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The Machinery of Criminal Justice
University of Pennsylvania Law School
January 1, 2012
THE MACHINERY OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE, S. Bibas, Oxford University Press, 2012
U of Penn Law School, Public Law Research Paper No. 12-16
Two centuries ago, the American criminal justice system was run primarily by laymen. Jury trials passed moral judgment on crimes, vindicated victims and innocent defendants, and denounced the guilty. But over the last two centuries, lawyers have taken over the process, silencing victims and defendants and, in many cases, substituting a plea-bargaining system for the voice of the jury. The public sees little of how this assembly-line justice works, and victims and defendants have largely lost their day in court. As a result, victims rarely hear defendants express remorse and apologize, and defendants rarely receive forgiveness. This lawyerized machinery has purchased efficient, speedy processing of many cases at the price of sacrificing softer values, such as reforming defendants and healing wounded victims and relationships. In other words, the U.S. legal system has bought quantity at the price of quality, without recognizing either the trade-off or the great gulf separating lawyers' and laymen's incentives, interests, values, and powers.
In The Machinery of Criminal Justice, author Stephanos Bibas surveys these developments over the last two centuries, considers what we have lost in our quest for efficient punishment, and suggests ways to include victims, defendants, and the public once again. These ideas range from requiring convicts to work or serve in the military, to moving power from prosecutors to restorative sentencing juries. Bibas argues that doing so might cost more, but it would better serve criminal procedure's interests in denouncing crime, vindicating victims, reforming wrongdoers, and healing the relationships torn by crime.
The Introduction to the book is attached.
Number of Pages in PDF File: 20
Keywords: Criminal law and procedure, American criminal justice system, sentencing, plea bargain, guilty plea, negotiation, settlement, dispute resolution, right to trial, jury, efficiency, fifth amendment, sixth amendment, constitutional law, fairness, procedural justiceAccepted Paper Series
Date posted: February 25, 2012
© 2013 Social Science Electronic Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This page was processed by apollo5 in 0.609 seconds | [
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The history and tradition of Patna go back to the earliest dawn of civilization. The original name of Patna was Pataliputra or Patalipattan and its history makes a start from the century 600 B.C. The name Patna has undergone many changes at its earliest stages like Pataligram, Kusumpur,Patliputra, Azimabad etc., ultimately terminating to the present one. Chandragupta Maurya made it his capital in the 4th century A.D. Thereafter the city lost its importance until Sherkhan Suri rose into power in the early 16th century A.D. Another version that comes to focus is that there existed a village named Pattan or Patthan, which later turned into Patna.It has been said that Pataliputra was founded by Ajatashatru. Patna, therefore, has become inextricably bound up with the ancient Pataliputra. The ancient village was named ‘Patali’ and the word ‘Pattan’ was added to it. Greek history mentions ‘Palibothra’ which perhaps is Pataliputra itself.
Ajatashatru had to adopt certain security measures in order to protect Patna from the repeated Lichchavi invasions. He had got a natural riverine fort protected by three rivers. Ajatashatru’s son had moved his capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra and this status was maintained during the reign of the Mauryas and the Guptas. Ashoka the Great, administered his empire from here. Chandragupta Maurya and Samudragupta, valliant warriors, they took Pataliputra as their capital. It was from here Chahandragupta sent forth his army to fight the Greeks of the western frontier and Chandragupta Vikramaditya repelled the Shakas and the Huns from here. It was there that the Greek ambassador Megasthenes stayed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The famous traveler Fa-Hien in the 3rd century and Hiuen-Tsang in the 7th century inspected the city. Many noted scholars like Kautilya stayed here and works like ‘Arthashastra’ were written from this place. This city was the fountainhead of the spring of knowledge and wisdom in ancient times. | [
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] | 506 |
RE: Plant-based fats question
Posted Tuesday, March 5, 2013 at 9:18 AM
It depends on your goals - weight loss? disease prevention? cancer survival? general health and well being?
Here's our general advice with high-fat plant foods:
A low-fat diet is not a no-fat diet. There are traces of natural oils in vegetables, beans, and fruits, and these fats are important for health. Some people add additional sources of healthful omega-3 (“good”) fats, such as walnuts, flaxseeds or flax oil, or soy products. And some researchers have found health benefits to having a small serving of nuts each day, despite the fact that nuts are very fatty. The idea is that nuts are heart-healthy and may even prevent arrhythmias—disorders of the heartbeat.
PCRM’s advice is to be cautious with these foods. They can easily impart enough fat to bring your weight loss to a halt. Rather than using nuts and seeds as snack foods (where it is so easy to go overboard), use them as condiments or in sauces, limiting them to about an ounce or so (about one modest handful) each day.
Susan Levin, MS, RD
PCRM Director of Nutrition Education | [
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] | 269 |
Although it’s what many people on the Kenai Peninsula associate it with, Memorial Day weekend isn’t just about fishing and barbecues. It’s a time to remember those who have died in battle for this country.
Originally called Decoration Day, the holiday was first widely observed on May 30, 1868, to commemorate the sacrifices of Civil War soldiers by proclamation of General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of former sailors and soldiers.
In 1966, the federal government, under the direction of President Lyndon Johnson, declared Waterloo, N.Y., the official birthplace of Memorial Day. They chose Waterloo — which had first celebrated the day on May 5, 1866 — because the town made Memorial Day an annual, communitywide event, during which businesses closed and residents decorated the graves of soldiers with flowers and flags.
Today, Memorial Day is celebrated at Arlington National Cemetery with a ceremony in which a small American flag is placed on each grave.
Also, it is customary for the president or vice president to give a speech honoring the contributions of the dead and lay a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.
Communities across the country, including those on the Kenai Peninsula, take part in annual events to commemorate the day.
Memorial Day observances, will be held in Kenaiand Soldotna this year.
In Kenai, the Avenue of Flags begins at 10:30 a.m. at the Kenai City Cemetery and a memorial service will take place at Leif Hansen Memorial Park at 1 p.m.
In Soldotna, a memorial is planned for 1 p.m. at the Soldotna Community Memorial Park on West Redoubt.
Our fallen soldiers have fought for so much throughout the years, and their dedication has given us the freedoms we enjoy today. We encourage you to take a moment to remember them and the reason for this holiday. | [
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] | 399 |
INDIAN PERANAKANS : THE CHITTY MELAKA
The Melaka Chitty community, also known as the Malacca Straits-born Hindus or Indian Peranakans has been in Malacca, Malaysia since the reign of the Malacca Sultanate in the early 15th. century. Years before Parameswara the founder of Malacca in 1401 became the first sultan, Hindu traders had already come to Malacca. Trading between the West and East had long been established before then. Due to the distance and weather conditions, traders had to make several stops along their trading route the Straits of Malacca and Malacca was seen as the best location. It was exactly the ideal choice for these traders as it was stragically located and food supplies were easily available. As Malacca gained its popularity, more and more traders including the Hindus from the Corromandel Coast, Southern India thronged its port.
Inter-marriages between the Hindu traders and the Malays, Chinese, Javanese and Bataks were then unavoidable. Through the process of assimilation, these traders had gradually adapted themselves to a new lifestyle. Thus the term 'Melaka Chitty' was born. As staunch believers of the Hindu faith, the Melaka Chitty community still uphold their religious ceremonies and beliefs but with a unique blend. In Malacca, one can easily notice this unique community in Kampung Chitty, Gajah Berang which is situated about 2.5 kilometres from the city centre. It consists of a few castes namely; Pandaram, Pillay, Neiker, Raja, Pathair, Chitty and Padaichi.
They strongly resemble the Malays and Baba Nyonyas the Malacca Straits-born Chinese in terms of clothing, spoken language, food and appearance. No doubt they are inarticulate in Tamil but they still maintain their Hindu names and customs. As of material importance, need to assert that the Melaka Chitty community is different than the other Hindus, especially the Chettiars the Hindu money-lenders, in many ways. They had lost all forms of relation with their descendants in India a long time ago. Today, they pledge their loyalty to the Ruler of Malaysia. Most of them are wage earners and lead a simple life. Some have ventured into other types of occupations. A handful of them are living in other parts of the country and some can be found in Singapore too. During festive seasons, most of them would return to Kampung Chitty and they will have lots to talk about.
"PLEASE don't confuse us with the Chettiars. They are moneylenders and we are the traders who came here in the 14th Century like the Babas & Nonyas." So pleads Chitty village elder V. Ramasamy Pillai. "After all these years, more than 600 years to be precise, Malaysians are still unable to differentiate between Chittys and Chettiars," he says smiling and shaking his head. History books and Ramasamy, 83, will tell you that the Chittys are actually Indian traders who came to the Malacca in the early 1400s from the southern part of India, namely Kalinga in the Corromendal Coast, during the days of the spice trade. Many married local Malay women like the Chinese Peranakans & adopted the cultures and languages of the region while retaining their own religion – Hinduism.Seafaring Chitty traders went on to become farmers and settled down in many parts of Malacca, eventually moving to Kampung Tujung in Gajah Behrang. You will notice from the below picture that the Indian Peranakan Wedding Ceremonies and styles of dressing abd wedding garments are very similar to that of the Chinese Peranakans. Also notice the "Ranjang Kemanten" in the background on the picture of the right to that of a Peranakan Chinese "Ranjang Kemanten".
It is in Kampung Tujung where many of the Chittys now live. There are 19 homes amidst three temples and a newly constructed museum that awaits its official opening. When many of the Chittys married and settled in Malacca, they didn't keep in touch with their families in India, thus making it virtually impossible for their predecessors to trace relatives in Kalinga.While their Indian relatives might be a permanently closed chapter, the Chittys in Malacca are a fascinating group. Daily but more so on weekends, scores of visitors come to Chitty village. "Most Chittys look like Indians while others have fair skin like the Chinese Peranakans and have made Bahasa Malaysia their official language. Many here only speak Tamil haltingly as Baba Malay is the language spoken by the community," says K. Nadarajan Raja, who is secretary of the Cultural Society of Chitty Malacca.
"What we wear differs from our counterparts in India. The Chitty woman usually wears the kebaya panjang or kebaya pendek, depending on her marital status, with a sarong, like the Nonyas. The handkerchief or binpoh is usually worn on the shoulder like a shawl," he informs. The men are normally dressed in a dhoti and shirt for religious functions while for traditional events, it is usually the sarong or kain pelekat with the lose Nehru jacket and cap. A piece of colourful cloth is often draped on the left shoulder. As for festivals, the Chittys celebrate all three days of ponggol, the harvest festival in January, and Deepavali on a grand scale. Temple festivals are also celebrated by following a strict vegetarian diet for 10 days during which the Chittys living elsewhere in the country, congregate in Malacca for the celebrations. One festival celebrated with much ado is the Bhogi Parachu, usually falling in January. Chittys make offerings to ancestors on this day. Chitty delicacies such as pulut tekan/nasi lemak, ginggang and other homemade specials are served then.
On this occasion, nasi lemak is patted down onto banana leaves and salted eggs are embedded in the centre along with raddish. Some 13 other dishes such as friend mutton and chicken, soup and sweets are also placed on the banana leaves. "This is one festival celebrated in every household in the village. Ancestral worship is very important to us because we want the blessings of our forefathers," says Nadarajan. "It is also a time when everyone in the village visits one another." The practce of Ancestor Worship is alien in other Indian communities. This shows us that the Indian Peranakan community has adopted many Chinese Peranakan customs and traditions through intermarriage as intermarriage with Indian Peranakans were common in the past. The below photo shows you how similar the Indians Peranakans are to the Chinese Peranakans.
INDIAN CHITTY PERANAKAN CUISINE
Chitty cuisine, a blend of Malay local influences, Nonya and the Indian art of blending spices, is little-known. There is no Chitty restaurant, not even in Malacca, and hence their food can only be sampled in the community's enclave in Kampung Tujuh Gajah Berang. "The Chittys' most famous food is nasi lemak. We serve it as offerings during prayers,'' says G. Meenachi, 70. Unlike the other Indian groups who usually offer rice with vegetarian dishes during prayers, the Chittys serve nasi lemak or plain rice with a variety of fish and meat accompaniments.
"Chitty nasi lemak is usually steamed. First, we steam the rice for about 20 minutes before it is left to cool. In the meantime, we will boil thick and thin coconut milk separately over a low fire. The pandanus leaf is boiled with the coconut milk so that it'll be fragrant. "Stir the coconut milk into the steamed rice. Leave the rice for a few hours or until all the coconut milk has been absorbed by the rice. Then steam the rice again for 10-15 minutes,'' Meenachi's daughter, Amuthavathi, narrates the painstaking preparation of nasi lemak, as taught by her mother.A good nasi lemak must be fragrant, and the grains fluffy and separate, and must even have a shiny sheen. The secret to getting the shiny sheen, says Chitty S. Kathai, is by adding on some lemon juice to the rice during the steaming process. Unlike the Northerners, ginger is not added to their nasi lemak.
"Nasi lemak is only cooked in a rice cooker when there are unexpected guests. We call this nasi lemak terkejut (surprise nasi lemak).'' Offerings to Ancestors a Chinese Peranakan trsdition such as rice accompanied by 13 dishes are served by the Chittys to honour their ancestors. Traditional Chitty cooks such as Meenachi suffer no shortcuts or half measures in their kitchen, holding firm to elaborate details that give their food a delicious edge.
When she makes chillied fried fish, she wraps the fish with turmeric leaf which lends the dish a subtle aroma. For pulut tekan (glutinous rice cake steamed with coconut milk), Meenachi uses leaf only from the pisang batu or pisang nipah tree ... "leaves from other banana species would darken the white pulut.''Spices are not blended in electric blenders, but are ground on the batu giling (a granite pestle and mortar slab). Meenachi's youngest daughter, S. Amuthavathi, recalls handling the heavy granite roller from young as her mother was adamant that her children learn to cook well.
"My mother called this morning to instruct that I pound the shallots, ginger and garlic, and not use an electric blender,'' says Amuthavathi who cooked one of the Chittys' signature dish for us, armed with her mother's detailed instructions and secret tips. One of the Chitty's more unusual dish is nasi kembuli. Not many Chittys still know how to cook it although it was once served to brides three days after the wedding, and as offerings during prayers. "The ingredients in nasi kembuli are Indian such as ghee, cumin and coriander. However, one of the most important accompaniments, pineapple pachedi, is Malay in origin,'' says Amuthavathi.
A popular Chitty everyday dish is lauk pindang which bears strong Malay influences. "Lauk pindang is fish cooked with a blend of shallots, garlic and turmeric, in a tamarind and thin coconut milk gravy,'' describes Amuthavathi. The best time to sample Chitty delicacies is during festivals such as Ponggal or Bhogi. Bhogi, which falls on the eve of Ponggal, is the day that Chittys hold ancestral rites and honour deceased family members. "On that day, we lay out seven banana leaves of offerings for our ancestors. In my family, there will be three leaves of nasi lemak, three leaves of nasi kembuli and a leaf of white rice. There will be 13 accompaniments to the rice, a salted egg, and coffee,'' says Meenachi.
The accompaniments include sambal ludang (fish roe and prawns cooked with belimbing (sour starfruits), lemon grass, ginger, shallots, chilli, turmeric and coconut milk), dry chicken and mutton curry, pineapple pachedi, spiced fried chicken, brinjal pachedi, udang goreng asam garam (prawns fried with tamarind and salt), cucumber relish, lauk pindang and krill sambal. Other festive Chitty food is putu, which is Indian in origin. Putu is traditionally served during the Sadanggu, a ceremony for young girls who have reached puberty. "Only women are invited for this ceremony, and they must finish all the food prepared to ensure that no man eats the food. It's considered bad luck if food for the Sadanggu is eaten by a man. Notice the Sembayang Dato or Offering to the Ancestors Ceremony in the middle picture below. Notice the two red candles used. This is a Peranakan Chinese tradition, not an Indian Tradition as only the Peranakan Chinese use Red Candles for offering and prayers to the Ancestors.
"It is also best to serve tea with sugar and pandanus leaf to go with the putu, which is made from scraped coconut, palm sugar syrup, fried green beans, cardamom and rice flour,'' says Meenachi. Although many Chitty dishes are still prepared, there are fears that some recipes may be forgotten as the young marry out of the close-knit but small community. Meenachi's four daughters hope to document the Chitty recipes their illiterate mother remembers so vividly.
Meenachi does not only list down ingredients and cooking methods when passing recipes, but also the little details that matter.For certain dishes, use only the pink shallots. A pinch of salt must be added when pounding sambal belacan to mute the chillies' rawness. Boil salted mustard for itik tim in a brass wok, and it won't turn yellow but remain green. Recipes aside, Chitty Baba Malay terms used to describe cooking methods are also interesting. Some of these terms include masak atas darat which means to fry spices in hot oil away from the fire, and kare which is to use a chopstick to gently separate the rice grains without breaking them. It is estimated that there around 50,000 Indian Peranakans in the whole of Peninsular Malaysia and another 5,000 in Singapore alone. The overwhelming majority of Peranakans however are the Chinese Peranakans. | [
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] | 2,956 |
Jerusalem, The Biography by Simon Sebag Montefiore
February 2, 2012 by Bob Livingston
The fact that Jerusalem is the center of the spiritual world for so many people seems to make politics there frighteningly complex and deadly. Consequently, if you have any interest in understanding why the area in and around Jerusalem is such a contentious piece of real estate, Jerusalem explicates, in exquisite historical detail, the thousands of years of fighting over a piece of ground that so many people want to possess. Sometimes, the details supplied by Montefiore are a bit overwhelming. But the historical tidbits, footnotes, archeological gossip and descriptions of what we know or think we know about what historical figures did to each other in this part of the planet are never less than fascinating and illuminating.
Near the beginning of the book, Montefiore describes a time when Jerusalem was ruled by a confederation of tribes who were challenged by the Philistines, “part of the Sea Peoples, who originated in the Aegean (Sea).” The Israelites led first by Saul and then by David beat them back. As king, David established his stronghold at Jerusalem because it was a demilitarized zone between the northern and southern tribes.
Later on, though, rulers of the various kingdoms in and around Jerusalem would periodically invade and kill many of the local inhabitants, making off with gold from the city’s temple. And then, in between invasions and sieges, members of the ruling class would battle with each other for power, brothers killing each other in order to take control, children killing parents, in-laws plotting each other’s doom and generals using assassinations and bloodbaths to establish their own dynasties.
At the same time, the ruling Jewish kings twice built magnificent temples in Jerusalem (each eventually destroyed), filling them with golden treasures (all eventually looted) and established the city as a living, holy shrine.
But the battles never stopped.
In one typical period, as the Assyrians invaded, Israel’s King Ahab joined with Judah and Syria to repel the would-be conquerors. But soon, the three anti-Assyrian partners began to war with each other, civil wars broke out and King Ahab was killed by his own troops. In the power vacuum, a general named Jehu decided it was time to do away with the rest of the royal family. He stacked the heads of Ahab’s 70 sons in a gruesome pile at the one of the city’s gates, killed the new king who was trying to succeed Ahab and, for good measure, murdered the visiting king of Judah. Ahab’s wife, Queen Jezebel, was unceremoniously thrown out of a palace window, “pulverized” by chariots and fed to the dogs. But Ahab’s family was soon in control again. One of Jezebel’s daughters, Athalia, took power, killing every prince she could get her hands on (all of whom were her own grandchildren). She made Baal the state religion and set up idols in the Temple. Athalia, though, was eventually murdered, as were her priests.
This kind of back-and-forth killing was typical. Eventually, the Assyrians came back for more booty, and the Egyptians took a turn invading the area. When those empires backed off, the Babylonians arrived for their share. A couple of hundred years later, the Persians took out the Babylonians, followed by the Greeks and later the Romans.
Destruction And Conflict
Soon after Jesus was crucified, relations between Rome and the Jewish rulers of Jerusalem reached a tipping point. Roman legions marched into the city, looted it, burned it to the ground and slaughtered most its residents, hauling many of the survivors back to Rome as slaves and unwilling participants in bloody shows at the Coliseum. For a time, the city was a camp for Roman soldiers.
Later, when the Romans eventually left, the city settled down into relative obscurity, lapsing into low level anarchy before being invaded by European Crusaders.
Today, of course, Jerusalem is in the center of the controversy between Palestinians and Israelis, each group claiming that they should control the area. After reading Jerusalem, you won’t wonder that the city and the area around it is a continual source of conflict. You may wonder why it isn’t worse. Montefiore warns, “… there have always been two Jerusalems, the temporal and the celestial, both ruled more by faith and emotion than by reason and facts.” | [
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] | 956 |
Closing in on the Planck constant
Sep 25, 1998
Physicists in the US have made the most accurate measurements ever of the Planck constant, h. Edwin Williams and colleagues at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Gaithersburg, Maryland, measured h by comparing the voltage needed to control the velocity of a coil moving vertically in an magnetic field, with the current that has to be passed through the coil to balance gravity in the same magnetic field. The measurement could lead to a new reference stand for the kilogram (Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 2404).
The kilogram is currently defined by a platinum-iridium alloy maintained at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) in Paris and six official copies. However, the official mass of the standard kilogram has been known to vary with time, hence the interest in defining the kilogram is terms of fundamental constants like h.
The highly stable magnetic field needed for the experiment is generated by a superconducting magnet that has been cooled to 4 Kelvin. The experiment also uses two induction coils: the lower coil is fixed to the support structure of the experiment, while the upper coil can move. This upper coil is also attached to a wheel balance above the experiment. In the first stage of the measurement, the mass balance is empty and a small force is applied to the upper coil, forcing it to move at 2mm/s. The researchers found that this generated a voltage of 1.018 ± 0.001 V across the moving coil. In the second stage of the experiment, a 500 g countermass is balanced by a - 10.18 mA current in the induction coil. Both stages were repeated over many months to obtain a value of 6.62606891(58) x 10-34 Joule seconds for the Planck constant.
This result - which corresponds to an accuracy of 9 parts in 108 - is a factor of 15 better than previous measurements. The team hope to improve on this result by another factor of 10 by modifying their experiment. | [
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] | 421 |
Ultrafast electron microscope makes movies
Dec 8, 2006
Physicists have created a new form of electron microscopy that can make "movies" of atoms as they undergo ultra-rapid chemical or structural transitions. Ahmed Zewail and colleagues at the California Institute of Technology in the US have used coincident electron and laser pulses to follow vanadium and oxygen atoms as they rearranged themselves on a vanadium oxide surface over the course of several picoseconds. The researchers say that the technique could also be used to study a wide range of ultrafast biological and physical phenomena. (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103 18427)).
Electron microscopes have better resolution than optical microscopes because high-energy electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light. The resolution can be further improved by using coherent electron wavepackets, which can contain as few as one electron. The wavelengths of these packets are much smaller than the space between individual atoms and can be brought to a very sharp focus, allowing objects to be imaged with atomic-scale resolution. The packets are of extremely short duration and this can be exploited to take “snapshots” of atoms as they undergo structural or chemical transitions.
In 2005, Zewail and colleagues used coherent electron packets to take single snapshots of a number of materials and biological samples. Now the researchers have further refined their technique to take a time sequence of images that allowed them to watch vanadium and oxygen atoms rearrange themselves in a process that can take as little as 100 femtoseconds ( 10-13 seconds).
The timing sequence is generated by femtosecond laser pulses as illustrated in the figure "Ultrafast microscope". Each pulse is split into two pulses – one is used by the microscope to create the electron pulse and the other is used to heat the sample. According to Zewail, the crucial and most difficult part of the technique is coordinating the arrivals of the laser and electron pulses at the sample with an accuracy of just a few femtoseconds. This is particularly difficult because the laser pulse travels at the speed of light, while the electron pulse lags behind at about two thirds the speed of light.
The coincident laser pulse is used to heat the sample and drive a transition from a low-temperature crystal structure to a high-temperature structure. By changing the delay between the laser and electron pulses in regular time steps, the researchers were able to take snapshots of the atoms at different sample temperatures.
Zewail and colleagues found that vanadium oxide undergoes a “first-order” phase transition from a low-temperature “monoclinic” phase to a high-temperature tetragonal “rutile” phase at around 67°C. This result is a breakthrough in itself because the precise nature of this transition has been a mystery since the material was discovered almost a century ago.
The team now plans to try their technique on other materials; “the scope is very wide from semiconductors and metals to organics and biological assemblies,” says Zewail. | [
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] | 639 |
Dodgers' progress plan not only about Robinson
Campanella, Newcombe got their shots in Class A ball
LOS ANGELES -- The Dodgers were front and center in breaking the color barrier in Major League Baseball, but the early movement involved more than Jackie Robinson.
When Robinson was signed by Dodgers president Branch Rickey and owner Walter O'Malley out of the Negro Leagues to be the first African-American to play at Triple-A Montreal in 1946, as part of his grand integration plan Rickey also signed Don Newcombe and Roy Campanella to be the first African-Americans to play Class A ball.
Newcombe grew up poor in Elizabeth, N.J., his father a chauffeur. There were no dreams of hitting it rich in the big leagues, but his neighbor, John Grier, saw him throwing rocks and envisioned a pitcher in the making.
"John Grier was like my second father, he took a liking to me, and he taught me to wind up, taught me everything I knew about baseball," Newcombe said. "I began to learn and began to like it. I was only 14 and I was already big and I could throw hard. He taught me to control it. But aspirations of the Major Leagues? Black kids had none of that."
At 17, Newcombe was signed for $175 a month by the Newark Eagles, owned by Abe Manley and run by his wife, Effa. He played with and against the likes of Cool Papa Bell, Monte Irvin, Ray Dandridge and Willie Wells. Two seasons into his career at age 19, Newcombe was a newlywed and life was about to change dramatically.
"My wife and I came out of a movie and saw a headline in the New York Post, I'll never forget it, and it said that Montreal had signed Jackie Robinson," said Newcombe, now 85 and a special advisor to Dodgers chairman Frank McCourt. "I knew this was the beginning of change. I said to my wife, maybe this is a chance for me and Roy."
Former Dodgers general manager Buzzie Bavasi wrote in his autobiography that if Newcombe hadn't been 19 years old at the time, Rickey might have chosen him over Robinson (who was 28) to be the first African-American Major Leaguer. Newcombe appreciated the mention, but believes the Dodgers got the right man for the job.
"The only man I ever knew that I thought could do what Jackie did was Jackie," Newcombe said. "I couldn't have accepted that kind of responsibility. Jackie brought more to the table. He served in the military. He went to UCLA. He was the man to do the job, not me. I don't know if Roy could have or Monte Irvin could have, but I do know that Jackie could do it. He far surpassed anyone I've ever known."
Newcombe can recall details of a 60-year anecdote as if it happened yesterday. He noted the irony in that a few months before signing, he had pitched in an Ebbets Field All-Star Game between Negro League stars and Major League stars. Newcombe pitched three innings of a Sunday game, went into the clubhouse, took off his uniform and was met by a slender man he had never seen before that turned out to be Dodgers scout Clyde Sukeforth, who would also sign Robinson.
"He asked me if I had ever heard of Branch Rickey," Newcombe said. "He told me this Mr. Rickey wanted to see me. I asked what he wanted. Sukeforth said I needed to come to the office and find out."
The meeting led to Newcombe's signing with the Dodgers for a $1,000 bonus.
"I gave $500 to my mother," said Newcombe, who had to borrow money from his mother for the subway fare from his home in New Jersey to Brooklyn for the meeting.
Newcombe and Campanella were originally signed to play at Danville in the Class A Illinois-Indiana-Iowa League, but the league president threatened to shut down rather than let African-Americans in. So the pair was redirected to Nashua of the New England League.
"Me and Roy talked about it," Newcombe said. "I told Roy I'd do whatever he thought. He said, 'We've got to start somewhere, Don.' The president of the New England League said he didn't care what color we were if we could play. So we went."
Nashua became the first racially integrated team in the United States. Walter Alston, who would go on to be a Hall of Fame manager with the Dodgers, was the Nashua player/manager.
"Alston called a meeting with the team when we joined to work out. And Alston -- God bless him -- asked this question to the team: 'If I get sent out of a game, and I name this man manager, will you play for him or quit? Because If I'm not managing, I want Roy Campanella to manage. Does anybody have a problem with that?'
"To a man, everyone said no problem, and that's the way it was. And lo and behold, in a game in Massachusetts, Alston was put out of the game. We were losing 2-1 and it was the top of the eighth and Campanella came over to me on the bench and said I was going to pinch-hit, and my eyes just about popped out of my head. And I hit a home run to center field and we won the game. So, Roy became the first Black in organized baseball history to win a game as manager."
Rickey's talent evaluation was right on point. Robinson was a rookie of the year, an MVP, a six-time All-Star and Hall of Famer. Campanella won three MVP awards and was an eight-time All-Star before his career was cut short by a paralyzing accident. He also is in the Hall of Fame.
Newcombe became the only player to win a Rookie of the Year, Cy Young and MVP award until Justin Verlander completed that trifecta last season. Verlander invited Newcombe to the New York Baseball Writers Dinner this month to present the MVP Award.
"I had that honor for 55 years, it was about time someone else did it," Newcombe said. "It's good to have a partner. I hope he carries on."
Ken Gurnick is a reporter for MLB.com. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs. | [
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] | 1,358 |
In 2009, the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights (AICHR) was formed to promote and protect the human rights of people in the region and was tasked to formulate the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration, which aimed to standardize all human rights of all people in the Southeast region of Asia.
•Five member countries have laws that target and criminalize transgender women for ‘cross dressing’: Brunei, Burma, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.
•Six member countries of ASEAN have laws criminalizing same sex activities between mutually consenting adults: Brunei, Burma, Malaysia and Singapore, Philippines (in Marawi City), Indonesia (in South Sumatera province).
•None of the 10 member countries of ASEAN have national anti-discrimination laws to protect people of diverse sexual orientation or gender identity or other minorities and vulnerable groups.
"The only glimpse the public and civil society groups have had of the proposed declaration was by way of a leaked document" Jakarta PostThe ASEAN Human Rights Declaration does not include or recognize the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) persons.
"Civil society groups gathered in Phnom Penh last week argued that time was running out to rid the proposed draft of clauses that would restrict peoples’ rights rather than protecting and enhancing them."Since it’s conception, LGBT groups have been demanding the inclusion of human rights based on sexual orientation and gender identity in the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration but our demands have fallen on deaf ears. This is a clear sign by the member countries of ASEAN that they do not recognize the existence of LGBTIQ persons and have no interest in protecting and promoting the human rights of LGBTIQ persons in this region.
Take Action! Stand in Solidarity with the ASEAN LGBT Caucus and IGLHRC in demanding the inclusion of LGBT Rights in the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration! | [
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] | 399 |
Puzzle pageIssue 37
Mystery Christmas theft
Where's that missing coin?
As a last treat before the start of the busiest period of the year, Santa Claus and Rudolph the Reindeer decide to go out for a meal. The Easter Bunny comes along for company. They feast on scrumptious food and mulled wine, which makes Rudolph's nose glow redder than ever. At the end of the night the bill totals 30 North Pole Pounds, and the three decide to share it evenly, each paying 10 Pounds. The waiter takes the money and walks over to the til, where he meets the proprietress of the restaurant. She tells him that for these very distinguished guests the last bottle of mulled wine is on the house. That bottle was 5 Pounds, so now the bill only comes to 25 Pounds. She gives the waiter 5 Pound coins in change. But the waiter, not being a very honest sort and still holding a grudge about an undelivered present, slips two Pounds into his pocket and only returns 3 Pounds, 1 Pound to each of the three guests.
Now each has paid 9 Pounds, making 27 in total. The waiter stole 2 Pounds, making 29. But Santa, Rudolph and the Easter Bunny paid 30 Pounds in total! What happened to the missing Pound? | [
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] | 275 |
A recent report by the World Economic Forum on the future of the gas markets has highlighted the revolution that is currently happening in this sector.
The report started by saying: “What a difference a few years can make in one of the world’s major energy markets. Advances in the production of unconventional gas – shale gas, tight gas and coal bed methane (CBM) – coupled with growing LNG capacity have changed longstanding assumptions about natural gas markets around the world.”
Whilst the shale gas revolution is well under way in North America, it is in its infancy in Europe and Asia. The one country that stands to benefit from the shale gas bonanza the most in Europe is Poland.
The report acknowledges: “Poland has the largest potential for unconventional gas production in Europe,” and argues that “Poland could become a significant gas exporter and transform gas supply throughout Central Europe”.
The country, which has historically relied on dirty coal and gas from Russia to power itself, could even become a gas exporter.
So for many countries like Poland or Ukraine, they see shale gas as the technology that will rid them from years of dependency on Russian gas, with its threats and price hikes.
Earlier this week, the Financial Times picked up on this theme, interviewing one Polish farmer who said: “I hear about people who don’t want these kinds of things, but it gives us a chance to free ourselves from Russia,” she says. “We aren’t worried at all.”
A British company, called 3 Legs Resources, is currently drilling on the woman’s land. Elsewhere in the country the big giants such as ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil and Chevron, are all joining in Poland’s dash for shale gas.
The FT even trumpets that “Gas could also help with Poland’s pollution problem. Currently, about 85 per cent of Polish electricity is generated by coal, which will become increasingly untenable thanks to EU restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions.”
But herein lies the rub. It would be madness for the Poles, in their desire to rid themselves from Russia and dirty coal, to exploit a technology that has known risks to drinking water, through the controversial technique called fracking.
Already in the US, where the film Gasland, has been a hit, there are consistent and widespread reports of water contamination. In France, the technique is currently banned due to pollution concerns.
Yesterday, a long awaited report by a panel of experts in the US delivered a warning to the shale gas drilling industry that they need to clean up their act.
“Overall, the impact on the environment has to go down,” said John Deutch, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor who led the panel, set up by President Obama. “If the public is not comfortable that these environmental issues are not being rigorously managed by regulators and industry, there is a threat to production.”
“An industry response that hydraulic fracturing has been performed safely for decades, rather than engaging the range of issues concerning the public, will not succeed,” the report concluded.
It also added that the effectiveness of current regulations “is far from clear.”
What this shows that despite the boom in America, many issues remain unresolved. So before it is too late, Poland and its neighbours should heed the warnings and learn from America’s mistakes. | [
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] | 714 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
- For a non-technical introduction to the topic, please see Introduction to genetics.
Genetics (from Ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos, “genitive” and that from γένεσις genesis, “origin”), a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits in a discrete manner—these basic units of inheritance are now called genes.
Genes correspond to regions within DNA, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of nucleotides—the sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. DNA naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand complementary to each other. Each strand can act as a template for creating a new partner strand—this is the physical method for making copies of genes that can be inherited.
The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids, creating proteins—the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This is known as the genetic code. The amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into a three-dimensional shape; this structure is, in turn, responsible for the protein's function. Proteins carry out almost all the functions needed for cells to live. A change to the DNA in a gene can change a protein's amino acids, changing its shape and function: this can have a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole.
Although genetics plays a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the combination of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. For example, while genes play a role in determining a person's height, the nutrition and health that person experiences in childhood also have a large effect.
- Main article: History of genetics
Although the science of genetics began with the applied and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-1800s, other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel. A popular theory during Mendel's time was the concept of blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendel's work disproved this, showing that traits are composed of combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics: the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. This theory (commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) is now known to be wrong—the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children. Other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and Francis Galton's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited.
Mendelian and classical geneticsEdit
The modern science of genetics traces its roots to Gregor Johann Mendel, a German-Czech Augustinian monk and scientist who studied the nature of inheritance in plants. In his paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits, Mendel's work suggested that heredity was particulate, not acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios.
The importance of Mendel's work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905. (The adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis - γένεσις, "origin" and that from the word genno - γεννώ, "to give birth", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860.) Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London, England, in 1906.
After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. In 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies. In 1913, his student Alfred Sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome.
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Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA—scientists did not know which of these was responsible for inheritance. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation (see Griffith's experiment): dead bacteria could transfer genetic material to "transform" other still-living bacteria. Sixteen years later, in 1944, Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin McLeod and Maclyn McCarty identified the molecule responsible for transformation as DNA. The Hershey-Chase experiment in 1952 also showed that DNA (rather than protein) was the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA was the molecule responsible for inheritance.
James D. Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin that indicated DNA had a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew). Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what looks like rungs on a twisted ladder. This structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA. The structure also suggested a simple method for duplication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.
Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance worked, it was still not known how DNA influenced the behavior of cells. In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production. It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to create matching messenger RNA (a molecule with nucleotides, very similar to DNA). The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein; this translation between nucleotide and amino acid sequences is known as the genetic code.
With this molecular understanding of inheritance, an explosion of research became possible. One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger: this technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule. In 1983, Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction, providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of a DNA from a mixture. Through the pooled efforts of the Human Genome Project and the parallel private effort by Celera Genomics, these and other techniques culminated in the sequencing of the human genome in 2003.
Features of inheritanceEdit
Discrete inheritance and Mendel's lawsEdit
- Main article: Mendelian inheritance
At its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by means of discrete traits, called genes. This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel, who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pea plants. In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white - and never an intermediate between the two colors. These different, discrete versions of the same gene are called alleles.
In the case of pea plants, each organism has two alleles of each gene, and the plants inherit one allele from each parent. Many organisms, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. Organisms with two copies of the same allele are called homozygous, while organisms with two different alleles are heterozygous.
The set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype, while the observable trait the organism has is called its phenotype. When organisms are heterozygous, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both alleles at once.
