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may-ohta
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{ "en": "Hoju (sacred gem), described as 'Nyoi hoju' (wish-fulfilling jewel) in the sutras.", "ja": "宝珠（ほうじゅ）経典には「如意宝珠」とある。" }
{ "en": "It is held in the left hand in some cases.", "ja": "左手に持つ場合もある。" }
{ "en": "Hokyo (sutra roll), also called 'kyokyo' (sutra box).", "ja": "宝経（ほうきょう）「経篋」（きょうきょう）とも。" }
{ "en": "It means Buddhist scriptures.", "ja": "仏典のこと。" }
{ "en": "It is held in the left hand in some cases.", "ja": "左手に持つ場合もある。" }
{ "en": "Hoin (a seal used in Temples)", "ja": "宝印（ほういん）" }
{ "en": "Budo means grapes.", "ja": "蒲桃（ぶどう）葡萄のこと。" }
{ "en": "Byaku Renge (white lotus)", "ja": "白蓮華（びゃくれんげ）" }
{ "en": "Semui, the hand with no Jibutsu.", "ja": "施無畏（せむい）持物を持たない手。" }
{ "en": "It is held in the left hand in some cases.", "ja": "左手とする場合もある。" }
{ "en": "Hokyo (treasured mirror) (宝鏡)", "ja": "宝鏡（ほうきょう）" }
{ "en": "Hokyo (宝篋), a small box.", "ja": "宝篋（ほうきょう）小箱。" }
{ "en": "It is also called 'Bonkyo', a box for sutras.", "ja": "「梵篋」とも。" }
{ "en": "Kongosho (Vajra club), also called 'Tokkosho' (a pestle with a single sharp blade at each end).", "ja": "金剛杵（こんごうしょ）「独鈷杵」（とっこしょ）とも。" }
{ "en": "It is a weapon with a grip at the center and sharp blades at each end.", "ja": "中央に握りがあり、両端に鋭い刃のついた武器。" }
{ "en": "It is held in the left hand in some cases.", "ja": "左手に持つ場合もある。" }
{ "en": "Eppu, 'a chopper' or 'an axe.'", "ja": "鉞斧（えっぷ）「おの」「まさかり」のこと。" }
{ "en": "It is held in the left hand in some cases.", "ja": "左手に持つ場合もある。" }
{ "en": "Hosen, an arrow.", "ja": "宝箭（ほうせん）矢のこと。" }
{ "en": "Kobyo, a Persian water jug.", "ja": "胡瓶（こびょう）ペルシャ風の水差し。" }
{ "en": "It is also called 'Hobyo.'", "ja": "「宝瓶」とも。" }
{ "en": "In \"Senju-sengen Darani-kyo Sutra\" there is a description of the 40 arms including 'Gassho-shu' (praying hands) and 'Hohatsu-shu' in addition to the 38 arms with Jimotsu as above.", "ja": "『千手千眼陀羅尼経』では以上の38本の持物をもつ手に加えて「合掌手」と「宝鉢手」を含めて40本の手について言及している。" }
{ "en": "Among actual Senju Kannon statues in Japan, many show the style of bringing two hands together in front of the stomach (on the knee in the case of seated statues) and putting Hohatsu on it.", "ja": "日本における千手観音の実際の造像例を見ると、腹前（坐像の場合は膝上）で2本の手を組み、その上に宝鉢を乗せる形式のものが多い。" }
{ "en": "The 42 arms consist of two with Hohatsu and two clasped in prayer, in addition to the 38 arms with Jimotsu.", "ja": "宝鉢を持つ2本と胸前で合掌する2本の手を合わせて42臂となる。" }
{ "en": "Representative Senju Kannon Statues in Japan", "ja": "日本における代表的な千手観音像" }
{ "en": "The statue at Eryu-ji Temple in Fukushima (standing statue) (important cultural property)", "ja": "福島・恵隆寺像（立像）（重文）" }
{ "en": "The principal image at Kiyomizu-dera Temple in Kyoto (standing statue)", "ja": "京都・清水寺本尊像（立像）" }
{ "en": "The principal image at Okunoin of Kiyomizu-dera Temple in Kyoto (seated statue) (important cultural property)", "ja": "京都・清水寺奥之院本尊像（坐像）（重文）" }
{ "en": "The principal image in Sanjusangendo Temple in Kyoto (seated statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "京都・三十三間堂本尊像（坐像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The statues at Sanjusangendo Temple in Kyoto (1,001 standing statues) (important cultural property)", "ja": "京都・三十三間堂像（1,001体、立像）（重文）" }
