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{
"en": "In the subject of criminal policy, this word is often used together with the word \"protection\" to make a word \"protective observation\" which in fact means probation.",
"ja": "刑事政策においては、「保護」という語とともに「保護観察」という形で使われることが多い。"
}
|
{
"en": "Probation means to send the criminals back to community under a special supervision instead of putting them in the facilities such as prisons.",
"ja": "犯罪者を刑務所などの施設に入れず、一般社会で処遇することを指す。"
}
|
{
"en": "Natural Science",
"ja": "自然科学"
}
|
{
"en": "In the field of natural science, observation is to watch an object carefully to derive something from it and it becomes a base of an analysis.",
"ja": "自然科学の分野では観察とは何らかの目的のために対象を詳細に見、そこから何かを導き出す行動で、分析や解析などの基礎となる。"
}
|
{
"en": "Basically, observation is different from experiment in the way that it does not manipulate the object.",
"ja": "基本的には対象に対する操作を行わない点で実験とは異なる。"
}
|
{
"en": "The occasion such as decomposition or dissection or a more complicated operation such as fixing or coloring might be given in the field of biology, however, this is done purely to watch the inside or the detail of the object and it is still different to experiment in the way that it does not expect the change of the object by that operation.",
"ja": "分解や解剖、生物学ではさらに固定や染色といった込み入った操作を行う場合もあるが、これはそのままでは見えない内部や細部を見るためであり、その操作によるその目的部分の変化を求めない点で実験ではない。"
}
|
{
"en": "There are two types of observation - quantitative observation and qualitative observation.",
"ja": "観察には、定量的観察と定性的観察がある。"
}
|
{
"en": "Since the sense of human beings is qualitative, quantitative observation is a very important process.",
"ja": "人間の感覚は定性的なので、定量化は重要な過程である。"
}
|
{
"en": "Quantitative observation is often especially called \"assessment\" or \"measurement\".",
"ja": "定量的な観察は特に「観測」あるいは「測定」などと呼ばれる。"
}
|
{
"en": "However, qualitative observation often provides with a very important piece of information as well.",
"ja": "しかし、定性的な観測も時に重要な情報をもたらす。"
}
|
{
"en": "See also scientific methods.",
"ja": "科学的方法も参照。"
}
|
{
"en": "In the field of biology, it is important to carefully watch the appearance of the object and its movements.",
"ja": "生物学ではまずはその形態、それにその動きをよく見ることが重視される。"
}
|
{
"en": "However, it became clear that the important elements of living objects are often in the details which cannot be seen with our naked eyes, therefore a magnifier is an important item when you do an outdoor observation.",
"ja": "しかし生物には肉眼では観察できない細部に重要な意味があることが明らかになり、野外観察においてもルーペは重要アイテムである。"
}
|
{
"en": "Also in the field of microorganism, the observation is often done by using a microscope.",
"ja": "さらに微生物の分野では顕微鏡を用いた観察がしばしば行われる。"
}
|
{
"en": "Whatever the case may be in the field of biology, it is important to feel something from an observation as a starting point of an inspiration.",
"ja": "いずれにせよ観察から何かを感じることは生物学では発想の原点として重要である。"
}
|
{
"en": "Drawing is also valued as a method of recording the result of observation,",
"ja": "観察したことを記録する方法として，スケッチも重視される。"
}
|
{
"en": "Observation is valued in science education at schools.",
"ja": "学校における理科教育においても、観察は重視される。"
}
|
{