When a pair of organisms reproduce sexually, their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent. These observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as Mendel's first law or the Law of Segregation.
Notation and diagramsEdit
Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance. A gene is represented by a letter (or letters)—the capitalized letter represents the dominant allele and the recessive is represented by lowercase. Often a "+" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene.
In fertilization and breeding experiments (and especially when discussing Mendel's laws) the parents are referred to as the "P" generation and the offspring as the "F1" (first filial) generation. When the F1 offspring mate with each other, the offspring are called the "F2" (second filial) generation. One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square.
Interactions of multiple genesEdit
Organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms assortment of these genes are generally independent of each other. This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers. This phenomenon, known as "Mendel's second law" or the "Law of independent assortment", means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations.(Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.)
Often different genes can interact in a way that influences the same trait. In the Blue-eyed Mary (Omphalodes verna), for example, there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers: blue or magenta. Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all: color or white. When a plant has two copies of this white allele, its flowers are white - regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles. This interaction between genes is called epistasis, with the second gene epistatic to the first.
Many traits are not discrete features (eg. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (eg. human height and skin color). These complex traits are the product of many genes. The influence of these genes is mediated, to varying degrees, by the environment an organism has experienced. The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability. Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative - in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait. For example, human height is a complex trait with a heritability of 89% in the United States. In Nigeria, however, where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and health care, height has a heritability of only 62%.
Molecular basis for inheritanceEdit
DNA and chromosomesEdit
- Main article: DNA
The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain. Viruses are the only exception to this rule—sometimes viruses use the very similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material.
DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double-helix. Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand. This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.
Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA sequence, called chromosomes. In bacteria, each cell has a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotic organisms (which includes plants and animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the DNA, forming a material called chromatin; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes, repeating units of DNA wound around a core of histone proteins. The full set of hereditary material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the genome.
While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of sister chromatids, each allele inherited from a different parent.
An exception exists in the sex chromosomes, specialized chromosomes many animals have evolved that play a role in determining the sex of an organism. In humans and other mammals, the Y chromosome has very few genes and triggers the development of male sexual characteristics, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes unrelated to sex determination. Females have two copies of the X chromosome, but males have one Y and only one X chromosome - this difference in X chromosome copy numbers leads to the unusual inheritance patterns of sex-linked disorders.
- Main article: Asexual reproduction
When cells divide, their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy. This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent. Offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called clones.
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome (haploid) and double copies (diploid). Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes. Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their DNA, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes. Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes.
Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genome, a phenomenon known as transformation. These processes result in horizontal gene transfer, transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated.
- Main article: Chromosomal crossover
The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently during sexual reproduction, recombining to form new combinations of genes. Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine, however, were it not for the process of chromosomal crossover. During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes. This process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during meiosis, a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells.
The probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between them. For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated. For genes that are closer together, however, the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage - alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together. The amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear linkage map that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome.
- Main article: Genetic code
Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are chains of amino acids, and the DNA sequence of a gene (through RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific protein sequence. This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription.
This messenger RNA molecule is then used to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called translation. Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a codon, corresponds to one of the twenty possible amino acids in protein - this correspondence is called the genetic code. The flow of information is unidirectional: information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of DNA—a phenomenon Francis Crick called the central dogma of molecular biology.
The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of protein are related to their function. Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein collagen. Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.
A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a single change in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties. Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein. These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease.
Some genes are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products - these are called non-coding RNA molecules. In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (eg. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA). RNA can also have regulatory effect through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (eg. microRNA).
Nature versus nurtureEdit
Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotype—a dichotomy often referred to as "nature vs. nurture." The phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genetics with the environment. One example of this is the case of temperature-sensitive mutations. Often, a single amino acid change within the sequence of a protein does not change its behavior and interactions with other molecules, but it does destabilize the structure. In a high temperature environment, where molecules are moving more quickly and hitting each other, this results in the protein losing its structure and failing to function. In a low temperature environment, however, the protein's structure is stable and functions normally. This type of mutation is visible in the coat coloration of Siamese cats, where a mutation in an enzyme responsible for pigment production causes it to destabilize and lose function at high temperatures. The protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder—legs, ears, tail, and face—and so the cat has dark fur at its extremities.
Environment also plays a dramatic role in effects of the human genetic disease phenylketonuria. The mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, causing a toxic build-up of an intermediate molecule that, in turn, causes severe symptoms of progressive mental retardation and seizures. If someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, however, they remain normal and healthy.
- Main article: Regulation of gene expression
The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment. A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA (and translated into protein), and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell. Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to the start of genes, either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of the gene. Within the genome of Escherichia coli bacteria, for example, there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan. However, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed. The presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes—tryptophan molecules bind to the tryptophan repressor (a transcription factor), changing the repressor's structure such that the repressor binds to the genes. The tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes, thereby creating negative feedback regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process.
Differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms, where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes. All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors. As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells.
Within eukaryotes there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells. These features are called "epigenetic" because they exist "on top" of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next. Because of epigenetic features, different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties. Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of paramutation, have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance.
- Main article: Mutation
During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can have an impact on the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases. (Without proofreading error rates are a thousand-fold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.) Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure. Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.
In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).
Natural selection and evolutionEdit
- Main article: Evolution
Mutations produce organisms with different genotypes, and those differences can result in different phenotypes. Many mutations have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, and reproductive fitness. Mutations that do have an effect are often deleterious, but occasionally mutations are beneficial. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.
Population genetics research studies the distributions of these genetic differences within populations and how the distributions change over time. Changes in the frequency of an allele in a population can be influenced by natural selection, where a given allele's higher rate of survival and reproduction causes it to become more frequent in the population over time. Genetic drift can also occur, where chance events lead to random changes in allele frequency.
Over many generations, the genomes of organisms can change, resulting in the phenomenon of evolution. Mutations and the selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms that better survive their environment, a process called adaptation. New species are formed through the process of speciation, a process often caused by geographical separations that allow different populations to genetically diverge. The application of genetic principles to the study of population biology and evolution is referred to as the modern synthesis.
As sequences diverge and change during the process of evolution, these differences between sequences can be used as a molecular clock to calculate the evolutionary distance between them. Genetic comparisons are generally considered the most accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species, an improvement over the sometimes deceptive comparison of phenotypic characteristics. The evolutionary distances between species can be combined to form evolutionary trees - these trees represent the common descent and divergence of species over time, although they cannot represent the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species (known as horizontal gene transfer and most common in bacteria).
Research and technologyEdit
Model organisms and geneticsEdit
Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide range of organisms, researchers began to specialize in studying the genetics of a particular subset of organisms. The fact that significant research already existed for a given organism would encourage new researchers to choose it for further study, and so eventually a few model organisms became the basis for most genetics research. Common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of gene regulation and the involvement of genes in development and cancer.
Organisms were chosen, in part, for convenience—short generation times and easy genetic manipulation made some organisms popular genetics research tools. Widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium Escherichia coli, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the common fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), and the common house mouse (Mus musculus).
Medical genetics researchEdit
Medical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease. When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome associated with the disease. At the population level, researchers take advantage of Mendelian randomization to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a technique especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene. Once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the same gene (called an orthologous gene) in model organisms. In addition to studying genetic diseases, the increased availability of genotyping techniques has led to the field of pharmacogenetics—studying how genotype can affect drug responses.
Although it is not an inherited disease, cancer is also considered a genetic disease. The process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events. Mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide. While these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring, they can affect the behavior of cells, sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently. There are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger cell death, but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages. An internal process of natural selection occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth, creating a cancerous tumor that grows and invades various tissues of the body.
DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory. Restriction enzymes are a commonly used enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA. The use of ligation enzymes allows these fragments to be reconnected, and by ligating fragments of DNA together from different sources, researchers can create recombinant DNA. Often associated with genetically modified organisms, recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids - short circular DNA fragments with a few genes on them. By inserting plasmids into bacteria and growing those bacteria on plates of agar (to isolate clones of bacteria cells), researchers can clonally amplify the inserted fragment of DNA (a process known as molecular cloning). (Cloning can also refer to the creation of clonal organisms, through various techniques.)
DNA can also be amplified using a procedure called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). By using specific short sequences of DNA, PCR can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of DNA. Because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of DNA, PCR is also often used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences.
DNA sequencing and genomicsEdit
One of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, DNA sequencing allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments. Developed in 1977 by Frederick Sanger and coworkers, chain-termination sequencing is now routinely used to sequence DNA fragments. With this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases.
As sequencing has become less expensive and with the aid of computational tools, researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms by stitching together the sequences of many different fragments (a process called genome assembly). These technologies were used to sequence the human genome, leading to the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003. New high-throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars.
The large amount of sequences available has created the field of genomics, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms. Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data.
- Animal breeding
- Animal mate selection
- Animal strain differences
- Assortive mating
- Behavioural genetics
- Blood groups
- Family resemblance
- Genetic counselling
- Population genetics
- Genetic disorders
- Genetic engineering
- Human accelerated regions
- Hybrids (biology)
- Instinctive behaviour
- Reproductive technology
- Selective breeding
- Sexual reproduction
- Species differences
- Translocation (chromosomes)
- ↑ Genetikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus
- ↑ Genesis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus
- ↑ Online Etymology Dictionary
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 1 (Genetics and the Organism): Introduction
- ↑ Hartl D, Jones E (2005)
- ↑ Weiling F (1991). Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884. American Journal of Medical Genetics 40 (1): 1–25; discussion 26.
- ↑ Lamarck, J-B (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from Encyclopædia Britannica Online on 2008-03-16.
- ↑ Peter J. Bowler, The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergency of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989): chapters 2 & 3.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mendel, GJ (1866). Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden. Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins Brünn 4: 3–47. (in English in 1901, J. R. Hortic. Soc. 26: 1–32) English translation available online
- ↑ genetics, n., Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.
- ↑ Bateson W. Letter from William Bateson to Alan Sedgwick in 1905. The John Innes Centre. URL accessed on 2008-03-15.. Note that the letter was to an Adam Sedgwick, a zoologist at Trinity College, Cambridge, not "Alan", and not to be confused with the renown British geologist, Adam Sedgwick, who lived some time earlier.
- ↑ genetic, adj., Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.
- ↑ Bateson, W (1907). "The Progress of Genetic Research". Wilks, W (editor) Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding, London: Royal Horticultural Society.
- Initially titled the "International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding", Wilks changed the title for publication as a result of Bateson's speech.
- ↑ Moore JA (1983). Thomas Hunt Morgan—The Geneticist. American Zoologist 23 (4): 855–865.
- ↑ Sturtevant AH (1913). The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association. Journal of Experimental Biology 14: 43–59. PDF from Electronic Scholarly Publishing
- ↑ Avery OT, MacLeod CM, and McCarty M (1944). Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III. Journal of Experimental Medicine 79 (1): 137–158.35th anniversary reprint available
- ↑ Hershey AD, Chase M (1952). Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage. The Journal of General Physiology 36: 39–56.
- ↑ Judson, Horace (1979). The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology, 51–169, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
- ↑ Watson JD, Crick FHC (1953). Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. Nature 171 (4356): 737–738.
- ↑ Watson JD, Crick FHC (1953). Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Nature 171 (4361): 964–967.
- ↑ Sanger F, Nicklen S, and Coulson AR (1977). DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Nature 74 (12): 5463–5467.
- ↑ Saiki RK, Scharf S, Faloona F, Mullis KB, Horn GT, Erlich HA, Arnheim N (1985). Enzymatic Amplification of β-Globin Genomic Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia. Science 230 (4732): 1350–1354.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Human Genome Project Information. Human Genome Project. URL accessed on 2008-03-15.
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Introduction
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Mendel's experiments
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 3 (Chromosomal Basis of Heredity): Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 4 (Gene Interaction): Interactions between the alleles of one gene
- ↑ Richard W. Cheney. Genetic Notation. URL accessed on 2008-03-18.
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Human Genetics
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 4 (Gene Interaction): Gene interaction and modified dihybrid ratios
- ↑ Mayeux R (2005). Mapping the new frontier: complex genetic disorders. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 115 (6): 1404–1407.
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 25 (Quantitative Genetics): Quantifying heritability
- ↑ Luke A, Guo X, Adeyemo AA, Wilks R, Forrester T, Lowe W Jr, Comuzzie AG, Martin LJ, Zhu X, Rotimi CN, Cooper RS (2001). Heritability of obesity-related traits among Nigerians, Jamaicans and US black people. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25 (7): 1034–1041. Abstract from NCBI
- ↑ Pearson H (2006). Genetics: what is a gene?. Nature 441 (7092): 398–401.
- ↑ Prescott, L (1993). Microbiology, Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 8 (The Structure and Replication of DNA): Mechanism of DNA Replication
- ↑ Gregory SG et al. (2006). The DNA sequence and biological annotation of human chromosome 1. Nature 441: 315–321. free full text available
- ↑ Alberts et al. (2002), II.4. DNA and chromosomes: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 2 (Patterns of Inheritance): Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 7 (Gene Transfer in Bacteria and Their Viruses): Bacterial conjugation
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 7 (Gene Transfer in Bacteria and Their Viruses): Bacterial transformation
- ↑ Griffiths et al. (2000), Chapter 5 (Basic Eukaryotic Chromosome Mapping): Nature of crossing-over
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) describes a continuum of permanent birth defects caused by maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy, which includes, but is not limited to Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
Over time, as it became apparent through research and clinical experience that a range of effects (including physical, behavioral, and cognitive) could arise from prenatal alcohol exposure, the term Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders, or FASD, was developed to include Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) as well as other conditions resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure. There are a number of other subtypes with evolving nomenclature and definitions based on partial expressions of FAS, including Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (PFAS), Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND), Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARBD), and Fetal Alcohol Effect (FAE).
The term Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders is not in itself a clinical diagnosis but describes the full range of disabilities that may result from prenatal alcohol exposure. Currently, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is the only expression of prenatal alcohol exposure that is defined by the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems and assigned ICD-9 and ICD-10 diagnoses.
Since the original syndrome of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) was reported in 1973, four FASD diagnostic systems that diagnose FAS and other FASD conditions have been developed in North America:
- The Institute of Medicine's guidelines for FAS, the first system to standardize diagnoses of individuals with prenatal alcohol exposure,
- The University of Washington's "The 4-Digit Diagnostic Code," which ranks the four key features of FASD on a Likert scale of one to four and yields 256 descriptive codes that can be categorized into 22 distinct clinical categories, ranging from FAS to no findings,
- The Centers for Disease Control's "Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Guidelines for Referral and Diagnosis," which established general consensus on the diagnosis FAS in the U.S. but deferred addressing other FASD conditions, and
- Canadian guidelines for FASD diagnoses, which established criteria for diagnosing FASD in Canada and harmonized most differences between the IOM and University of Washington's systems.
Each diagnostic system requires that a complete FASD evaluation include assessment of the four key features of FASD, described below. A positive finding on all four features is required for a diagnosis of FAS, the first diagnosable condition of FASD that was discovered. However, prenatal alcohol exposure and central nervous system damage are the critical elements of the spectrum of FASD, and a positive finding in these two features is sufficient for an FASD diagnosis that is not "full-blown FAS." Diagnoses are described in a following section.
Key features of FASDEdit
Each of the key features of FASD can vary widely within one individual exposed to prenatal alcohol. While consensus exists for the definition and diagnosis of FAS across diagnostic systems, minor variations among the systems lead to differences in definitions and diagnostic cut-off criteria for other disgnoses across the FASD continuum. (The central nervous system (CNS) damage criteria particularly lack clear consensus.) A working knowledge of the key features is helpful in understanding FASD diagnoses and conditions, and each are reviewed with attention to similarities and differences across the four diagnostic systems.
In terms of FASD, growth deficiency is defined as significantly below average height, weight or both due to prenatal alcohol exposure, and can be assessed at any point in the lifespan. Growth measurements must be adjusted for parental height, gestational age (for a premature infant), and other postnatal insults (e.g., poor nutrition), although birth height and weight are the preferred measurements. Deficiencies are documented when height or weight falls at or below the 10th percentile of standardized growth charts appropriate to the patient's population.
Criteria for FASD are least specific in the IOM diagnostic system ("low birth weight..., decelerating weight not due to nutrition..., [or] disproportional low weight to height" p.4 of executive summary), while the CDC and Canadian guidelines use the 10th percentile as a cut-off to determine growth deficiency. The "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" allows for mid-range gradations in growth deficiency (between the 3rd and 10th percentiles) and severe growth deficiency at or below the 3rd percentile. Growth deficiency (at severe, moderate, or mild levels) contributes to diagnoses of FAS and PFAS, but not ARND or static encephalopathy.
Growth deficiency is ranked as follows by the "4-Digit Diagnostic Code:"
- Severe - Height and weight at or below the 3rd percentile.
- Moderate - Either height or weight at or below the 3rd percentile, but not both.
- Mild - Either height or weight or both between the 3rd and 10th percentiles.
- None - Height and weight both above the 10th percentile.
In the initial studies that discovered FAS, growth deficiency was a requirement for inclusion in the studies; thus, all the original patients with FAS had growth deficiency as an artifact of sampling characteristics used to establish criteria for the syndrome.[How to reference and link to summary or text] That is, growth deficiency is a key feature of FASD because growth deficiency was a criterion for inclusion in the original study that determined the definition of FAS. This reinforces assertions that growth deficiency and FAS facial features are less critical for understanding the disability of FASD than the neurobehavioral sequelae to the brain damage.
FAS facial featuresEdit
Refinements in diagnostic criteria since 1975 have yielded three distinctive and diagnostically significant facial features known to result from prenatal alcohol exposure and distinguishes FAS from other disorders with partially overlapping characteristics. The three FAS facial features are:
- A smooth philtrum - The divot or groove between the nose and upper lip flattens with increased prenatal alcohol exposure.
- Thin vermilion - The upper lip thins with increased prenatal alcohol exposure.
- Small palpebral fissures - Eye width shortens with increased prenatal alcohol exposure.
Measurement of FAS facial features uses criteria developed by the University of Washington. The lip and philtrum are measured by a trained physician with the Lip-Philtrum Guide, a 5-point Likert Scale with representative photographs of lip and philtrum combinations ranging from normal (ranked 1) to severe (ranked 5). Palpebral fissure length (PFL) is measured in millimeters with either calipers or a clear ruler and then compared to a PFL growth chart, also developed by the University of Washington.
All four diagnostic systems have agreed upon this method for determining FAS facial feature severity rankings. Ranking FAS facial features is complicated because the three separate facial features can be affected independently by prenatal alcohol.
Central nervous system damage Edit
Central nervous system (CNS) damage is the primary key feature of any FASD diagnosis. Prenatal alcohol exposure, a teratogen, can damage the brain across a continuum of gross to subtle impairments, depending on the amount, timing, and frequency of the exposure as well as genetic predispositions of the fetus and mother. While functional abnormalities are the behavioral and cognitive expressions of the FASD disability, CNS damage can be assessed in three areas: structural, neurological, and functional impairments.
All four diagnostic systems allow for assessment of CNS damage in these areas, but criteria vary. The IOM system requires structural or neurological impairment for a diagnosis of FAS, but also allows a "complex pattern" of functional anomalies for diagnosing PFAS and ARND. The "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" and CDC guidelines allow for a positive CNS finding in any of the three areas for any FASD diagnosis, but functional anomalies must measure at two standard deviations or worse in three or more functional domains for a diagnoses of FAS, PFAS, and ARND. The "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" also allows for an FASD diagnosis when only two functional domains are measured at two standard deviations or worse. The "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" further elaborates the degree of CNS damage according to four ranks:
- Definite - Structural impairments or neurological impairments for FAS or static encephalopathy.
- Probable - Significant dysfunction of two standard deviations or worse in three or more functional domains.
- Possible - Mild to moderate dysfunction of two standard deviations or worse in one or two functional domains or by judgment of the clinical evaluation team that CNS damage cannot be dismissed.
- Unlikely - No evidence of CNS damage.
Structural abnormalities of the brain are observable, physical damage to the brain or brain structures caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. Structural impairments may include microcephaly (small head size) of two or more standard deviations below the average, or other abnormalities in brain structure (e.g., agenesis of the corpus callosum, cerebellar hypoplasia).
Microcephaly is determined by comparing head circumference (often called occipitofrontal circumference, or OFC) to appropriate OFC growth charts. Other structural impairments must be observed through medical imaging techniques by a trained physician. Because imaging procedures are expensive and relatively inaccessible to most patients, diagnosis of FASD is not frequently made via structural impairments except for microcephaly.
When structural impairments are not observable or do not exist, neurological impairments are assessed. In the context of FASD, neurological impairments are caused by prenatal alcohol exposure which causes general neurological damage to the central nervous system (CNS), the peripheral nervous system, or the autonomic nervous system. A determination of a neurological problem must be made by a trained physician, and must not be due to a postnatal insult, such as a high fever, concussion, traumatic brain injury, etc.
All four diagnostic systems show virtual agreement on their criteria for CNS damage at the neurological level, and evidence of a CNS neurological impairment due to prenatal alcohol exposure will result in a diagnosis of FAS or PFAS, and functional impairments are highly likely.
Neurological problems are expressed as either hard signs, or diagnosable disorders, such as epilepsy or other seizure disorders, or soft signs. Soft signs are broader, nonspecific neurological impairments, or symptoms, such as impaired fine motor skills, neurosensory hearing loss, poor gait, clumsiness, poor eye-hand coordination, or sensory integration dysfunction. Many soft signs have norm-referenced criteria, while others are determined through clinical judgment.
When structural or neurological impairments are not observed, all four diagnostic systems allow CNS damage due to prenatal alcohol exposure to be assessed in terms of functional impairments. Functional impairments are deficits, problems, delays, or abnormalities due to prenatal alcohol exposure (rather than hereditary causes or postnatal insults) in observable and measurable domains related to daily functioning, often referred to as developmental disabilities. There is no consensus on a specific pattern of functional impairments due to prenatal alcohol exposure and only CDC guidelines label developmental delays as such, so criteria (and FASD diagnoses) vary somewhat across diagnostic systems.
The four diagnostic systems list various CNS domains that can qualify for functional impairment that can determine an FASD diagnosis:
- Evidence of a complex pattern of behavior or cognitive abnormalities inconsistent with developmental level in the following CNS domains - Sufficient for a PFAS or ARND diagnosis using IOM guidelines
- Performance at two or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the following CNS domains - Sufficient for an FAS, PFAS or static encephalopathy diagnosis using 4-Digit Diagnostic Code
- General cognitive deficits (e.g., IQ) at or below the 3rd percentile on standardized testing - Sufficient for an FAS diagnosis using CDC guidelines
- Performance at or below the 16th percentile on standardized testing in three or more of the following CNS domains - Sufficient for an FAS diagnosis using CDC guidelines
- Performance at two or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the following CNS domains - Sufficient for an FAS diagnosis using Canadian guidelines
Ten Brain DomainsEdit
A recent effort to standardize assessment of functional CNS damage has been suggested by an experienced FASD diagnostic team in Minnesota. The proposed framework attempts to harmonize IOM, 4-Digit Diagnostic Code, CDC, and Canadian guidelines for measuring CNS damage viz-a-viz FASD evaluations and diagnosis. The standardized approach is referred to as the Ten Brain Domains and encompasses aspects of all four diagnostic systems' recommendations for assessing CNS damage due to prenatal alcohol exposure. The framework provides clear definitions of brain dysfunction, specifies empirical data needed for accurate diagnosis, and defines intervention considerations that address the complex nature of FASD with the intention to avoid common secondary disabilities.
The proposed Ten Brain Domains include:
- Achievement, adaptive behavior, attention, cognition, executive functioning, language, memory, motor skills, sensory integration or soft neurological problems, social communication
The Fetal Alcohol Diagnostic Program (FADP) uses unpublished Minnesota state criteria of performance at 1.5 or more standard deviations on standardized testing in three or more of the Ten Brain Domains to determine CNS damage. However, the Ten Brain Domains are easily incorporated into any of the four diagnostic systems' CNS damage criteria, as the framework only proposes the domains, rather than the cut-off criteria for FASD.
Prenatal alcohol exposureEdit
Prenatal alcohol exposure is determined by interview of the biological mother or other family members knowledgeable of the mother's alcohol use during the pregnancy (if available), prenatal health records (if available), and review of available birth records, court records (if applicable), chemical dependency treatment records (if applicable), or other reliable sources.
Exposure level is assessed as Confirmed Exposure, Unknown Exposure, and Confirmed Absence of Exposure by the IOM, CDC and Canadian diagnostic systems. The "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" further distinguishes confirmed exposure as High Risk and Some Risk:
- High Risk - Confirmed use of alcohol during pregnancy known to be at high blood alcohol levels (100mg/dL or greater) delivered at least weekly in early pregnancy.
- Some Risk - Confirmed use of alcohol during pregnancy with use less than High Risk or unknown usage patterns.
- Unknown Risk - Unknown use of alcohol during pregnancy.
- No Risk - Confirmed absence of prenatal alcohol exposure.
Amount, frequency, and timing of prenatal alcohol use can dramatically impact the other three key features of FASD. While consensus exists that alcohol is a teratogen, there is no clear consensus as to what level of exposure is toxic. The CDC guidelines are silent on these elements diagnostically. The IOM and Canadian guidelines explore this further, acknowledging the importance of significant alcohol exposure from regular or heavy episodic alcohol consumption in determining, but offer no standard for diagnosis. Canadian guidelines discuss this lack of clarity and parenthetically point out that "heavy alcohol use" is defined by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism as five or more drinks per episode on five or more days during a 30 day period.
"The 4-Digit Diagnostic Code" ranking system distinguishes between levels of prenatal alcohol exposure as High Risk and Some Risk. It operationalizes high risk exposure as a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) greater than 100mg/dL delivered at least weekly in early pregnancy. This BAC level is typically reached by a 55kg female drinking six to eight beers in one sitting.
For many adopted or adult patients and children in foster care, records or other reliable sources may not be available for review. Reporting alcohol use during pregnancy can also be stigmatizing to birth mothers, especially if alcohol use is ongoing. In these cases, all diagnostic systems use an unknown prenatal alcohol exposure designation. A diagnosis of FAS is still possible with an unknown exposure level if other key features of FASD are present at clinical levels.
Confirmed absence of exposureEdit
Confirmed absence of exposure would apply to planned pregnancies in which no alcohol was used or pregnancies of women who do not use alcohol or report no use during the pregnancy. This designation is relatively rare, as most patients presenting for an FASD evaluation are at least suspected to have had a prenatal alcohol exposure due to presence of other key features of FASD.
While the four diagnostic systems essentially agree on criteria for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), there are still differences when full criteria for FAS are not met. This has resulted in differing and evolving nomenclature for other conditions across the spectrum of FASD, which may account for such a wide variety of terminology. Most individuals with deficits resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure do not express all features of FAS and fall into other FASD conditions. The Canadian guidelines recommend the assessment and descriptive approach of the "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" for each key feature of FASD and the terminology of the IOM in diagnostic categories, excepting ARBD.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or FAS is the only expression of FASD that has garnered consensus among experts to become an official ICD-9 and ICD-10 diagnosis. To make this diagnosis or determine any FASD condition, a multi-disciplinary evaluation is necessary to assess each of the four key features for assessment. Generally, a trained physician will determine growth deficiency and FAS facial features. While a qualified physician may also assess central nervous system structural abnormalities and/or neurological problems, usually central nervous system damage is determined through psychological, speech-language, and occupational therapy assessments to ascertain clinically significant impairments in three or more of the Ten Brain Domains. Prenatal alcohol exposure risk may be assessed by a qualified physician, psychologist, social worker, or chemical health counselor. These professionals work together as a team to assess and interpret data of each key feature for assessment and develop an integrative, multi-disciplinary report to diagnose FAS (or other FASD conditions) in an individual.
Other FASD diagnosesEdit
Other FASD conditions are partial expressions of FAS, and here the terminology shows less consensus across diagnostic systems, which has led to some confusion for clinicians and patients. A key point to remember is that other FASD conditions may create disabilities similar to FAS if the key area of central nervous system damage shows clinical deficits in two or more of the Ten Brain Domains. Essentially, growth deficiency and/or FAS facial features may be mild or nonexistent in other FASD conditions, but clinically significant brain damage of the central nervous system is present. In these other FASD conditions, an individual may be at greater risk for adverse outcomes because brain damage is present without associated visual cues of poor growth or the "FAS face" that might ordinarily trigger an FASD evaluation. Such individuals may be misdiagnosed with primary mental health disorders such as ADHD or Oppositional Defiance Disorder without appreciation that brain damage is the underlying cause of these disorders, which requires a different treatment paradigm than typical mental health disorders. While other FASD conditions may not yet be included as an ICD or DSM-IV-TR diagnosis, they nonetheless pose significant impairment in functional behavior because of underlying brain damage.
Partial FAS (PFAS)Edit
Previously known as Atypical FAS in the 1997 edition of the "4-Digit Diagnostic Code," patients with Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome have a confirmed history of prenatal alcohol exposure, but may lack growth deficiency or the complete facial stigmata. Central nervous system damage is present at the same level as FAS. These individuals have the same functional disabilities but "look" less like FAS.
- Growth deficiency - Growth or height may range from normal to deficient
- FAS facial features - Two or three FAS facial features present
- Central nervous system damage - Clinically significant structural, neurological, or functional impairment in three or more of the Ten Brain Domains
- Prenatal alcohol exposure - Confirmed prenatal alcohol exposure
Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND)Edit
Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND) was initially suggested by the Institute of Medicine to replace the term FAE and focus on central nervous system damage, rather than growth deficiency or FAS facial features. The Canadian guidelines also use this diagnosis and the same criteria. While the "4-Digit Diagnostic Code" includes these criteria for three of its diagnostic categories, it refers to this condition as static encephalopathy. The behavioral effects of ARND are not necessarily unique to alcohol however, so use of the term must be within the context of confirmed prenatal alcohol exposure. ARND may be gaining acceptance over the terms FAE and ARBD to describe FASD conditions with central nervous system abnormalities or behavioral or cognitive abnormalities or both due to prenatal alcohol exposure without regard to growth deficiency or FAS facial features.
- Growth deficiency - Growth or height may range from normal to minimally deficient
- FAS facial features - Minimal or no FAS facial features present
- Central nervous system damage - Clinically significant structural, neurological, or functional impairment in three or more of the Ten Brain Domains
- Prenatal alcohol exposure - Confirmed prenatal alcohol exposure
Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)Edit
This term was initially used in research studies to describe humans and animals in whom teratogenic effects were seen after confirmed prenatal alcohol exposure (or unknown exposure for humans), but without obvious physical anomalies. Smith (1981) described FAE as an "extremely important concept" to highlight the debilitating effects of brain damage, regardless of the growth or facial features. This term has fallen out of favor with clinicians because it was often regarded by the public as a less severe disability than FAS, when in fact its effects can be just as detrimental.
Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARBD)Edit
Formerly known as Possible Fetal Alcohol Effect (PFAE), Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARBD) was a term proposed as an alternative to FAE and PFAE The IOM presents ARBD as a list of congenital anomalies that are linked to maternal alcohol use but have no key features of FASD. PFAE and ARBD have fallen out of favor because these anomalies are not necessarily specific to maternal alcohol consumption and are not criteria for diagnosis of FASD. The Canadian guidelines recommend that ARBD should not be used as an umbrella term or diagnostic category for FASD.
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 Astley, S.J. (2004). Diagnostic Guide for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: The 4-Digit Diagnostic Code. Seattle: University of Washington. PDF available at FAS Diagnostic and Prevention Network. Retrieved on 2007-04-11
- ↑ Ratey, J.J. (2001). A User's Guide to the Brain: Perception, Attention, and the Four Theaters of the Brain. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-375-70107-9.
- ↑ Clarren, S.K. (2005). A thirty year journey from tragedy to hope. Foreword to Buxton, B. (2005). Damaged Angels: An Adoptive Mother Discovers the Tragic Toll of Alcohol in Pregnancy. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1550-2.
- ↑ Jones, K.L., Smith, D.W, Ulleland, C.N., Streissguth, A.P. (1973). Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet, 1, 1267-1271. PMID 4126070
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Clarren, S.K., & Smith, D.W. (1978). Fetal alcohol syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 298, 1063-1067. PMID 347295
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 Institute of Medicine (IOM), Stratton, K.R., Howe, C.J., & Battaglia, F.C. (1996). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. ISBN 0309052920
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Guidelines for Referral and Diagnosis (PDF). CDC (July 2004). Retrieved on 2007-04-11
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 Chudley A, Conry J, Cook J, et al (2005). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. CMAJ 172 (5 Suppl): S1–S21.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Clinical growth charts. National Center for Growth Statistics. Retrieved on 2007-04-10
- ↑ Jones, K.L., & Smith D.W. (1975). The fetal alcohol syndrome. Teratology, 12(1), 1-10.
- ↑ Astley, S.J., & Clarren, S.K. (1996). A case definition and photographic screening tool for the facial phenotype of fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of Pediatrics, 129(1), 33-41.
- ↑ Astley, S.J., Stachowiak, J., Clarren, S.K., & Clausen, C. (2002). Application of the fetal alcohol syndrome facial photographic screening tool in a foster care population. Journal of Pediatrics, 141(5), 712-717.
- ↑ Lip-philtrum guides. FAS Diagnostic and Prevention Network, University of Washington. Retrieved on 2007-04-10
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 FAS facial features. FAS Diagnostic and Prevention Network, University of Washington. Retrieved on 2007-04-10
- ↑ Astley, Susan. Backside of Lip-Philtrum Guides (2004) (PDF). University of Washington, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Diagnostic and Prevention Network. Retrieved on [[2007-04-11]
- ↑ West, J.R. (Ed.) (1986). Alcohol and Brain Development. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 FADP - Fetal Alcohol Diagnostic Program
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Lang, J. (2006). Ten Brain Domains: A Proposal for Functional Central Nervous System Parameters for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis and Follow-up. Journal of the FAS Institute, 4, 1-11. Can be downloaded at http://www.motherisk.org/JFAS_documents/JFAS_5012_Final_e12_6.28.6.pdf
- ↑ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Tenth special report to the U.S> Congress on alcohol and health: Highlights frfom current research. Washington, DC: The Institute.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Streissguth, A. (1997). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Guide for Families and Communities. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing. ISBN 1-55766-283-5.
- ↑ Malbin, D. (2002). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Trying Differently Rather Than Harder. Portland, OR: FASCETS, Inc. ISBN 0-9729532-0-5.
- ↑ Smith, D.W. (1981). Fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 3, 127.
- ↑ Aase, J.M., Jones, K.L., & Clarren, S.K. (1995). Do we need the term FAE? Pediatrics, 95(3), 428-430.
- ↑ Sokol, R.J., & Clarren, S.K. (1989). Guidelines for use of terminology describing the impact of prenatal alcohol on the offspring. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 13(4), 597-598.