{ "en": "The statue at Kyu-jikido (former dining room) of To-ji Temple in Kyoto (standing statue) (important cultural property)", "ja": "京都・東寺旧食堂像（立像）（重文）" }
{ "en": "The statue at kyu-kodo (old Lecture Hall) of Koryu-ji Temple in Kyoto (standing statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "京都・広隆寺旧講堂像（立像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The statue at Hossho-ji Temple in Kyoto (standing statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "京都・法性寺（立像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The statue at Bujo-ji Temple in Kyoto (seated statue) (important cultural property)", "ja": "京都・峰定寺像（坐像）（重文）" }
{ "en": "The principal image at Fujii-dera Temple in Osaka (seated statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "大阪・葛井寺本尊像（坐像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The statue at Kondo Hall (main hall of a Buddhist temple) of Toshodai-ji Temple in Nara (standing statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "奈良・唐招提寺金堂像（立像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The statue at Kyu-shokudo (former dining room) of Kofuku-ji Temple in Nara (standing statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "奈良・興福寺旧食堂像（立像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The principal image at Dojo-ji Temple in Wakayama (standing statue) (national treasure)", "ja": "和歌山・道成寺本尊像（立像）（国宝）" }
{ "en": "The statue at Daihio-in Temple in Fukuoka (seated statue) (important cultural property)", "ja": "福岡・大悲王院像（坐像）（重文）" }
{ "en": "Risshu sect is one the sects of Buddhism which research and practice commandments.", "ja": "律宗（りっしゅう）は、戒律の研究と実践を行う仏教の一宗派である。" }
{ "en": "Risshu Sect in China", "ja": "中国の律宗" }
{ "en": "Unlike in Japan, learning commandments was necessary for becoming an official priest in China, so that commandments had been researched from ancient times.", "ja": "中国では、日本と異なり、正式な僧となるには戒律を修めなければならなかったため、古くから研究が行われた。" }
{ "en": "It is said that in the period of the Tang Dynasty, Dosen, who founded the Nanzan-risshu sect, completed the study of the commandments and that Ganjin, who learned from Dosen's disciple, transmitted the commandments to Japan, as requested by Japanese priests who had studied in China.", "ja": "唐代には南山律宗を開いた道宣が出て戒律学を大成し、その孫弟子である鑑真は、留学僧の要請で日本に律を伝えたとされている。" }
{ "en": "Risshu Sect in Japan", "ja": "日本の律宗" }
{ "en": "In Japan, commandments were introduced at a comparatively early stage in an incomplete way, so that their significance was not understood fully and they were researched in only a portion of the temples without any Jukai (rituals handing down the precepts).", "ja": "日本においても比較的初期の段階で戒律が伝えられていたものの、不完全なものでその意義が十分されずに一部の寺院における研究に留まり、授戒の儀式も行われていなかった。" }
{ "en": "In 753, Ganjin came to Japan from Tang after six voyages and established Kaidan (Buddhist ordination platform) at Todai-ji Temple and conferred commandments to the people such as the retired Emperor Shomu and Emperor Shotoku for the first time in Japan.", "ja": "天平勝宝5年（753年）、鑑真が6度の航海の末に、唐から招来し、東大寺に戒壇を開き、聖武天皇太上天皇、称徳天皇を初めとする人々に日本で初めて戒律を授けた。" }
{ "en": "He later devoted himself to research on the commandments at the base of Toshodai-ji Temple, and this sect still exists today as one of Nanto rokushu (the six sects of Buddhism which flourished in ancient Nara).", "ja": "後に唐招提寺を本拠として戒律研究に専念し、南都六宗の一つとして今日まで続いている。" }