"en": "The observation of living objects which are familiar to us is often included in the curriculum of the lower classes of primary schools through junior high schools.",
"ja": "小学校低学年-中学年などでは身近な生物の観察がよく取り上げられる。"
}
|
{
"en": "Insect collecting used to be popular as a subject of students' science projects, however, it is not the case anymore; one of the reasons is the direction of education has shifted to emphasize the importance of a close observation of insects rather than a random colleciton of them.",
"ja": "また、かつては昆虫採集は理科の自由研究の課題としてよく取り上げられたが、現在はこれが少なくなっている理由のひとつに、むやみに採集するより、しっかり観察することが大事だとの方向性の変換があげられる。"
}
|
{
"en": "In the social education setting, there are a lot of nature observation meetings or nature observation classes hosted by museums or various nature-related organizations.",
"ja": "社会教育の場では、博物館や自然関係の団体が主催する自然観察会や自然観察教室があちこちで行われている。"
}
|
{
"en": "Various issues of observation",
"ja": "観察の諸問題"
}
|
{
"en": "Many people don't question about the act of observation itself, however, there is a serious issue involved in it.",
"ja": "観察という行為自体に何ら疑問を抱かない者も多いが、実はそこには大きな問題が横たわっている。"
}
|
{
"en": "There is a process called \"recognition\" of human beings involved in the act of observation.",
"ja": "観察という行為には人間の「認識」というプロセスが含まれているのである。"
}
|
{
"en": "Whoever the observer may be (even an scientist), recognition is a process related to psychology and cranial nerve and there are some issues involved as shown below.",
"ja": "観察者が誰であろうが(科学者であろうが)、認識は、心理あるいは脳神経的なプロセスであり、そこには以下のような問題が潜んでいる。"
}
|
{
"en": "Preconceived idea",
"ja": "先入観"
}
|
{
"en": "Subjective point of view and objective point of view",
"ja": "主観と客観"
}
|
{
"en": "This issue was also pointed out by Thomas Kuhn.",
"ja": "この問題は、トーマス・クーンによっても指摘された。"
}
|
{
"en": "The progress of scientific theories is largely related to the potential problems of the act of recognition.",
"ja": "科学の理論の進歩は、認識が孕む問題と大きく関係しているのである。"
}
|
{
"en": "(See the section of \"Paradigm\")",
"ja": "(「パラダイム」の項を参照のこと)。"
}
|
{
"en": "\"Objectivization\" is never simple nor absolute as it is assumed.",
"ja": "「客観主義」というものは、決して、想像されるほど、シンプルで磐石なものではない。"
}
|
{
"en": "Moreover, in the field of biology and social science it has been always known as a matter-of -course that the behavior of the object being observed is affected by the existence of the observer (for example, human beings are aware based on the experiences and the common sense that the behavior of any creatures, human beings and the group of human beings is affected by being observed).",
"ja": "また、観察者の存在によって、観察される存在の挙動が変化してしまうことは、生物学や社会科学の分野では当然のこととして常に意識されていた(例えば生き物や人間、人間集団などは、人間は、観察で挙動が変化してしまうと経験的・常識的に知っていた)。"
}
|
{
"en": "However also in the field of physics, \"the issue of observation\" started being discussed more deeply even at the level of substance since quantum mechanics has been developed, and the concept of \"the objective observation\" has become unstable from this point of view as well.",
"ja": "しかし、物理学の領域においても、量子力学の発展以降は、物質レベルでも、さらに根深い次元で「観測問題」が扱われるようになり、\"客観的な観察\"というものが、この点からも揺らいでいる。"
}
|
{
"en": "Watcher",
"ja": "ウォッチャー"
}
|
{
"en": "The people who observe or review a particular field or phenomenon are sometimes called \"watcher\".",
"ja": "また、特定の分野や現象を観察、評論する人をウォッチャーと称する場合もある。"