- SAMHSA Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Center of Excellence
- U.S. Congressional Caucus on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
- NOFAS-UK
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | [
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1994,
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1981,
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13,
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286,
376,
1921,
1973,
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11,
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2005,
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1973,
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1994,
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1994,
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198,
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198,
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1080,
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1994,
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597,
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350,
918,
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1973,
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10319,
284,
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1930,
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286,
262,
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290,
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13,
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262,
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198,
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11,
475,
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13,
383,
314,
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1080,
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393,
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376,
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475,
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9021,
389,
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11,
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621,
262,
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12,
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314,
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3341,
13,
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19,
12,
19511,
270,
31549,
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6127,
1,
2252,
45482,
4999,
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3334,
19602,
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2773,
19602,
25,
198,
12,
3334,
19602,
532,
7326,
15491,
779,
286,
5548,
1141,
10241,
1900,
284,
307,
379,
1029,
2910,
5548,
2974,
357,
3064,
11296,
14,
45582,
393,
3744,
8,
6793,
379,
1551,
10273,
287,
1903,
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13,
198,
12,
2773,
19602,
532,
7326,
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779,
286,
5548,
1141,
10241,
351,
779,
1342,
621,
3334,
19602,
393,
6439,
8748,
7572,
13,
198,
12,
16185,
19602,
532,
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779,
286,
5548,
1141,
10241,
13,
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12,
1400,
19602,
532,
7326,
15491,
8889,
286,
43228,
5548,
7111,
13,
198,
31264,
11,
8373,
11,
290,
10576,
286,
43228,
5548,
779,
460,
12034,
2928,
262,
584,
1115,
1994,
3033,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
13,
2893,
11529,
7160,
326,
5548,
318,
257,
1059,
265,
6644,
11,
612,
318,
645,
1598,
11529,
355,
284,
644,
1241,
286,
7111,
318,
11422,
13,
383,
20434,
9949,
389,
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319,
777,
4847,
6689,
455,
1146,
13,
383,
314,
2662,
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5398,
9949,
7301,
428,
2252,
11,
25937,
262,
6817,
286,
2383,
5548,
7111,
422,
3218,
393,
4334,
48177,
29512,
5548,
7327,
287,
13213,
11,
475,
2897,
645,
3210,
329,
13669,
13,
5398,
9949,
2112,
428,
3092,
286,
16287,
290,
2560,
31786,
966,
503,
326,
366,
23701,
5548,
779,
1,
318,
5447,
416,
262,
2351,
5136,
319,
21051,
24221,
290,
21051,
1042,
355,
1936,
393,
517,
11758,
583,
4471,
319,
1936,
393,
517,
1528,
1141,
257,
1542,
1110,
2278,
13,
198,
1,
464,
604,
12,
19511,
270,
31549,
15132,
6127,
1,
12759,
1080,
45482,
1022,
2974,
286,
43228,
5548,
7111,
355,
3334,
19602,
290,
2773,
19602,
13,
632,
13919,
4340,
1029,
2526,
7111,
355,
257,
2910,
5548,
10368,
357,
33,
2246,
8,
3744,
621,
1802,
11296,
14,
45582,
6793,
379,
1551,
10273,
287,
1903,
10241,
13,
770,
347,
2246,
1241,
318,
6032,
4251,
416,
257,
5996,
10025,
4048,
7722,
2237,
284,
3624,
16800,
287,
530,
5586,
13,
198,
1890,
867,
8197,
393,
4044,
3871,
290,
1751,
287,
17016,
1337,
11,
4406,
393,
584,
9314,
4237,
743,
407,
307,
1695,
329,
2423,
13,
29595,
5548,
779,
1141,
10241,
460,
635,
307,
43603,
2890,
284,
4082,
12289,
11,
2592,
611,
5548,
779,
318,
7044,
13,
554,
777,
2663,
11,
477,
23584,
3341,
779,
281,
6439,
43228,
5548,
7111,
22566,
13,
317,
13669,
286,
376,
1921,
318,
991,
1744,
351,
281,
6439,
7111,
1241,
611,
584,
1994,
3033,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
389,
1944,
379,
8668,
2974,
13,
198,
18546,
15491,
8889,
286,
7111,
18378,
198,
18546,
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8889,
286,
7111,
561,
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284,
6027,
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543,
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286,
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262,
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13,
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22566,
318,
5365,
4071,
11,
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749,
3871,
17728,
329,
281,
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1921,
35,
12660,
389,
379,
1551,
9885,
284,
423,
550,
257,
43228,
5548,
7111,
2233,
284,
4931,
286,
584,
1994,
3033,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
13,
198,
3633,
262,
1440,
23584,
3341,
6986,
4236,
319,
9987,
329,
44649,
282,
21051,
27109,
357,
37,
1921,
828,
612,
389,
991,
5400,
618,
1336,
9987,
329,
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1921,
389,
407,
1138,
13,
770,
468,
8724,
287,
28742,
290,
21568,
299,
3674,
565,
1300,
329,
584,
3403,
1973,
262,
10958,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
11,
543,
743,
1848,
329,
884,
257,
3094,
4996,
286,
29191,
13,
4042,
3925,
351,
22729,
7186,
422,
43228,
5548,
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4911,
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1921,
290,
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656,
584,
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1921,
35,
3403,
13,
383,
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9949,
4313,
262,
8922,
290,
35644,
3164,
286,
262,
366,
19,
12,
19511,
270,
31549,
15132,
6127,
1,
329,
1123,
1994,
3895,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
290,
262,
29191,
286,
262,
314,
2662,
287,
23584,
9376,
11,
2845,
278,
5923,
14529,
13,
198,
37,
316,
282,
21051,
27109,
393,
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1921,
318,
262,
691,
5408,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
326,
468,
29588,
11529,
1871,
6154,
284,
1716,
281,
1743,
314,
8610,
12,
24,
290,
314,
8610,
12,
940,
13669,
13,
1675,
787,
428,
13669,
393,
5004,
597,
376,
1921,
35,
4006,
11,
257,
5021,
12,
40625,
12660,
318,
3306,
284,
4659,
1123,
286,
262,
1440,
1994,
3033,
329,
8922,
13,
23904,
11,
257,
8776,
14325,
481,
5004,
3349,
23580,
290,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
13,
2893,
257,
10617,
14325,
743,
635,
4659,
4318,
10927,
1080,
13204,
34615,
290,
14,
273,
30232,
2761,
11,
3221,
4318,
10927,
1080,
2465,
318,
5295,
832,
10590,
11,
4046,
12,
16129,
11,
290,
34266,
9102,
21837,
284,
35520,
36688,
2383,
17253,
902,
287,
1115,
393,
517,
286,
262,
9368,
14842,
9666,
1299,
13,
350,
918,
10254,
5548,
7111,
2526,
743,
307,
15276,
416,
257,
10617,
14325,
11,
23540,
11,
1919,
8383,
11,
393,
5931,
1535,
31928,
13,
2312,
11153,
670,
1978,
355,
257,
1074,
284,
4659,
290,
6179,
1366,
286,
1123,
1994,
3895,
329,
8922,
290,
1205,
281,
4132,
13260,
11,
5021,
12,
40625,
989,
284,
37489,
376,
1921,
357,
273,
584,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
8,
287,
281,
1981,
13,
198,
6395,
376,
1921,
35,
40567,
18378,
198,
6395,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
389,
13027,
14700,
286,
376,
1921,
11,
290,
994,
262,
29191,
2523,
1342,
11529,
1973,
23584,
3341,
11,
543,
468,
2957,
284,
617,
10802,
329,
41883,
290,
3871,
13,
317,
1994,
966,
284,
3505,
318,
326,
584,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
743,
2251,
19358,
2092,
284,
376,
1921,
611,
262,
1994,
1989,
286,
4318,
10927,
1080,
2465,
2523,
8668,
22729,
287,
734,
393,
517,
286,
262,
9368,
14842,
9666,
1299,
13,
34039,
11,
3349,
23580,
290,
14,
273,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
743,
307,
11607,
393,
42601,
287,
584,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
11,
475,
36688,
2383,
3632,
2465,
286,
262,
4318,
10927,
1080,
318,
1944,
13,
554,
777,
584,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
11,
281,
1981,
743,
307,
379,
3744,
2526,
329,
12681,
10906,
780,
3632,
2465,
318,
1944,
1231,
3917,
5874,
25288,
286,
3595,
3349,
393,
262,
366,
37,
1921,
1986,
1,
326,
1244,
43605,
7616,
281,
376,
1921,
35,
12660,
13,
8013,
3925,
743,
307,
2984,
47356,
1335,
351,
4165,
5110,
1535,
11916,
884,
355,
22822,
393,
9385,
418,
1859,
2896,
3610,
31162,
1231,
19163,
326,
3632,
2465,
318,
262,
10238,
2728,
286,
777,
11916,
11,
543,
4433,
257,
1180,
3513,
23457,
621,
7226,
5110,
1535,
11916,
13,
2893,
584,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
743,
407,
1865,
307,
3017,
355,
281,
314,
8610,
393,
37297,
12,
3824,
12,
5446,
13669,
11,
484,
19018,
12705,
2383,
23992,
287,
10345,
4069,
780,
286,
10238,
3632,
2465,
13,
198,
7841,
498,
376,
1921,
357,
42668,
1921,
8,
18378,
198,
36837,
1900,
355,
317,
28004,
605,
376,
1921,
287,
262,
8309,
8313,
286,
262,
366,
19,
12,
19511,
270,
31549,
15132,
6127,
553,
3871,
351,
43689,
44649,
282,
21051,
27109,
423,
257,
4999,
2106,
286,
43228,
5548,
7111,
11,
475,
743,
3092,
3349,
23580,
393,
262,
1844,
16324,
336,
17225,
1045,
13,
5694,
10927,
1080,
2465,
318,
1944,
379,
262,
976,
1241,
355,
376,
1921,
13,
2312,
3925,
423,
262,
976,
10345,
19358,
475,
366,
5460,
1,
1342,
588,
376,
1921,
13,
198,
12,
19045,
23580,
532,
19045,
393,
6001,
743,
2837,
422,
3487,
284,
40043,
198,
12,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
532,
4930,
393,
1115,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
1944,
198,
12,
5694,
10927,
1080,
2465,
532,
11834,
1146,
2383,
13204,
11,
30232,
11,
393,
10345,
23992,
287,
1115,
393,
517,
286,
262,
9368,
14842,
9666,
1299,
198,
12,
350,
918,
10254,
5548,
7111,
532,
7326,
15491,
43228,
5548,
7111,
198,
2348,
4857,
12,
9819,
13782,
31267,
282,
31162,
357,
1503,
8575,
8,
18378,
198,
2348,
4857,
12,
9819,
13782,
31267,
282,
31162,
357,
1503,
8575,
8,
373,
7317,
5220,
416,
262,
5136,
286,
11558,
284,
6330,
262,
3381,
9677,
36,
290,
2962,
319,
4318,
10927,
1080,
2465,
11,
2138,
621,
3349,
23580,
393,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
13,
383,
5398,
9949,
635,
779,
428,
13669,
290,
262,
976,
9987,
13,
2893,
262,
366,
19,
12,
19511,
270,
31549,
15132,
6127,
1,
3407,
777,
9987,
329,
1115,
286,
663,
23584,
9376,
11,
340,
10229,
284,
428,
4006,
355,
9037,
551,
43996,
27189,
13,
383,
17211,
3048,
286,
5923,
8575,
389,
407,
6646,
3748,
284,
5548,
2158,
11,
523,
779,
286,
262,
3381,
1276,
307,
1626,
262,
4732,
286,
4999,
43228,
5548,
7111,
13,
5923,
8575,
743,
307,
13977,
13427,
625,
262,
2846,
9677,
36,
290,
5923,
14529,
284,
6901,
376,
1921,
35,
3403,
351,
4318,
10927,
1080,
34615,
393,
17211,
393,
10870,
34615,
393,
1111,
2233,
284,
43228,
5548,
7111,
1231,
2754,
284,
3349,
23580,
393,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
13,
198,
12,
19045,
23580,
532,
19045,
393,
6001,
743,
2837,
422,
3487,
284,
10356,
453,
40043,
198,
12,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
532,
1855,
4402,
393,
645,
376,
1921,
16324,
3033,
1944,
198,
12,
5694,
10927,
1080,
2465,
532,
11834,
1146,
2383,
13204,
11,
30232,
11,
393,
10345,
23992,
287,
1115,
393,
517,
286,
262,
9368,
14842,
9666,
1299,
198,
12,
350,
918,
10254,
5548,
7111,
532,
7326,
15491,
43228,
5548,
7111,
198,
37,
316,
282,
21051,
17417,
357,
7708,
36,
8,
18378,
198,
1212,
3381,
373,
7317,
973,
287,
2267,
3640,
284,
6901,
5384,
290,
4695,
287,
4150,
1059,
265,
15147,
3048,
547,
1775,
706,
4999,
43228,
5548,
7111,
357,
273,
6439,
7111,
329,
5384,
828,
475,
1231,
3489,
3518,
35907,
13,
4176,
357,
35411,
8,
3417,
9677,
36,
355,
281,
366,
41073,
1593,
3721,
1,
284,
7238,
262,
41378,
3048,
286,
3632,
2465,
11,
7692,
286,
262,
3349,
393,
16324,
3033,
13,
770,
3381,
468,
9292,
503,
286,
2661,
351,
41883,
780,
340,
373,
1690,
11987,
416,
262,
1171,
355,
257,
1342,
6049,
14013,
621,
376,
1921,
11,
618,
287,
1109,
663,
3048,
460,
307,
655,
355,
29417,
13,
198,
2348,
4857,
12,
9819,
17647,
2896,
478,
82,
357,
1503,
14529,
8,
18378,
198,
14282,
306,
1900,
355,
33671,
44649,
282,
21051,
7896,
357,
47,
7708,
36,
828,
21051,
12,
9819,
17647,
2896,
478,
82,
357,
1503,
14529,
8,
373,
257,
3381,
5150,
355,
281,
5559,
284,
9677,
36,
290,
350,
7708,
36,
383,
314,
2662,
10969,
5923,
14529,
355,
257,
1351,
286,
41174,
1287,
35907,
326,
389,
6692,
284,
22160,
5548,
779,
475,
423,
645,
1994,
3033,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
13,
350,
7708,
36,
290,
5923,
14529,
423,
9292,
503,
286,
2661,
780,
777,
35907,
389,
407,
6646,
2176,
284,
22160,
5548,
7327,
290,
389,
407,
9987,
329,
13669,
286,
376,
1921,
35,
13,
383,
5398,
9949,
4313,
326,
5923,
14529,
815,
407,
307,
973,
355,
281,
25510,
3381,
393,
23584,
6536,
329,
376,
1921,
35,
13,
198,
12,
24935,
352,
13,
405,
352,
13,
486,
352,
13,
2999,
352,
13,
3070,
352,
13,
3023,
352,
13,
2713,
352,
13,
3312,
352,
13,
2998,
352,
13,
2919,
352,
13,
2931,
352,
13,
940,
352,
13,
1157,
352,
13,
1065,
352,
13,
1485,
352,
13,
1415,
352,
13,
1314,
8304,
1636,
11,
311,
13,
41,
13,
357,
15724,
737,
31549,
15132,
10005,
329,
44649,
282,
21051,
27217,
37966,
25,
383,
604,
12,
19511,
270,
31549,
15132,
6127,
13,
7312,
25,
2059,
286,
2669,
13,
12960,
1695,
379,
376,
1921,
31549,
15132,
290,
18313,
7311,
13,
43024,
319,
4343,
12,
3023,
12,
1157,
198,
12,
24935,
14806,
88,
11,
449,
13,
41,
13,
357,
14585,
737,
317,
11787,
338,
10005,
284,
262,
14842,
25,
35802,
11,
47406,
11,
290,
262,
6675,
383,
8605,
286,
262,
14842,
13,
968,
1971,
25,
34057,
13661,
13,
32429,
657,
12,
22318,
12,
41583,
2998,
12,
24,
13,
198,
12,
24935,
15420,
918,
11,
311,
13,
42,
13,
357,
14315,
737,
317,
12277,
614,
7002,
422,
13574,
284,
2911,
13,
4558,
4775,
284,
9842,
22874,
11,
347,
13,
357,
14315,
737,
5245,
1886,
17654,
25,
1052,
1215,
8738,
425,
10584,
19718,
690,
262,
833,
9083,
44786,
286,
21051,
287,
350,
39982,
13,
968,
1971,
25,
21298,
1222,
7037,
69,
13,
32429,
657,
12,
3695,
3134,
12,
1314,
1120,
12,
17,
13,
198,
12,
24935,
5437,
11,
509,
13,
43,
1539,
4176,
11,
360,
13,
54,
11,
16322,
293,
1044,
11,
327,
13,
45,
1539,
9737,
747,
70,
1071,
11,
317,
13,
47,
13,
357,
40220,
737,
23939,
286,
6428,
1161,
287,
20791,
286,
10726,
26016,
12289,
13,
45122,
11,
352,
11,
1105,
3134,
12,
1065,
4869,
13,
3122,
2389,
42215,
1899,
2154,
198,
12,
24935,
642,
13,
15,
642,
13,
16,
642,
13,
17,
15420,
918,
11,
311,
13,
42,
1539,
1222,
4176,
11,
360,
13,
54,
13,
357,
37950,
737,
44649,
282,
5548,
14027,
13,
968,
4492,
4913,
286,
11558,
11,
37576,
11,
838,
5066,
12,
940,
3134,
13,
3122,
2389,
43292,
25710,
198,
12,
24935,
718,
13,
405,
718,
13,
486,
718,
13,
2999,
718,
13,
3070,
718,
13,
3023,
718,
13,
2713,
718,
13,
3312,
718,
13,
2998,
718,
13,
2919,
718,
13,
2931,
718,
13,
940,
718,
13,
1157,
718,
13,
1065,
718,
13,
1485,
718,
13,
1415,
718,
13,
1314,
5136,
286,
11558,
357,
40,
2662,
828,
4285,
38680,
11,
509,
13,
49,
1539,
38320,
11,
327,
13,
41,
1539,
1222,
12350,
363,
24660,
11,
376,
13,
34,
13,
357,
22288,
737,
44649,
282,
21051,
27109,
25,
31549,
5958,
11,
38437,
12371,
11,
18313,
11,
290,
21415,
13,
2669,
11,
6257,
25,
2351,
8581,
4332,
13,
32429,
657,
26895,
2713,
1959,
1238,
198,
12,
24935,
767,
13,
15,
767,
13,
16,
767,
13,
17,
767,
13,
18,
767,
13,
19,
767,
13,
20,
767,
13,
21,
767,
13,
22,
767,
13,
23,
767,
13,
24,
44649,
282,
21051,
27109,
25,
31072,
329,
33973,
1373,
290,
31549,
5958,
357,
20456,
737,
20434,
357,
16157,
5472,
737,
43024,
319,
4343,
12,
3023,
12,
1157,
198,
12,
24935,
807,
13,
15,
807,
13,
16,
807,
13,
17,
807,
13,
18,
807,
13,
19,
807,
13,
20,
807,
13,
21,
807,
13,
22,
609,
463,
1636,
317,
11,
1482,
563,
449,
11,
8261,
449,
11,
2123,
435,
357,
14315,
737,
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282,
5548,
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8967,
25,
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9949,
329,
13669,
13,
327,
5673,
41,
23120,
357,
20,
8105,
75,
2599,
311,
16,
1906,
50,
2481,
13,
198,
12,
24935,
860,
13,
15,
860,
13,
16,
860,
13,
17,
860,
13,
18,
21234,
3349,
15907,
13,
2351,
3337,
329,
19045,
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43024,
319,
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12,
3023,
12,
940,
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24935,
5437,
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509,
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43,
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360,
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54,
13,
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38449,
737,
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27652,
5548,
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3813,
265,
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287,
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1337,
3265,
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4913,
286,
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25500,
7,
20,
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767,
1065,
12,
22,
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198,
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24935,
24701,
12,
746,
19438,
388,
17555,
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1921,
31549,
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290,
18313,
7311,
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2059,
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43024,
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3023,
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24935,
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13,
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17,
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3033,
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31549,
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7311,
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3023,
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24935,
8304,
1636,
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14919,
13,
5157,
1589,
286,
24701,
12,
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2213,
388,
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15724,
8,
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12726,
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2688,
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449,
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49,
13,
357,
7407,
2014,
357,
28054,
737,
21051,
290,
14842,
7712,
13,
968,
1971,
25,
13643,
2059,
4332,
13,
198,
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] | 6,056 |
Linguistik-Klassifikation: Grammatikforschung / Grammar research
Grammatical relations typology
- Traditionally, the term "grammatical relation" (GR) refers to the morphosyntactic properties that relate an argument to a clause, as, for example, its subject or its object. Alternative terms are "syntactic function" or "syntactic role", and they highlight the fact that GRs are defined by the way in which arguments are integrated syntactically into a clause, i.e. by functioning as subject, object etc. Whatever terminology one prefers, what is crucial about the traditional notion of GRs is (a) that they are identified by syntactic properties, and (b) that they relate an argument to the clause. | [
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] | 166 |
asa - interpret carriage-control characters
asa [file ...]
The asa utility will write its input files to standard output, mapping carriage-control characters from the text files to line-printer control sequences in an implementation-dependent manner.
The first character of every line will be removed from the input, and the following actions will be performed:
If the character removed is:
- The rest of the line will be output without change.
- A newline character will be output, then the rest of the input line.
- One or more implementation-dependent characters that causes an advance to the next page will be output, followed by the rest of the input line.
- The newline character of the previous line will be replaced with one or more implementation-dependent characters that causes printing to return to column position 1, followed by the rest of the input line. If the "+" is the first character in the input, it will have the same effect as the space character.
The action of the asa utility is unspecified upon encountering any character other than those listed above as the first character in a line.
- A pathname of a text file used for input. If no file operands are specified, the standard input will be used.
The standard input will be used only if no file operands are specified. See the INPUT FILES section.
The input files must be text files.
The following environment variables affect the execution of asa:
- Provide a default value for the internationalisation variables that are unset or null. If LANG is unset or null, the corresponding value from the implementation-dependent default locale will be used. If any of the internationalisation variables contains an invalid setting, the utility will behave as if none of the variables had been defined.
- If set to a non-empty string value, override the values of all the other internationalisation variables.
- Determine the locale for the interpretation of sequences of bytes of text data as characters (for example, single- as opposed to multi-byte characters in arguments and input files).
- Determine the locale that should be used to affect the format and contents of diagnostic messages written to standard error.
- Determine the location of message catalogues for the processing of LC_MESSAGES .
The standard output will be the text from the input file modified as described in the DESCRIPTION section.
The following exit values are returned:
- All input files were output successfully.
- An error occurred.
The following command:permits the viewing of file (created by a program using FORTRAN-style carriage control characters) on a terminal.
The following command:formats the FORTRAN output of a.out and directs it to the printer.
a.out | asa | lp | [
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] | 583 |
The CPSC and the FDA came together yesterday to issue a warning to parents and caregivers to stop using infant sleep positioners immediately as two recent deaths underscore concerns about suffocation.
You may remember the recent recall of the Nap Nanny. Well, now the CPSC is issuing a general warning with regard to sleep positioners after reviewing reports of 12 known infant deaths associated with the products which have occurred over the past 13 years. Most of the infants suffocated after rolling from a side to a stomach position. In addition to the 12 reported deaths, the CPSC has received dozens of reports of infants who were placed on their backs or sides in sleep positioners, only to be found later in potentially hazardous positions within or next to the sleep positioners.
The most common types of sleep positioners are:
- sleeping bolsters, usually a flat or inclined mat with round or triangular cushions on each side of a baby (see Figure 1) and
- wedge-style positioners, which elevate a baby’s head higher than its body, sometimes by placing the infant in an attached, diaper-like sling (see Figure 2).
With bolster-style positioners, if a baby is placed on its stomach or if a baby rolls from its side to its stomach, his or her mouth and nose can become pressed against a bolster or other parts of the device. Even if placed on its back, a baby may move upward or downward in the positioner, entrapping its face against a bolster or becoming trapped between the positioner and the crib side or bassinet.
A baby placed on a wedge-style positioner can scoot upward so that its head falls off and hangs over the high edge of the positioner, or the baby may scoot or roll down the wedge so that its mouth and nose are pressed into the positioner. The baby’s movement may also cause the positioner to flip on top of the baby, trapping the baby underneath the positioner or between the positioner and the side of the crib.
Many of these devices have been marketed with medical claims that they reduce the risk of SIDS by keeping a child on their back, help with food digestion and reflux (GERD), ease colic, and/or prevent flat head syndrome. However, the FDA and the CPSC have stated that there is currently no scientific evidence supporting these claims and they believe that any benefit from using these devices is outweighed by the risk of suffocation.
The FDA, which has jurisdiction over products making medical claims, is now contacting all manufacturers of infant sleep positioners, including those it had previously cleared with medical claims, and requesting that they stop marketing them until they submit scientific data showing that the benefits of their products outweigh the risk of suffocation or other serious harm. The FDA has also indicated it will be contacting retailers to ask them to stop selling the devices.
The FDA and CPSC warn parents, caregivers, and healthcare professionals to take this warning seriously and follow these recommendations:
(1) STOP using infant sleep positioners. Using a device to hold an infant in a particular position is dangerous and unnecessary.
(2) NEVER put pillows, infant sleep positioners, comforters, or quilts under the baby or in the crib.
(3) ALWAYS place an infant to sleep on his/her back, and not their sides, at night and during nap time.
FDA pediatric expert Susan Cummins, M.D., M.P.H., says, “The safest crib is a bare crib,” and summarizes the above recommendations with the “ABCs of safe sleep—Alone on the Back in a Bare Crib.”
If you enjoy reading PureBebe, please tell your friends and click on “Sign me up!” under “Email Subscription” on the right rail of the screen. By subscribing to our emails, you are telling us that you dig our site and want to read more of our healthy baby news and topics!
Other recent recalls:
Similac Baby Formula Recalled
Nap Nanny® Recall: What you Should Know
CPSC Vote to Issue Safety Standards that will Eliminate Drop-Side Cribs
Massive Crib Recall Announced: What You Should Know
Double Check your Children’s Medicine
To subscribe to recall announcements and product safety alerts from the CPSC, click here. | [
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The Kaveri River also spelled Cauvery in English, is one of the major rivers of India, which is considered sacred by Hindus. The origin of the river is traditionally placed at Talakaveri, Kodagu district in the Western Ghats in the state of Karnataka, flows generally south and east through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and across the southern Deccan plateau through the southeastern lowlands, emptying into the Bay of Bengal through two principal mouths.
The river is considered to rise at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri hills in Kodagu, though there is not a flow at this point all year round. The river Kaveri – one of the seven sacred rivers (sapta sindhu) of India – is one of the most important rivers in south India.
Just as the monsoon was breaking, we visited Anandadhama Retreat near Sangama on the banks of river Cauvery, amidst virgin Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary and in the vicinity of renowned Shantidhama -- a unique gurukul (an ancient way to schooling).
The monsoon skies and the moods of the river are to be seen to be believed! | [
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Mexico - Messico
Photo by Eddie Adams
"Anger is energy, it’s a force. If an act of injustice doesn’t provoke anger in me, it could be seen as indifference, passivity. It’s injustice that motivates us to do something, to take risks, knowing that if we don’t, things will remain the same."
One of the foremost human rights attorneys in Mexico, Digna Ochoa was also a nun. As defense attorney at PRODH (Centro de Derechos Humanos Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez, known as Centro Pro, or "the Pro"), Ochoa took on some of Mexico’s most politically charged cases, including the defense of alleged members of the Zapatista insurgency in Chiapas. She won acquittals in several highly publicized cases. In many cases, Ochoa’s clients were subjected to torture and due process violations. Ochoa herself was threatened with death, abducted, and subjected to extensive harassment. Just a few weeks after she was interviewed for the book, Speak Truth to Power, two men assaulted her in her own apartment. They blindfolded her, tied her up, interrogated her, threatened her, and pressured her to sign a statement. They cut her phone line, and opened a gas valve in a closed room.
Miraculously, she survived. Her attackers left stolen files during an attack a few months earlier, while the next day PRODH staff found their offices had been broken into and ransacked. Nevertheless, Ochoa went right back to work at the Pro. In recent years human rights advocates, government investigators, and opposition leaders have been murdered in Mexico. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has required the Mexican government to take steps to assure the safety of PRODH staff in the wake of this pattern of persecution against the organization. On October 19, 2001, however, Digna Ochoa was found shot dead at her office in Mexico City. Her killers also left a death threat against other members of PRODH. Mexican Special Prosecutor Margarita Guerra, who led an inquiry into the violent death of internationally recognized advocate then stunned the human rights community in 2003 by disparaging the activist’s human rights work, discounting any motive for her to have been targeted for murder, and concluding that her death was probably a suicide. This troubling pronouncement further emphasized the deplorable state of the Mexican justice system that Ms. Ochoa worked so tirelessly to reform. Digna Ochoa was killed because of her human rights work. She and other members of the PRODH have worked on cases of torture and other serious human rights violations in which Mexican officials have been implicated. As a result, these defenders of human rights have been the target of many threats and attacks
Digna Ochoa was posthumously bestowed with the Ludovic Trarieux International Human Rights Prize in 2003.
Centro de Derechos Humanos “Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez”
I am a nun, who started life as a lawyer. I sought a religious community with a social commitment, and the protection of human rights is one of the things that my particular community focuses on. They have permitted me to work with an organization that fights for human rights, called Centro Pro, supporting me economically, morally, and spiritually. This has been a process of building a life project, from a social commitment to a spiritual one with a mystical aspect.
My father was a union leader in Veracruz, Mexico. In the sugar factory where he worked, he was involved in the struggles for potable water, roads, and securing land certificates. I studied law because I was always hearing that my father and his friends needed more lawyers. And all the lawyers charged so much. My father was unjustly jailed for one year and fifteen days. He then disappeared and was tortured—the charges against him were fabricated. This led to my determination to do something for those suffering injustice, because I saw it in my father's flesh.
When I first studied law, I intended to begin practicing in the attorney general’s office, then become a judge, then a magistrate. I thought someone from those positions could help people. After I got my degree, I became a prosecutor. I remember a very clear issue of injustice. My boss, who was responsible for all of the prosecutions within the attorney general’s office, wanted me to charge someone whom I knew to be innocent. There was no evidence, but my boss tried to make me prosecute him. I refused, and he prosecuted the case himself.
Up until that time, I was doing well. The job was considered a good one, because it was in a coffee-producing area and the people there had lots of money. But I realized that I was doing the same thing that everyone did, serving a system that I myself criticized and against which I had wanted to fight. I decided to quit and with several other lawyers opened an office. I had no litigation experience whatsoever. But I was energized by leaving the attorney general’s office and being on the other side, the side of the defense.
The first case I worked on was against judicial police officers who had been involved in the illegal detention and torture of several peasants. We wanted to feel like lawyers, so we threw ourselves into it. Our mistake was to take on the case without any institutional support. I had managed to obtain substantial evidence against the police, so they started to harass me incessantly, until I was detained. First, they sent telephone messages telling me to drop the case. Then by mail came threats that if I didn’t drop it I would die, or members of my family would be killed. I kept working and we even publicly reported what was happening. The intimidation made me so angry that I was motivated to work even harder. I was frightened, too, but felt I couldn’t show it. I always had to appear—at least publicly—as if I was sure of myself, fearless. If I showed fear they would know how to dominate me. It was a defense mechanism.
Then, I was kidnapped and held incommunicado for eight days by the police. They wanted me to give them all the evidence against them. I had hidden the case file well, not in my office, not in my house, and not where the victims lived, because I was afraid that the police would steal it. Now, I felt in the flesh what my father had felt, what other people had suffered. The police told me that they were holding members of my family, and named them. The worst was when they said they were holding my father. I knew what my father had suffered, and I didn’t want him to relive that. The strongest torture is psychological. Though they also gave me electric shocks and put mineral water up my nose, nothing compared to the psychological torture.
There was a month of torture. I managed to escape from where they were holding me. I hid for a month after that, unable to communicate with my family. It was a month of anguish and torture, of not knowing what to do. I was afraid of everything.
I eventually got in touch with my family. Students at the university, with whom I had always gotten along very well, had mobilized on my behalf. After I "appeared" with the help of my family and human rights groups in Jalapa, Veracruz, I was supported by lawyers, most of whom were women. The fact that I was in Veracruz caused my family anguish. At first I wanted to stay, because I knew we could find the police who detained me. We filed a criminal complaint. We asked for the police registries. I could clearly identify some of the officers. But there was a lot of pressure about what I should do: continue or not with the case? My life was at risk, and so were the lives of members of my family. After a month of anguish, my family, principally my sisters, asked me to leave Jalapa for a while. For me, but also for my parents.
I came to Mexico City. The idea was to take a three-month human rights course for which I had received a scholarship. I met someone at the human rights course who worked at Centro Pro, one of the human rights groups involved on my behalf. One day he said, "Look, we’re just setting up the center and we need a lawyer. Work with us." I had never dreamed of living in Mexico City, and I didn’t want to. But I accepted, because the conditions in Jalapa were such that I couldn’t go back. Two really good women lawyers in Jalapa with a lot of organizational support took up the defense case I had been working on. This comforted me, because I knew the case would not be dropped—I had learned the importance of having organizational backup. So I started to work with Centro Pro in December 1988. Since I began working with the organization, I’ve handled a lot of cases of people like my father and people like me. That generates anger, and that anger becomes the strength to try to do something about the problem. At work, even though I give the appearance of seriousness and resolve, I’m trembling inside. Sometimes I want to cry, but I know that I can’t, because that makes me vulnerable, disarms me.
At this time, because of what happened to me, I needed the help of a psychoanalyst, but I wasn’t ready to accept it. The director of Centro Pro prepared me to accept that support. He was a Jesuit and psychologist. For six months, I didn’t know he was a therapist. When I found out, I asked him why he hadn’t told me. "You never asked," he said. We became very close. He was my friend, my confessor, my boss, and my psychologist, too, although I also had my psychoanalyst.
The idea of a confessor came slowly to me. In Jalapa, I had been supported by some priests. When I first "appeared," the first place I was taken was a church. I felt secure there, though as a kid, I had never had much to do with priests, besides attending church. To me they were people who accepted donations, delivered sacraments, and were power brokers. It made an impression on me to see priests committed to social organizations, supporting people.
Since I’ve been at Centro Pro, we’ve gone through some tough times, like the two years of threats we received beginning in 1995. Once again it was me who was being threatened. My first reaction was to feel cold shivers. I went to the kitchen with a faxed copy of the threat and said to one of the sisters in the congregation, "Luz, we’ve received a threat, and they’re directed at me, too." And Luz responded, "Digna, this is not a death threat. This is a threat of resurrection." That gave me great sustenance. Later that day another of my lawyer colleagues, Pilar, called me to ask what security measures I was taking. She was—rightfully—worried. I told her what Luz had said and Pilar responded, "Digna, the difference is that you’re a religious person." And I realized that being a person of faith and having a community, that having a base in faith, is a source of support that others don’t have.
Now, some people said to me that my reaction was courageous. But I’ve always felt anger at the suffering of others. For me, anger is energy, it’s a force. You channel energy positively or negatively. Being sensitive to situations of injustice and the necessity of confronting difficult situations like those we see every day, we have to get angry to provoke energy and react. If an act of injustice doesn’t provoke anger in me, it could be seen as indifference, passivity. It’s injustice that motivates us to do something, to take risks, knowing that if we don’t, things will remain the same. Anger has made us confront police and soldiers. Something that I discovered is that the police and soldiers are used to their superiors shouting at them, and they’re used to being mistreated. So when they run into a woman, otherwise insignificant to them, who demands things of them and shouts at them in an authoritarian way, they are paralyzed. And we get results. I consider myself an aggressive person, and it has been difficult for me to manage that within the context of my religious education. But it does disarm authorities. I normally dress this way, in a way that my friends call monklike. That’s fine. It keeps people off guard. I give a certain mild image, but then I can, more efficiently, demand things, shout.
For example, one time there was a guy who disappeared for twenty days. We knew he was in the military hospital, and we filed habeas corpus petitions on his behalf. But the authorities simply denied having him in custody. One night we were informed that he was being held at a particular state hospital. We went the next day. They denied us access. I spent the whole morning studying the comings and goings at the hospital to see how I could get in. During a change in shifts, I slipped by the guards. When I got to the room where this person was, the nurse at the door told me I could not go in. "We are not even allowed in," she said. I told her that I would take care of myself; all I asked of her was that she take note of what I was going to do and that if they did something to me, she should call a certain number. I gave her my card. I took a deep breath, opened the door violently and yelled at the federal judicial police officers inside. I told them they had to leave, immediately, because I was the person’s lawyer and needed to speak with him. They didn’t know how to react, so they left. I had two minutes, but it was enough to explain who I was, that I had been in touch with his wife, and to get him to sign a paper proving he was in the hospital. He signed. By then the police came back, with the fierceness that usually characterizes their behavior. Their first reaction was to try to grab me. They didn’t expect me to assume an attack position—the only karate position I know, from movies, I suppose. Of course, I don’t really know karate, but they definitely thought I was going to attack. Trembling inside, I said sternly that if they laid a hand on me they’d see what would happen. And they drew back, saying, "You’re threatening us." And I replied, "Take it any way you want."
After some discussion, I left, surrounded by fifteen police officers. Meanwhile I had managed to record some interesting conversations. They referred to "the guy who was incommunicado," a term that was very important. I took the tape out and hid the cassette where I could. The police called for hospital security to come, using the argument that it wasn’t permitted to have tape recorders inside the hospital. I handed over the recorder. Then they let me go. I was afraid that they would kidnap me outside the hospital. I was alone. I took several taxis, getting out, changing, taking another, because I didn’t know if they were following me. When I arrived at Centro Pro, I could finally breathe. I could share all of my fear. If the police knew that I was terrified when they were surrounding me, they would have been able to do anything to me.
Sometimes, without planning and without being conscious of it, there is a kind of group therapy among the colleagues at Centro Pro. We show what we really feel, our fear. We cry. There’s a group of us who have suffered physically. On the other hand, my religious community has helped me manage my fear. At times of great danger, group prayer and study of the Bible and religious texts helps me. Praying is very important. Faith in God. That has been a great source of strength. And I’m not alone anymore. As a Christian, as a religious person, I call myself a follower of Christ who died on the cross for denouncing the injustices of his time. And if He had to suffer what he suffered, what then can we expect?
For years after my father was tortured, I wanted revenge. Then, when I was the torture victim, the truth is that the last thing I wanted was revenge, because I feared that it would be an unending revenge. I saw it as a chain. Three years after coming to Mexico City I remember that a person came to tell me that they had found two of the judicial police officers who tortured me. The person asked if I wanted him to get them and give them their due. At first, I did have a moment when I thought yes. But I thought about it and realized that I would simply be doing what they did. I would have no right to speak about them as I am talking about them now. I would have been one of them.
I rarely share my own experience of torture. But I remember talking to a torture victim who was very, very angry, for whom the desire for revenge was becoming destructive. I shared my own experience, and that made an impression on him. But if we don’t forgive and get over the desire for revenge, we become one of them. You can’t forget torture, but you have to learn to assimilate it. To assimilate it you need to find forgiveness. It’s a long-term, difficult, and very necessary undertaking.