{ "en": "Although Ganjin transmitted 'Shibun-ritsu' (Four-Part Vinayapitaka, which explains about regulations and prohibited matters of the priests), Saicho and Kukai in the Heian period did not support it and Kukai put high value on 'Juju-ritsu' (Ten-Reciting Vinayapitaka).", "ja": "鑑真が伝えたのは「四分律」によるものであったが、平安時代の最澄や空海はこれを支持せず、空海は「十誦律」を重んじた。" }
{ "en": "Therefore, the concept on commandments was decentralized so that Risshu sect declined.", "ja": "このため、戒律に関する考え方が分散化して律宗は衰微した。" }
{ "en": "In addition, although vowing to follow the precepts was often implemented around Todai-ji Temple and Enryaku-ji Temple, it became only a way to obtain a certificate as an official priest and lost substance.", "ja": "また、受戒そのものは東大寺・延暦寺を中心に盛んに行われたものの、官僧の資格をえるためのものとなり内容は形骸化していった。" }
{ "en": "From the end of the Heian period to the Kamakura period, Shippan and Myoe discussed the renaissance of the commandments, and subsequently Kakujo, Ugon (Yugon), Ensei and Eison implemented vowing to follow the precepts without depending on Kaidan which related to the state in 1236.", "ja": "平安時代末期から鎌倉時代には実範・明恵が戒律復興を論じ、それを引き継いで嘉禎2年（1236年）覚盛・有厳・円晴・叡尊の4人が国家と結びついた戒壇によらない自誓受戒を行った。" }
{ "en": "While Kakujo emphasized 'Shibun-ritsu' and revived Toshodai-ji Temple as the base of restoration of the Risshu sect later, Enson founded the Shingon Risshu sect around 'Juju-ritsu' of the Shingon sect at the base of Saidai-ji Temple (Nara City).", "ja": "後に覚盛は「四分律」を重視して唐招提寺を復興して律宗再興の拠点としたのに対して、叡尊は西大寺_(奈良市)を拠点に真言宗の「十誦律」を中心とした真言律宗を開いた。" }
{ "en": "Moreover, Shunjo at Senyu-ji Temple in Kyoto brought back a new Risshu sect from the Southern Sungs.", "ja": "更に京都泉涌寺の俊芿が南宋より新たな律宗を持ち帰った。" }
{ "en": "Therefore, there were three kinds of Risshu sect for 'Hokkyo-ritsu' by Shunjo, Toshodaiji school and Saidaiji school (Shingon Risshu sect) which were called 'Nankyo-ritsu.'", "ja": "このため、俊芿の「北京律」と「南京律」と呼ばれた唐招提寺派・西大寺派（真言律宗）両派の3つの律宗が並立した。" }
{ "en": "In some cases, these three reformist groups are called 'Shingi-ritsu' (new Risshu sect) and are distinguished from the former 'Kogi-ritsu' (old Risshu sect)", "ja": "この3派の革新派を「新義律」と呼称して、それ以前の「古義律」と区別することがある。" }
{ "en": "However, as a result, discussions and intercommunion among the three groups of this Shingi-ritsu promoted deepening and restored the Risshu sect, so that it was put to high value during medieval times, and called 'Zen-ritsu' combining the Zen sect and the Risshu sect.", "ja": "しかし、結果的にこの新義律3派が議論と交流を重ねることで律宗の深化と再興が進み、中世には禅宗と律宗を合わせて「禅律」とも呼ばれて重んじられた。" }
{ "en": "In the Muromachi period it declined again pressed by the Zen sect, but in the Edo period, Myonin, Yuson and Eun appeared and insisted on the renaissance of the commandments.", "ja": "室町時代には禅宗に押されて再び衰退するが、江戸時代には明忍・友尊・慧雲が出現して再度戒律復興が唱えられた。" }
{ "en": "Besides, in the early Meiji period all Risshu temples except Toshodai-ji Temple belonged to the Shingon sect, but they became independent as the Risshu sect in 1900.", "ja": "なお、明治初期には、唐招提寺を例外として他の律宗寺院は全て真言宗に所轄されたが、1900年（明治33年）律宗として独立した。" }
{ "en": "The main dharma is the research and practice of commandments.", "ja": "戒律の研究と実践を主とする。" }
{ "en": "Toshodai-ji Temple", "ja": "唐招提寺" }
{ "en": "A pagoda is a Buddhist building derived from the ancient Indian stupa.", "ja": "仏塔（ぶっとう）とは、インドの「ストゥーパ（stûpa）」が起源の仏教建築物である。" }