}
|
{
"en": "For example, people often call Katsuhiro KURODA (Sankei Newspaper, Seoul Branch Manager) a Korean Watcher, or Toru TAKANARITA calls himself a Washington Watcher.",
"ja": "例えば、黒田勝弘（産経新聞ソウル支局長）を韓国ウォッチャーと言ったり、高成田亨（朝日新聞論説委員）がワシントンウォッチャーを自称したりしている。"
}
|
{
"en": "Among those related to government are economy watchers, who can include retailers, manufacturers or service providers such as golf course owners and taxi drivers; the government (the Cabinet Office) conducts the Economic Watchers Survey based on their economic assessments.",
"ja": "政府が関与しているものでは、小売店や製造業、ゴルフ場やタクシーなどサービス提供業者に景気ウォッチャーとなってもらい、ウォッチャーの景気判断を元に作成する景気ウォッチャー調査（内閣府）がある。"
}
|
{
"en": "There are also the Central Food Labeling Watchers (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries), who make sure there are no misleading food labeling.",
"ja": "また、食品表示状況に不正が行われてないかを観察する中央食品表示ウォッチャー（農林水産省）などもある。"
}
|
{
"en": "The example that is similar to these is the On-the-road Watchers Institute, which observes the social phenomena, manners and customs etc which are familiar to us.",
"ja": "これに近い例で，身近な社会現象や風俗を観察する分野として路上観察学会というのがある。"
}
|
{
"en": "See also the section of the study of modern social phenomena about this topic.",
"ja": "これについては考現学も参照のこと。"
}
|
{
"en": "Gokamon refers to a family with distinguished family lineage.",
"ja": "御家門（ごかもん）は、名のある家柄の一族を指す。"
}
|
{
"en": "It is also called as kamon.",
"ja": "単に家門ともいう。"
}
|
{
"en": "In the Edo period, among all the sinpan (relatives of the Tokugawa family), it specifically referred to a family of the Tokugawa shogunate, and daimyo (a feudal lord) families and hatamoto (a direct retainer of the shogun) families with a family line of brothers of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA (founder of the Tokugawa shogunate, and the first shogun of the Edo bakufu, Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).",
"ja": "江戸時代においては、親藩の中で、特に徳川将軍家の一族及び徳川家康の兄弟の家系の大名家、旗本家を指していう。"
}
|
{
"en": "The gokamon families were allowed to use the surname of Matsudaira, Iyeyasu's former surname.",
"ja": "御家門は家康の元の姓である松平氏を名乗ることを許された。"
}
|
{
"en": "Most of the gokamon including the Echizen Matsudaira family, head of gokamon, did not take up posts of the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) but were highly respected for their social status as the shogun family.",
"ja": "御家門筆頭の越前松平家をはじめとして、御家門の多くは幕府の役職につくことはなく、将軍家の一門としての格式を重んじられた。"
}
|
{
"en": "The Echizen Matsudaira family – offspring of Hideyasu YUKI, Ieyasu's second son.",
"ja": "越前松平家-家康の次男結城秀康の子孫"
}
|
{
"en": "The Aizu Matsudaira family – offspring of Masayuki HOSHINA, an illegitimate son of Hidetada TOKUGAWA, the second shogun",
"ja": "会津松平家-第2代将軍徳川秀忠の庶子保科正之の子孫"
}
|
{
"en": "The Ochi Matsudaira family – offspring of Kiyotake MATSUDAIRA, a younger brother of Ienobu TOKUGAWA, the sixth shogun.",
"ja": "越智松平家-第6代将軍徳川家宣の弟松平清武の子孫"
}
|
{
"en": "In addition, some clans with a strong matrimonial relation with the shogun family such as the Maeda clan of the Kaga Domain, the Ikeda clan of the Tottori Domain and the Ikeda clan of the Okayama Domain were treated correspondingly to the gokamon and granted the surname of Matsudaira and the family crest of Mitsuba aoi (three leaves of Hollyhock, which is a family crest of the Tokugawa family).",