If you don’t step up to those challenges, what are you doing? What meaning does your life have? It is survival. When I began to work, when I took that case in which they made me leave Jalapa, I was committed to doing something against injustice. But there was something else that motivated me, and I have to recognize it, even though it causes me shame. What motivated me as well as the commitment was the desire to win prestige as a lawyer. Thanks to the very difficult situation that I lived through, I realized what was wrong. What a shame that I had to go through that in order to discover my real commitment, the meaning of my life, the reason I’m here. In this sense, I’ve found something positive in what was a very painful experience. If I hadn’t suffered, I wouldn’t have been able to discover injustice in such depth. Maybe I wouldn’t be working in Centro Pro. Maybe I wouldn’t have entered the congregation. Maybe I wouldn’t have learned that the world is a lot bigger than the very small world that I had constructed. Thanks to a very difficult, painful experience for me and my family and my friends, my horizons were broadened. Sometimes I say to myself, "What a way for God to make you see things." But sometimes without that we aren’t capable of seeing.
Speak Truth To Power (Umbrage, 2000) | [
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514,
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766,
703,
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714,
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13,
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314,
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2119,
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3420,
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13,
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772,
3142,
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561,
1011,
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26,
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1965,
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277,
959,
66,
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3221,
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4069,
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30748,
2292,
314,
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314,
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3226,
1781,
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314,
836,
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1107,
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30748,
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475,
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4753,
1807,
314,
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284,
1368,
13,
4700,
2022,
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2641,
11,
314,
531,
26370,
306,
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319,
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67,
766,
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2282,
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366,
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8712,
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366,
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835,
345,
765,
526,
198,
3260,
617,
5114,
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314,
1364,
11,
11191,
416,
17280,
1644,
3790,
13,
11214,
314,
550,
5257,
284,
1700,
617,
3499,
10275,
13,
1119,
6412,
284,
366,
1169,
3516,
508,
373,
753,
2002,
46903,
4533,
553,
257,
3381,
326,
373,
845,
1593,
13,
314,
1718,
262,
9154,
503,
290,
24519,
262,
42812,
810,
314,
714,
13,
383,
1644,
1444,
329,
4436,
2324,
284,
1282,
11,
1262,
262,
4578,
326,
340,
2492,
447,
247,
83,
10431,
284,
423,
9154,
1700,
364,
2641,
262,
4436,
13,
314,
10158,
625,
262,
38156,
13,
3244,
484,
1309,
502,
467,
13,
314,
373,
7787,
326,
484,
561,
49679,
502,
2354,
262,
4436,
13,
314,
373,
3436,
13,
314,
1718,
1811,
45049,
11,
1972,
503,
11,
5609,
11,
2263,
1194,
11,
780,
314,
1422,
447,
247,
83,
760,
611,
484,
547,
1708,
502,
13,
1649,
314,
5284,
379,
1979,
305,
1041,
11,
314,
714,
3443,
18044,
13,
314,
714,
2648,
477,
286,
616,
3252,
13,
1002,
262,
1644,
2993,
326,
314,
373,
22144,
618,
484,
547,
7346,
502,
11,
484,
561,
423,
587,
1498,
284,
466,
1997,
284,
502,
13,
198,
15468,
11,
1231,
5410,
290,
1231,
852,
6921,
286,
340,
11,
612,
318,
257,
1611,
286,
1448,
9102,
1871,
262,
7810,
379,
1979,
305,
1041,
13,
775,
905,
644,
356,
1107,
1254,
11,
674,
3252,
13,
775,
3960,
13,
1318,
447,
247,
82,
257,
1448,
286,
514,
508,
423,
6989,
10170,
13,
1550,
262,
584,
1021,
11,
616,
4158,
2055,
468,
4193,
502,
6687,
616,
3252,
13,
1629,
1661,
286,
1049,
3514,
11,
1448,
11443,
290,
2050,
286,
262,
9111,
290,
4158,
13399,
5419,
502,
13,
1736,
8369,
318,
845,
1593,
13,
16463,
287,
1793,
13,
1320,
468,
587,
257,
1049,
2723,
286,
4202,
13,
843,
314,
447,
247,
76,
407,
3436,
7471,
13,
1081,
257,
4302,
11,
355,
257,
4158,
1048,
11,
314,
869,
3589,
257,
33040,
286,
1951,
508,
3724,
319,
262,
3272,
329,
45041,
262,
19019,
1063,
286,
465,
640,
13,
843,
611,
679,
550,
284,
8659,
644,
339,
6989,
11,
644,
788,
460,
356,
1607,
30,
198,
1890,
812,
706,
616,
2988,
373,
22485,
11,
314,
2227,
15827,
13,
3244,
11,
618,
314,
373,
262,
11543,
3117,
11,
262,
3872,
318,
326,
262,
938,
1517,
314,
2227,
373,
15827,
11,
780,
314,
15240,
326,
340,
561,
307,
281,
555,
1571,
15827,
13,
314,
2497,
340,
355,
257,
6333,
13,
7683,
812,
706,
2406,
284,
5828,
2254,
314,
3505,
326,
257,
1048,
1625,
284,
1560,
502,
326,
484,
550,
1043,
734,
286,
262,
13657,
1644,
3790,
508,
22485,
502,
13,
383,
1048,
1965,
611,
314,
2227,
683,
284,
651,
606,
290,
1577,
606,
511,
2233,
13,
1629,
717,
11,
314,
750,
423,
257,
2589,
618,
314,
1807,
3763,
13,
887,
314,
1807,
546,
340,
290,
6939,
326,
314,
561,
2391,
307,
1804,
644,
484,
750,
13,
314,
561,
423,
645,
826,
284,
2740,
546,
606,
355,
314,
716,
3375,
546,
606,
783,
13,
314,
561,
423,
587,
530,
286,
606,
13,
198,
40,
8365,
2648,
616,
898,
1998,
286,
11543,
13,
887,
314,
3505,
3375,
284,
257,
11543,
3117,
508,
373,
845,
11,
845,
7954,
11,
329,
4150,
262,
6227,
329,
15827,
373,
5033,
17656,
13,
314,
4888,
616,
898,
1998,
11,
290,
326,
925,
281,
10647,
319,
683,
13,
887,
611,
356,
836,
447,
247,
83,
20927,
290,
651,
625,
262,
6227,
329,
15827,
11,
356,
1716,
530,
286,
606,
13,
921,
460,
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247,
83,
6044,
11543,
11,
475,
345,
423,
284,
2193,
284,
36659,
378,
340,
13,
1675,
36659,
378,
340,
345,
761,
284,
1064,
26027,
13,
632,
447,
247,
82,
257,
890,
12,
4354,
11,
2408,
11,
290,
845,
3306,
25971,
13,
198,
1532,
345,
836,
447,
247,
83,
2239,
510,
284,
883,
6459,
11,
644,
389,
345,
1804,
30,
1867,
3616,
857,
534,
1204,
423,
30,
632,
318,
9441,
13,
1649,
314,
2540,
284,
670,
11,
618,
314,
1718,
326,
1339,
287,
543,
484,
925,
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2666,
28649,
32678,
11,
314,
373,
5364,
284,
1804,
1223,
1028,
21942,
13,
887,
612,
373,
1223,
2073,
326,
13338,
502,
11,
290,
314,
423,
284,
7564,
340,
11,
772,
996,
340,
5640,
502,
10195,
13,
1867,
13338,
502,
355,
880,
355,
262,
7901,
373,
262,
6227,
284,
1592,
29063,
355,
257,
6853,
13,
6930,
284,
262,
845,
2408,
3074,
326,
314,
5615,
832,
11,
314,
6939,
644,
373,
2642,
13,
1867,
257,
10195,
326,
314,
550,
284,
467,
832,
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] | 4,065 |
Training to Compete
Develop the Engine
The Player - SPECIALIZES
The players in this stage are generally around 16 - 19 years old for boys and around 15 - 18 years old for girls
Players are more likely to have committed themselves to rugby as their chief sport. They are more willing to invest a significant amount of time and energy to become successful. They are driven and are fiercely competitive with a greater capacity for all game related competencies. Players pay more attention to developing themselves as positional specialists in order to undertake their functional roles.
Players at this stage are capable of independent thinking and of taking greater responsibility while also contributing more toward problem solving.
The Coach - FACILITATES
Since players have the capacity for greater input, the role of the coach shifts towards facilitation. Allowing opportunity for opinions and problem solving is critical if players are to develop confidence and relative autonomy.
The coach will still need to employ teaching, challenging and guiding skills where appropriate. The emphasis should be on developing players’ ability to navigate rather than replicate.
The Game - OUTCOMES
The game becomes fiercely competitive with positional specialists influencing games, mini units and units well are synchronized and team play concentrates on reducing errors and maximizing success. The focus is on achieving desired outcomes with respect to attacking and defensive goals (team, unit, mini-unit). | [
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] | 275 |
Save the Clean Air Act to Fight Global Warming
Scientific consensus is clear: We must reduce the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide to 350 parts per million (ppm) or below to avoid global catastrophe. Unfortunately, pending climate legislation isn't going to get us to 350 ppm -- but the Clean Air Act could.
To reach 350 ppm, carbon pollution from the United States and other developed countries must be reduced by 45 percent or more below 1990 levels by 2020. But the Senate climate bill would reduce emissions by just 4 percent below those levels. (The House bill sets even weaker targets.) Clearly, the road map to 350 ppm won't be found in pending legislation.
Rather, the path to achieving 350 ppm must utilize the Clean Air Act, which provides indispensable tools for reducing pollution from smokestacks and other big polluters, and also requires the Environmental Protection Agency to set a science-based national pollution limit for greenhouse gases.
- Under the Act, the EPA is required to set a limit on the amount of carbon pollution that different sources, such as coal-fired power plants, oil refineries, and cement factories, may emit.
- The Act requires each new or modified source of carbon pollution to show that the proposed facility will use the best available carbon control technology before it can be built.
- Finally, the Act requires the EPA to use the best available science and set a national limit -- such as 350 ppm -- on the total amount of carbon pollution that may exist in the ambient air. EPA has not yet set that limit, and will be prevented from ever doing so if the current climate bill becomes law.
The Clean Air Act is a comprehensive system of pollution control with a proven track record of saving the public money and protecting our planet's health. It can work immediately to curb carbon pollution, either by itself or in conjunction with new climate legislation. Now, more than ever, is the time to enforce the Clean Air Act -- not to gut it. We need you to stand with us to save the Clean Air Act today.
- If you haven't yet written to your senators urging them to save the Clean Air Act, click here to send them a message now.
- Please call your senators and urge them to save the Clean Air Act -- the entire Clean Air Act. Personal calls from constituents make a big difference. Call (202) 224-3121 and ask for your senators' office, or visit https://salsa.democracyinaction.org/o/2167/getLocal.jsp to look up your senators' contact information.
- Visit your senators' district office. If you live in California, Oregon, Vermont, Nevada, or New Mexico, please join Center for Biological Diversity staff in meeting with your senators’ district office staff to save the Clean Air Act. Space is limited; to reserve a spot or get more information, contact Climate Campaign Coordinator Rose Braz at [email protected] or (415) 436-9682 x 319. And if you don't live in these areas, contact us for talking points to set up and conduct a meeting yourself.
Coal plant photo by J.C. Willett, USGS. | [
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] | 653 |
Emergency & Security
Medications, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Hepatitis
Medication in School
School personnel may assist a student to manage prescription and non-prescription medication only under the directions of a physician. Prescription medication will be accepted only in the container properly labeled by the pharmacist. This label will serve as the physician’s written instructions. The parent must fill out medication consent forms, available in the front office. Students may carry a 1-day supply of non-prescription medication with them, as long as they also carry a note from the parent specifying the name of the medication and dose to be taken. All medication requested to be administered by school personnel must be checked in with school personnel and kept in a locked cupboard. The student may carry emergency medication/inhalers with parent and physician written instruction. School personnel will accept changes in medication dosages only with the new properly labeled pharmacy container reflecting the dosage and/or time changes. Parents are responsible for transportation of medication to and from school. Parents are responsible for refilling the school’s supply of medication and keeping track of that supply. Parents are responsible for the preparation of all tablets (e.g., halving tablets). Parents are responsible for picking up all unused medication at the end of the school year.
ADHD / ADD and Medications
An increasing number of students are being diagnosed as having an attention deficit disorder and are being placed on medication by their physicians. There is still much to learn about attention disorders, and controversy about the appropriateness of prescribing medication. Our role as educators is to provide instruction, make reasonable accommodations, observe behavior and provide feedback to parents and physicians when asked. We have the responsibility of cooperating with a physician and parent when a child is placed on medication following the procedures outline in School Board Policy 5665, Administering Medication in School (see Appendix A). We do not have the training or authority to prescribe medication. Consult with district nurses, psychologists, or social workers if you have questions about ADHD / ADD.
Due to the continuing high local incidence rate of Hepatitis B, we will again follow the recommendations of the Lane County Health Department in restricting the use of home prepared foods for use at school sponsored events. Food prepared by the cafeteria staff, pre-packaged or “store bought” items, and food cleaned and cooked at school under staff supervision are acceptable to share at school. This restriction applies specifically to all school functions that include students, parents, or other members of the community. While the restrictions do not apply to events that are organized by the staff for each other, it is advisable to consider applying the same rules. Please continue to insist that students wash their hands before eating or handling food, especially after using the restroom. | [
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] | 566 |
Louis XV and science: the most beautiful instruments
Authors: Engineer: Claude-Siméon Passemant (1702-1769); Clockmaker: Louis Dauthiau (1730-1809); Sculptors and bronze artists: Jean-Jacques and Philippe Caffiéri (1725-1772)
Date: Presented to the Royal Academy of Science on 23 August 1749, presented to the king in 1750. Mechanism: 1749; bronze: 1753
Characteristics/Origins: Gilt bronze, enamel, steel, copper and glass. Versailles, musée national des châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon © château de Versailles, Christian Milet
The extraordinary astronomical clock was added to the clock cabinet in January 1754. Engineer Claude-Siméon Passemant designed the timepiece, clockmaker Louis Dauthiau crafted the mechanism and sculptors and bronze artists Jacques and Philippe II Caffiéri made the case. It shows the date, real time, average time, phases of the moon and movements of the planets according to Copernicus. A moving sphere crowns the exceptional rocaille work, which measures over two metres tall. A bronze globe features all the countries engraved with the main cities. It is amidst rocks and waterfalls serving as the universal horizon.
The Academy of Science examined and approved the clock in August 1749 before the Duc de Chaulnes presented it to Louis XV at Choisy on 7 September 1750. The king acquired it that year. It was put in the clock cabinet, attesting to Louis XV's interest in the mechanical arts and clocks; the room actually got its name because of the large astronomical clock dials in the wainscoting showing the sunrises and moonrises every day. The king's scientific interests led him to amplify that daily experience by having the Passemant clock installed in this room.
Video in French | [
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2634,
380,
925,
262,
1339,
13,
632,
2523,
262,
3128,
11,
1103,
640,
11,
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1998,
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2119,
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50256
] | [
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] | 413 |
For one AES is built for three key sizes
128, 192 or 256 bits.
Currently, brute-forcing 128 bits is not even close to feasible. Hypothetically, if an AES Key had 129 bits, it would take twice as long to brute-force a 129 bit key than a 128 bit key. This means larger keys of 192 bits and 256 bits would take much much much longer to attack. It would take so incredibly long to brute-force one of these keys that the sun would stop burning before the key was realized.
That's a big freaking number. That's how many possibly keys there are. Assuming the key is random, if you divide that by 2 then you have how many keys it will take on average to brute-force AES-256
In a sense we do have the really big cipher keys you are talking of. The whole point of a symmetric key is to make it unfeasible to brute-force. In the future, if attacking a 256bit key becomes possible then keysizes will surely increase, but that is quite a ways down the road.
The reason RSA keys are much larger than AES keys is because they are two completely different types of encryption. This means a person would not attack a RSA key the same as they would attack an AES Key.
Attacking symmetric keys is easy.
- Start with a bitstring
- Decrypt ciphertext with that bitstring.
- If you can read it, you succeeded.
- If you cannot read it then increment the bitstring
Attacking an RSA key is different...because RSA encryption/decryption works with big semi-prime numbers...the process is mathy. With RSA, you don't have to try every possible bit string. You try far fewer than
2^2048 bitstrings...but it's still not possible to bruteforce. This is why RSA and AES keys differ in size.
To sum up everything and answer your question in 1 sentence. We don't need ridiculously big symmetric keys because we already have ridiculously big symmetric keys. 256 bit encryption sounds wimpy compared to something like a 2048 bit RSA Key, but the algorithms are different and can't really be compared 'bit to bit' like that. In the future if there is a need to longer keys then there will be new algorithms developed to handle larger keys. And if we ever wanted to go bigger on current hardware, it's simply a time tradeoff. Bigger key means longer decryption time means slower communication. This is especially important for a cipher since your internet browser will establish and then use a symmetric key to send information. | [
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1994,
284,
3758,
1321,
13,
50256
] | [
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] | 540 |
Unions have been fighting the 1% vs 99% fight for more than 100 years. Now the rest of us are learning that this fight is also OUR fight.
The story of organized labor has been a story of working people banding together to confront concentrated wealth and power. Unions have been fighting to get decent wages, benefits, better working conditions, on-the-job safety and respect. Now, as the Reagan Revolution comes home to roost, taking apart the middle class, the rest of us are learning that this is our fight, too.
The story of America is a similar story to that of organized labor. The story of America is a story of We, the People banding together to fight the concentrated wealth and power of the British aristocracy. Our Declaration of Independence laid it out: we were fighting for a government that derives its powers from the consent of us, the people governed, not government by a wealthy aristocracy telling us what to do and making us work for their profit instead of for the betterment of all of us. It was the 99% vs the 1% then, and it is the 99% vs the 1% now.
We, the People
Democracy is when We, the People decide things together — collectively — for the common good of all of us. Our country originated from the idea of We, the People banding together to watch out for and protect each other, so we can all rise together for the common good, or “general welfare.” Collectively we make decisions, and the result of this collective action is decisions that work for all of us instead of just a few of us. This is the founding idea of our country.
Unions Protect The Interests Of Working People
The same is true for unions. Unions work to bring We-the-People democracy to the workplace. Like the old story about how it is harder to break a bundle of sticks than the same sticks one stick at a time, unions are organizations of working people, banding together so their collective power can confront the power of concentrated wealth. By banding together in solidarity, working people are able to say, “No, you can’t do that!,” and bargain for a better life for all of us.
Organized Labor Sets The Standard
The benefits that unions win don’t just go to the union members, they become the standard. When labor won the fight for an 8-hour day and 40-hour workweek with overtime pay, that became the standard. When labor fought for minimum wages, that became the standard, when labor fought for workplace safety, that became the standard. Labor’s fight is a fight to set the standard for the rest of us.
Labor stands up to the 1%, and uses their organized power (bundle of sticks) to win better pay, benefits and working conditions for the 99%.
“Although it is true that only about 20 percent of American workers are in unions, that 20 percent sets the standards across the board in salaries, benefits and working conditions. If you are making a decent salary in a non-union company, you owe that to the unions. One thing that corporations do not do is give out money out of the goodness of their hearts.”
– Molly Ivins.
Working people banding together to bargain with management — “collective” bargaining — is a fundamental right in the United States, but this right has eroded along with the rest of our democracy. For many years, the mechanisms of government that were supposed to enforce these rights were “captured” and instead were working against the rights of working people. Bob Borosage explains, in, The Forgotten Leading Actor In The American Dream Story,
Globalization gave manufacturers a large club in negotiations—concessions or jobs get shipped abroad. And often the reality was concessions AND jobs got shipped abroad. Corporations perfected techniques, often against the law, to crush organizing drives, and stymie new contracts for the few that succeeded. The National Labor Relations Board, stacked with corporate lobbyists under Republican presidents, turned a blind eye to systematic violations of the law.
So now union workers are down to about 7 percent of the private workforce. Virtually the only growing unions are public employees— teachers, nurses, cops. Not surprisingly, conservative Republican governors, led by Wisconsin’s Scott Walker and Ohio’s John Kasich, used the budget squeeze caused by the Great Recession to go after these unions, combining layoffs with efforts to eviscerate the right of public employees to organize and negotiate.
The Fight Is On
“Only a fool would try to deprive working men and working women of their right to join the union of their choice.”
– Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Dorian Warren, at Salon in America’s last hope: A strong labor movement, writes,
The fate of the labor movement is the fate of American democracy. Without a strong countervailing force like organized labor, corporations and wealthy elites advancing their own interests are able to exert undue influence over the political system, as we’ve seen in every major policy debate of recent years.
Yet the American labor movement is in crisis and is the weakest it’s been in 100 years. That truism has been a progressive mantra since the Clinton administration. However, union density has continued to decline from roughly 16 percent in 1995 to 11.8 percent of all workers and just 6.9 percent of workers in the private sector. Unionized workers in the public sector now make up the majority of the labor movement for the first time in history, which is precisely why — a la Wisconsin and 14 other states — they have been targeted by the right for all out destruction.
… Contrary to the intent of the 1935 National Labor Relations Act, which made it national policy to encourage and promote collective bargaining, the NLRA now provides incentives for employers to break the law routinely and ignore any compulsion to negotiate collective agreements. When there is little outrage for the daily violations of workers’ liberty (employers fire workers illegally in 1 in 3 union campaigns for attempting to exercise freedom of association), our democracy is in peril.
Restore The Middle Class
Unions brought us a middle class, and now that the power of organized labor has eroded we find ourselves in a fight to keep the middle class. Borosage again,
We emerged from World War II with unions headed towards representing about 30% of the workforce. Fierce struggles with companies were needed to ensure that workers got a fair share of the rewards of their work. Unions were strong enough that non-union employers had to compete for good workers by offering comparable wages. Unions enforced the 40-hour week, overtime pay, paid vacations, health care and pensions, and family wages. Strong unions limited excesses in corporate boardrooms, a countervailing power beyond the letter of the contract. As profits and productivity rose, wages rose as well.
When unions were weakened and reduced, all that changed. Productivity and profits continued to rise, but wages did not. The ratio of CEO pay to the average worker pay went from 40 to 1 to more than 350 to 1. CEOs were given multimillion-dollar pay incentives to cook their books and merge and purge their companies. Unions were not strong enough to police the excess. America let multinationals define its trade and manufacturing strategy, hemorrhaging good jobs to mercantilist nations like China.
The result was the wealthiest few captured literally all the rewards of growth. And 90% of America struggled to stay afloat with stagnant wages, rising prices and growing debt.
Support Bargaining Rights For Labor
We all need to understand that labor’s fight is our fight. Now that labor is under attack across the country, we need to understand that we are also under attack. As labor loses rights and power, all of our pay and benefits fall back. We need to support the rights of working people to organize into unions and bargain collectively, to fight our fight, the 99% vs the 1%. This battle right now is the whole ball game.
“To a right-winger, unions are awful. Why do right-wingers hate unions? Because collective bargaining is the power that a worker has against the corporation. Right-wingers hate that.”
– Janeane Garofalo | [
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] | 1,718 |
Winsor McCay, pioneering animator and comic strip artist, was a native of Spring Lake, Michigan. Spring Lake is also where he began his career in art. His father, Robert McCay, and mother Janet ran a grocery store in the village. While it is probable that Winsor was born in 1867 during a visit to his mother’s family in Ontario, McCay stated that he was born September 26, 1871, in Spring Lake, Michigan. He always considered Spring Lake his hometown.
In 1880, the Goodrich steamship Alpena, en route from nearby Grand Haven to Chicago, was wrecked in a terrible storm and sank to the bottom, carrying with it nearly one hundred passengers. At the age of thirteen, young Winsor drew a picture of the wreck on the blackboard of Union School, which he attended on Exchange Street. The illustration was photographed and copies were sold as postcards.
A panel from the comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland (1905-1914)
McCay’s comic strips included Little Nemo in Slumberland and Dream of the Rarebit Fiend. McCay created the very first animated cartoon in America with the release of Little Nemo in 1911 (See video link below).
Many in the animation world hail McCay today as the “Father of Animation.” As a tribute, the highest award that an animator can receive is an “Annie,” which is the Winsor McCay Award for Lifetime Achievement in Animation. When Disneyland first opened in 1955, so the story goes, Walt Disney took Robert McCay, son of Spring Lake native Winsor McCay, on a guided tour. He stopped near the end and said, “You know, this should really belong to your father.” | [
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] | 375 |
Spring in the Mountains 2008 / Spring in the Mountains trek pix-13
May 2–4, 2008
The Smokies are home to many species of land snails. Identification is possible (with practice) by examining features such as the shell spiral, overall size, and whether the opening is toothed or not. Snails are important part of the leaf litter and some species are an important source of calcium for many other animals. | [
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] | 91 |
The coral is at the mercy of natural circumstances like water quality and starfish population, but can be aided by human intervention. The first step to take will be decreasing population and CO2 emissions.
Coral cover in the Great Barrier Reef has dropped by more than half over the last 27 years, according to scientists, a result of increased storms, bleaching and predation by population explosions of a starfish which sucks away the coral’s nutrients.
At present rates of decline, the coral cover will halve again within a decade, though scientists said the reef could recover if the crown-of-thorns starfish can be brought under control and, longer term, global carbon dioxide emissions are reduced.
“This latest study provides compelling evidence that the cumulative impacts of storms, crown-of-thorns starfish (Cots) and two bleaching events have had a devastating effect on the reef over the last three decades,” said John Gunn, chief executive of the Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Coral reefs are an important part of the marine ecosystem as sources of food and as protection for young fish. They are under threat around the world from the effects of bleaching, due to rising ocean temperatures, and increasing acidification of the oceans, which reduces the corals’ ability to build their calcium carbonate structures.
The Great Barrier Reef is the most iconic coral reef in the world, listed as a Unesco world heritage site and the source of $A5bn (£3.2bn) a year to the Australian economy through tourism. The observations of its decline are based on more than 2,000 surveys of 214 reefs between 1985 and 2012. The results showed a decline in coral cover from 28% to 13.8% – an average of 0.53% a year and a total loss of 50.7% over the 27-year period. The study was published on Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences journal (subscription).
Two-thirds of the coral loss has occurred since 1998 and the rate of decline has increased in recent years, averaging around 1.45% a year since 2006. “If the trend continued, coral cover could halve again by 2022,” said Peter Doherty, a research fellow at the institute.
Tropical cyclones, predation by Cots, and bleaching accounted for 48%, 42%,and 10% of the respective estimated losses. In the past seven years the reef has been affected by six major cyclones. Cyclone Hamish, for example, ran along the reef, parallel to the coast for almost 930 miles (1,500km), leaving a trail of destruction much greater than the average cyclone, which usually crosses the reef on a path perpendicular to the coast.
The starfish problem was first recorded in 1962 at Green Island off Cairns. “When we say outbreaks, we mean explosions of Cots populations to a level where the numbers are so large that they end up eating upwards of 90% of a reef’s coral,” Gunn said. “Since 1962 there have been major outbreaks every 13-14 years.”
The evidence suggests that outbreaks of Cots start two or three years after major floods in northern rivers.
In September, scientists at the International Union for Conservation of Nature announced that Caribbean coral reefs are on the verge of collapse, with less than 10% of the reef area showing live coral cover. The collapse was due to environmental issues, including over-exploitation, pollution and climate change.
David Curnick, marine and freshwater programme co-ordinator at the Zoological Society of London, said many of the most endangered coral species around the world were also under severe pressure from the aquarium trade.
“Corals are notoriously hard to propagate in captivity and therefore the trade is still heavily dependent on harvesting from the wild.”.”
He said the results of the Great Barrier Reef survey were not surprising and the challenge for conservationists was to limit the localised threats to give reefs a chance to recover and develop resilience against the effects of climate change. “This is challenging but entirely achievable and there are many community-led projects around the world demonstrating this.”
Corals can recover if given the chance. But this is slow – in the absence of cyclones, Cots and bleaching, the Great Barrier Reef can regrow at a rate of 2.85% a year, the scientists wrote. Removing the Cots problem alone would allow coral cover to increase at 0.89% a year.
Reducing Cots means improving water quality around the rivers at the northern end of the reef to reduce agricultural run-off – high levels of nutrients flowing off the land feed and allow high survival of Cots larvae. Another option is some form of biological control of populations – Gunn said there were promising results from research on naturally occurring pathogens that could keep Cots in check, but it was not ready to be applied in the field.
He said the future of the Reef lay partly in human hands. “We can achieve better water quality, we can tackle the challenge of crown-of-thorns, and we can continue to work to ensure the resilience of the reef to climate change is enhanced. However, its future also lies with the global response to reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The coral decline revealed by this study – shocking as it is – has happened before the most severe impacts of ocean warming and acidification associated with climate change have kicked in, so we undoubtedly have more challenges ahead.” | [
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] | 1,146 |
Knowledge Under Threat in War-Torn Mali
29 Aug 12
The destruction of mausoleums and shrines in Timbuktu by Islamic militias caused international outrage and drew attention to a war that has destroyed not only monuments but also many human lives. Mali’s cultural heritage is under threat, and so is its heritage of traditional knowledge linked to agriculture and food.
Before the conflict exploded, Slow Food was working with the FAO and the Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Italian Development Cooperation) to promote traditional products from the country, and from Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Senegal. This project led to the creation of the Timbuktu and Gao Katta Pasta Presidium. The towns of Timbuktu and Gao are in the northern Azawad region, where the Tuareg and the MNLA (Mouvement National pour la Liberation de l'Azawad) are demanding independence.
Katta pasta is shaped by women from a dough made with local wheat flour, and recalls the shape of Italian trofie. Dried and toasted, it is usually eaten cooked in a sauce of dried fish, tomato, meat and spices.
Almahdi Al Ansari, the Presidium coordinator, reports: “Currently in Timbuktu the women cannot go out unless they are accompanied by a man from their family and completely veiled. The government army units were concentrated here and so the ‘pale-skinned’ population fled, fearing retribution because they were believed to support independence. Some of the Presidium’s women are now among the refugees in camps in Mauritania and Burkina Faso. The economy has stalled, agriculture has been destroyed, and no-one is sowing or harvesting.”
Almahdi does have some positive news: “A few of the darker-skinned women have remained. They are still making katta pasta, and production has increased, maybe even doubled, because the people have had to stop eating rice, which came from the south. Instead there is an abundance of flour from Algeria.”
Find out more:
Download the publications produced by Slow Food as part of the project with the FAO.
Discover the Presidium at the Salone del Gusto and Terra Madre, in Turin from October 25 to 29, 2012.
Photo: Timbuktu and Gao Katta Pasta Presidium by Paola Viesi
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] | 673 |
Tell Us Your Story
And experience the stories of others
Storytelling has been passed down from generation to generation as a way of keeping history alive. We all have our favorite stories that we enjoy hearing when friends and family gather together. What if we could continue listening to these stories anytime we wanted with a simple click? With digital storytelling, this is possible. Digital storytelling provides the technology to interview and record historical moments that may have otherwise been lost. Solano County Library has been given the opportunity to participate in a project called California of the Past. This project will ensure that the storytellers and pieces of California’s history will never be forgotten.
California of the Past is supported in whole or in part by a California State Library grant supported by the U.S. Institute of Museum & Library Services and Technology Act, administered in California by the State Librarian with services provided by Media Arts Center San Diego. For more information go to Digital Story Station - www.DigitalStoryStation.com. | [
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] | 203 |
Air Quality May Be Unhealthy for Some Through Thursday
The Ohio EPA is predicting that the air quality in Northeast Ohio will be unhealthy for some sensitive groups of people because of pollution.
Pollution in the air in Northeast Ohio may be a concern for those who have asthma, lung disease or older adults and children Wednesday, Thursday and possibly Friday this week.
The Akron Regional Air Quality Agency, the Cleveland Deptartment of Public Health and Welfare and Ohio Environmental Protection Agency are predicting the air quality will be unsafe for some sensitive groups of people through March 22.
The air quality index as of 5 p.m. March 21, was a 78, which is considered "Moderate." There are six ratings that range from "Good" to "Hazardous."
On Friday, the above organizations are predicting the quality will move from "Moderate" to "Unhealthy to Sensitive Groups."
"Unusually sensitive people should consider reducing prolonged or heavy exertion," according to a press release from AirNow. "Residents, businesses and local governments should voluntarily reduce activities that contribute to ozone air pollution. Be proactive by reducing or eliminating unnecessary motor vehicle trips, and consider carpooling or use public transportation. Consider setting your home or office air conditioning thermostat slightly higher."
The agencies that have issued the alert recommend that people wait until after 7 p.m. to do prolonged outdoor activities, like exercising and mowing the lawn.
Click here to learn more about the alert, how to reduce air pollution and more. | [
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] | 309 |
In the Free Software Movement, we believe computer users should have the freedom to change and redistribute the software that they use. The “free” in free software refers to freedom: it means users have the freedom to run, modify and redistribute the software. Free software contributes to human knowledge, while non-free software does not. Universities should therefore encourage free software for the sake of advancing human knowledge, just as they should encourage scientists and scholars to publish their work.
Alas, many university administrators have a grasping attitude towards software (and towards science); they see programs as opportunities for income, not as opportunities to contribute to human knowledge. Free software developers have been coping with this tendency for almost 20 years.
When I started developing the GNU operating system in 1984, my first step was to quit my job at MIT. I did this specifically so that the MIT licensing office would be unable to interfere with releasing GNU as free software. I had planned an approach for licensing the programs in GNU that ensures that all modified versions must be free software as well, an approach that developed into the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL), and I did not want to have to beg the MIT administration to let me use it.
Over the years, university affiliates have often come to the Free Software Foundation for advice on how to cope with administrators who see software only as something to sell. One good method, applicable even for specifically funded projects, is to base your work on an existing program that was released under the GNU GPL. Then you can tell the administrators, “We’re not allowed to release the modified version except under the GNU GPL—any other way would be copyright infringement.” After the dollar signs fade from their eyes, they will usually consent to releasing it as free software.
You can also ask your funding sponsor for help. When a group at NYU developed the GNU Ada Compiler, with funding from the U.S. Air Force, the contract explicitly called for donating the resulting code to the Free Software Foundation. Work out the arrangement with the sponsor first, then politely show the university administration that it is not open to renegotiation. They would rather have a contract to develop free software than no contract at all, so they will most likely go along.
Whatever you do, raise the issue early—certainly before the program is half finished. At this point, the university still needs you, so you can play hardball: tell the administration you will finish the program, make it usable, if they have agreed in writing to make it free software (and agreed to your choice of free software license). Otherwise you will work on it only enough to write a paper about it, and never make a version good enough to release. When the administrators know their choice is to have a free software package that brings credit to the university or nothing at all, they will usually choose the former.
Not all universities have grasping policies. The University of Texas has a policy that, by default, all software developed there is released as free software under the GNU General Public License. Univates in Brazil, and the Indian Institute of Information Technology in Hyderabad, India, both have policies in favor of releasing software under the GPL. By developing faculty support first, you may be able to institute such a policy at your university. Present the issue as one of principle: does the university have a mission to advance human knowledge, or is its sole purpose to perpetuate itself?
Whatever approach you use, it helps to have determination and adopt an ethical perspective, as we do in the Free Software Movement. To treat the public ethically, the software should be free—as in freedom—for the whole public. Many developers of free software profess narrowly practical reasons for doing so: they advocate allowing others to share and change software as an expedient for making software powerful and reliable. If those values motivate you to develop free software, well and good, and thank you for your contribution. But those values will not give you a good footing to stand firm when university administrators try to tempt you to make the program non-free.
For instance, they may argue that “We could make it even more powerful and reliable with all the money we can get.” This claim may or may not come true in the end, but it is hard to disprove in advance. They may suggest a license to offer copies “free of charge, for academic use only,” which would tell the general public they don’t deserve freedom, and argue that this will obtain the cooperation of academia, which is all (they say) you need.
If you start from “pragmatic” values, it is hard to give a good reason for rejecting these dead-end proposals, but you can do it easily if you base your stand on ethical and political values. What good is it to make a program powerful and reliable at the expense of users’ freedom? Shouldn’t freedom apply outside academia as well as within it? The answers are obvious if freedom and community are among your goals. Free software respects the users’ freedom, while non-free software negates it.
Nothing strengthens your resolve like knowing that the community’s freedom depends, in one instance, on you. | [
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This week we celebrate Congress passing the Judiciary Act of 1789 which established the Supreme Court of United States. President George Washington signed the bill into law and nominated John Jay as the Chief Justice. The whole process-passing the bill, signing the bill into law, and the nomination and approval of the justices—took two days.
This Moonday’s Heroic Hunk in History is John Jay (1745 -1829). From a wealthy New York family with Huguenot and Dutch roots, Jay was a conservative lawyer who supported a strong centralized federal government. Jay with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison wrote the Federalist Papers that helped frame the Constitution. He was an ardent supporter of the anti-slavery movement.
Jay was an American patriot, Founding Father, legislator, and diplomat. He served as a member and President of the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War, ambassador to Spain and France, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Governor of New York.