{ "en": "The Sanskrit word 'stupa' was transliterated into Japanese as 'sotoba' and this became abbreviated to 'toba' and simply 'to.'", "ja": "ストゥーパはサンスクリット語で、日本では「卒塔婆（そとば）」と音写され、「塔婆（とうば）」や「塔（とう）」と略される。" }
{ "en": "A stupa is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist relics which was transmitted to China during the Han Dynasty and became influenced by the architecture of the wooden buildings of the time.", "ja": "ストゥーパは饅頭のような形に盛り上げられたインドの墓のことで、漢の時代に中国に伝わり木造建築の影響を受けた。" }
{ "en": "It was during this period that the word 'to' became used to describe stupa.", "ja": "ストゥーパに塔の字が使われるようになったのもこの頃である。" }
{ "en": "The stupa later made its way to Japan.", "ja": "その後、日本に伝播した。" }
{ "en": "Many pagodas in Japan including the five-storey, three-storey and two-storey forms are made of wood (such as Japanese cypress).", "ja": "日本では五重塔・三重塔・多宝塔など、木材（ヒノキなど）を使って建てられることが多い。" }
{ "en": "Despite the wide variation of shapes, all retain the significance of the original stupa.", "ja": "形は大きく変わったものの、本来のストゥーパのもつ意味は変わっていない。" }
{ "en": "A large number were constructed using funds donated by Buddhist followers.", "ja": "多くは信者の寄進によって立てられる。" }
{ "en": "To", "ja": "塔" }
{ "en": "To' is an abbreviation of 'sotoba' or 'toba' and originally referred to five-storey and three-storey pagodas but came to refer to any tall, narrow structure which tapers to a point at the top such as Tokyo Tower.", "ja": "塔（とう）とは、「卒塔婆（そとば）」もしくは「塔婆（とうば）」の略であり、本来は、五重塔・三重塔などの仏塔の意味であるが、その後、東京タワーのような先のとがった細長い建築物のことも「塔」と呼ばれるようになっていった。" }
{ "en": "The words 'soto' and 'tasoto' often refer to pagodas with two or more storeys such as two-storey, three-storey or five-storey pagodas/", "ja": "層塔（そうとう）・多層塔（たそうとう）とは、三重塔や五重塔や多宝塔などのように2階建て以上の仏塔のことである。" }
{ "en": "Relatively short pagodas such as three-storey and five-storey varieties are often made of wood but many of the taller ones such as the thirteen-story pagoda at Tanzan-jinja Shrine are made of stone.", "ja": "三重塔・五重塔などのように階層が低い場合は木造建築のものが多いが、談山神社の十三重塔のように階層が高くなると石造のものが多い。" }
{ "en": "There are also small three-storey and five-storey pagodas that are placed in gardens.", "ja": "なお、三重塔や五重塔でも庭に置くような小さいものは石造のものもある。" }
{ "en": "The word 'tacchu' originally referred to the 'to no hotori' (grave of a temple founder or high priest) erected by the disciples of a founding priest or Zen temple high priest following his death, or a small temple constructed in the grounds of a larger Zen temple.", "ja": "塔頭（たっちゅう）とは、もともと禅寺において祖師や大寺・名刹の高僧の死後、その弟子が師の徳を慕って、塔（祖師や高僧の墓塔）の頭（ほとり）、または、その敷地内に建てた小院のことをいう。" }
{ "en": "Tacchu' as well as the word 'toin' later came to refer to a sub-temple built within the grounds of another temple to serve as the residence of a high priest in his retirement.", "ja": "それから転じて、寺院の敷地内にある、高僧が隠退後に住した子院のことも「塔頭」あるいは「塔院」と呼ぶようになった。" }
{ "en": "The word 'tacchu' is also written using alternative characters.", "ja": "「塔中」と書くこともある。" }
{ "en": "In Chinese Zen temples, it was originally the practice that the head priest would reside with the monks at the eastern or western so-do hall after he retired.", "ja": "中国の禅寺では本来、住持を隠退した者は、東堂・西堂の僧堂で雲水たちと共同生活をする決まりとなっていた。" }
{ "en": "As time passed and small temples were built within the grounds of larger temples, these became inhabited but these were limited to a single Zen monk per building.", "ja": "時代が降ると、大寺の中に小庵を結びそこに住する者が現れるようになったが、それは一禅僧の一代限りの措置であった。" }