"ja": "また、加賀藩前田氏、鳥取藩池田氏、岡山藩池田家など将軍家との姻戚関係の強い藩は御家門に準ずる扱いを受け、松平姓と三つ葉葵を下賜された。"
}
|
{
"en": "However, Tokugawa gosanke (three privileged branches of the Tokugawa family: the Kishu family, the Mito family, and the Owari family) and gosankyo (three privileged branches of the Tokugawa family: the Tayasu family, the Hitotsubashi family and the Shimizu family) used the surname of Tokugawa and received exceptional treatment.",
"ja": "但し、徳川御三家・御三卿は徳川姓を名乗り、御家門とは別格の扱いであった。"
}
|
{
"en": "Gorenshi refers to brothers of prestigious families such as the Imperial Family and families of kuge (court nobles) and seii taishogun (literally, \"great general who subdues the barbarians\"), and so on.",
"ja": "御連枝（ごれんし）は天皇家・公家・征夷大将軍家などの高貴な家柄の兄弟のことをいう。"
}
|
{
"en": "Especially in the Edo period, it referred to daimyo (a feudal lord) who moved out from the Tokugawa gosanke (three privileged branch families of Tokugawa) and founded its own domain.",
"ja": "特に江戸時代においては、徳川御三家より分家、立藩した大名を指していう。"
}
|
{
"en": "Families of gorenshi used the surname of Matsudaira.",
"ja": "御連枝の家は松平（まつだいら）姓を名乗った。"
}
|
{
"en": "When gosanke did not have an heir, a new lord of the gosanke was sometimes selected from this gorenshi.",
"ja": "御三家に嗣子が無い場合、この御連枝より御三家の藩主が立てられる場合もあった。"
}
|
{
"en": "Renshi (or gorenshi) of each family",
"ja": "各家の連枝"
}
|
{
"en": "Renshi of the Owari Tokugawa family",
"ja": "尾張徳川家連枝"
}
|
{
"en": "The Matsudaira (Owari) family of the Takasu Domain: Mitsutomo TOKUGAWA gave a part of their fief to his second son, Yoshiyuki MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "高須藩松平（まつだいら）〔尾張（おわり）〕家…徳川光友次男・松平義行を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Matsudaira (Owari) family of the Yanagawa Domain: Mitsutomo OWARI (or Mitsutomo TOKUGAWA) gave bunpo to his third son, Yoshimasa MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "梁川藩松平（まつだいら）〔尾張（おわり）〕家…尾張光友三男・松平義昌を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Kawatakubo Matsudaira family: Mitsutomo OWARI gave bunpo to his 11th son, Tomoaki MATSUDAIRA..",
"ja": "川田久保松平家…尾張光友十一男・松平友著を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "Renshi of the Kishu Tokugawa family",
"ja": "紀州徳川家連枝"
}
|
{
"en": "The Matsudaira (Kishu) family of the Saijo Domain: Yorinobu TOKUGAWA gave bunpo to his second son, Yorizumi MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "西条藩松平（まつだいら）〔紀州（きしゅう）〕家…徳川頼宣次男・松平頼純を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Echizen Nibu Matsudaira family: Mitsusada TOKUGAWA gave bunpo to his third son, Yorimoto MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "越前丹生松平家…徳川光貞の三男・松平頼職を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Kazurano Domain: Mitsusada KII (or Mitsusada TOKUGAWA) gave bunpo to his forth son, Yorikata MATSUDAIRA (later Yoshimune TOKUGAWA, the eighth seii taishogun).",