Today’s the last day of my ’Name that Character Contest’ for my contemporary fantasy short story Nimue’s Daughter. It’s a rescue from Armageddon based on the Arthurian mythology. It’s also a work in progress for Shared Whispers, the freebie anthology from Champagne authors that will be published and available for free download in January. Please visit ritabay.com and help me name my character. For more info click on the image below: | [
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Free Search (1444 videos)
IML-1: International Microgravity Laboratory
- Title IML-1: International Microgravity Laboratory
- Released 01/01/1992
- Length 00:16:05
- Language English
- Footage Type Documentary
A 16:07 minute description of Space Lab, the world's first reusable space laboratory built in Europe and launched in December 1983 and the international collaborative project IML, the International Microgravity Laboratory. Through interviews with ESA astronaut Ulf Merbold and ESA Project Scientist Claude Brillouet the video explains what microgravity is and why it is important for research in many different scientific areas including astronomy, Earth observation, biology and human physiology. Research was also carried out in the IML on the "critical point", the transitional state of certain materials such as the moment when ice changes to water. | [
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Once affordable only among the wealthy, brick homes became more easily available to the average American in the early years of the twentieth century. This book, originally published in 1920 by a member of The Common Brick Manufacturers' Association, served as a practical guide for prospective homeown... read more
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Once affordable only among the wealthy, brick homes became more easily available to the average American in the early years of the twentieth century. This book, originally published in 1920 by a member of The Common Brick Manufacturers' Association, served as a practical guide for prospective homeowners from working class families. Many soon found that attractive, durable, and comfortable homes--made from nature's own building material--were easily within their financial reach. Thirty-five sets of floor plans, elevations, and specifications in this excellent reproduction of that now-rare volume depict a wide variety of brick houses, bungalows, cottages, garages, and multi-dwelling buildings--from the four-bedroom Pocatello to the handsome Saratoga, featuring a wraparound porch and two bathrooms. This practical guide will appeal to anyone wanting to buy or renovate an existing home of the period. It will also serve as a how-to manual for all desiring to build their own homes today with authentic materials and techniques. For those who love fine, old buildings, Small Brick Houses of the Twenties offers a charming view of American homes from that era.
This book was printed in the United States of America.
Dover books are made to last a lifetime. Our US book-manufacturing partners produce the highest quality books in the world and they create jobs for our fellow citizens. Manufacturing in the United States also ensures that our books are printed in an environmentally friendly fashion, on paper sourced from responsibly managed forests. | [
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] | 639 |
Better pollution control technology needed to cut VOC emissions
By Summit Voice
FRISCO — Ongoing studies of winter ozone formation in the Uinta Basin shows the need for better pollution control technology on oil and gas drilling rigs and other equipment used for fossil fuel development.
An emissions inventory developed for the study found that oil and gas operations are responsible for 98-99 percent of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and for 57-61 percent of the nitrogen oxide emissions. VOCs and nitrogen compounds are the key ingredients for ozone-laced smog, which has been clearly identified as a human health threat.
The collaborative study led by University of Utah scientists was aimed at better understanding winter ozone formation and the scientists found that snow-covered ground, along with specific atmospheric conditions, are the key factors for ozone formation. C
urtailing industrial operations during certain weather patterns could be one way to reduce the formation of ozone, but that might prove costly for companies working with leased drilling gear, officials said during a press conference this week.
Before developing a comprehensive mitigation strategy, researchers want to develop more accurate weather and photochemical models to accurately simulate winter ozone formation. Only then will they know which mitigation strategies are most effective.
But in general, the study team said VOC controls hold the most promise for effectively reducing ozone production and would have other health benefits, considering that cancer-causing substances like benzene and tuolene are health threats in their own right.
The study was partly supported by the Western Energy Alliance with funding from several fossil fuel development companies adding up to $2.125 million.
“Ironically, after gathering a very impressive research team and deploying them into the basin with a vast array of scientific instruments, there were no high ozone occurrences in 2012,” said Kathleen Sgamma, Vice President of Government & Public Affairs. “The weather conditions necessary for ozone formation did not exist last winter, but as a result, the scientists were able to gather extensive baseline data,” she said.
“Industry remains committed to protecting air quality while continuing to develop domestic energy in the West, and proud to be a part of this scientific endeavor,” Sgamma said.
The final 2011-2012 Study report and the 2012/2013 plan are online at http://www.deq.utah.gov/locations/uintahbasin/index.htm. | [
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] | 495 |
Posted on August 4, 2012 by Bob Berwyn
Parts of the Cascadia subduction zone may be overdue for a large earthquake. Map courtesy USGS.
New research documents timeline of Pacific Northwest fault activity
By Summit Voice
SUMMIT COUNTY — The Pacific Northwest could be due for a monster earthquake sometime in the next 50 years, with Oregon’s southern coast pinpointed as the most vulnerable area, according to Oregon State University researchers who recently finished studying the pattern of historical quakes in the region.
The comprehensive analysis of the Cascadia Subduction Zone confirms numerous earthquakes during the past 10,000 years and estimates that a new quake could approach the intensity of the Tohoku quake that devastated Japan in March 2011.
“The southern margin of Cascadia has a much higher recurrence level for major earthquakes than the northern end and, frankly, it is overdue for a rupture,” said Chris Goldfinger, a professor in OSU’s College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences and lead author of the study. “That doesn’t mean that an earthquake couldn’t strike first along the northern half, from Newport, Ore., to Vancouver Island. (more…)
Filed under: world news | Tagged: Cascadia subduction zone, earthquakes, Oregon, Oregon State University, Pacific Northwest | Leave a Comment »
Posted on June 23, 2012 by Bob Berwyn
Western snowy plover. PHOTO COURTESY USFWS.
Settlement may partially protect breeding plovers from encroaching sea level rise
By Summit Voice
SUMMIT COUNTY — Slowly but surely, federal biologists are undoing some of the most egregious decisions by the Bush administration with regard to endangered species.
In a settlement announced this week, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated about 38 square miles of critical habitat for western snowy plovers in Washington, Oregon and California.
Snowy plovers were listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act in 1993, when the coastal population dropped to 1,500 birds. The listing enabled the population to recover to more than 3,600 adults by 2010. (more…)
Filed under: biodiversity, endangered species, Environment | Tagged: California, Center for Biological Diversity, endangered species act, Oregon, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, Western Snowy plover, western snowy plover critical habitat | Leave a Comment »
Posted on April 13, 2012 by Bob Berwyn
Research links ocean acidification with stunted larval growth
If you enjoy fresh oysters, eat up, because global warming and ocean acidification are taking a toll on the reproduction of the popular shellfish. PHOTO BY BOB BERWYN.
SUMMIT COUNTY — An Oregon oyster farm may have to shut down because increasing increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in sea water has stunted larval growth, making the operation “non-economically viable.”
Researchers found that the sea water is becoming more corrosive, inhibiting larval oysters from developing their shells and growing at a pace that would make commercial production cost-effective.
As atmospheric CO2 levels continue to rise, the Oregon oysters may be the proverbial canary in the coal mine for other ocean acidification impacts on shellfish, according to Oregon State University scientists. (more…)
Filed under: biodiversity, climate and weather, Environment, global warming | Tagged: climate, global warming, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Netarts Bay, ocean acidification, Oceanography, Oregon, Oregon State University, oysters | Leave a Comment »
Posted on March 9, 2012 by Bob Berwyn
Cultural shift needed to ensure safety of coastal residents
Tsunami flooding on the Sendai Airport runway. PHOTO COURTESY U.S. AIR FORCE.
By Summit Voice
SUMMIT COUNTY — The one-year anniversary of the devastating tsunami in Japan offers some sobering lessons for parts of the U.S. that could one day face a similar disaster.
The fact that 90 percent of the coastal region’s residents and visitors evacuated effectively is a tribute to planning and community drills, said Patrick Corcoran, an Oregon State University education and outreach specialist, who just returned from a disaster symposium at United Nations University in Japan.
If the same magnitude earthquake and tsunami hits the Pacific Northwest, the death toll will be much higher because of the lack of comparable preparation, he said. That 90 percent rate could be the number of victims, not survivors. (more…)
Filed under: world news | Tagged: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan, Japan tsunami anniversary, Oregon, Oregon State University, Pacific Northwest | 3 Comments »
Posted on November 26, 2011 by Bob Berwyn
Gray wolf. PHOTO COURTESY USFWS.
Sanctioned Oregon killings on hold pending appeals court review of state wildlife laws
By Summit Voice
SUMMIT COUNTY — As a species, we humans like to think we’ve progressed in the last 100 years or so, but some things haven’t changed all that much, including an irrational fear and hatred of wild predators like wolves that still rears its ugly head.
That was proven once again last month, when at the behest of the ranching industry, wildlife officers in Oregon set out to decimate a wolf pack in the eastern part of the state.
The wolves targeted for killing included the alpha male and a yearling wolf of the Imnaha pack, the state’s first pack in nearly 65 years and one of only four statewide. The pack is the first to raise pups in Oregon since the animals began their fragile recovery in the state more than a decade ago. (more…)
Filed under: biodiversity, endangered species, Environment, Summit County news | Tagged: biodiversity, Environment, Imnaha wolf pack, Oregon, wolves | 7 Comments » | [
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] | 1,224 |
The CAM-Wizard TAPE editor is used to edit the tape code that is normally created by the POST processor. The tape editor is normally run by typing TAPE while running CAM or by selecting it from other programs. This program can also be run directly from the operating system by using the TAPE command.
The TAPE editor uses many special keys. On the right side of the keyboard there are eight special keys, Up Arrow, Down Arrow, Left Arrow, Right Arrow, Home, End, PgUp, and PgDn, that are used for moving the blinking cursor. The Arrow keys are used for moving the cursor around on the screen. The [Home] key is used to move to the beginning of the line. The [ End] key can is used to move to the end of the line. The user can scroll up and down a page at a time with the [PgUp] and [PgDn] keys.
Also on the keypad are the [Ins] and [Del] keys. Pressing the [Ins] key will toggle the insert mode. When in insert mode typing any character will move the part of the line to the right of the cursor to the right and insert the character, otherwise the character will "type over" the existing characters on that line. Pressing [Del] will move the part of the line to the right of the cursor, to the left, deleting the character over the cursor.
Because the editor has been designed to accept anything that is typed into it as pure input to be included in the text file it creates, all functions other than the input of that data must be executed by pressing special function keys. These keys are located on the top row of the keyboard.
The [F1] key is used to insert a line into the text. pressing this key causes the line that the cursor is on to move down one line, creating a blank line to type on. The [F2] key causes the line that the cursor is on to be deleted.
The [F3] key is used for the search function. Pressing [F3] will cause the program to stop and input a character string from the user. The editor will then search from its current position in the program for that string. Entering nothing at the "Find String ?" will cause the last string to be searched for again from the current cursor position on.
The [F4] key is used for the replace function. When this key is pressed, the user is asked what string to search for. After typing in this string and pressing [Enter], the user is asked what string to change it to. All occurrences of the first string will then be highlighted, and the user will be asked "Replace ? (Y/N/G/Esc) ?". Pressing [Y] will replace that occurrence of the search string. Pressing [N] will skip that occurrence. Pressing [G] will replace all remaining occurrences. Pressing [Esc] will abort the replace function.
The [F5] key must be used with care. When [F5] is pressed, the program will ask "Are You Sure ? (Y/N) ?". Pressing [Y] will then ERASE the entire tape; if it has not been saved it will be lost. This key is used to erase everything in order to start new.
The [F6] key is used to exit the editor, save the current text, and run the programs that appear when the key is pressed. The programs available from the editor will be listed on the screen with a single character to the left of each. Pressing the key corresponding to any of those characters will cause the related program to be run. Pressing an invalid key will return operation to the editor as if nothing had happened.
The [F7] key is used to read in a previously stored file from the disk. After pressing this key, the user is asked for a file name. Entering the file name and pressing [Enter] will cause that file to be appended to the text already loaded into the editor. Entering a CAM-Wizard device name will cause the text to be read from that device using the protocol and handshaking defined for that device in IO.CFG.
The [F8] key is used to write a file to a disk or to the printer. Entering a valid MS-DOS file name causes the text to be saved on a disk file and typing the word PRINTER will cause the text to be sent to the printer. Entering a CAM-Wizard device name (such as PUNCH, or a machine name) will cause the tape code to be sent to that device using the protocol and handshaking defined for that device in IO.CFG.
The [F9] key is used for block editing functions. Blocks of text can be copied and deleted using the block edit command. When pressed, the system will prompt you for the function, either mark block start, mark block end, copy block, or delete block. Blocks must be defined before they can be copied or deleted.
The [F10] key is used to renumber a tape. This function will ask the increment to use for renumbering the tape. At this time the user can specify the number to be counted by and the number of digits to use on the tape. For instance if you type 005, then the tape will be numbered by 5 and each N number on the tape will take up 3 digits. ( 005, 010, 015, 020 ... ).
Send mail to [email protected] with questions or comments about this web site.
Please read our Usage Rules before using any information from this site.
Copyright © 2000 SWE Engineering
Last modified: June 10, 2002 | [
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] | 1,200 |
This book is at the opposite end of the spectrum, so to speak, from the previously-mentioned source. In this book, Williamson and the other authors discuss music from an expertise on the art itself. There is no mention of digital music, sampling, file-sharing, or other similar topics to be found anywhere in the book. In their places are excerpts from sheet music and examples of lyrics. They offer their expert commentary on subjects ranging from Chopin to Snoop Dogg, from Dante to the Beatles, and each is approached with the same level of intellect and scholarship. Multiple chapters cover the creation of music from scratch – as told from the songwriter’s point of view, and it is this unique perspective that offers a new form of insight into the practice of digital sampling.
Another important factor in this work is the chapter entitled “Mimesis, Gesture, and Parody in Musical Word-Setting.” This chapter not only explores the implications that a parody has on an original work but sets the framework for parody with an historical narrative about its origins. At first, this seemed to be irrelevant to the topic of digital sampling and copyright law, but after further inspection, it became apparent that this knowledge is very important to the understanding of parody and its stance in copyright law.
Words and Music discusses at length many different styles and genres of modern music, primarily “gangsta,” or hardcore, rap. This genre is a unique example because not only is it arguably the heaviest on lyrical content out of all kinds of music, but also because it is notorious for its sampling practices and is quite possibly the realm in which the most copyright infringement cases take place. Reading a scholarly assessment on such genres is especially helpful for this topic seeing as it provides a critical, but not condemning eye on the subject. This is all-to-rare in today’s academic and scholarly publications, and to have a source such as this is very useful in the terms of this research paper. | [
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] | 409 |
Who should speak first when evaluating a lesson in the post-observation feedback session, the observer or the observed?
This was the subject of an extended and impromptu debate at an external training session I attended last week. The person leading the session stood back in true ‘facilitator’ style while a room of teachers explained to each other why their preferred way is better than the other. I was fascinated and decided to blog some of their points.
Why the observer should speak first
The observer is often (but not always) more experienced and has plenty of good advice for the observed teacher, why not get straight to the point?
If the observed teacher spoke first and evaluated their own lesson inaccurately, they could have their confidence dented when the observer disagreed with what they’d said.
Everyone needs praise, and if the observer goes first they can start by highlighting the good aspects of the observed teacher’s lesson and establish a positive and nurturing atmosphere.
Why the observed teacher should speak first
If they spoke second, they would be influenced by the feedback from the observer, so the observer would not hear a genuine self-evaluation. This means that they will miss an opportunity to develop their ability to judge lesson effectiveness.
If the observed teacher speaks first they are forced into a reflective state of mind in which they’ll be more receptive to advice.
Allowing the observed teacher to speak first makes it clear that the evaluation of the lesson is a shared experience and establishes a more supportive environment.
The observer’s feedback can be targeted more effectively if they hear the observed teacher’s point of view first, for example focusing on an aspect in which they put the most effort.
Teachers are often too hard on themselves, and if the observed teacher starts by criticising aspects of their own lesson it can be a confidence boost when the observer highlights some good aspects.
Lesson observations are subjective, and the observer may have missed something that the teacher didn’t. Speaking second allows them to give better-informed feedback.
If you can’t tell from my completely biased paraphrasing of the points, I prefer letting the observed teacher speak first. Any arguments about the observed teacher getting the evaluation wildly wrong seem flawed to me because without the opportunity to highlight those inaccuracies, they will never learn to adequately evaluate the effectiveness of their own teaching, nor that of others.
Have I missed any arguments either way? Let me know (@teachgr). Thanks to @grevster73, @coope83, @leedonaghy, @bio_joe, @hrogerson and@geekgirl77 who already contributed ideas. | [
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] | 556 |
What Is the TOEIC?
The TOEIC or Test of English for International Communication, is a standardized, paper-and-pencil test given to non-native English speakers.
Who Uses TOEIC Results?
- Corporations and government agencies recruiting new hires
- Educational institutions establishing placement in English classes.
The traditional TOEIC only tests two skills: Listening and Reading. However, ETS, the makers of the TOEIC, have added this test, the TOEIC Speaking and Writing exam, to its English Language Test repertoire. Here's what you can expect to see on the computer-based TOEIC Speaking and Writing Test:
How Long is the TOEIC Speaking and Writing Test?
- About 1 ½ hours
- 20 minutes for TOEIC Speaking
- 60 minutes for TOEIC Writing
How's your ability to speak English? The TOEIC Speaking Test measures your ability to use English in your own life and throughout the course of your career. Anyone can take the test – it's designed so that people highly skilled with the English language and others not so skilled can both perform. You'll have 11 different tasks during this test, but will spend only about 20 minutes on it.
Again, the TOEIC Writing Test examines testers newly writing in English all the way through proficient English writers. Here, you'll have 8 tasks to complete and about an hour to spend working on them. | [
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] | 298 |
Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata was born into a clerical Parsi family in Nausari. His father, Nusserwanji Tata, moved to Bombay and started trading. Jamsetji joined the Elphinstone College in Bombay in 1856. He was considered to be a promising enough student to have his fees remitted. Married while still a student, he passed out in 1858, and joined his father's trading firm a year later.
His first venture was to open the Hong Kong branch of his father's firm in December of the same year, in partnership with Premchand Roychand and others. This firm did extremely well during the cotton boom, and Jamsetji was soon involved in many financial deals. However, with the end of the American Civil War, and the subsequent collapse of the Bombay boom in 1864, many of these businesses went into liquidation. He and his father regained their fortunes as suppliers to the British-Indian Army during the Abyssinian War (1867-68).
His reputation as an industrialist was based on the cotton mills he started. In 1871 he began to promote the "Central India Spinning, Weaving and Manufacturing Company, Limited", and built from scratch the Empress Mills in Nagpur. Opened on New Year's day, 1877, this immensely successful cotton mill developed business practises which remained the hallmark of the Tatas for years to come. An astute judge of people, Jamsetji hired his managers with good care. The firm also did developmental work in machinery. New policies towards labour were developed, including training, guaranteed pensions and gratuities, medical care and creches for women employees. His financial genius was evident in the way he took over and turned around the pernially sick Dharamsi Mill in Kurla. He changed its name to the Swadeshi Mill when he purchased it in 1887, and produced cloth that was extensively exported to China, Korea, Japan and the Levant.
He was the first pioneer entrepreneur in the country, and recognised the implications of the industrial revolution for India. Since textile manufacturing had taken root and the country was being linked by railways and the telegraph, he believed that he should concentrate his means and efforts on three key areas-- the iron and steel industry, electrical power generation and technical education.
He was close to the Indian National Congress, and was strongly influenced by Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta and Dinshaw Wacha. However, contrary to them, he believed that political independence would be meaningless without economic self-sufficiency. To this end he set in motion plans for scientific education and the industrial development of backward regions of the country.
His goal of political and economic self-sufficiency had the effect that the British did not raise him to the rank of nobility as they did with other Parsi entrepreneurs. In fact, he faced opposition from the government for many of his projects, including the founding of the steel industry and development of housing in the present-day Northern suburbs of Bombay.
Many of his plans remained unfinished on his death in 1904. However, his vision of the Institute of Science in Bangalore, a steel plant in Jamshedpur, Bihar, and a hydroelectric company were brought to fruition by his successors. | [
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] | 678 |
Engineering for the future in Carbondale
CARBONDALE - Several groups of students gathered along the edge of the classroom, some poring over equipment that simulated a magnetic-powered transportation system.
Students hardly noticed the door opening in Brandon Dodson's classroom.
A window on the opposite side of the room provided a view of a 3-D printer in the process of crafting a prototype. The printer and other machines in the technology education rooms were all added to the department as part of the recent upgrade and renovation project in the Carbondale Area High School.
Although there were already hand-drafting and computer-drafting programs, about $241,000 worth of new technology has upped the educational ante, according to acting Superintendent David Cerra, who called the program one of the most advanced in the area.
"It's an extreme paradigm shift from hobbyist level vocation skills to more of a focus on science and math and engineering," Mr. Dodson said.
In a traditional shop or industrial arts program, students completed tasks like building a table, Mr. Dodson continued.
"We never really focused on the theory behind it," he said. "It shows them what the drafting is for. We made better connections between our classes."
Principal Joseph Farrell credits Joseph Szymaszek, the head of the technology education department, for pushing to include the upgrades in the renovation project - the final details of which are wrapping up.
Mr. Szymaszek walked through the new classrooms, pointing out a row of computers, each equipped with a different module - the specific topic it centered around.
"It might only be 10 to 15 days for each module, but it's going to open a new world to them," he said.
The program also differs from vocational schools because it offers a wide range of exposure, rather than in-depth extended coursework. The increased programming in the school ranges from computer graphic animation, where students can learn to make a cartoon, to auto diagnostics and home remedies where students can learn to repair a sink.
Contact the writer: [email protected], @rbrownTT on Twitter | [
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] | 447 |
by Jennifer Johnsen
Last week, I was privileged to attend the 3rd International Workshop on HIV and Women in Toronto, Canada. It was a wonderful gathering of researchers, clinicians, and others committed to forwarding our knowledge and understanding of how HIV affects women. The two-day conference focused on four areas:
- Hepatitis C
- HIV and Aging
It should be no surprise that contraception was an important topic, since there are 1.75 billion women worldwide of child-bearing age. Of those, an estimated 150 million are using hormonal contraceptives (HCs).
Recently, some HIV studies have suggested that HCs may increase a woman’s risk for getting HIV. A review of 17 studies meeting minimum quality standards found that two of the 17 show an increased risk of getting HIV for those taking oral contracteptives (OCs, or birth control pills) while six show an increased risk for getting HIV for women using Depo-Provera (DMPA, or the birth control shot).
Based on the unclear picture painted by existing research results, there is an urgent need for high-quality evidence to answer the question of if/how HCs affect women’s risk of getting HIV. There is also very limited evidence available on whether HC use among women living with HIV (HIV+) changes their risk of spreading HIV to others.
What does seem clear, however, is that HC use effects neither HIV disease progression nor women’s viral load or CD4 cells.
Other encouraging news included presentations suggesting that:
- Viramune (nevirapine), an HIV drug commonly included in first-line treatments recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), does not decrease the effectiveness of oral contraceptives
- There was no spread of HIV between members of heterosexual serodiscordant couples in which the HIV+ partner’s viral load was fully suppressed on HIV drugs in a review of several research studies
- There are some anti-inflammatory agents (IL-22 and curcumin) that have been shown to protect female genital tract cells against HIV in the lab
Our introduction to this topic began with a presentation that painted a grim picture of the hepatitis C (HCV) epidemic in Eastern Europe and Russia. Worldwide, the two primary risk factors for getting hepatitis C continue to be injection drug use (IDU) and sexual contact.
On a more promising note, new HCV treatment regimens including Victrelis (boceprevir) and Inciveck (telaprevir) are proving to be highly effective in women. Approximately 40 percent of study participants in phase 3 clinical trials of these drugs have been women, and researchers have not seen any sex-based differences in effectiveness.
Another exciting development is a once-daily oral treatment for HCV that does not contain interferon (INF). This is likely to be available within the next few years, would spare many the side effects of INF, and would give new treatment options to those still infected with HCV after treatment with INF-containing regimens.
HIV and Aging
This subject has been getting quite a bit of attention lately, due to the growing numbers of people living and aging with HIV. While aging is a normal process that affects everyone, frailty is disease state characterized by decreased bone and muscle mass, mild anemia, thinking problems, depression, and/or increased inflammation. Several of frailty’s features occur among HIV+ people who have been taking HIV drugs for 20 years or more and appear to be the result of ‘accelerated aging.’ So far, there have not been any sex-based differences in HIV-associated accelerated aging.
Estrogen, which is protective in regards to aging, exists in much smaller amounts after menopause. In a way, menopause can be thought of as an “end of warranty” period after which the effects of aging increase. Therefore, it is important when conducting research not to divide women simply into pre- and post-menopausal groups, but to include time since menopause.
This topic featured some excellent presentations, including one that showed how the same set of research results could lead to different conclusions and different country guidelines for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (US Department of Health and Human Services v. British HIV Association). Another presentation introduced research in Canada that is exploring poor pregnancy outcomes (low birth weight and pre-term birth) among HIV+ women by looking at blood samples throughout pregnancy and placenta collection at delivery.
Lastly, a discussion of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and microbicides for women revealed how a closer look at the different groups of women studied in several of the PrEP trials (e.g., FemPrEP, Partners PrEP, TDF2) and microbicide studies (e.g., Caprissa 004, VOICE) may help to explain conflicting results. The effectiveness of a given prevention method among young women living in urban areas may be quite different from the effectiveness of the same method among older women in rural areas.
One of the most important points made about prevention is that any method that women want to use will be much more successful. No matter how safe or effective a prevention method may be, it will not work if women do not use it. Therefore, it is crucial that women be included in the development of future methods to prevent the spread of HIV.
The International Workshop on HIV and Women featured the research and experience of many top-quality presenters working diligently on topics specific to women living with HIV. As many of them pointed out, the relative lack of good HIV research and evidence by, for, and about women needs immediate attention. Women’s involvement is crucial if we are to answer many of the outstanding questions that will help us all ‘get to zero.’ | [
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] | 1,206 |
A commercial airline? Or a rogue geoengineering experiment?
The World Economic Forum has put out a new report on global risks for 2013, and the report’s chapter on “X factors” — concerns more remote than the report’s primary risks, but still worthy of note — includes a section on rogue “geoengineering” experiments.
Geoengineering involves large-scale efforts to either remove carbon from the atmosphere, or to remake the atmosphere’s chemical or physical make-up to offset the effects of climate change. The most plausible scenario mentioned by the report uses aircraft to inject particles into the atmosphere to mimic the way eruptions of volcanic ash block sunlight, and thus cool the climate. More far-fetched scenarios go so far as deploying mirrors into orbit to reflect sunlight.
Such projects involve a host of funding and deployment problems, as well as the serious risk of unintended consequences for both the climate and the billions of humans who rely on it. For instance, a project at the UK-based Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering project, or “SPICE,” working on the idea to mimic volcanic ash, was delayed in October over environmental concerns. Unfortunately, this leaves an opening for smaller nations or even commercial interests to begin experimenting with geoengineering unilaterally, say researchers at the World Economic Forum:
Nobody envisions deployment of solar radiation management anytime soon, given the difficulties in resolving a suite of governance issues (evidenced by the fact that even the relatively simple SPICE experiment in the UK foundered in the midst of controversy). Beginning with Britain’s Royal Society, many academic and policy bodies have called for cautious research as well as broader conversation about the implications of such technologies.
But this has led some geoengineering analysts to begin thinking about a corollary scenario, in which a country or small group of countries precipitates an international crisis by moving ahead with deployment or large-scale research independent of the global community. The global climate could, in effect, be hijacked by a rogue country or even a wealthy individual, with unpredictable costs to agriculture, infrastructure and global stability. [...]
For example, an island state threatened with rising sea levels may decide they have nothing to lose, or a well funded individual with good intentions may take matters into their own hands. There are signs that this is already starting to occur. In July 2012 an American businessman sparked controversy when he dumped around 100 tonnes of iron sulphate into the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of Canada in a scheme to spawn an artificial plankton bloom. The plankton absorb carbon dioxide and may then sink to the ocean bed, removing the carbon – another type of geoengineering, known as ocean fertilisation. Satellite images confirm that his actions succeeded in produce an artificial plankton bloom as large as 10,000 square kilometres.
The July 2012 incident was first reported by The Guardian in October, noting the gambit may have violated two international agreements and possibly involved misleading the local indigenous population about the nature and risks of the experiment. Russ George, the American businessman who oversaw the iron sulphate dump, is the former chief executive of Planktos Inc., and has been involved in other failed efforts to pull off large commercial dumps near the Galapagos and Canary Islands. Those attempts led to a warning from the EPA and to his ships being barred from ports by the Spanish and Ecuadorean governments. George had apparently hoped to net lucrative carbon credits.
The basic problem with geoengineering is that portions of the climate cannot be walled off to perform small-scale tests. This means geoengineering projects essentially have to jump straight from the experimental and computer modeling phases to a full-on implementation phase — as Russ George recently attempted. This means, at best, that geoengineering is last-resort, break-glass-in-case-of-emergency response to climate change, to be attempted when all other efforts have failed.
At worst, geoengineering is a distraction jumped on by interest groups, who wish to delay far more technologically and economically feasible efforts to tackle climate change by simply reducing the amount of carbon human beings emit into the atmosphere. | [
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] | 846 |
Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.
Compete | FAQ | Contact Us
Underground in the Deep and Dark
After completing an independent study about our topic, Underground in the Deep and Dark, we will share what we have learned in a creative, educational format with others. The topic includes: Caving, the Chunnel, famous caves and famous tunnels. Our goals are: - to create an informative web site. - to work cooperatively and collaboratively with our team members. - to learn to use different hardware and software (scanner, digital camera, downloading from the Internet, Dabbler, Word, FrontPage, Print Artist, etc.) in the creation of our web site.
19 & under
Science & Technology > Earth Science | [
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|Francisco Vasquez de Coronado|
The First Thanksgiving in the New World was held at Palo Duro Canyon on Ascension Thursday, May 23, 1541. On that day, Spanish explorer Francisco Vasquez de Coronado and his men held a day of thanksgiving after "Coronado's expedition had left Mexico in search of the Seven Cities of Cibola, but instead of a mythical city of gold, Coronado and his men found the Llano Estacado, where there were no cities, no trees and very little water." (from homepages.vvm.com)The rest of that story can be found here. This series of events has been verified by historians the world over, so this is the first instance of Thanksgiving as we know it in the New World.
On April 21, 1598, another Thanksgiving took place in Texas. That story can be found here. Now we have two "Thanksgivings" quite a few years before the Pilgrims celebrated their own day of thanks at Plymouth Rock.
I know this story may ruffle a few turkey feathers, but history is history. I don't bring this up to in any way diminish the importance of the Thanksgiving at Plymouth Rock in 1621 as it was certainly one of the most historic days of the American story. Three groups of people came to the New World for various reasons and independent of each other by miles and by years, found a reason to celebrate a day of Thanksgiving in what is now the United States of America, long may She live. | [
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] | 318 |
On this day in 1922, archaeologist Howard Carter and his financer Lord Carnarvon became the first people to enter the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in over 3000 years. Carter had been working in the Valley of the Kings for many years, but on 4th November 1922, Carter’s water carrier found the steps leading to Tutankhamun’s tomb and Carter wired Carnavon to come quickly.
On 26th November, Carter made the famous “tiny breach in the top left hand corner” of the doorway, and was able to peer into the antechamber (see picture) by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place. When Carnarvon asked “Can you see anything?”, Carter replied: “Yes, wonderful things.”
In the following months, Carter and his team gained access to the antechamber, and began the excavation of the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found. The first item was removed from the tomb on December 27th and on February 16th 1923, the Burial Chamber was oficially opened, where the team found the sarcophagus and the mummified remains of Tutankhamun. | [
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] | 262 |
Guardian US polling expert Harry J. Enten breaks down the workings of the Electoral College – a mysterious institution that uses the people's votes to select the US president. With 538 electors up for grabs across 50 states and the District of Columbia, Barack Obama and Mitt Romney are vying for the 270 votes that will grant them the White House. It's a curious system where things can and have gone awry – one possible outcome in 2012 is for Romney to end up in the Oval Office with Joe Biden as his vice-president. How could that happen? Let Harry explain.
The US Electoral College Explained: Why We Don't Vote Directly for a PresidentWednesday, 10 October 2012 09:56 By Harry J. Enten, The Guardian | Video Report
Harry J Enten blogs about political and electoral statistics at Margin of Error. A graduate in government from Dartmouth College, he has interned at the NBC political unit in Washington, DC and Pollster.com, as well as contributed to Taegan Goddard's Political Wire. Follow Harry on Twitter @ForecasterEnten | [
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] | 221 |
Motifs using characters, creatures, and settings from classic Fairy Tales
to represent characters or ideas, for example, a love interest being equated with a Knight in Shining Armor
. Modern day Cinderella stories commonly mine this fairy tale trope as well.
Many of them are, in fact, Dead Unicorn Tropes
. Dragons, unicorns, fairies, and knights are in fact exceedingly rare in fairy tales. For tropes actually found in fairy tales, see Fairy Tale Tropes
Fairytale Motifs are used to add romance to a story, especially one set mainly in the grim and gritty real world. The fact that most people have read the fairy tales means that the symbolism isn't likely to be lost.
Fairytale Motifs differ slightly from Mythological Motifs. While the former features specific fairy tale characters — such as Rapunzel
and Sleeping Beauty
— it also includes general, archetypal examples, usually a "species" rather than one particular person/animal. The latter tends to use specific characters belonging to a recognizable mythology. For example, most people recognize a unicorn when they see one, but the creature itself has a rather vague history and there is no named unicorn who was the "first of its kind." Therefore, it's a Fairytale Motif. Pegasus, the winged horse, on the other hand, is one specific character from Greek myths with a Canon
history , making it a Mythological Motif.
Some fairytale motifs include:
- Dragons: Western dragons can be used to represent very strong or fierce characters, where as eastern dragons are more likely to be wise.
- Fairies: The more popular versions of the fairy are carefree, innocent creatures, usually associated with little girls. May indicate a Cloud Cuckoo Lander, since "away with the fairies" is another way to say "constantly daydreaming" or "slightly crazy." The fairies taken from older traditions, such as Celtic Mythology, aren't quite so cutesy — in fact they're downright malevolent at times. Modern literature increasingly employs this version of the fairy-folk, usually as Tricksters.
- Knights: Often, a very noble character, akin to the Knight In Shining Armor, however, the symbolism linked to a knight could easily be used for a Knight Templar character as well (perhaps due to the association in the trope name).
- Royalty: Generally used to represent power, wealth or prestige. These are often used in High School settings to refer to "the popular kids".
- Princess: Often the Alpha Bitch, however, a wealthy or popular girl of any sort will often be equated to a princess (for an example of this comparison, look no farther than this site). A Queen will often refer to the same stereotype, especially if there is a corresponding?
- King: Generally the leader of a group or organization or the reigning champion of something (i.e. "The King of Table Tennis"). In the aforementioned High School settings, the king will often be a Jerk Jock.
- Unicorn: The mythological "horse with a horn," although many different descriptions of them exist. Usually pure, gentle and noble, although subversions do exist. Being able to draw a unicorn's attention is generally a Virgin Power. Strongly associated with chastity, and often a motif for young girls.
- Wolves: While the wolf's image has been getting better in recent times, increasingly being seen as a "spirit of the wild," people can't quite get over "Little Red Riding Hood". While the wolf is an animal motif at the same time, the wolf as a threat to young girls/ sexual predator seems to have its roots in the fairy tale.
- In Germanic countries, the wolf is (or was historically) the equivalent of the Devil - they even have an expression about them that's interchangable with "Speak of the Devil".
open/close all folders
Anime and Manga
- Revolutionary Girl Utena uses a Fairytale Motif in order to deconstruct the romance fairytale of the Prince as male love interest saving the Princess.
- Skip Beat!! 's Kyouko seems to believes that fairies are real, and very often acts following Cinderella-like Fairy Tales tropes, seeing the (mostly villainous) characters she interprets as princesses under a curse. There is not Wrong Genre Savvyness, just a girl whose life has been so horrible she just prefer to believe she could be rescued and become a Real Princess, even if she knows it isn't. Pity nobody had informed her how The Fair Folk and the Old Fairy Tales truly are...
- Princess Tutu mixes Magical Girl tropes and fairy tale motifs with references to specific stories and ballets. The first season mostly plays the typical fairytale structure straight (outside of the fact that the princess is saving the prince), only to deconstruct it in the second season when the characters rebel against their assigned fairy tale roles as the prince, princess, villain and knight and decide to (literally) rewrite the story.
- Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade draws on (and quotes) the more traditional darker version of "Little Red Riding Hood" for its story of a relationship between a young terrorist girl, and a 'wolf' from the elite Kerberos Panzer police. The anime film makes the point that such relationships are always fated to end badly.
- Monster uses a fairy tale (or several) to foreshadow the antagonist's modus operandi.
- Cowboy Bebop uses the tale of Urashima Taro as a constant recurring motif and theme, with most of the characters having connections to it, most literally Faye.
- Prétear, plain and simple. Although, considering it's based on "Snow White", maybe that's not really surprising.
- Cyber Team In Akihabara invokes many fairy tales motifs, but the main one is the wish of 13 year old protagonist Hibari for meeting and falling in love with a fairy tale prince and live Happily Ever After with him. Her Character Development is essentially to get rid of that mindset, usually via Be Careful What You Wish For.
- AR∀GO: City of London Police's Special Crimes Investigator uses a great many motifs from fairy tales and mythology in general, and it tends to go with the older versions of the stories.
- Gaba Kawa actually follows the theme/basic plot of "The Little Mermaid", becoming more obvious about it in the final two chapters.
- Puella Magi Madoka Magica follows the theme/basic plot of "The Little Mermaid" in Sayaka's arc, to tragic conclusion. The other motif is Faust, but that's most definitely not a fairytale.
- Mawaru-Penguindrum has had allusions to various fairytales involving apples, but so far the most prominent motif seems to be the resemblance of the siblings' lives to an in-universe fairytale about a man named Mary and his three little lambs offending a goddess.