{ "en": "This Chinese custom reached Japan and these buildings came to be seen as permanent sub-temples that served as the graves of individuals, such as the founding priest, who were particularly important to a Zen temple to create the uniquely Japanese concept of the 'tacchu.'", "ja": "そのような中国の慣習が日本に伝わると、開山など、禅寺にとってとりわけ大切な人の墓所としての塔頭・塔院と同一視されて永続的な施設となり、日本独自の「塔頭」という存在が認知されることとなった。" }
{ "en": "There were also tacchu that acquired their own patron and estate, and were kept running by the disciples.", "ja": "さらには、塔頭は、独自に檀那や寺領を獲得し、その門弟によって継承されることとなったのである。" }
{ "en": "Kyoso Hanjaku means evaluation of Buddhist scriptures, and was practiced in regions where Buddhist scriptures using Chinese characters were used, including China, for the purpose of evaluating and interpreting Buddhist scriptures based on the height and depth of their contents.", "ja": "教相判釈（きょうそうはんじゃく）とは、中国をはじめとする漢訳仏典圏において、仏教の経典を、その相（内容）によって、高低、浅深を判定し解釈したもの。" }
{ "en": "It is also called Kyohan for short.", "ja": "略して教判ともいう。" }
{ "en": "Shaka preached many teachings during around 45 year period after he attained enlightenment and until he entered nirvana.", "ja": "釈迦は成道して、涅槃に入るまでの45年前後の間に、多くの教えを説いた。" }
{ "en": "These teachings were compiled into scriptures in later years.", "ja": "後々にそれが発展して経典として形成された。" }
{ "en": "After many scriptures had been introduced into China and compiled into Buddhist scriptures using Chinese characters, they were distinguished, according to Chinese-style interpretation of Shaka's teaching, based on their contents and the era of original teachings and monks sought perfect Satori (enlightenment) in unobstructed cultivation of Buddhism from such scriptures.", "ja": "しかしてそれらの多くの経典が、中国へ伝えられ、漢訳仏典として集成されると、中国的な仏伝の解釈に基づき、これらの諸経典の教えの相や時期を分けて判別して、それらから仏道修行の完全なる悟りを得ようとした。" }
{ "en": "This is the origin of Kyoso Hanjaku and it was introduced into Japan, Korea and Vietnam as northern-route Buddhism.", "ja": "これが教相判釈の始まりであり、北伝の仏教として日本や朝鮮、ベトナムなどに伝えられていった。" }
{ "en": "Currently, however, it is widely criticized and cited as proof of the thesis that the Mahayana teachings do not stem from the historical Buddha's teachings because the era of creation of each scripture is specified to a certain extent and the fact that the Mahayana Sutra is not Shaka's direct teaching but one created in later years is well known.", "ja": "しかし、今日では、経典の成立した年代がある程度特定され、大乗経典などは、釈迦の直説ではなく後代によって成立したことが周知の事実であることから、大乗非仏説の根拠として批判されている。" }
{ "en": "Therefore, classification of the Buddhist Doctrines known as \"Fivefold Periods and Eight Teachings\" (to be mentioned later) is generally rejected as being imperfect or incorrect.", "ja": "したがって五時八教説（後述）は完全なものではない、あるいは正しくないと一般的に否定されつつある。" }
{ "en": "However, even the oldest portion of Theravada Buddhism's tripitaka is assumed to have been compiled only 100 years after Shaka's demise and there exist no scriptures that have been confirmed as those handed down from Shaka's direct teachings.", "ja": "ただし上座部仏教の三蔵も、最古の部分でも釈迦の死後100年内に編纂されたと推測されている程度で、実際に釈迦の直接の教説の記述を伝えるものとし確定されている経典は存在しない。" }
{ "en": "At that time, however, there were no methods other than Kyoso Hanjaku to distinguish the many scriptures because all Buddhist scriptures, regardless of south route or north route, were believed to be the direct teachings of Shaka.", "ja": "だが、当時は南伝も北伝も、経典はすべて釈迦の説いた教えであると信じられていたため、教相判釈による以外に判別する方法が無かったともいえる。" }
