential, not only for understanding the basis of biology but for hopefully environmental and society issues.
ู„ุฐุง ูู†ุญู† ู†ุนุชู‚ุฏ ุฃู† ุงู„ุฎู„ุงูŠุง ุงู„ุฅุตุทู†ุงุนูŠุฉ ุณูŠูƒูˆู† ู„ุฏูŠู‡ุง ู‚ุงุจู„ูŠุฉ ู…ุฐู‡ู„ุฉุŒ ู„ูŠุณ ูู‚ุท ููŠ ูู‡ู… ุฃุณุงุณูŠุงุช ุงู„ุจูŠูˆู„ูˆุฌูŠ ู„ูƒู† ู„ู†ุฃู…ู„ ู„ู„ู‚ุถุงูŠุง ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ ูˆุงู„ู…ุฌุชู…ุน.
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For example, from the third organism we sequenced, Methanococcus jannaschii -- it lives in boiling water temperatures; its energy source is hydrogen and all its carbon comes from CO2 it captures back from the environment.
ุนู„ู‰ ุณุจูŠู„ ุงู„ู…ุซุงู„ุŒ ู…ู† ุงู„ูƒุงุฆู† ุงู„ุซุงู„ุซ ุงู„ุฐูŠ ู‚ู…ู†ุง ุจุณู„ุณู„ุชู‡ุŒ Methanococcus jannaschii: ุฅู†ู‡ุง ุชุนูŠุด ููŠ ุฏุฑุฌุฉ ุญุฑุงุฑุฉ ุบู„ูŠุงู† ุงู„ู…ุงุกุŒ ูˆู…ุตุฏุฑู‡ุง ู„ู„ุทุงู‚ุฉ ู‡ูˆ ุงู„ู‡ูŠุฏุฑูˆุฌูŠู† ูˆูŠุฃุชูŠ ูƒู„ ูƒุฑุจูˆู†ู‡ุง ู…ู† ุซุงู†ูŠ ุฃูˆูƒุณูŠุฏ ุงู„ูƒุฑุจูˆู† ุงู„ุฐูŠ ุชุญุตู„ ุนู„ูŠู‡ ู…ู† ุงู„ุจูŠุฆุฉ.