- Alice from Mahou Tsukai No Yoru possesses magic which revolves around fairy tales.
- The manga Akagami No Shirayukihime is based on the tale of "Snow White". (The title literally means "Red-haired Snow White".) The first chapter in particular has a lot of tributes to the original story.
Live Action Television
- Homestuck In SBurb, all players are given a particular class and aspect that determines their powers. The classes are themed around typical High Fantasy character types such as 'prince', 'witch', and 'knight'. Then there's the kingdoms of Derse and Prospit who double up this trope with Chess Motifs, as well as the fact that all Sburb players are considered to be princes or princesses of one or the other. Then there's Terezi loving dragons and Tavros liking fairies (and since god tier trolls possess wings, they're sort of fairies as well) and Feferi being an actual princess. Of course, all the fantasy elements are mixed with a good deal of science fiction and technology as well.
- The "Such Stuff As Dreams Are Made On" arc of Roommates has both general fairy tale motifs and more specifically Swan Lake allusions in it's dream sequences to symbolically communicate information to the main character (Jareth)note . The fair folk don't do simple. | [
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Part of twisted.python View Source
These are methods which you can register pre-call and post-call external functions to augment their functionality. People familiar with more esoteric languages may think of these as "method combinations".
This could be used to add optional preconditions, user-extensible callbacks (a-la emacs) or a thread-safety mechanism.
The four exported calls are:
All have the signature (class, methodName, callable), and the callable they take must always have the signature (instance, *args, **kw) unless the particular signature of the method they hook is known.
Hooks should typically not throw exceptions, however, no effort will be made by this module to prevent them from doing so. Pre-hooks will always be called, but post-hooks will only be called if the pre-hooks do not raise any exceptions (they will still be called if the main method raises an exception). The return values and exception status of the main method will be propogated (assuming none of the hooks raise an exception). Hooks will be executed in the order in which they are added.
|Class||HookError||An error which will fire when an invariant is violated.|
|Function||addPre||hook.addPre(klass, name, func) -> None|
|Function||addPost||hook.addPost(klass, name, func) -> None|
|Function||removePre||hook.removePre(klass, name, func) -> None|
|Function||removePost||hook.removePre(klass, name, func) -> None|
|Function||PRE||(private) munging to turn a method name into a pre-hook-method-name|
|Function||POST||(private) munging to turn a method name into a post-hook-method-name|
|Function||ORIG||(private) munging to turn a method name into an `original' identifier|
|Function||_XXX||String manipulation garbage.|
|Function||_addHook||(private) adds a hook to a method on a class|
|Function||_removeHook||(private) removes a hook from a method on a class|
|Function||_enhook||(private) causes a certain method name to be hooked on a class|
|Function||_dehook||(private) causes a certain method name no longer to be hooked on a class|
Add a function to be called before the method klass.name is invoked.
Add a function to be called after the method klass.name is invoked.
Remove a function (previously registered with addPre) so that it is no longer executed before klass.name.
Remove a function (previously registered with addPost) so that it is no longer executed after klass.name. | [
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The Chateauesque is based on the monumental 16th century chateaus of France. The style combines Gothic elements with the 16th century’s fashionable move to Renaissance detailing. In the United States, the style was popularized by Richard Morris Hunt, the first American architect to study at France’s prestigious École des Beaux-Arts. Due to the Chateauesque style’s requirement of massive masonry construction and elaborate detailing, the style was unsuitable for vernacular adaptation and remained a rare and architect-designed fashion.
Identifying features include a steeply pitched hipped roof, a busy roof line with intricate and multiple vertical elements, such as spires, pinnacles, turrets, gables and shaped chimneys, multiple dormers extending beyond the cornice line and walls of stone masonry. Turrets and towers typically have steep candle-snuffer roofs, whereas dormer roofs are usually steep, parapeted gables. Ornamental metal cresting is sometimes observed along roof ridges and above the cornice. Windows, doors and façade elements are often decorated with shallow relief carving or Gothic tracing. Windows are typically divided into narrow vertical panels by stone mullions with smaller transoms above. Windows and doorways are typically arched in a characteristic Gothic basket shape. | [
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] | 272 |
exactly located (exactlyLocated)
The actual, minimal location of an
Object. This is a subrelation of the more general Predicate
SUMO / BASE-ONTOLOGY
Related WordNet synsets
- the precise location of something; a spatially limited location; "she walked to a point where she could survey the whole street"
Agar obj is partly located in region, to yah kuch subobj nahin, ki subobj is a part of obj aur subobj is exactly located in region.
(partlyLocated ?OBJ ?REGION)
(part ?SUBOBJ ?OBJ)
(exactlyLocated ?SUBOBJ ?REGION))))
Agar obj is exactly located in region, to yah kuch otherobj nahin, ki otherobj is exactly located in region aur otherobj is not equal to obj.
(exactlyLocated ?OBJ ?REGION)
(exactlyLocated ?OTHEROBJ ?REGION)
(equal ?OTHEROBJ ?OBJ))))))
"thing ki jagah time tha" is equal to region agar hai thing is exactly located in region during time.
(WhereFn ?THING ?TIME)
(exactlyLocated ?THING ?REGION))) | [
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] | 280 |
The Missouri River remained swollen through parts of Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas in early August 2011. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite captured the top image on August 2, 2011. For comparison, the bottom image shows the same area one year earlier, on August 3, 2010.
Both images use a combination of visible and infrared light to increase contrast between water and land. Water is navy blue. Vegetation is green. Clouds range in color from off-white to pale glue-green.
Compared to the previous year, the Missouri River is substantially swollen in 2011, especially along Nebraska’s eastern border. The river has also pushed over its banks in parts of Kansas and Missouri.
On August 5, 2011, the Advanced Hydrological Prediction Service (AHPS) of the U.S. National Weather Service reported major flooding in St. Joseph, Missouri. The AHPS also reported moderate flooding in the Kansas communities of Atchison and Leavenworth; in the Missouri community of Napoleon; and in the Nebraska communities of Blair, Omaha, Plattsmouth, Brownville, and Rulo.
High-resolution imagery acquired on August 1, 2011, shows flooded agricultural fields around Blair, Nebrasa.
- National Weather Service. Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service. Accessed August 5, 2011. | [
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] | 281 |
The Budapest you'll see today is the result of many years of rich history, with traces of inhabitation dating back as far as the second millennium BC. Hungarian tribes arrived at the end of the ninth century and the Hungarian Kingdom was established in 1000. The city as we know it today was formed through the joining of Buda, Pest and Old Buda, back in 1873. Follow the Budapest History time line below to see the many events leading up to the city's formation.
Archaeological finds indicate that the first settlement in the location of present-day Budapest was built by Celts. The Romans occupied this town in the first century BC.
1st century BC to 5th century AD – Western Hungary is part of the Roman Empire. Aquincum is founded and quickly becomes the largest town and one of the capitals of Pannonia.
5th century to 9th century – The Roman era ends in the 5th century and the age of Huns begins. Attila, King of the Huns, builds a city for himself here according to later chronicles. Following the Huns several tribes (Lombards, Avars and Slavs) pass through Hungary until the arrival of Magyars.
Arrival of the Magyars:
The Hungarian tribes arrived to the Carpathian Basin in 896. Árpád, leader of the Magyars, settled on Csepel sziget, an island in the southern part of Budapest.
1000 – St. Stephen is crowned; he becomes the first king of Hungary. Hungary converts to Christianity and becomes an independent kingdom.
1046 – Bishop Gellért dies at the hands of pagans on present-day Gellért Hill in the fight against Christianity.
12th century – The development of Buda and Pest starts thanks to the French, Walloon and German settlers who migrate here and work and trade along the banks of the Danube.
1241-42 – The Mongolian invasion destroys both cities.
1248 – King Béla IV builds the first royal castle on Castle Hill in Buda and city walls surround Pest.
14th century – The Angevin kings from France established Buda as a royal seat, building probably the largest Gothic palace.
1458 – The noblemen of Hungary elect Matthias Corvinus as king. Under his reign, Buda becomes a main hub of European Renaissance. It is truly an age of prosperity. He dies in 1490, after capturing Vienna in 1485.
1541 – The beginning of the Turkish occupation. Multiple mosques and baths are built in Buda; churches (such as Matthias Church) are converted. The Turkish occupation lasted almost 150 years.
1686 – Buda and Pest are re-conquered from the Turks with Habsburg leadership. The Habsburg rule begins. Both towns are destroyed completely in the battles.
1773 – Election of the first Mayor of Pest.
1777 – Maria Theresa of Austria moves the first University to Castle Hill.
1783 – Joseph II places the acting government to the city of Buda.
1825 – Pest becomes the cultural and economic centre of the country. The first National Theatre is built, along with the Hungarian National Museum and the Széchenyi Chain Bridge (Lánchíd).
1838 – The year of the biggest flood in recent memory. The entire Pest side is under water.
1848-49 – Revolution and War of Independence. Pest replaces Bratislava as the new capital of Hungary and it becomes the seat of the first prime minister, its government and the Parliament.
1849 – The Austrians occupy the city and the Habsburg army captures the two towns. Lajos Batthyány, the first Hungarian Prime Minister is executed on the present-day Szabadság tér.
1867 – The Austro-Hungarian Compromise, beginning of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, followed by unprecedented civic development, resulting in the style of present day Budapest.
1873 – The former cities Pest, Buda and Óbuda are united, and with that the Hungarian capital is established with the name of Budapest.
1896 – Year of the Millennium, celebrations are held all over the city. The Millennium Underground is inaugurated, and the Franz Josef Bridge (today's Liberty Bridge) is opened.
1910 – According to census the population of Budapest is 880,000
1918 – World War I ends the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the development of Budapest is slowed down by political upheavals.
Budapest in the 20th Century:
1918-19 – Revolution in Budapest and the 133 days of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. This was the first Communist government to be formed in Europe after the October Revolution in Russia.
1919-44 – Status quo was restored by a charismatic leader in the person of Admiral Horthy a self-appointed regent for the exiled King Karl IV. Hungary was a kingdom without a king.
1920 – The Trianon Treaty re-sized Hungary. Three-fifth of the country was assigned to surrounding successor states.
1924 – the Hungarian National Bank is founded.
1941 – Entry into World War II as an ally of Germany.
1944 – Budapest is occupied by the Germans. At the time of the occupation, there were around 200,000 Jews in the city. Fewer than half of them survived the following 11 months.
Dec. 1944 - Feb. 1945 – Soviet and Romanian troops besiege Budapest. The retreating Germans destroy all Danube bridges. The Buda castle falls. World War II took the lives of close to 200,000 Budapest residents and caused widespread damage to the buildings in the city.
1945-48 – Hungary is declared a republic, practicing a multi party parliamentary democracy.
1948 – A Soviet friendly Communist government takes over and Hungary is declared a People's Republic.
Oct. 1956 – The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 breaks out, ending in the invasion of a large Soviet force, killing civilians and damaging buildings in Budapest (traces of the gunfire can still be seen on the façades of several buildings).
1956-58 – Revenge and forceful restoration of Soviet power.
1960s – Conditions normalize; reforms create a so called 'Goulash Communism' in Hungary, a Communism with elements of free market and improved human rights. Wartime damages are largely repaired; the Elizabeth Bridge is finished in 1965.
1970-72 – Construction of the East-Western Subway line (M2) begins.
1982 – Construction of the North-Southern Subway line (M3) begins.
1987 – Buda Castle Hill and the banks of the Danube are added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
1989-1990 – The 'changes', transition to free elections and a democratic government. Hungary's changeover to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc.
1990 – According to census the city is home to 2,000,000 residents.
Present day Budapest:
2002 – Andrássy Avenue is added to the World Heritage Sites, along with the Millennium Underground Railway, Heroes' Square and City Park.
2002 – Inauguration of the new National Theatre.
2004 – Hungary joins the European Union.
2008 – According census, Budapest is home to 1,700,000 residents.
2010 – Inauguration of Budapest’s ‘Mainstreet’ (a Belváros Főutcája), a project that re-shapes a 1.7-km stretch of downtown Pest from Kálvin tér to Szabadság tér.
2011 – Margaret Bridge reopens after extensive renovations.
Present – Construction of the fourth subway line (M4) is underway.
Finally, if you like infographics, you can find out some quirky facts about Hungary, our language, history and more here: Let’s talk a bit about Hungary | [
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] | 1,673 |
Jean de Court, Marguerite de France as Minerva painted enamel, Limoges, 1555 (IIIF253)
In this remarkable portrait, Marguerite de France (1523-1574), daughter of François 1 (d. 1547) and sister of Henri II (d. 1559), is depicted as Pallas/Minerva, classical goddess of war and wisdom.
This alludes to her role as protectress of contemporary French culture against ‘le vilain monster Ignorance’, the mantle bestowed upon her after she defended Pierre Ronsard’s poetry against attack in 1549. Poets referred to Henri II’s court as the ‘Nouvel Olympe’ and to Marguerite as ‘la nouvelle Pallas’.
Limoges was the principal centre producing painted enamels in the 16th century. The bust of Henri d’Albret (no.24) is typical of mid-century portraits. D’Albret was married to Marguerite’s aunt, the authoress Marguerite d’Angoulême. Marguerite’s head is after a drawing attributed to François Clouet, now at Chantilly, which may have been the official image of the princess. Portraits in enamel were often modelled on drawings attributed to Clouet’s workshop and may have been incorporated into panelling. Marguerite’s costume and attributes as Pallas/Minerva are derived from a print by René Boyvin after Luca Penni. The armillary globe alludes to Marguerite’s fame and to her motto, ‘Wisdom, guardian of the world’. As goddess of war, she wears a breastplate, holds a spear and her shield decorated with the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and has a plumed helmet at her feet. As goddess of wisdom, Marguerite’s foot rests on some books surmounted by an owl. Dramatised portraits were an established form of selfpropaganda, but examples in enamel are rare.
The portrait is painted in opaque and translucent enamel colours on a copper base. Silver foil below translucent blue enriches Marguerite’s costume. The image was built up in successive kiln firings at diminishing temperatures. For the first firing, both sides of the metal were coated with enamel. Enamelling the back equalises the stress between the metal and the enamel on cooling, minimising distortion. Firing fuses the enamels to the base and produces their vivid colours and glossy surface. The gold, fusing at the lowest temperature, is applied last. This is the only fully signed and dated enamel by Jean de Court, about whom little is known. Art historians have long speculated as to whether he might have had some involvement with a workshop or workshops inscribing enamels ‘I C’ and ‘I D C’ (nos. 12, 13, 14 and 15). | [
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] | 646 |
Marine and Ocean Discharges
|Oceans, Coasts, Estuaries & Beaches Quick Finder|
|Oceans, Coasts, & Estuaries Home Coastal Watershed Protection||Marine Pollution Prevention Monitoring and Assessment||Ocean & Coastal Partnerships Frequently Asked Questions||Coasts for Kids|
Under the Clean Water Act, any discharge of a pollutant from a point source to the navigable waters of the United States must obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. The permit requires compliance with technology- and water-quality-based treatment standards.
An NPDES permit allows a facility to discharge a specified amount of a pollutant into a receiving water body under certain conditions. Under NPDES permitting, two sections deal specifically with discharges to marine and ocean waters: Section 301(h) and 403.
Under 403, any discharge to the territorial seas or beyond must comply with Ocean Discharge Criteria, including guidelines for determining degradation of waters.
Section 301(h) allows waivers from secondary treatment requirements in some cases for Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW´s) that discharge to marine waters. Under 301(h), POTW's with waivers from secondary treatment must demonstrate their discharge does not adversely effect the marine environment. | [
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] | 271 |
Meter is the organization of speech rhythms (verbal stresses) into regular patterns, in terms of both the arrangement of stresses and their frequency of repetition per line of verse.
Poetry is organized by the division of each line of verse into "feet," metric units which each consist of a particular arrangement of strong and weak stresses. The most common metric unit is the iambic foot, in which an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one (as in the words "revrse" and "compse").
Here is a table of meters and their names.
Meter is also determined by the number of feet in a line. A line with five feet is called pentameter; thus, a line of five iambs is known as "iambic pentameter" (the most common metrical form in English poetry).
The most common line lengths are:
trimeter: three feet
tetrameter: four feet
pentameter: five feet
hexameter: six feet (an "Alexandrine" when iambic)
heptameter: seven feet (a "fourteener" when iambic)
Naturally, there is a degree of variation from line to line, as a rigid adherence to the meter results in unnatural or monotonous language. A skillful poet manipulates breaks in the prevailing rhythm of a poem for particular effects. John Donne, for example, rarely held to the meter of his lines for more than a few feet at a time. These lines from his Holy Sonnet 14 (1633) are written in iambic pentameter, but the stress patterns vary a great deal:
That I may rise and stand, o'erthrow me, and bend
Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new. | [
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] | 377 |
About the FSA
The Food Standards Agency is responsible for food safety and food hygiene across the UK. We work with local authorities to enforce food safety regulations and have staff who work in UK meat plants to check that the requirements of the regulations are being met. We also commission research related to food safety.
The Department of Health is responsible for nutrition policy, including nutrition labelling, in England. Defra (the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) is responsible for food labelling not related to food safety or nutrition in England. It is also responsible for animal welfare. The FSA retains responsibility for labelling policy in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and for nutrition policy in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Responsibility for nutrition policy in Wales lies with the Welsh Government.
You can get answers to several frequently asked questions about what we do at the links below.
- putting the consumer first
- openness and transparency
- science- and evidence-based
- acting independently
- enforcing food law fairly
The Agency is led by a Board that has been appointed to act in the public interest and not to represent particular sectors. Board members have a wide range of relevant skills and experience.
Although the FSA is a government agency, it works at 'arm's length' from government because it doesn't report to a specific minister and is free to publish any advice it issues. We are, however, accountable to Parliament through health ministers, and to the devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland for our activities within their areas.
Our UK headquarters are in London, but the Agency also has offices in York, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
We base our decisions and advice on the best evidence available, including commissioning research and obtaining advice from independent advisory committees. We also aim to ensure that our decision-making process is as open and transparent in as possible.
Whenever possible, we seek the views of interested parties before reaching conclusions, and always explain the reasons for a decision or advice in a straightforward manner.
The six outcomes the FSA aims to deliver are:
- foods produced or sold in the UK are safe to eat
- imported food is safe to eat
- food producers and caterers give priority to consumer interests in relation to food
- consumers have the information and understanding they need to make informed choices about where and what they eat
- regulation is effective, risk-based and proportionate, is clear about the responsibilities of food business operators, and protects consumers and their interests from fraud and other risks
- enforcement is effective, consistent, risk-based and proportionate and is focused on improving public health
The full strategy can be found at the link below. | [
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] | 545 |
Knowing how to code is becoming increasingly valuable in the technology-driven world we live in today, but not everyone has the time or money to invest in a sold computer science or programming education.
Most people who have no experience in programming tend to think that learning to code would be an intimidating task, requiring a high IQ and a good teacher. In reality, anyone can really do it, which is why two students from Columbia University founded Codeacademy – a free, interactive website for beginners who want to learn how to code at their own pace.
A Breakdown of What Codeacademy Offers
Codeacademy offers its users a set of tutorials in a variety of different programming languages that they can follow along with and actually plug in the code to get firsthand experience. It’s been designed for the complete beginner in mind who’ve never taken a computer class before.
There’s a “Show hint” button at the bottom of each step if you get stuck, and a “Run” button for you to pull up the result of what you created with your code. If you made a mistake, you can hit the red “Reset” button to try again.
Every step progresses from simplest to more advanced in a sequential way that you can understand it, using skills learned from the previous step as you move on. Courses are divided into sections, and sections have a number of steps to be completed.
Codeacademy makes the whole process really fun by offering you points and badges to earn when you complete a section. It may also ask you to share your completed results with your friends on social media.
The Codeacademy Community and Resources
Although the site serves people who basically want a self-taught approach to learning code, we still can’t entirely replace knowledge and skills from real people with computers.
Codeacademy has a Q&A Forum for its users who need to ask questions when they get stuck on any part of the course that they can’t figure out. And if you’re already an experienced programmer willing to teach newbies, there’s a great new “Teach” section that gives the experienced an opportunity to build their own courses.
Memorizing everything right off the bat can be tough, so there’s a convenient glossary section that pertains to each programming language, which you can refer to if you need a friendly reminder about something you’re working on.
Finally, there’s the “Scracth Pad,” which is a template form similar to what you find in each lesson that you can use to just experiment writing code and apply what you’ve learned so far.
Codeacademy Full Review
I have to give Codeacademy almost five full stars because I’ve taken beginner courses in programming, but I could never grasp the concepts or lessons because it just didn’t work for me in a classroom environment. I learned so much more with Codeacademy, and I can’t believe I got to do it for free.
I found that each step in the course would build upon the concepts learned as you progressed, which I really liked, and the instructions were simple enough to follow. It’s really rewarding to press “Run” and see that you’ve correctly written your code. I remember doing it in class with the Command Prompt and never fully understood what I was doing.
Personally, I’d love to see a course in PHP available from Codeacademy. I know they’re adding new stuff all the time and have done a lot of growing up over the past couple years, so I’m pretty satisfied for now. I’m actually really excited to get started on some of the other sections where I left off.
If you have any interest in learning to code, Codeacademy is a great place to get started. I highly recommend it for absolutely everyone. | [
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] | 836 |
Failure-to-thrive is when a child is not growing as expected. It does not include children who are small for their age. The exact definition is not completely agreed upon.
Children grow quickly in the first few years of life. A child with failure-to-thrive will have a height and weight that is well below other children of their age. Your child may have also had a normal growth pattern that began to slow down. Initially the child has similar height and weight than their peers but at follow-up appointments the child's height and weight does not keep up with their peers.
In general, failure-to-thrive means that a child:
- Is at or below the 3rd to 5th percentile for height and weight. T
- Has failed to grow as expected. This is shown by dropping two growth percentiles. For example, the child goes from the 75th percentile to below the 25th percentile.
Failure-to-thrive is split into several types according to the cause. Types include:
- Organic failure-to-thrive—caused by some other medical condition
- Nonorganic failure-to-thrive—occurs in children with no known medical condition
- Mixed failure-to-thrive—occurs when the child has features of both organic and nonorganic failure-to-thrive
Gastrointestinal disease may make it difficult for your child to eat or absorb food. This may include:
- Reflux —stomach acid backs up into the throat. This can make it uncomfortable to swallow.
- Pyloric stenosis —valve on the stomach can not close properly, this can lead to reflux.
- Cleft lip and/or palate —birth defects of the lip and roof of the mouth, this condition can make it difficult to eat solid foods.
- Hirschsprung's disease —a condition that can cause a blockage in the intestines
- Hepatitis —liver disease that can cause general fatigue and ill feeling
- Cirrhosis —liver disease that can cause general fatigue and ill feeling
- Pancreatic insufficiency—pancrease helps digestion of fats, if there is a problem, food may not be properly absorbed into the body
- Malabsorption—general problem in the intestines ability to absorb food
- Milk protein intolerance—inability for the baby to digest proteins found in milk, even if the baby is taking in enough milk it is not getting to the body
Kidney disease—can decrease your child's appetite and impair growth
- Urinary tract infection
- Kidney failure
- Diabetes insipidus
Heart and lung disease—can decrease your child's appetite and impair growth
Mucus Blockage in Lungs and Pancreas Due to Cystic Fibrosis-Contributes to Failure to ThriveCopyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.
Endocrine disease—can decrease your child's appetite or how the body processes food
- Thyroid problems
- Pituitary disease
- Growth hormone deficiency
- Infectious disease—can decrease your child's appetite and impair growth
- Breastfeeding difficulties including insufficient milk supply syndrome
- Chromosomal birth defects
- Fetal alcohol syndrome
- Lead poisoning
- Child abuse or negligence
- Parental ignorance
Factors that may increase your child's risk of failure-to-thrive include:
- Untreated medical conditions
- Poverty, including lack of available food
- Poor parenting skills
- Depression in the parent
- Severe family stress
- Slowed growth in a young child, including height and weight
- Slowed development, including late rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, walking, and talking
- Small muscles
- Weakness, low energy
- Hair loss
- Loose folds of skin
- Other symptoms related to an underlying medical condition
Failure-to-thrive is diagnosed based on following a child's growth. The doctor will plot your child's weight, height, and head circumference on standard growth charts. If the child falls below a certain weight range or drops two percentiles on the growth chart, the doctor will evaluate the child further.
If a medical condition may be the cause, the doctor will order further tests. The type of tests will depend on the condition.
Sometimes, a child must be hospitalized for a period of time to find the cause of failure-to-thrive. During this time the doctor will:
- Monitor the relationship between parent and child, paying particular attention to their behavior around feeding
- Set up a feeding schedule with an adequate amount of calories
- Make sure that an appropriate feeding technique is used
If the child can gain weight under these circumstances, this supports the diagnosis of nonorganic failure-to-thrive.
Treatment may include:
Treating a Medical Condition
Treating the underlying medical condition may correct failure-to-thrive.
Providing Extra Calories
Children who are malnourished may need liquid supplements. They can help to boost their weight and nutrition.
When a child is hospitalized for diagnosis, the hospital staff can also provide treatment. Nurses can teach parents appropriate feeding techniques. They may also show how to best interact with their child. If the child isn't hospitalized, parents can still have training sessions with a nutritionist or a nurse.
Parents and children who are having difficulty with their relationship may benefit from counseling.
To help prevent failure to thrive:
- Take your children to the doctor regularly to have their growth checked. This helps detect and treat failure-to-thrive before it becomes severe.
- Develop a good relationship with your child's doctor.
- Ask the doctor about proper parenting and nutrition for early in a baby's life.
- Your doctor may recommend parent-training sessions.
- Reviewer: Michael Woods
- Review Date: 09/2012 -
- Update Date: 00/91/2012 - | [
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] | 1,233 |
posted last year in Dev Platform category by Dongsun Choi
There are various techniques to improve the performance of your Java application. In this article I will talk about Statement Pooling Configuration and its effect on Garbage Collection process.
Statement Pooling allows to improve the performance of an application by caching SQL statements that are used repeatedly. Such caching mechanism allows to prepare frequently used statements only once and reuse them multiple times, thus reducing the overall number of times the database server has to parse, plan, and optimize these queries. A well-configured number of statements (maxStatements) to be cached can be as good as tuning the Garbage Collection. Now let's see how Statement Pooling can affect the Garbage Collection.
Why Check the Number of Statement in the Pool?
Often the size of the JDBC statement pool is set to the default value. Using the default value, of course does not usually lead to any special issue. But a well-configured maxStatements value can be as effective as GC tuning. If you are using the default maxStatements value and would like to optimize the use of memory, let's think about the correct statement pool value before attempting GC tuning.
As was discussed in Understanding Java Garbage Collection, a weak generational hypothesis (most objects quickly become unreachable and a reference from an old object to a new object is rare) was used as the precondition when creating garbage collector in Java. For the majority of NHN web services there should be a response within 300ms at the latest, unless it is a special case. Therefore, NHN web services are more applicable to the above situations than the general stand-alone type applications.
The GC Process between HTTP Request and Response
When developing a web service using web containers like Tomcat and other frameworks, the lifespan of objects created by a developer tend to be either very short or very long. Web developers usually write codes like Interceptor, Action, BO, or DAO (BO and DAO are generated and used as singletons from applicationContex in Spring, and are not the target of GC). The objects generated from these codes stay alive for a very brief time that exists between the time HTTP is requested and the time it has responded. For this reason, such objects are usually collected during Young GC.
There are also objects, such as singleton objects, that stay alive long enough to exist for the lifecycle of Tomcat. Such objects will be promoted to the old area soon after Tomcat starts running. Yet, when continuously monitoring web applications through jstat and the like, there are always some objects promoted to the old area during Young GC. These objects are usually used after being stored in the cache used for improving the performance of frameworks in most of the containers and projects. Whether the cached objects become the target of GC or not is determined by their cache hit ratio, not their age, so unless the hit ratio is 100%, they cannot avoid being promoted to the old area, even when the Young GC cycle is set to be long.
Among these caches, statement pooling affects the memory usage the most. If you are using iBatis, as iBatis processes all SQLs as preparedStatment, you will be using statement pooling. If the size of statement pooling is smaller than the number of SQLs being used, the cache hit ratio will decrease and result in cache maintenance cost. Objects that are reachable in the old area become the target of GC and will be retrieved, then will be regenerated during the HTTP request process, only to be cached and promoted to the old area. The full GC cycles are affected by this process.
Size of the Statement Objects
It would be safe to say that the size of a single statement object is proportional to the length of the SQL code processed by the same statement. Even for a long and complex SQL, the size of the object should be around 500 bytes. The object's small size would seem to have little effect on the full GC cycles, but such an assumption would be incorrect.
When you look at the JDBC specifications, each connection has its own statement pool (maxStatementsPerConnection), as described in Figure 1 below. So, although a statement object is as small as 500 bytes, if there are many connections, the statements cache may occupy the proportional amount of the heap.
Figure 1: Relationship between the Connection and the Statement.
(Though the statement has the ResultSet, it should be clarified that ResultSet is not an object for caching. ResultSet is allocated as null when rs.close() is called by iBatis, then retrieved in the young area during young GC.)
The Effect of Statement Pool's Cache Hit Ratio on the Full GC
A simple test program was created to assess the effect of cache hit ratio on the full GC. One cache hit ratio was set to 100% while the other was set to 50%. When the same amount of load was applied, the results presented in Table 1 and 2 were obtained.
In both cases, the occurrences of young GC were very similar but the results for the full GC was different. When the cache hit ratio was 100%, full GC occurred only once, because the number of objects promoted to the old area during young GC was small. When the ratio was 50%, full GC occurred 4 times because the number of statement objects promoted to the old area during young GC was high, as the objects were cached in the statement pool, then removed from the pool in LRU way, then cached again at the next request.
Table 1. Cache hit ratio = 100%.
Table 2. Cache hit ratio = 50%.
I would like to add one more thing. When the cache hit ratio is 50%, it violates the 2nd category of weak generational hypothesis I introduced previously. When low cache hit ratio causes frequent pool registration and subsequent removal, it means the statement object generated in the young area is being referenced in the pool from the old area, which leads to additional strain during GC because the card marking technique is used to manage the references separately.
In Lucy (NHN's internal Java Framework), the maxStatements value for statement pooling in Oracle and MySQL is 500. In most cases, 500 should be enough. However, when more SQL is being used, increasing the default value to meet such demand would be a way to improve the system efficiency (when using $(String replacement) for query on iBatis for the reason of table partitioning and the like, the number of queries must be multiplied by the number of partitioned tables).
However, when the default value is higher than necessary, this leads to a different problem. A higher value means more memory usage and higher likelihood of an Out Of Memory (OOME) occurrence.
In a situation where the number of SQLs are 10,000 and the number of connections are 50, then the total size of statement objects is about 250 MB. (500 byte * 50 * 10,000 = 250 MB). It should be easy to determine the likelihood of OOME occurrence by checking the Xmx configuration for the service in use.
What strategy do you follow to determine the correct number of statements to be pooled? Share your experience in the comments below.
By Dongsun Choi, Senior Engineer at Game Service Solution Team, NHN Corporation. | [
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] | 1,493 |
207. Yugoslavia Faces the Millennium: Conflict and Continuity
A decade after the fall of Communism, there remains little discussion within the public sphere of the fundamental differences that separate the states and societies of Western and Eastern Europe. This oversight is regrettable not only because it limits our ability to resolve problems in the Balkans, but also because that region is far more representative of the world at large than is Western Europe.
A case in point is the region's multiethnic demography, for which there are many historical and current parallels the world over. The uncritical, century-long rush to adopt the West European nation-state model has resulted in a steady succession of secessions, civil wars, and partitions not only in Central Europe, but throughout the former Soviet Union, as well as in East Timor, Eritrea, and Palestine. Today, many statesmen, journalists and scholars advocate ethnic separation as the only solution, even though it would involve population exchanges. Will "peace through partition" become the final solution to ethnic conflict in Afghanistan, Chechnya, Chiapas, Cyprus, Kurdestan, Macedonia, the Philippines, Rwanda, Sri Lanka, Sudan, and western Sumatra?
For the most part, granting autonomy has acted as a "safety valve" in retarding centrifugal forces among concentrated ethnic minorities. The examples of Kosovo, Northern Ireland, Quebec, Republika Srpska, Slovakia, and the six republics of Tito=s Yugoslavia however, suggest that such a solution is never truly "permanent" since it simultaneously perpetuates separate identities and offers career opportunities to those politicians who choose to exploit nationalism as a populist tool for coming to power.
In seeking entry into the European Union, the Yugoslav and other Central European successor states need to accept not only multiethnicity in their own countries, but recognize its reemergence in Western Europe and the rest of the "post-industrial" world. The past century offers numerous examples of the triumph of ethnic coexistence, especially in places like the Bukovina, Srem, Vojvodina, and prewar Bosnia, where a balance of power between ethnic groups simultaneously allayed minority paranoia while encouraging all groups to cooperate with one another. Where no such balance exists, interethnic stability depends heavily on the perception of protection afforded minorities by the rule of law, supplemented by the majority group's willingness to be deferential toward their search for security and reassurance.
The east-west dichotomy is also evident in distinctive manifestations of nationalism and liberalism. Whereas western media and statesmen routinely attribute Serb atrocities to a carefully nurtured "persecution complex," few observers recognize the pervasive sense of a deprived manifest destiny that weighs on the historical consciousness of all of the successor nations of the former multiethnic Habsburg, Ottoman and Tsarist/Soviet empires. One consequence is a militant and intolerant brand of nationalism that has justified discrimination and, sometimes, violence against neighboring ethnic groups. Another consequence is the inclusion of a purely nationalist agenda in the basket of borrowed western Enlightenment ideas, adopted by East Europeans without the necessary region-specific modifications.
The unfortunate result has been the simplistic equation of democracy with majority rule, shorn of such indispensable attributes as the rule of law, freedom of thought and expression, individual rights and toleration, and the obligations of civic responsibility. Admittedly, the combined Ottoman and Communist heritage partly explains the political immaturity of Balkan liberalism. But foreign critics who scoff at what Robert Hayden terms "constitutional nationalism" and the inevitable tyrannies of the majority that it creates forget that Western Europe (and its North American progeny) never experienced a prolonged period of foreign oppression. This distinction suggests that much of the Yugoslav successor states and Eastern Europe's other newly independent states will need a prolonged period of national independence before they can purge the demons of their subjugation by foreign multiethnic empires. These states could perhaps obviate or minimize the need for this evolutionary step by demythologizing their own history, redefining nationality to include all citizens regardless of ethnicity, and enriching the public perception of "democracy" with those attributes and obligations that protect the rights of all citizens.
Mass Media and Visual Imagery
It takes considerable optimism to advocate remolding a society's mentality, in this case to conform with Western models of nationalism and liberalism; to force an entire region to do so requires equally heavy doses of ethnocentrism and arrogance. Yet, if Central Europe is keen on integrating with the West, then it is incumbent on the region's elites to go beyond their uncritical appropriation of the nation-state model to embrace those patently universal Enlightenment values that make nationhood and popular sovereignty palatable for ethnic minorities. Established elites and media have played a crucial role in fashioning modern mass culture over the past two centuries. Moreover, over the past decade, most regional leaders have striven to adopt requisite institutional standards for membership in the European Union and NATO. The leverage therefore, already exists; it remains only that Western policy planners fully realize and encourage the implementation of these international standards and modern mass culture through a combination of school instruction and visual public media.
Visual media has been proven the most effective means of transmitting information and molding people's minds; in head-to-head competition it consistently trumps both print media and radio, both because of its easier accessibility and the didactic power of visual imagery. To their credit, democratic leaders in Serbia and the rest of Central Europe have identified access to visual media as an indispensable element for creating a Western-style civil society. Unfortunately, their realization stems from first-hand experience with the effectiveness of the government-controlled visual media in an authoritarian regime, where the country's silent majority relies primarily - and usually exclusively - on what it sees on television.
Western policymakers however, have consistently dragged their feet in responding to appeals for a visual component to the existing radio "ring around Serbia." Thus, Yugoslavia's Crown Prince Alexander bemoans intermittent encounters with Tony Blair, in which the British Prime Minister reassures him that "We're working on it!" Another example is the misperception of the State Department earlier this year of the effectiveness of Voice of America's television broadcasts into Serbia; the Department was sublimely unaware that the Milosevic regime had long-since eliminated their access to every relay transmitter in the country. Even a high-ranking VOA staffer expressed surprise upon learning that its television broadcasts reached only a few miles into Serbia, courtesy of a single transmission tower in Bijeljina.
The Omnicompetent State
The struggle for control of mass media highlights a third structural reality to which world policymakers have been slow to adapt, namely the ability of modern authoritarian regimes to culturally manipulate and criminally assault their own people. The emergence of what Gale Stokes has termed the "omnicompetent state" represents only the latest stage in the centuries- long, state-building process. Nor is it the first time its evolution has challenged the conscience of the international community. During early modern times the aggressive behavior of the first "great powers" promoted systemic paranoia and almost continuous international conflict. To address this problem, over the past century, the international community has contemplated applying universal standards of behavior inside sovereign countries. Notwithstanding isolated cases of unilateral, third-party intervention in Uganda and Cambodia, NATO's air offensive against rump Yugoslavia in 1999 represents a watershed in the enforcement of internationally recognized norms of conduct (as prescribed by the UN charter) within the frontiers of a sovereign state.