{ "en": "In this connection, some monks still try to conduct Kyoso Hanjaku under the pretext of the history of creation of scriptures, independent of the thesis that the Mahayana teachings do not stem from the historical Buddha, from the standpoint that even though many of scriptures do not directly derive from Shaka's teachings, they cannot be completely bogus since each scripture should have been created and developed based on the original Shaka's teachings.", "ja": "またちなみに、多くの経典が釈迦の直説ではないといっても、そのおおもととなる教説により各経典が発展して成立し、まったくのデタラメとも言えないという観点から、大乗非仏説ではなく経典成立史と呼称して新しく教相の判釈を試みる傾向もある。" }
{ "en": "Block of Tibetan Buddhist Scriptures (Tibet, Mongolia, Ching)", "ja": "チベット語仏典圏（チベット、モンゴル、清朝）" }
{ "en": "In Tibet, the introduction of Buddhism was carried out as a national project during the period from the end of the 8th century to the 9th century and various Buddhist traditions that then existed in India were introduced in one swoop in a short period.", "ja": "チベットでは、八世紀末から九世紀にかけ、国家事業として仏教の導入に取り組み、この時期にインドで行われた仏教の諸潮流のすべてを、短期間で一挙に導入した。" }
{ "en": "In translating Buddhist scriptures, preparation of the proper Tibetan vocabulary and grammar required for correct translation from Sanskrit was conducted beforehand and as a result, Daizo-kyo Sutra (the Tripitaka) of Tibetan Buddhism are much more streamlined, such as the existence of a single translation of a particular scripture and unified word selection of the same notion used in various scriptures, compared with Buddhist scriptures using Chinese characters.", "ja": "仏典の翻訳にあたっても、サンスクリット語を正確に対訳するためのチベット語の語彙や文法の整備を行った上でとりくまれたため、ある経典に対する単一の翻訳、諸経典を通じての、同一概念に対する同一の訳語など、チベットの仏教界は、漢訳仏典と比してきわめて整然とした大蔵経を有することができた。" }
{ "en": "Under such circumstances, a study of Buddhist scriptures in Tibetan Buddhism was conducted from the viewpoint of how to rationally systematize a group of scriptures which also includes partially contradictory wordings.", "ja": "そのため、チベット仏教においては、部分的に矛盾する言説を有する経典群を、いかに合理的に、一つの体系とするか、という観点から仏典研究が取り組まれた。" }
{ "en": "In China, the problem concerning which are the real teachings of Shaka arose because Buddhist teachings were highly diversified due to too many scriptures being introduced.", "ja": "中国においては、伝えられた経典の多さから仏教の教えがあまりにも多様化し、どれが釈迦の真実の教えかということが問題になった。" }
{ "en": "Under such circumstances, it was widely thought that the root of such differences in the contents of scriptures was the difference of the era and contents of Shaka's original teachings and a variety of Kyoso Hanjaku, a method for distinguishing the era of Shaka's preachings as well as judging the supreme teachings among them, were practiced by various sects.", "ja": "そこで、経典の内容が種々異なるのは、釈迦が教えを説いた時期や内容が異なるためと考え、教えを説いた時期を分類し、その中でどれが最高の教えであるかという、ひとつの判定方法として、各宗派によってさまざまな教相判釈が行われた。" }
{ "en": "The oldest Kyohan is believed to be the one practiced by Dosho and it is categorized into four kinds as shown below.", "ja": "最古の教判は、道生によるといわれるもので、以下の4種に分けられた。" }
{ "en": "Zenjo-horin - Shaka preached to lay believers.", "ja": "善浄法輪（ぜんじょうほうりん）-在家信者のために説いた" }
{ "en": "Hoben-horin - Shaka preached to Zraavaka, Pratyekabuddha and Bodhisattva.", "ja": "方便法輪（ほうべんほうりん）-声聞・縁覚・菩薩のために説いた" }

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