"ja": "葛野藩…紀伊光貞の四男・松平頼方（後の8代征夷大将軍徳川吉宗）を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Takatsukasa Matsudaira family of the Yoshii Domain: Nobuhira TAKATSUKASA, a younger brother of Takako TAKATSUKASA, a lawful wife of Iemitsu TOKUGAWA (the third shogun), took Matsuhime (Princess Matsu), the second daughter of Yorinobu TOKUGAWA, as his lawful wife, and was given the surname of Matsudaira as renshi of the Kii family.",
"ja": "吉井藩鷹司松平家…徳川家光正室の鷹司孝子の弟・鷹司信平は徳川頼宣の次女・松姫を正室とし、紀伊家連枝として松平姓を下賜される。"
}
|
{
"en": "The family had their shikoseki (anteroom seats for feudal lords and direct retainers of the shogun at the Edo-jo Castle) in the Upper Room of the Great Corridor, which was allowed only to the families with the highest status in the renshi.",
"ja": "連枝中最高格式の伺候席を大廊下上之部屋に詰める。"
}
|
{
"en": "Renshi of the Mito Tokugawa family",
"ja": "水戸徳川家連枝"
}
|
{
"en": "The Matsudaira (Mito) family of the Takamatsu Domain: Yorifusa TOKUGAWA gave bunpo to his oldest son, Yorishige MATSUDAIRA (an older brother of Mitsukuni TOKUGAWA).",
"ja": "高松藩松平（まつだいら）〔水戸（みと）〕家…徳川頼房長男・松平頼重（徳川光圀の兄）を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Moriyama Domain: Yorifusa MITO (or Yorifusa TOKUGAWA) gave bunpo to his forth son, Yorimoto MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "守山藩…水戸頼房四男・松平頼元を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Matsudaira (Mito) family of the Hitachi-fuchu Domain: Yorifusa MITO gave bunpo to his fifth son, Yoritaka MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "常陸府中藩松平（水戸）（まつだいら（みと））家…水戸頼房五男・松平頼隆を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "The Matsudaira (Mito) family of the Hitachi-shishido Domain: Yorifusa MITO gave bunpo to his seventh son, Yorikatsu MATSUDAIRA.",
"ja": "常陸宍戸藩松平（水戸）（まつだいら（みと））家…水戸頼房七男・松平頼雄を分封"
}
|
{
"en": "Nanate-gumi (Hideyoshi's seven troops) is a group of vassals that was organized by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI..",
"ja": "七手組（ななてぐみ）とは、豊臣秀吉が創設した旗本衆。"
}
|
{
"en": "They are also called Nana-taicho or Oumamawari-shichigashira.",
"ja": "七隊長・御馬廻七頭とも言われている。"
}
|
{
"en": "Nanate-gumi indicates military units which Hideyoshi selected about 10,000 elite warriors and divided into seven during his life, and they worked as bodyguards of the Toyotomi family and for rituals for the Imperial Court, and the like.",
"ja": "七手組は秀吉が存命中に約1万の精鋭を7つの部隊にわけ、豊臣家の身辺警護から朝廷への儀礼などに用いた部隊。"
}
|
{
"en": "Kumigashira (commander of each group) owned the territory valued approximately 10,000 koku.",
"ja": "組頭は概ね1万石程度の所領を持っている。"
}
|
{
"en": "They served Hideyori TOYOTOMI after the death of Hideyoshi, and mainly focused on protecting the Osaka Castle during the Battle of Sekigahara.",
"ja": "秀吉死後は豊臣秀頼に仕え、関ヶ原の戦いでは主に大坂城の警護任務に終始した。"
}
|
{
"en": "(A part of Nanate-gumi participated in the battle to support the Western Army in Sekigahara.)",
"ja": "（一部は関ヶ原で西軍側につき参戦）"
}
|
{
"en": "In later days the Kumigashiras appointed directly by Hideyoshi retired and their sons succeeded the post, however the troops' fighting force had weakened significantly.",
"ja": "晩年は秀吉より任命された組頭も引退し、その子たちが受け継いだため戦闘力の著しい低下を招いた。"
}
|
{
"en": "In Osaka-no-eki (the Siege of Osaka) in 1615, four out of seven Nanate-gumi Kumigashiras died a heroic death at the time of the fall of the castle.",
"ja": "1615年の大坂の役では七手組組頭7人の内の4人までが落城と共に討ち死にする壮絶な最期を遂げた。"