Journalist Seymour Hirsch is doubtless correct in attributing the resulting "Clinton Doctrine" to the worldwide mediation of CNN and other global agents of visual media. Yet another factor has been "U.S. leadership" that combines contrived appeals to national self- interest with a very real sense of moral outrage. Whatever the motivations, policy planners should certainly contemplate and, hopefully reinforce, the prospect of appending the body of international law to facilitate such humanitarian interventions in order to meet this latest, twentieth-century challenge posed by the state-building process.
The pivotal role that the U.S. has played in Yugoslavia over the past five years underscores a fourth development that demands constant attention, especially by its own policymakers. The dissolution of the Soviet Union marked two potential watersheds in the history of international relations: an abrupt halt to the five-century-long European arms race that began with France's invasion of Italy in 1494, and the usurpation of the balance of power by U.S. hegemony. Whether these developments will become fixed structures or merely temporary "conjunctures" will depend on how the U.S. handles itself on the international stage, especially in matters that challenge the pretensions and perceived interests of countries like France, Russia, or China. In the past, competing states have capitalized on the arrogant unilateralism of momentary hegemons such as Charles V, Louis XIV, revolutionary France and Wilhelmine Germany to reestablish a new balance comprising a coalition of major powers. So far, the U.S. has defied this dynamic by sustaining an ostensibly multilateral foreign policy in the Kuwait, Bosnia and Kosovo conflicts, as well as in less strategically significant humanitarian interventions around the world. Forestalling the re-assembly of a new bi-polar balance of power however, will take constant vigilance so long as stress remains between the U.S. self-interest and that of other great powers. The fateful faux pas of past hegemons suggests that the U.S. should limit overtly self-seeking initiatives (such as contravening the ABM treaty), while helping to construct a universal legal framework to promote an international status quo that seals U.S. hegemony.
If international law is the first resort of the strong, it is also the last refuge of the weak. Hence the tremendous advantages that such a framework offers to the states and societies of the former Yugoslavia. Once the U.S. and its allies have established the requisite parameters for collaboration, they can leave it to each of the newly former Yugoslav republics to set its own pace for aid and integration with the New Europe.
Charles Ingrao spoke at an EES Noon Discussion on May 2, 2000 | [
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] | 2,079 |
What are the risks of connecting to a hidden network?
A hidden network is a wireless network that is set to not broadcast its name (or service set identifier (SSID)). Normally, wireless networks broadcast their name, and your computer “listens” for the name of the network that it wants to connect to. Since a hidden network doesn’t broadcast, your computer can't find it, so the network has to find your computer. For this to happen, your computer must broadcast both the name of the network it's looking for and its own name. In this situation, other computers “listening” for networks will know the name of your computer as well as the network you’re connected to, which increases the risk of your computer being attacked.
Whenever possible, always connect to wireless networks that are set to broadcast and have some form of security. For more information, see How do I know if a wireless network is secure?. | [
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] | 198 |
Viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes
Enology - n. :a science that deals with wine and wine making
The V&E Department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. For over one hundred years the University of California has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. The continuing excellence of the Department has enabled California growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the Golden State to achieve its potential and become a premier wine-producing region.
Wendell Jacob Honors the Memory of his Father, Harry E. Jacob-- Former V&E Faculty Member.
Wendell Jacob Honors the Memory of his Father, Harry E. Jacob, Former V&E Faculty Member.
By Allison Chilcott
(Note: This article first appeared in Outlook 2005, the Publication of College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.)
Students and campus visitors alike will learn to identify dozens of varieties of grapes --including table, wine, and raisins -- when the Harry E. Jacob Demonstration Vineyard opens adjacent to the Robert Mondavi Institute for Wine and Food Science courtyard in 2008. The demonstration vineyard will serve as UC Davis’ primary vineyard education site for classes and tours hosted by the Department of Viticulture and Enology. This unique interactive learning center, to... | [
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2 entries found for shout.
To select an entry, click on it.
Main Entry: 1shout
Function: verb 1: to utter a sudden loud cry <shouted for joy> 2: to utter in a loud voice <shouted out the answers> - shout·ernoun synonymsSHOUT, SHRIEK, SCREECH mean to utter a loud cry. SHOUT suggests any kind of loud cry that is meant to be heard either far away or above other noise <we shouted to them across the street>. SHRIEK suggests a high-pitched, shrill cry that is a sign of strong feeling <the children shrieked with excitement>. SCREECH suggests a drawn-out shriek that is usually without words and is very harsh and unpleasant <the cats fought and screeched>. | [
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] | 171 |
Key: "S:" = Show Synset (semantic) relations, "W:" = Show Word (lexical) relations
Display options for sense: (gloss) "an example sentence"
- S: (n) bear (massive plantigrade carnivorous or omnivorous mammals with long shaggy coats and strong claws)
- S: (n) bear (an investor with a pessimistic market outlook; an investor who expects prices to fall and so sells now in order to buy later at a lower price)
- S: (v) bear (have) "bear a resemblance"; "bear a signature"
- S: (v) give birth, deliver, bear, birth, have (cause to be born) "My wife had twins yesterday!"
- S: (v) digest, endure, stick out, stomach, bear, stand, tolerate, support, brook, abide, suffer, put up (put up with something or somebody unpleasant) "I cannot bear his constant criticism"; "The new secretary had to endure a lot of unprofessional remarks"; "he learned to tolerate the heat"; "She stuck out two years in a miserable marriage"
- S: (v) bear (move while holding up or supporting) "Bear gifts"; "bear a heavy load"; "bear news"; "bearing orders"
- S: (v) bear, turn out (bring forth) "The apple tree bore delicious apples this year"; "The unidentified plant bore gorgeous flowers"
- S: (v) bear, take over, accept, assume (take on as one's own the expenses or debts of another person) "I'll accept the charges"; "She agreed to bear the responsibility"
- S: (v) hold, bear, carry, contain (contain or hold; have within) "The jar carries wine"; "The canteen holds fresh water"; "This can contains water"
- S: (v) yield, pay, bear (bring in) "interest-bearing accounts"; "How much does this savings certificate pay annually?"
- S: (v) wear, bear (have on one's person) "He wore a red ribbon"; "bear a scar"
- S: (v) behave, acquit, bear, deport, conduct, comport, carry (behave in a certain manner) "She carried herself well"; "he bore himself with dignity"; "They conducted themselves well during these difficult times"
- S: (v) bear, hold (have rightfully; of rights, titles, and offices) "She bears the title of Duchess"; "He held the governorship for almost a decade"
- S: (v) hold, carry, bear (support or hold in a certain manner) "She holds her head high"; "He carried himself upright"
- S: (v) have a bun in the oven, bear, carry, gestate, expect (be pregnant with) "She is bearing his child"; "The are expecting another child in January"; "I am carrying his child" | [
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Key: "S:" = Show Synset (semantic) relations, "W:" = Show Word (lexical) relations
Display options for sense: (gloss) "an example sentence"
- S: (n) skim (a thin layer covering the surface of a liquid) "there was a thin skim of oil on the water"
- S: (n) skim, skimming (reading or glancing through quickly)
- S: (v) plane, skim (travel on the surface of water)
- S: (v) skim over, skim (move or pass swiftly and lightly over the surface of)
- S: (v) scan, skim, rake, glance over, run down (examine hastily) "She scanned the newspaper headlines while waiting for the taxi"
- S: (v) skim, skip, skitter (cause to skip over a surface) "Skip a stone across the pond"
- S: (v) skim (coat (a liquid) with a layer)
- S: (v) skim, skim off, cream off, cream (remove from the surface) "skim cream from the surface of milk"
- S: (v) skim, skim over (read superficially)
- S: (adj) skim, skimmed (used of milk and milk products from which the cream has been removed) "yogurt made with skim milk"; "she can drink skimmed milk but should avoid butter" | [
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Imagine in this way! Theme defines MAIN STRUCTURE for whole site! Theme is something like structure for a Post, a Page or a custom post type, custom page,..! So far you know theme is really HTML code! In the end of Wordpress excute, it returns HTML code to browser, and browser display for you! That HTML is build based on theme file (index.php, header.php, footer.php, single.php)
Plugins use hook& filter to modify theme BEFORE we output to browser!
If you want to add social buttons to end of post! You can change single.php and add code to put some social button right below the_content()!
But you can make a plugin to use Wordpress's filter& hook to change HTML of post, to append you social buttons!
But what happen if you put plugin code in theme file? Assume you put some functions to render content into functions.php of theme! Then call those functions manually somewhere on your theme! Or even better, you can use hook& filter to auto change content without manually call in theme!
So as long as wordpress can include your code in someway, and run it! As long as your code run it, it can do anything for you via using hook& filter! Some simple plugins can quite easy to put into a theme file! But some big plugins are too bloat to put into theme file!
Then later, you decide to remove that function, you go to theme file and remove the code? Sound stupid, right? So we have plugin, it's a way to auto modify the running process of Wordpress to change content, to change database,...
Moreover, some hooks are runned before call theme so you can't put theme in theme file!
As long as you code is included by wordpress, wordpress runs it then return result! You can put that code in theme files, wordpress will call it for you! But if you package it as a plugin, you can easy install/deactive/remove without changing any theme files! Additionaly, you also keep your theme simple/clean!
So when you need to changing something, put it as a plugin if possible! Don't put it in theme files! | [
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Mubarak's Dream Remains Just That In Egypt's Desert
Originally published on Tue July 10, 2012 8:57 am
In the middle of southern Egypt's windy desert, wheat fields stretch as far as the eye can see on a 24,000-acre farm. It's part of a grandiose project called Toshka that was dreamed up 15 years ago by the government of Hosni Mubarak, Egypt's authoritarian leader who ruled the country for three decades before being ousted last year.
A key component of the Toshka project was to cultivate a half-million acres of farmland in the desert to deal with Egypt's rising demand for food. To irrigate the land, millions of dollars were spent building pumping stations and canals to draw water from nearby Lake Nasser, a vast man-made lake created by the construction of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River.
But mismanagement, corruption and Mubarak's eventual ouster have left Toshka and other projects languishing. Now, as economic hardship rises in Egypt, there's renewed interest in — and debate over — the Toshka project.
Building A New Community
In addition to his goal of cultivating farmland in the desert, Mubarak also sought to create new towns for Egyptians in this vast barren region, with hopes of persuading up to 20 percent of Egypt's population to move here.
"Toshka has a very specific importance, not only as a new area for people to move in, but also being close to the border with Sudan," says Mahmoud Abu Zeid, who heads the Arab Water Council in Cairo and was Egypt's water minister when Toshka was conceived.
"We need to have a new community there, an Egyptian community to live there. And also, you never know what happens between the two countries in the future," he says. "So it has a strategic aim, and also a development aim, supported by decisions from top-down."
Emma Deputy Bracy, a doctoral student in Cairo who is writing her dissertation on the project, says Mubarak saw Toshka as a social contract with young Egyptians.
"They called it 'the march to the desert,' and it was supposed to be literally a relocation of 20 percent of Egypt's population focused mainly on youth," Bracy says. It was also supposed to be a place to reintegrate workers who were coming back from places like Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Libya, she says.
But progress was slow, hampered by mismanagement, shady land deals and repeated delays in funding from both inside and outside Egypt. When then-Prime Minister Kamal el-Ganzouri — the project's key proponent — was replaced in 1999, the project was largely shelved.
Talk Of Reviving The Project
These days, what's left is a blue-and-white sign in the desert that has become an unintended monument to the project's abandonment. It reads: "New Toshka City."
Now, though, concerns over Egypt's weakening economy have prompted talk of reviving the project. Its key proponent, Kamal el-Ganzouri, was again named prime minister by the ruling generals, although he will be replaced when the new president, Mohammed Morsi, names his Cabinet.
"Ganzouri came back, and he's pushing the project right now very strongly, and encouraging different ministries to finish their plans and so on," says the former water minister, Abu Zeid.
Major hurdles remain, however. Critics say Egypt lacks the means to transport large quantities of wheat and other produce from Toshka to the rest of the country. Most of what the farms there produce now is exported because it's more profitable.
Nor is it easy to cultivate the land. Farm managers say the ground is salty and that it takes about three years to convert into soil that can be used for crops.
"If you want to take the natural conditions into account, probably any kind of solar-energy farming down there would make a lot more sense," adds Bracy, the doctoral student.
The Muslim Brotherhood — a movement in which Morsi was until recently a key leader — is also dead set against reviving the project, which it links to Mubarak's excesses.
Existing Farms Thrive
In the southern Egyptian city of Aswan, Mohamed Abdul Fattah, the secretary-general of the Brotherhood's political party, says the group has its own revival plan emphasizing tourism and agricultural projects in other locations.
"I've seen independent studies that show Toshka was doomed to fail to begin with," he says. "A lot of money went into it, but few jobs came out of it. So it's not just about the corruption."
Still, the handful of farms started up as part of the project appear to be thriving. One is Kingdom Agricultural Development Company, owned by Saudi Arabian Prince al-Waleed bin Talal, one of the world's wealthiest men.
Crop manager Ibrahim Dahrouk says the farm provides hundreds of jobs to local residents, including women. They earn between $6 and $9 a day, considered a hefty wage in these parts.
But unemployment is rampant in the nearby town of Abu Simbel, which has suffered because of the steep decline in Egyptian tourism since the revolution. Dozens of angry men recently staged a sit-in at the electric company there after the government hired out-of-towners for 60 jobs in the area.
Some of the protesters claimed if Toshka was revived, it would go a long way to eradicating poverty in Abu Simbel and other communities in southern Egypt.
Assad Abeid el-Majeed, the mayor of Abu Simbel, argues that Toshka is a national project that Egyptians should take pride in. The pumping stations and other infrastructure are there now, he says, and they should be put to use.
RENEE MONTAGNE, HOST:
In Egypt, a major concern for the new Islamist president is the economy. Since last year's revolution, jobs are harder to come by. The cost of living is rising, and fuel shortages are leading to lengthy lines at Egyptian gas stations. Such problems are not new. Former President Hosni Mubarak tried tackling economic hardships with grandiose projects like one called Toshka in southern Egypt.
The idea was to cultivate farmland in the desert and also expand living space for Egyptians, which for thousands of years has been centered almost entirely along the Nile River. But mismanagement, corruption and Mubarak's ouster have left projects like Toshka languishing. NPR's Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson traveled to the manmade oasis and filed this report.
(SOUNDBITE OF WIND)
SORAYA SARHADDI NELSON, BYLINE: Wheat fields in the middle of a windy desert stretch as far as the eye can see on this 24,000-acre farm called the South Valley Development Company. The crops here are fed by fast-moving canals, with water pumped in from Lake Nasser, the vast man-made lake created by the construction of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River. Other large farms carved out of the desert used the same irrigation network, which is part of the Toshka mega-project dreamed up by the Mubarak government 15 years ago.
Million of Egyptians were to be relocated here in what officials hoped would become a new Nile Valley. The plan was to build towns and factories, as well as cultivate a half million acres of farmland in this barren region next to Sudan, which like Egypt, is totally dependent on the Nile.
MAHMOUD ABU ZEID: Toshka has a very specific importance.
NELSON: That's Mahmoud Abu Zeid, who heads the Arab Water Council in Cairo. He was Egypt's water minister when Toshka was conceived.
ZEID: Not only as a new area for people to move in, but also being close to the borders with Sudan. I mean, we need to have a new community there, Egyptian community, to live there. And also, you never know what happens between the two countries in the future. So it has a strategic aim, and also a development aim supported by decisions from top-down.
NELSON: Emma Deputy Bracy, a doctoral student in Cairo who is writing her dissertation on Toshka, says the project was the Mubarak government's attempt at a social contract with young Egyptians.
EMMA DEPUTY BRACE: They called it a march to the desert, and it was supposed to be, literally, a relocation of 20 percent of Egypt's population focused mainly on youth, and it was supposed to be some sort of a safety valve for reintegrating workers into the population who were coming back from places like Iraq and Saudi and Libya.
NELSON: Then Prime Minister Prime Minister Kamal el-Ganzouri tackled the project with gusto, but progress was slow, hampered by mismanagement, shady land deals and repeated delays in funding from both inside and outside Egypt. Many of the projects associated with Toshka were shelved after Ganzouri was replaced in 1999.
An unintended monument to its abandonment is a blue-and-white sign that reads New Toshka City, posted in the middle of the desert. But the nearby farms started up as part of the project are thriving, with new plans to expand approved by the military-led government. One is Kingdom Agricultural Development Company, owned by Saudi Arabian Prince al-Waleed bin Talal, one of the world's wealthiest men.
In one harvested wheat field here, a giant John Deere tractor tills the soil for the next crop, which is to be peanuts. The Saudi farm's crop manager is Egyptian Ibrahim Dahrouk. He says it takes two to three years to prepare the salt-rich earth for farming.
IBRAHAIM DAHROUK: And now the soil has changed, there are green area, not like before. Big difference.
NELSON: The farm provides hundreds of jobs to local residents, including women who prune grapes from vines that form a canopy overhead. They earn between six and $9 a day, a hefty wage in these parts.
DOA'A MAHFOUZ: (Foreign language spoken)
NELSON: Eighteen-year-old Doa'a Mahfouz says she's thrilled to be working, given that jobs are scarce since the Egyptian revolution last year. She wishes the Greater Toshka Project will be revived to provide more jobs for her community.
Unemployment is rampant in nearby Abu Simbel, which has suffered because of the steep decline in Egyptian tourism since the revolution. The resorts where Americans and Europeans once flocked during trips to nearby temples and Lake Nasser sit empty.
(SOUNDBITE OF CROWD CHATTER)
NELSON: On a recent evening, dozens of angry men staged a sit-in at the local electric company after the government hired out-of-towners for 60 jobs in the area.
(SOUNDBITE OF CROWD CHATTER)
NELSON: One industrial supervisor here who declined to give his name adds that residents plan to ask the government to reactivate the Toshka project. He argues that if they did, it could go a long way to eradicating poverty in many communities in upper Egypt - not that the military-led government didn't try.
(SOUNDBITE OF PRESS CONFERENCE)
PRIME MINISTER KAMAL EL-GANZOURI: (Speaking foreign language)
NELSON: Kamal el-Ganzouri, who once again became prime minster under the military-led government, talked at length at news conferences like this one about the need to boost the economy and create hundreds of thousands of jobs. Egypt also was contending with its huge dependence on foreign wheat because of an agricultural shortfall. Former water Minister Mahmoud Abu Zeid says those factors make him hope that a Toshka revival is in the offing.
ZEID: Ganzouri came back, and he's pushing the project right now very strongly and encouraging the different ministries to finish that plan, and so on.
NELSON: But critics say Egypt lacks the means to transport large quantities of wheat and other produce from Toshka to the rest of the country. Most of what Toshka produces now is exported because managers there say it's more profitable. And the Muslim Brotherhood - a movement in which the new president Mohammed Morsi was a key leader - is also dead-set against reviving the project, which it links to Mubarak's excesses.
In the southern city of Aswan, the Brotherhood's political party's secretary general is Mohamed Abdul Fattah. He says the group has its own revival plan, which emphasizes tourism and agricultural projects in other locations.
MOHAMED ABDUL FATTAH: (Through translator) I've seen independent studies that show Toshka was doomed to fail to begin with. A lot of money went into it, but few jobs came out of it. So it's not just about the corruption.
NELSON: The Brotherhood's position irritates Abu Simbel Mayor Assad Abeid el-Majeed.
ASSAD ABEID EL-MAJEED: (Foreign language spoken)
NELSON: He argues Toshka is a national project that Egyptians should take pride in. The pumping stations and other infrastructure are there now, he says, and they should be put to use. Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright National Public Radio. | [
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] | 2,789 |
Where on Earth...? MISR Mystery Image Quiz #8
Here's another chance to play geographical detective! This Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) image covers an area measuring approximately 297 kilometers x 221 kilometers, and was captured by the instrument's vertical-viewing (nadir) camera on April 12, 2001.
A large river flows from the left side of the image, below center, and traverses the image, angling northeast toward the upper right. It then makes a hairpin turn and continues to flow in a generally southward direction near the right-hand side of the image.
Below are eight statements about this river, only some of which are true. Use any reference materials you like, and mark each statement true or false:
1. Within the image area, the river flows across an international boundary into an area where over 100 species of orchids grow.
2. The river's name in a particular language means "pacifier" in English.
3. Sedimentary rocks containing mineral grains that record changes in the orientation of Earth's magnetic field have been found north of the river.
4. At least one expert kayaker has perished attempting to navigate a deep gorge of the river.
5. The two highest named peaks within the image area are situated on opposite sides of the river; each has a maximum elevation of nearly 4000 meters.
6. The description of a mythical place in a 1930's British novel is thought by some explorers to have been inspired by a location on this river.
7. Scientists believe that 100 million years ago the region through which the river flows was farther from the equator than it is today.
8. In the 1920's, an expedition along the river searched for and successfully encountered a legendary 30-meter-high waterfall.
MISR was built and is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, for NASA's Office of Earth Science, Washington, DC. The Terra satellite is managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology.
A new "Where on Earth...?" mystery will appear periodically. The image also appears on the Earth Observatory, http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
, and on the Atmospheric Sciences Data Center home pages, http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/
, though usually with a several-hour delay.
Credit: Image credit: NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL, MISR Team.
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] | 538 |
Romanticism, Poe, and The Raven
The era of Romanticism spans from the late 1700's to the mid 1800's
following the French Revolution; therefore, "Romanticism" encompasses
characteristics of the human mind in addition to the particular time in
history when these qualities became dominant in culture. Romanticism
depicts an artistic movement which emerged from reaction against dominant
attitudes and approaches of the 18th century. Romanticism established
realism in literature through creativity, innovation, exploration, and
vivid imagery. By expanding beyond the definition of love, Romanticism,
accented by mystery, delves into the strange and fantastic aspects of human
experiences. "To escape from society, the Romantics turned their interests
to remote and faraway places; the medieval past; folklore and legends, and
nature and the common man." Edgar Allen Poe is noted as one of the few
American "Romantic" poets. Poe's poem "The Raven" portrays Romanticism as
characterized by emotion, exotica, and imagination.
A friend of Edgar Allen Poe, R. H. Horne, wrote of "The Raven", "the
poet intends to represent a very painful condition of the mind, as of an
imagination that was liable to topple over into some delirium or an abyss
of melancholy, from the continuity of one unvaried emotion." Edgar Allen
Poe, author of "The Raven," played on the reader's emotions. The man in "
The Raven" was attempting to find comfort from the remembrance of his lost
love. By turning his mind to Lenore and recalling how her frame will never
again bless the chair in which he now reposes, he is suddenly overcome with
grief, whereby the reader immediately feels sorry for the lonely man. The
reader pities the man's state of mind.
In addition to an emotional characteristic, Poe also portrays the
exotic. Exotic means "unnatural". Exotic means a raven that speaks only
one word. Exotic means a bird that refuses to leave and insists in staying
in one place. Finally, exotic means a life of torment of the speakers soul.
The man is drawn to the bird to seek an answer to the monotonous reply of "
Finally, "The Raven: is characterized by imagination. The man
imagines that a raven is a godsend, intended to relieve him of his anguish.
The man imagines that like all other blessings of his life, the bird will
leave. The man's imagination rebukes the bird. The man calls the bird a "
thing of evil". The reader imagines a lonely, frightened, old man who has
suffered a great loss.
"The Raven is a poem written during the Romantic Era. Romanticism
doesn't mean that a literary work has to be about love. Ironically, "The
Raven" is both "romantic" and from the "Romantic" period. Poe's poem is
about a man's "lost love". The man's emotions causes him to become exotic
(shouting like a maniac for the bird to take its leave) and finally to
imagine all sorts of weird things (a raven that refuses to leave and speaks
only one word; "Nevermore").
Partner sites: French Bulldog, Spanish school in Quito, and Wedding Speeches | [
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] | 708 |
(PDF 151 KB)
In recent years, scientists working at the intersection of two historically well-developed fields, retinal physiology and circadian biology, upended the conventional view of retinal organization with the confirmation of a nonvisual ocular photoreceptor system.
The fact that the eye has functions beyond image perception holds the potential to explain why a significant proportion of patients with progressive degenerative ocular disease suffer from sleep disturbances. An understanding of these non-rod/non-cone photoreceptors might also explain seasonal affective disorder (SAD), jet lag and depression in the blind. It has the potential to influence intraocular lens selection for cataract patients. “The shocker is, you don’t need rods and cones to synchronize your circadian clock to the local light-dark cycle,” said Russell N. Van Gelder, MD, PhD. “There’s this whole other photoreceptive system lurking in the retina entraining your circadian system.” Dr. Van Gelder is professor and chairman of ophthalmology at the University of Washington in Seattle.
The Eye Is a Camera, and Clock, Too
The notion of a parallel ocular universe began more than 80 years ago with the observation that blind mice continued to show pupil constriction in response to light.1 Over time, researchers at about a dozen labs worldwide pursued the idea that the circadian and classical visual systems process light information in different ways.
Russell G. Foster, BSc, PhD, chairman of both circadian neuroscience and ophthalmology at Oxford University, noted that by 2001, scientists had established the existence of a subset of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (referred to in the literature as either pRGCs or ipRGCs, intrinsically photosensitive RGCs) that regulate a variety of different responses to environmental brightness, including sleep propensity.
This small subpopulation of RGCs responds directly to light and relays information along the nonvisual pathway to the brain’s circadian pacemaker, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, Dr. Foster said. They do this by employing the photopigment melanopsin, which is believed to set the circadian clock and initiate other nonimage forming visual functions. Dr. Foster has shown that loss of melanopsin in the pRGCs attenuates circadian responses to light.2
Circadian drift. “All of this suggests that diseases that kill melanopsin-using photosensitive retinal ganglion cells will result in behavioral changes that are manifested as sleep disorder problems or difficulty adjusting to changes in the light/dark cycle,” said Dr. Van Gelder. This research expands an understanding of the circadian clock, which governs the human habit of sleeping at night and waking in the morning. That clock, said Dr. Van Gelder, does not naturally have a 24-hour period. “It requires a daily light signal to stay synchronized to the outside world. Without that, the body’s clock will drift on its own.”
Consider, he said, two patients with ocular disease. John has ganglion cell disease and Jane has outer retinal disease. On January 1, both of their internal clocks tell them to awaken at 7 a.m. On January 2, Jane’s clock sees the sun rise and awakens at the same time. But John’s clock can’t see the light signal, so he wakes up closer to 7:30. On day three he wakes up around 8. By day 24, John’s inner clock awakens him a full half-day later, at 7 p.m., while Jane is still rising at 7 a.m.
Counting sheep won’t help. The discovery of photosensitive RGCs may explain why John’s sleep cycle is perturbed, while Jane remains on schedule. “We suspect that sleep health and circadian health are probably dependent on the health of the optic nerves,” Dr. Van Gelder said. If the pRGCs are injured, it appears harder to keep the body’s clock synchronized. “They’re the only cells in the retina that encode brightness.”
If you were to place a mouse retina in a dish and expose it to light, from relatively dim to bright, the retina will respond linearly, functioning like a camera light meter, he explained. “This light meter controls at least three different aspects of physiology: circadian clock synchronization, pupillary light response and sleep. That is, it directly drives sleep and wakefulness in mice,” he said. “The obvious question is: What is the effect on human health if these cells are sick?”
Studies link glaucoma and sleep problems. One possible answer to that question comes out of a study conducted by Dr. Van Gelder himself, linking optic nerve disease to sleep disturbances.3 His study, which monitored sleep patterns in a population of blind children, found that optic nerve disease is predictive of increased daytime napping in young visually impaired subjects. “We saw kids with end-stage glaucoma who had a hard time adjusting to the wake/sleep cycle of the outside world,” Dr. Van Gelder said. “If you’re blind from an optic nerve disease, you’re nine times more likely to have significant daytime sleepiness than if you are blind from other causes.”
A study by other researchers found that melanopsin-using cells in rats died after researchers induced an increase in IOP. “The results,” the researchers write, “suggest that serious attention should be paid to the function of the nonimage forming system in glaucoma patients in the future.”4
Implications and Applications
The discovery of novel photoreceptors within the eye is leading researchers down a number of new paths. Here are three areas they’ve been looking at.
IOL SELECTION. Cataract surgery has been associated with improvement in the sleep/wake cycle, possibly because the pRGCs are maximally sensitive in the “blue” (480 nm) part of the spectrum, while the yellow discoloration of a cataractous lens may reduce transmission of available photons to the retina. This has implications for what Dr. Foster called “the general global move toward implanting yellow, blue-filtering lenses.” The impact of blue-filtering lenses is a question worth pursuing, he said, noting that circadian rhythms might be affected if these lenses reduce the amount of blue light available to the melanopsin pigment.
SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER. Ignacio Provencio, PhD, a professor of biology at the University of Virginia, studies the genetics of circadian rhythms and has discovered that a mutation in a gene that codes for melanopsin may play a role in causing seasonal affective disorder (SAD).1 This finding, said Dr. Van Gelder, could suggest that depression, common in the blind, may be a form of SAD. “Blindness,” he said, “may be like the effect of living in chronic winter.”
NONVISUAL LIGHT PERCEPTION. After ablating all rods and cones in mice, Dr. Foster and colleagues found that the mice were still fully able to constrict their pupils under bright light conditions.2 “These findings raise some important clinical considerations regarding the diagnosis of ‘complete’ blindness,” Dr. Foster said. “Clearly, any such diagnosis should take into account both visual and nonvisual elements, that is, the health and function of both the rod and cone and pRGC photoreceptive systems.” Dr. Foster advised that blind individuals who are found to be light sensitive should expose their eyes to sufficient daytime light to maintain normal circadian entrainment and sleep/wake rhythms.
1 Roecklein, K. et al. J Affect Disord 2009;(114)279–285.
2 Foster, R. G. et al. J Comp Physiol 1999;169:211–220.
How to Help Patients
Dr. Van Gelder advised ophthalmologists to be mindful of the potential interplay of certain ocular diseases and these novel RGCs. “We, as ophthalmologists, should expect that patients with advanced optic nerve disease may have difficulty synchronizing their lives with the light/dark cycle.”
Ask some questions. Therefore, he said, when physicians see patients who have a bilateral optic nerve disease, such as glaucoma, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy or optic atrophy, they should ask relevant questions: How’s your sleep? Do you feel in synch with day and night? Do you find yourself awake at inopportune hours and sleepy during others?
Consider a referral. Dr. Van Gelder advised referring patients who have trouble sleeping to a sleep disorder clinic. “This is a treatable disorder,” he said, citing the work of Alfred J. Lewy, MD, PhD, a psychiatrist at Oregon Health & Science University, who has been treating blind patients with melatonin for some 20 years.5
Though melatonin is available over the counter, Dr. Van Gelder cautioned ophthalmologists not to prescribe it without a referral to a sleep clinic because there are well-established treatment protocols. Melatonin will shift the clock, and shifting at the wrong time can actually make things worse, he said.
The point, said Dr. Van Gelder, is attending to those patients who suffer from sleep disorders. “We would never look at a patient with optic nerve hypoplasia without thinking they might have a systemic disease. But we don’t see a patient with end-stage optic nerve disease and immediately think that this person is at risk for sleep disorders. We should.”
1 Keeler, C. E. Am J Physiol 1927;81:107–112.
2 Foster, R. G. and M. W. Hankins. Curr Biol 2007;17:R746–R751.
3 Wee, R. and R. N. Van Gelder. Ophthalmology 2004;111(2):297–302.
4 Wang, H. Z. et al. Chin Med J 2008;121(11):1015–1019.
5 Lewy, A. J. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 2007;72:623–636. | [
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] | 2,200 |
Science subject and location tags
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Wednesday, 21 September 2011
An Australian seismologist says this week's trial of Italian scientists for failing to warn of a devastating earthquake could muzzle experts from sharing their knowledge in the future.
Friday, 27 August 2010
Australia's leading body responsible for monitoring space weather has dismissed claims that a massive solar storm could "wipe out the Earth's entire power grid".
Monday, 12 July 2010
Australian researchers develop software to let mobile phones communicate with each other where there is no reception.
Thursday, 18 February 2010
Society needs to learn from resilient ecosystems if it is to better cope with unanticipated shocks in the future, say experts.
Tuesday, 10 February 2009
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Monday, 9 February 2009
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Monday, 10 March 2008
We can expect an average three catastrophic, magnitude 9 or greater earthquakes around the world each century, according to a new study. | [
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] | 306 |
But in response to pressure from a student-led Native American alliance, Northwestern officials say they plan to form a commission to research Evans' connection to the one of the worst massacres of Native Americans in the country's history.
In 1864, Evans was territorial governor of Colorado when a militia of about 700 men attacked a temporary village of Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho people at Sand Creek. According to the National Park Service, the soldiers killed 165 to 200 Native Americans, about two-thirds of them women, children and elderly.
Known as the Sand Creek Massacre, it is considered one of the worst acts of genocide in the country's history and led to Evans' removal from his governorship after a congressional investigation.
According to the Native American and Indigenous Student Alliance at Northwestern, the university has ignored that part of Evans' history. Evans continued as a major benefactor and member of Northwestern's board long after details of the massacre came to light.
"Many institutions that have been around as long as Northwestern have issues like these," said Heather Menefee, 19, a Northwestern sophomore and the student alliance's co-president. "But it was surprising to me that you could go on the Northwestern website and look at the official biography of John Evans, and it didn't even mention his involvement in Sand Creek. It seemed like the university was erasing it."
While Evans was not directly involved in the massacre, many believe his actions as governor created an environment hostile to Native Americans, and his effort to cover up what happened that day was met with fiery criticism.
In a "Report of the Committee on the Conduct of War" published in the Chicago Tribune in 1865, Evans' testimony before the congressional panel is described as "characterized by such prevarication and shuffling as has been shown by no witness they have examined … for the evident purpose of avoiding the admission that he was fully aware that the Indians massacred so brutally at Sand Creek were then, and had been, actuated by the most friendly feelings toward the whites."
Northwestern spokesman Alan Cubbage said administrators have had "a fairly constructive conversation" with the students, who put together a petition asking the university to investigate Evans' past and wrote a scathing guest column about the situation that was published in the campus newspaper Jan. 23.
"The provost has asked several of our very renowned faculty members in the history department and other departments to offer advice about what sort of people should be on a study committee," Cubbage said. "We're looking at a committee that would look into the historical aspects of John Evans and his role in the Sand Creek Massacre."
Cubbage said the committee would include scholars from other universities.
Given the country's history, many universities have had to confront historical connections to slavery or to crimes against Native Americans. In 2003, for example, Brown University launched a Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice to investigate the university's relationship to slavery and the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Gary Alan Fine is the director of graduate studies in Northwestern's sociology department and also carries the title of John Evans Professor of Sociology. After receiving the professorship in 2004, Fine researched Evans and quickly learned of his connection to the Sand Creek Massacre.
He brought up the subject of Evans' questionable past during his inaugural lecture at the university and said he is pleased to see students pressing for a deeper investigation.
"I think the challenge for administrators now that they're taking it seriously is how much they want to embrace this," Fine said. "The model at Brown, which I think was enormously successful, is they made it a campuswide effort. They brought in all the interested parties — students and faculty and administrators and alumni and members of the African-American community — and used it as a teaching opportunity for Brown and also an opportunity to be part of a national dialogue."
Adam Mendel, 22, a Northwestern senior and co-president of the Native American and Indigenous Student Alliance, said his group is calling on the university to recognize Evans' responsibility for the massacre, establish a Native American studies program and create a scholarship fund for Arapaho and Cheyenne students.
Because Evans didn't give the order for the massacre — documents from the time show he was not even in Colorado when it happened — some question the extent of his culpability. Others point out that along with helping create and fund Northwestern University, Evans was a noted abolitionist who was appointed to the territorial governorship of Colorado by Abraham Lincoln.
But Mendel said his research paints a picture of Evans as a man eager to rid Colorado of Native Americans. A proclamation Evans sent out not long before the massacre authorized all residents of Colorado to "kill and destroy, as enemies of the country, wherever they may be found, all such hostile Indians."
"His proclamation speaks toward his policy toward the Native Americans in the area," Mendel said. "He had a hostile policy toward them, encouraged people to hunt and kill them. He didn't specifically order the attack, but he instituted policies that led to the attack. He was particularly out there, even for this time period. He was investigated by Congress and removed from office. Colorado's admission to the union was delayed for a few years because of this event."
Bethany Hughes, 31, a Northwestern doctoral student and member of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, is working on a research project about the massacre. She said that in addition to being territorial governor, Evans was a railroad magnate with a vested interest in making sure rail lines were built across Colorado and farther west.
She said that even after losing his governorship, Evans thrived thanks to his railroad operations — and Northwestern continued to receive money from him.
"It is a complex situation," Hughes said. "There have been great, positive outcomes of John Evans' actions — we have the university, we support scholarship and research and creativity and art. You can trace that all back to John Evans. But you can also trace back to John Evans the impact on a more specific community, the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes. To dismiss or not deal with this conflict and tension in John Evans' nature has been troublesome for Northwestern."
Cubbage said the university's provost and vice president for academic affairs will meet with some faculty members next week to discuss forming a commission to study Evans. He applauded the students for seeking an accurate historical investigation, given the wide-ranging information that is out there relating to Sand Creek.