}
|
{
"en": "Among them, Kazushige Aoki was a former vassal of the Tokugawa family, but was transferred to the Toyotomi family by the Hideyoshi's special request to Ieyasu TOKUGAWA.",
"ja": "ただ、青木一重は徳川家家臣であったが、秀吉が家康に頼んで移籍させた人物である。"
}
|
{
"en": "Therefore, he returned to the Tokugawa family after Osaka Fuyu no Jin (Winter Siege of Osaka).",
"ja": "そのため、大坂冬の陣後に徳川家に復帰している。"
}
|
{
"en": "Ito became a vassal of the Tokugawa family, and Mano became that of Takatora TODO later on.",
"ja": "伊東は徳川家の、真野は藤堂高虎の家臣となっている。"
}
|
{
"en": "Main Kumigashiras",
"ja": "主な組頭"
}
|
{
"en": "Morihisa HAYAMI (a leader of Nanate gumi)",
"ja": "速水守久（七手組筆頭）"
}
|
{
"en": "Kazushige AOKI",
"ja": "青木一重"
}
|
{
"en": "Nagazane ITO",
"ja": "伊東長実"
}
|
{
"en": "Moritaka HOTTA",
"ja": "堀田盛高"
}
|
{
"en": "Ujitane NAKASHIMA",
"ja": "中島氏種"
}
|
{
"en": "Sukemune MANO (His son Yorikane MANO succeeded the position later)",
"ja": "真野助宗（後に子の真野頼包）"
}
|
{
"en": "Yoshiyasu NONOMURA",
"ja": "野々村吉安"
}
|
{
"en": "Hideto MATSUURA",
"ja": "松浦秀任"
}
|
{
"en": "Muneyasu KOHRI is sometimes added to the above.",
"ja": "郡宗保が追加される場合もある。"
}
|
{
"en": "Koji KASHIN (year of birth unknown) was a magician who made his appearance at the end of the Muromachi period.",
"ja": "果心居士（かしんこじ、生没年不詳）とは、室町時代末期に登場した幻術師。"
}
|
{
"en": "He was also called \"Shippo Gyoja\" (or \"Shichiho Gyoja\"; written as 七宝行者).",
"ja": "七宝行者とも呼ばれる。"
}
|
{
"en": "History record indicates that he performed magic before Nobunaga ODA, Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, Mitsuhide AKECHI, Hisahide MATSUNAGA, and others, but there is also an opinion which questions his existence.",
"ja": "織田信長、豊臣秀吉、明智光秀、松永久秀らの前で幻術を披露したと記録されているが、実在を疑問視する向きもある。"
}
|
{
"en": "Summary",
"ja": "概要"
}
|
{
"en": "According to \"Gizankokaku\" (a book of desultory gossip stories) by Guken which is said to have come about at the end of the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Koji was born in Echigo Province.",
"ja": "安土桃山時代末期のものとされる愚軒による雑話集『義残後覚』には、筑後国の生まれとある。"
}
|
{
"en": "Although his priesthood lied with Kofuku-ji Temple in Yamato Province, due to his excellence in magic of a non-Buddhist method, he was excommunicated.",
"ja": "大和国の興福寺に僧籍を置きながら、外法による幻術に長じたために興福寺を破門されたという。"
}
|
{
"en": "It seems that later, in expectation of becoming a vassal of Nobunaga ODA, he performed magic in front of Nobunaga and was praised, but was not allowed to become Nobunaga's officer.",
"ja": "その後、織田信長の家臣になりたいという思惑があったらしく、信長の前で幻術を披露して信長から賞賛されたが、仕官は許されなかったと言われている。"
}
|
{
"en": "Also, according to \"Old Man's Tea Talk\", an essay by Ei KASHIWAZAKI during the Edo period, in July of 1612, someone named Koji INSHIN appeared before Ieyasu TOKUGAWA in Shizuoka City.",
"ja": "また、江戸時代の柏崎永以の随筆『古老茶話』によると、慶長17年（1612年）7月に、因心居士というものが静岡市で徳川家康の御前に出たという。"
}
|
{
"en": "Ieyasu, who knew Koji INSHIN well, asked, \"How old are you now?\"and Koji replied he was eighty-eight years old.",
"ja": "家康は既知の相手で、「いくつになるぞ」と尋ねたところ、居士は88歳と答えた。"
}
|
{
"en": "If this person was Koji KASHIN, then it means that he was born in 1542.",
"ja": "この人物が果心居士であれば、1524年の生まれということになる。"
}
|
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