"I think this was the worst act of genocide in the American context," Fine said. "Yes, there's a need for justice. Yes, there's a need for memory. A lot of things have been written about Sand Creek by amateur historians. Let's see what we can sort out through having enough resources to look at the appropriate archives and make a scholarly determination of what really happened." | [
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] | 1,398 |
created 08/26/97; revised 08/12/00, 07/22/03, 07/22/09
This chapter discusses how to multiply a vector by a real number (called scaling), and how this is used to construct unit vectors. Unit vectors are used to show direction in 3D space, and are essential for 3D graphics.
Change the elements of this column matrix: (3, 4)T so that the vector it represents is twice as long and remains pointing in the same direction. (Officially you don't know how to do this. Take a guess.) | [
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The number of children infected globally with HIV has decreased by more than a quarter (26%) between 2009 and 2011, however more than 90 percent of the 3,4-million children living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa.
Released yesterday (WED), the annual UNAIDS report revealed that there were 34,2-million people living with HIV in 2011, more than ever before, which they ascribed to the life-prolonging effects of antiretroviral therapy. An estimated 23,5-million of these people were living in sub-Saharan Africa, including 3,1-million children.
UNAIDS reported a number of other achievements including:
- An increase of 20 percent in just one year of people accessing ART (8-million);
- A 20 percent reduction in the number of people newly infected with HIV (2,5-million);
- A 24 percent decline since the peak in 2005 in the number of people who died from AIDS-related causes in 2011 (1,7-million).
Tuberculosis remained the leading cause of death among people living with HIV, despite it being a preventable and curable disease.
Young people aged 15 to 24 years accounted for almost half (40%) of all new adult HIV infections.
Globally, infection rates in young women 15 to 24 years old are twice as high as among men of the same age with a young woman acquiring HIV infection every minute.
There is agreement that this is mainly due to their lower economic and sociocultural status in many countries where women and girls are disadvantaged in negotiating safer sex and accessing HIV prevention information and services.
The statistics are:
- HIV is the leading cause of death for women of reproductive age wordwide;
- Only one female condom is available for every 36 women in sub-Saharan Africa;
- More than one third of women aged 20-24 years in low- and middle-income countries marry before they are 18 years old;
- Approximately 40 percent of pregnancies worldwide are unintended;
- Globally, less than 30 percent of young women have comprehensive and correct knowledge on HIV;
- Two thirds of the world’s 796-million illiterate adults are women;
- Between 11 and 45 percent of adolescent girls reported that their first sexual experience was forced.
A failure by many countries to implement and scale up some of the basic programmes that aim to reduce HIV transmission, was cited as a reason for the high rates of infection among those 15 to 24 years. These programmes include voluntary medical male circumcision, behavioural change programmes, condom promotion and key programmes for those populations at higher risk of HIV infection such as teenagers, men who have sex with men and injecting drug users.
Some achievements were also reported in sub-Saharan Africa where nearly 6,2-million people are receiving ART, up from just 100 000 in 2003. The most dramatic progress was in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya. In 2011, at least 300 000 people in South Africa were newly enrolled in treatment.
The report cautions that as more people start ART, concerns are growing about the possible increase in HIV drug resistance.
Low to moderate levels of transmitted drug resistance have been observed – increasing from one percent in 2005 to three percent in 2010. Recent surveys reported that among those initiating treatment in low- and middle-income countries, about five percent had drug resistance.
South Africa is listed in the report as one of eight countries showing a rapid decline in new HIV infections among children – 49 percent.
The majority of adult HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa resulted from unprotected sexual intercourse, including paid sex and sex between men.
The report also makes a case for treatment interventions to become increasingly community based. A systematic review of treatment programmes in sub-Saharan Africa reported that, on average, 70 percent of people receiving ART from specialist clinics were still receiving treatment after two years.
On the other hand, a Community ART Group model initiated by people receiving ART in Mozambique, to improve access and retention on treatment and decongest health services, resulted in 97,5 percent of people still receiving treatment after 26 months. | [
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] | 846 |
A New Drug to Manage Resistant Chronic Pain Monday, April 30, 2012
TAU develops "BL-7050" to ease the neuropathic pain of millions of sufferers
Neuropathic pain, caused by nerve or tissue damage, is the culprit behind many cases of chronic pain. It can be the result of an accident or caused by a variety of medical conditions and diseases such as tumors, lupus, and diabetes. Typically resistant to common types of pain management including ibuprofen and even morphine, neuropathic pain can lead to lifelong disability for many sufferers.
Now a drug developed by Tel Aviv University researchers, known as BL-7050, is offering new hope to patients with neuropathic pain. Developed by Prof. Bernard Attali and Dr. Asher Peretz of TAU's Department of Physiology and Pharmacology at the Sackler Faculty of Medicine, the medication inhibits the transmission of pain signals throughout the body. In both in-vitro and in-vivo experiments measuring electrical activity of neurons, the compound has been shown to prevent the hyper-excitability of neurons — protecting not only against neuropathic pain, but epileptic seizures as well.
The medication has been licensed by Ramot, TAU's technology transfer company, for development and commercialization by BioLineRx, an Israeli biopharmaceutical development company.
Targeting potassium for pain control
According to Prof. Attali, the medication works by targeting a group of proteins which act as a channel for potassium. Potassium has a crucial role in the excitability of cells, specifically those in the nervous system and the heart. When potassium channels don't function properly, cells are prone to hyper-excitability, leading to neurological and cardiovascular disorders such as epilepsy and arrhythmias. These are also the channels that convey pain signals caused by nerve or tissue damage, known as neuropathic pain.
With few treatment options available for neuropathic pain, Prof. Attali set out to develop a medication that could bind to and stabilize the body's potassium channels, controlling their hyper-excitability and preventing the occurrence of pain by keeping the channels open for the outflow of potassium. This novel targeting approach has been recently reported in the journal PNAS.
Inducing calm in the neurons
Understanding the mechanism that controls these channels has been crucial to the development of the drug. By successfully controlling the excitability of the neurons, Prof. Attali believes that BL-7050 could bring relief to hundreds of millions of patients around the world who suffer from neuropathic pain. The medication will reach the first phase of clinical trials in the near future.
In pre-clinical trials, BL-7050 was tested in rats experiencing both epilepsy and neuropathic pain and was found to be efficient in protecting against both when taken as a pill. While on the medication, rats were no longer affected by stimuli that had previously caused pain. Measures in the electrical activities of neurons also revealed that the medication was able to induce "calm" in the neurons, inhibiting pain pathways.
For more medicine and health news from Tel Aviv University, click here | [
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Biodegradable Transistors -- Made from Us Wednesday, March 7, 2012
Award-winning TAU research uses self-assembling blood, milk, and mucus proteins to build next generation technology
Silicon, a semi-conducting element, is the basis of most modern technology, including cellular phones and computers. But according to Tel Aviv University researchers, this material is quickly becoming outdated in an industry producing ever-smaller products that are less harmful to the environment.
Now, a team including Ph.D. students Elad Mentovich and Netta Hendler of TAU's Department of Chemistry and The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, with supervisor Dr. Shachar Richter and in collaboration with Prof. Michael Gozin and his Ph.D. student Bogdan Belgorodsky, has brought together cutting-edge techniques from multiple fields of science to create protein-based transistors — semi-conductors used to power electronic devices — from organic materials found in the human body. They could become the basis of a new generation of nano-sized technologies that are both flexible and biodegradable.
Working with blood, milk, and mucus proteins which have the ability to self-assemble into a semi-conducting film, the researchers have already succeeded in taking the first step towards biodegradable display screens, and they aim to use this method to develop entire electronic devices. Their research, which has appeared in the journals Nano Letters and Advanced Materials, recently received a silver award at the Materials Research Society Graduate Student Awards in Boston, MA.
Building the best transistor from the bottom up
Netta Hendler, Elad Mentovich, and Bogdan Belgorodsky
One of the challenges of using silicon as a semi-conductor is that a transistor must be created with a "top down" approach. Manufacturers start with a sheet of silicon and carve it into the shape that is needed, like carving a sculpture out of a rock. This method limits the capabilities of transistors when it comes to factors such as size and flexibility.
The TAU researchers turned to biology and chemistry for a different approach to building the ideal transistor. When they appled various combinations of blood, milk, and mucus proteins to any base material, the molecules self-assembled to create a semi-conducting film on a nano-scale. In the case of blood protein, for example, the film is approximately four nanometers high. The current technology in use now is 18 nanometers, says Mentovich.
Together, the three different kinds of proteins create a complete circuit with electronic and optical capabilities, each bringing something unique to the table. Blood protein has the ability to absorb oxygen, Mentovich says, which permits the "doping" of semi-conductors with specific chemicals in order to create specific technological properties. Milk proteins, known for their strength in difficult environments, form the fibers which are the building blocks of the transistors, while the mucosal proteins have the ability to keep red, green and, blue fluorescent dyes separate, together creating the white light emission that is necessary for advanced optics.
Overall, the natural abilities of each protein give the researchers "unique control" over the resulting organic transistor, allowing adjustments for conductivity, memory storage, and fluorescence among other characteristics.
A new era of technology
Technology is now shifting from a silicon era to a carbon era, notes Mentovich, and this new type of transistor could play a big role. Transistors built from these proteins will be ideal for smaller, flexible devices that are made out of plastic rather than silicon, which exists in wafer form that would shatter like glass if bent. The breakthrough could lead to a new range of flexible technologies, such as screens, cell phones and tablets, biosensors, and microprocessor chips.
Just as significant, because the researchers are using natural proteins to build their transistor, the products they create will be biodegradable. It's a far more environmentally friendly technology that addresses the growing problem of electronic waste, which is overflowing landfills worldwide.
For more technology news from Tel Aviv University, click here. | [
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] | 848 |
Climate Change May Lead to Fewer -- But More Violent -- Thunderstorms Tuesday, July 10, 2012
Number of flash floods and forest fires could increase with temperature, says TAU researcher
Researchers are working to identify exactly how a changing climate will impact specific elements of weather, such as clouds, rainfall, and lightning. A Tel Aviv University researcher has predicted that for every one degree Celsius of warming, there will be approximately a 10 percent increase in lightning activity.
This could have negative consequences in the form of flash floods, wild fires, or damage to power lines and other infrastructure, says Prof. Colin Price, Head of the Department of Geophysics, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences at Tel Aviv University. In an ongoing project to determine the impact of climate change on the world's lightning and thunderstorm patterns, he and his colleagues have run computer climate models and studied real-life examples of climate change, such as the El Nino cycle in Indonesia and Southeast Asia, to determine how changing weather conditions impact storms.
An increase in lightning activity will have particular impact in areas that become warmer and drier as global warming progresses, including the Mediterranean and the Southern United States, according to the 2007 United Nations report on climate change. This research has been reported in the Journal of Geophysical Research and Atmospheric Research, and has been presented at the International Conference on Lightning Protection.
From the computer screen to the real world
When running their state-of-the-art computer models, Prof. Price and his fellow researchers assess climate conditions in a variety of real environments. First, the models are run with current atmospheric conditions to see how accurately they are able to depict the frequency and severity of thunderstorms and lightning in today's environment. Then, the researchers input changes to the model atmosphere, including the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (a major cause of global warming) to see how storms are impacted.
To test the lightning activity findings, Prof. Price compared their results with vastly differing real-world climates, such as dry Africa and the wet Amazon, and regions where climate change occurs naturally, such as Indonesia and Southeast Asia, where El Nino causes the air to become warmer and drier. The El Nino phenomenon is an optimal tool for measuring the impact of climate change on storms because the climate oscillates radically between years, while everything else in the environment remains constant.
"During El Nino years, which occur in the Pacific Ocean or Basin, Southeast Asia gets warmer and drier. There are fewer thunderstorms, but we found fifty percent more lightning activity," says Prof. Price. Typically, he says,we would expect drier conditions to produce less lightning. However, researchers also found that while there were fewer thunderstorms, the ones that did occur were more intense.
Fire and flood warning
An increase in lightning and intense thunderstorms can have severe implications for the environment, says Prof. Price. More frequent and intense wildfires could result in parts of the US, such as the Rockies, in which many fires are started by lightning. A drier environment could also lead fires to spread more widely and quickly, making them more devastating than ever before. These fires would also release far more smoke into the air than before.
Researchers predict fewer but more intense rainstorms in other regions, a change that could result in flash-flooding, says Prof. Price. In Italy and Spain, heavier storms are already causing increased run-off to rivers and the sea, and a lack of water being retained in groundwater and lakes. The same is true in the Middle East, where small periods of intense rain are threatening already scarce water resources.
For more environment and ecology news from Tel Aviv University, click here. | [
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] | 752 |
U.S. ag wary as Monsanto heads to Supreme Court
The case also is important to regenerative medicine that relies on stem cell technologies. A stem cell by definition is a cell that can self-replicate, thus the case may answer the question of whether a patentee can control progeny of a patented stem cell, according to Antoinette Konski, a partner with Foley & Lardner's intellectual property practice group.
Monsanto, a $13 billion behemoth in agricultural seed and chemical sales, also sees the case as much bigger than itself.
"This case really centers on the question of twenty-first century technology such as what we bring in agriculture and other companies bring for say stem cell research or nanotechnology.... and how they're going to be handled under principles of intellectual property law," said Monsanto general counsel Dave Snively.
Because seeds self-replicate, creating progeny when planted, they are unlike more traditional patented products. Using a computer or smartphone does not create more computers or phones. But using a seed can make new seeds.
For generations all around the world, farmers have practiced the art of saving seed, holding onto some of the grain they harvest each season to plant in a subsequent season. The advent of patented biotech seeds has changed that as Monsanto and rival seed developers barred farmers from seed saving, arguing that if farmers do not buy new seed each year the companies cannot recoup the millions they spend to develop the specialty seeds.
Transgenic crops, which splices genes from other species into plant DNA, have given farmers crops that resist insects and tolerate treatments of herbicide, making killing weeds easier for farmers. The majority of U.S. corn and soybean acres are now planted with patented biotech seeds.
The case before the Supreme Court traces its roots to 1999, when Bowman decided to plant a "second crop" of soybeans after he harvested winter wheat from the farmstead he runs near Sandborn, Indiana.
While he used Monsanto's Roundup Ready engineered seeds for his main, or "first" crop, Bowman said he decided to use inexpensive commodity grain that he could purchase from a local grain elevator for his "second" planting of soybeans in late June. Yields are generally lower for late-planted soybeans because conditions tend to be more optimal in April and May.
The mixture of grain Bowman bought, which he dubbed "junk," carried no patent technology agreement and no directive prohibiting seed saving as do the bagged and branded soybean seeds sold by Monsanto and other seed companies. | [
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] | 521 |
With several of his inventions on display in the Smithsonian Institute, 67 patents to his name, and over 100 inventions, Ben Kleinerman, 91, radiates electrifying enthusiasm for improving the lives of others through his creative brainstorms -- from the quirky to the essential.
If there is one thing Ben Kleinerman is proud of, it's his unique role in Israel's victory in the 1967 Six-Day War.
He was the principal engineer and Program Manager of the KA-56 camera at Fairchild Camera Corp. at the time, and they had just developed a brand new technology. In the underbelly of a fighter plane, this special panoramic camera was equipped with their novel infrared-enabled Poromat film. An ingenious device, the advantage of this camera and its unique film was that fighter jets could do surveillance and reconnaissance missions, capturing images of the territory beneath them, instantly develop those pictures while still in the air, and then turn around and strike with amazing accuracy. Prior to the KA56, the reconnaissance plane had to first land and then develop the film, giving the enemy time to re-order the airfield, replacing decoys in the positions of the real metal planes.
The State of Israel sat in agonizing uncertainty, surrounded by seven countries whose military power far outweighed the skimpy Israeli Defense Forces.
The State of Israel sat in agonizing uncertainty, surrounded by seven countries whose military power far outweighed the skimpy Israeli Defense Forces. Brigadier General Mordecai Hod, Commander-in-Chief of the Israeli Air Force, commandeered Kleinerman's specialized camera, the KA56
The Egyptian air force was readying itself for battle, with some planes and hundreds of decoys made out of paper mache and wood stretched out on the tarmac. Israeli jets flew stealthily above, snapping infrared-sensitive pictures with their newly outfitted cameras, and within minutes correctly bombing with the short supply of bombs that they had.
The successful air strike crippled the Egyptian army and was a decisive factor in Israel's miraculous victory. Five days later, the war was over.
"After the war, General Hod came to the United States, to our offices, to personally thank us later on," Ben reminisces, "But I was already in Texas, working on the Mars Orbiter and Voyager, so I wasn't there to get his thanks in person."
Ben invented the forerunner of today's electric toothbrush -- only critics said it was the most ridiculous and useless thing they'd ever seen! If you remember the inconvenient days of single-use flashbulbs, you can thank Ben Kleinerman for putting you out of your photographic misery. He produced the first rechargeable flashbulb, the technology as used today.
Ben also invented a precursor for today's mega-million success story, Skype.
Ben also invented a precursor for today's mega-million success story, Skype; Telescan is a conventional telephone with a screen that allows you to watch your buddy shmooze with you. But again, the idea was shot down as rubbish by everyone except perhaps some fire and police departments and a few banks, who thought they might rustle up a small use for it.
"One day I got a letter from the Smithsonian Institute. They said they wanted me to send them some of my prototypes to display and they sent me some empty boxes to pack them into. We packed up some of my inventions, drove down, and the people at the Smithsonian were very nice and hospitable."
His works are still there. There's the TransiTape, the world's first fully portable, battery operated, all-transistor, 2-speed tape recorder. TransiTape was selected as one of the greatest inventions of the past 50 years and was exhibited at the Cooper-Hewitt Museum in NYC, sharing the spotlight with period greats such as the Washing Machine, Wonder Bread, and FDR, honored for Social Security.
The Cinesone is another classic, taking the technology of home-movie reels to new heights by giving it a voice. Before the Cinesone emerged on the scene, silent movies were the order of the day. Now, voice could accompany the moving picture, a radical and welcome upgrade. The Cinesone's debut model was Ben's oldest daughter, Kay, whose first birthday party is eternally preserved and on view at the Smithsonian Institute for visitors to marvel at -- a 400-foot, 16 mm tape reel filled with ten minutes of birthday scenery, Mankind's first ever audio-visual home presentation!
In 1964, he created an EKG machine so lightweight and portable that it was the size of a king pack of cigarettes, effectively replacing the bulky machines carried by doctors who made home visits, as was the style of the day.
The Cardio-Sensor didn't give a printable readout; instead, it was a cardiograph which allowed doctors to interpret a patient's PQRST heartbeat curve to quickly diagnose a problem. When the Cardio-Sensor device hit the market, the Cities of New York and Atlanta immediately purchased hundreds. In the shadow of the Cold War, city officials, worried about a Russian nuclear attack, wanted to be prepared for the grisly prospect of doctors arriving on the scene of catastrophe, urgently needing to differentiate between victims who were still alive and those who had already died.
WITH GENERALS CLARK AND EISENHOWER
Eastman Kodak worked with him to develop a patent that would make magnetic soundtracks unalterable, thereby preventing nefarious re-recordings. "While John F. Kennedy was in office, we took a speech of his, recorded it as magnetic sound on 16mm film. Kennedy had said, 'We will never bomb and attack Cuba.' The way the magnetic soundtrack works, it was very easy for someone to change his words to say, 'We will bomb and attack Cuba.' The apparatus detected the erased word 'never. We showed the world what could happen."
Next time you watch the Weather Channel, you'll see another Ben Kleinerman original, "The Green Screen," built by Federal Manufacturing and Engineering for CBS as a background projection system.
Ben also worked for years in the thrust and tailwind of World War II as personal field photographer of Generals Clark and Eisenhower, following them around Italy and Austria and capturing the minutiae of their lives. He rubbed shoulders with the rich and famous in his capacity as army photographer, an insider at all diplomatic events.
"I worked with Eisenhower. We went to see Hitler's Eagle's Nest in Austria."
"I was assigned to General Clark for almost four years and I was with him every day of the week. And while Clark was away, I worked with Eisenhower. We went to see Hitler's Eagle's Nest in Austria."
While courting his wife, Ben brought her to the Pentagon to see his handiwork; she was duly impressed. They were shown thousands of official photos take by Ben. In the circular room there was a selection of larger photos. Along with Joe Rosenthal's famous photo of the flag raising at Iwo Jima, there was Ben's photo of Hitler's Coffee Table at the Eagle's Nest being signed by General Eisenhower and seven other generals.
ALL IN THE FAMILY
Life hasn't been easy for Ben Kleinerman. In 1981, he was stricken with Guillain Barre disease, similar in nature to polio. While many victims die from the illness, Ben's lungs were not affected but he experienced total paralysis and could only move his eyelid. For seven months, he didn't move and he communicated with his family through his left eyelid. But he never complained.
Ben's son, Gavriel (Gil) built a piezo-electric device – a pressure-sensitive pointer that enabled Ben to signal once his left thumb began functioning -- which the hospital permitted for Ben's use. (Ben's dependence on oxygen meant no spark-producing devices allowed.)
Ben made a substantial recovery and hasn't looked back since his illness. His prolific patents, though nurtured with plenty of love and effort, pale in comparison to his true love -- his three children, Kay, Gavriel, and Janie, and his wife of 63 years, Margery, who shares his passion for inventions.
"I've always tried to get my wife involved in my inventing -- so many things are her ideas. She gives me a lot of inspiration."
Ben feels he has truly made his mark on the world and takes great pleasure in his work, especially in the inexplicable brilliance of Divine Providence that can only be detected many years later. Case in point: Ben's son Gavriel, Executive Vice President of Aish HaTorah, Jerusalem, sits in an office that overlooks the Western Wall that was liberated in 1967 with the help of his father's technology. | [
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] | 1,820 |
Bikinis are thriving but Lebanon's sea turtles are no longer on the beach
The number of sea turtle nests laid on the Tyre Coast Nature Reserve dropped by half from about ten to just five this year, raising concerns among conservationists that the threatened animals may be losing the battle for survival.
Reserve director Hassan Hamza described this nesting season as “weak,” but added that the small number of nests does not necessarily indicate a severe drop in population. He explained that the turtles’ normal breeding cycle is one to two years, resulting in peak and off-peak years.
Two endangered species – the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), and the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) – lay their eggs on Lebanon’s beaches. Last summer, a number of sea turtles died on Tyre’s shores due to pollution and problems arising from litter. A decrease in the population could lead to an imbalance in the marine ecosystem.
Nesting season usually lasts from May to October, with turtles returning to the place of their birth under the cover of darkness to dig a hole in the sand in which to lay their eggs. When the young turtles hatch, they head instinctively towards the sea, but can be fatally distracted by bright lights and noise.
Because the nests are beset by many dangers, a specialized team from the reserve continuously combs the beach to locate the nests, count them, observe them and protect them from human and animal attacks by fencing them in.
Collecting sea turtle eggs was reportedly quite profitable when soldiers from the island of Fiji served as part of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) until 2000. Some residents of Tyre’s coastal areas would collect sea turtle eggs – considered the most famous Fijian dish – and take them to their headquarters on the coast of Qlaili where the soldiers would pay exorbitant amounts of money for them.
To protect the eggs and guarantee easy movement for the turtles, the nature reserve management has struck agreements with resort owners along the coastline to protect nesting areas during breeding season.
Scientists from Italy collaborated with the reserve to organize lectures for local scientists, to raise awareness and provide guidance about the turtles’ value to the ecosystem and the need to protect them. These lectures stressed the importance of not polluting the sea and reducing light and noise in areas where turtles nest.
The reserve also spearheaded an awareness program for fishermen stressing the importance of keeping the sea clean and not throwing away oil or nylon bags that resemble turtles’ natural prey, jellyfish, and can end up choking the animals.
Sea turtles also sometimes get caught in nets and fishman are tempted to kill them to cut them out.
The nature reserve management is trying to create a permanent observatory to observe the turtle’s movement along the southern coast from Tyre to Naqoura. Their goal, they say, is to protect the sea turtles, welcome volunteers, train them and encourage tourists to visit the area.
Are the efforts of the nature reserve enough to protect Lebanon's sea turtles? Leave us your comments below! | [
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Dr. Girish Paniker, director of conservation research, School of AREAS, was among 3,000 scientists, professionals, educators, and students to participate in the 2010 International Annual Meetings of American Society of Agronomy (ASA), Crop Science Society of America (CSSA), and Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) held October 31-November 3, 2010, in Long Beach, California. The theme of this meeting was “Green Revolution 2.0: Food + Energy and Environmental Security”.
Dr. Panicker presented the results of his four-year research project on carbon buildup, nutrient management, and prevention of climate change and soil erosion, which is a major conservation issue on about 50% of U.S. croplands. The paper, titled “Rotation of Horticultural Crops on No-till and Conventional Plots and Buildup of Carbon and Plant Nutrients” was co-authored by Dr. Franklin Chukwuma, off-campus centers coordinator for the ASU Extension Program. The research findings of this project (funded by the USDA and to be completed in October 2011) contain highly valuable information on no-till horticultural crop production, and carbon and plant nutrients buildup. The information is useful for erosion prediction, nutrient management, and conservation planning on horticultural lands.
“The results show that climatic conditions of the southeast region allow one spring crop of sweet corn, two summer crops of watermelon, and a winter cover of hairy vetch to be successfully raised on the same plot within one year,” stated Dr. Panicker. “The technique developed is useful for residents who have plots. They can grow these four crops in one year in their backyards without having any farm machinery and even without a push mower. The crops can even be raised by elderly residents since no tilling is involved.”
Because of the utmost importance of the research, the presentation was selected by the American Society of Agronomy for online publication. It also covers the carbon/nitrogen ratio and residue management techniques for 36 horticultural crops, which are the major research components Alcorn has developed for the USDA/NRCS and USDA/ARS. Over five million dollars have been invested in this project in the last 18 years.
"Alcorn is the only university that has done this research work on horticultural crops, and the information collected is being disseminated through the Web sites of ASU, the National Soil Erosion Research Lab, Purdue University (Indiana), and the National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge,” shares Dr. Panicker. “This information is being used all over the world for erosion prediction, nutrient management, and conservation planning on horticultural lands. Another major part of the organic research work done with horticultural residues is being podcasted globally by the American Society for Horticultural Science.” | [
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] | 604 |
The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression
by Amity Shlaes
Challenging conventional history, Amity Shlaes offers a striking reinterpretation of the Great Depression that devastated America in the early part ... Show synopsis Challenging conventional history, Amity Shlaes offers a striking reinterpretation of the Great Depression that devastated America in the early part of the twentieth century. She shows how both Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt failed to understand the prosperity of the 1920s and heaped massive burdens on the country that more than offset the benefit of New Deal programs. From 1929 to 1940, federal intervention helped to make the Depression great by forgetting the men and women who sought to help themselves. In this illuminating work of history, Shlaes follows the struggles of those now forgotten people, from a family of butchers in Brooklyn who dealt a stunning blow to the New Deal, to Bill W., who founded Alcoholics Anonymous, and Father Divine, a black cult leader. She takes a fresh look at the great scapegoats of the period, from Andrew Mellon to Sam Insull of Chicago. Finally, she traces the mounting agony of the New Dealers themselves. Authoritative, original, and utterly engrossing, The Forgotten Man reveals how those dark years shaped both current political challenges and the strong national character that helps Americans to confront them. | [
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] | [
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] | 275 |
By: Ansar Raza
Structure of SGGS
Sri Guru Granth Sahib (SGGS) is the most respected and sacred book of the Sikhs. It contains 5894 hymns, called Shabads, composed in 18 ragas (musical patterns). Out of these 5894 hymns, 976 are by Guru Nanak; 61 by Guru Angad; 907 by Guru AmarDas; 679 by Guru RamDas; 2216 by Guru Arjan; 118 by Guru Tegh Bahadur; and 937 by the 15bhagats and bards. The 1430 pages of SGGS are divided into 33 sections.
The first section consists of three prayers: Japji—the Morning Prayer; Sodar – the Evening Prayer; and Sohela – the Bedtime Prayer. The next section is composed of the Bani of Gurus and Bhagats. Almost every verse of Bani of each Sikh Guru ends with the pen name of ‘Nanak’ as the author, whether it was composed by Guru Nanak himself or by the other Sikh Gurus who succeeded him. This was designed by Guru Arjan, for presenting oneness in the authorship of all the Sikh Gurus and oneness in the whole philosophy of Guru Nanak under the pen name of ‘Nanak’. Nevertheless, the identity of the contributing Guru is specified under their succession number to Guru Nanak. Each part is called Mahla by Guru Arjan. Thus, the contribution of Guru Nanak is identified as Mahla 1 as he is the founder of Sikhism; the verse of the Second Guru, Angad, is identified as Mahla 2 as he is the second in succession to Guru Nanak; the verse of the Third Guru, Amardas, is identified as Mahla 3; and so on. This system has been followed consistently throughout the main text of the SGGS.
Bhagat Bani section contains the Bani of 13 Bhagats (devotees) namely Kabir, Farid, Namdev, Ravidas, Trilochan, Beni, Dhana, Jaidev, Sain, Pipa, Sadhana, Ramanand, and Parmanand; 4 Sants namely Bhikhan, Surdas, and Sundar. These Bhagats were involved in the Bhagti Movement in the medieval India. They revolted against the malpractices in various religions of India. The Swayiae of Bhatts are grouped together under one section in the SGGS, followed by Mundavani (Conclusion or Seal).
The last section is Acknowledgments (Sloka). This is the end of the whole text of the SGGS in which Guru Arjan has thanked the Almighty for enabling him to complete this big task of compilation of the divine wisdom into a SGGS. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last Guru, declared SGGS to be the eternal and living Guru. The community called ‘Panth’ is considered the body with ‘Granth’ as its soul.
Recitation Types of SGGS
Daily recitation of the hymns of SGGS, morning and evening prayer, is called Shabad Kirtan.
An Akhand Path refers to the reading of the SGGS, with no breaks and in full from page one through to page 1430 over a pre-determined period of time. The period of time is usually within 48 hours, but there are also variants of the Akhand Path which denote different time spans.
The process of its compilation has been the subject of considerable discussion. The traditional view is that the Banis, (poetic sayings / writings) including the collected compositions of saints and mystic poets were passed down the line, successively from the first to the fifth guru and finally completed by the tenth Guru. The compilation of SGGS was accomplished in two stages. Its first compilation is known as the Adi Granth, compiled by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev in 1604 CE, known as ‘Kartarpuri Bir’. The second version, called ‘Damdami Bir’, was compiled in 1708 by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru out of his memory, when descendants of ‘Dhirmall’, grandson of Guru Hargobind Singh, the sixth Guru, refused to give him the original copy. Guru Gobind Singh dictated SGGS, to Bhai Mani Singh adding the Bani of Guru Tegh Bahadur, his father and the ninth Guru. He also compiled two books called ‘Dasam Granth’ and ‘Sarab-loh Granth’. The later, containing belligerent teachings incited Sikhs to fight against Moguls. It was kept strictly secret by Akali Nihang Sikhs. Near the end of his life, Guru Gobind Singh ended the line of human Gurus by investing the SGGS with the status of Eternal Guru and his official successor.
It is narrated that before his death, Guru Nanak passed on his writings and the collected compositions of the saints to one of his disciples and successor Guru Angad, earlier known as ‘Lehna’, who in turn passed on the collection along with his own compositions to Guru Amar Das the third Guru. The latter added his compositions to the collection. Guru Amar Das had two sons Mohan and Mohri and a daughter Bibi Bhani. Being the elder son Baba Mohan aspired to succeed his father as the fourth guru. However Guru Amar Das thought otherwise and nominated his son-in- law, Bhai Jetha, to be the fourth Guru and called him “Ram Das.” Baba Mohan seems to have sensed this in advance and was jealous of Bhai Jetha. It is believed that he laid his hands on the collected compositions including those of his father. They were not made available to Guru Amar Das for handing over to the fourth Guru on transfer of guruship. These collections are called Mohan Pothis.
When Guru Arjun was appointed as the fifth Guru, he only had the compositions of his father, his own and those of the saints which were presented to him. When he decided to compile the Granth, he needed the writings of the first three gurus and saints which were with Baba Mohan. He sent Baba Buddha and Bhai Gurdas, one after the other, to request Baba Mohan to hand over the books, but they returned empty handed. It is narrated that Guru Arjun then personally went to Baba Mohan and recited a Shabad praising Mohan who lived in a tall house. Baba Mohan was moved to hear the hymn. He came downstairs with the pothis (manuscripts) and presented them to the Guru. However, Prof. Devinder Singh Chahal, PhD, in his article “AAD GURU GRANTH SAHIB—Fallacies and Facts”, refutes this story as fabricated. He is of the view that these Pothis were already with Guru Arjun and the shabad attributed to him is in praise of God and not for Baba Mohan.
In continuation of the above story, it is narrated in Sikh history books, like Gurbilas and others, that the completion of SGGS was celebrated with much jubilation. Sikhs came in large numbers to see the SGGS. Among the visitors was Bhai Banno, who had led a group of Sikhs from Mangat, in western Punjab. Guru Arjun, who knew him as a devoted Sikh, instructed him to take AGGS to Lahore and have the Book bound. As Banno left Amritsar with his sacred charge, it occurred to him to have a second copy transcribed. The first copy, he argued, would remain with the Guru, and there must be an additional one for the congregation. His companions wrote with love and devotion and nobody shirked his duty whether it was day or night. By the time they reached Lahore, the second copy was ready. But Banno had added to it some apocryphal texts. On his return he presented both volumes and explained to Guru why he made another copy. But the Guru put his seal only on the volume written by Bhai Gurdas and installed it in the centre of the inner sanctuary of the temple on August 16, 1604.
Reason for Compilation of SGGS by Guru Arjun
The reason why Guru Arjun took initiative to compile AGGS was that a rival of Guru Arjun, Meherban son of Prithi Chand [elder brother of Guru Arjun], had started compiling and circulating his own Granth under the pen name of ‘Nanak’. The Sikh community started getting influenced by his compilation and respecting him as Guru. Sant Sewa Singh describes this event in his book “Guru Granth Sahib Darshan”:
“During the life span of Guru Arjun Dev Ji, Meharban, the elder son of Pirthi Chand had begun to write his own immature verse under the name of “Nanak”. The ordinary simple folks amongst the congregation were often confused and duped by this. They were at a loss to know how to differentiate real Gurbani from Meharban’s poetry as both pieces of verse had “Nanak” at the end. Meharban added his own poetry to the original verses of the first four Gurus under Nanak’s name and created a Granth.”
Different Versions of SGGS (Birs)
Regarding different ‘birs’ (manuscripts) of SGGS Mohinder Singh, Director, National Institute of Punjab Studies, Bhai Vir Singh Sahitya Sadan, New Delhi, writes in his article Conserving Guru Granth Sahib Manuscripts:
“Since printing or any other mode of making copies of the scripture were not available in those days, making handwritten copies of the bir was considered an act of religious merit. Devotees spent months together in copying the birs neatly for the benefit of the congregations. However, a survey of some of the rare Guru Granth Sahib birs pertaining to seventeenth and eighteenth century shows that in spite of Guru’s disapproval of the bir copied by Bhai Bano, some of the devotees also made its copies along with the Kartarpuri Bir.
Since the original Kartarpuri Bir was not given to Guru Tegh Bahadur by the Guru’s rivals, Dheermal and his supporters, the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh had to prepare another version of the Guru Granth Sahib, popularly known as the Damdami Bir, which also included a few hymns of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. It is this version of the Granth that provides the authentic text of the printed Guru Granth Sahib.
The first serious attempt at locating and cataloguing rare Guru Granth Sahib manuscripts was made by Sardar G.B. Singh, a high ranking official of the Indian Post and Telegraph Department. As an outcome of it, he published a book called, Sri Guru Granth Sahib Dian Prachin Biran, popularly known as Prachin Biran (rare manuscripts). In his preface to the book, G.B. Singh writes that he became interested in the study of rare Guru Granth Sahib manuscripts when the Sikh Sangat of Dhaka presented him with some rare Hukamnamas of Guru TeghBahadur during his visit to that place in 1915 A.D.
During his long tenure in the postal service, he tried to locate and study some more rare Guru Granth Sahib Birs while travelling to different parts of India. Since facilities like photocopying, microfilming or digitization were not available then, G.B. Singh took exhaustive notes himself. Whenever he found any writings in these manuscripts in the hand of the Gurus, he tried to make their copies faithfully by using the tracing paper and has reproduced these rare writings in his book referred to above. In the second part of his book, G.B. Singh mentions the rare manuscripts that he was able to go through during his research. These include rare manuscripts such as the Kartarpuri Bir, the Damdami Bir, Bhai Bano Bir, Bura Sandhu Bir, Pindi Lala Bir (destroyed during the army action in the Golden Temple in 1984), Dehradun Bir and other rare manuscripts at Agra, Mirzapur, Lucknow, Ayodhya, Allahabad, Burhanpur and Patna.
Even though the fifth Guru did not approve of Bhai Bano’s action of copying the Adi Granth, it is interesting to note that the devotees kept on making its copies since the original Bir, now known as Kartarpuri Bir, had gone into the hands of the descendents of Dheermal who did not allow its access to anyone. Under the circumstances, the devout Sikhs were left with no option but to make copies from the Bano Bir which was easily available. Therefore, we find many manuscripts of the Bano recession. According to popular belief, the original Bhai Bano Bir was kept with a family of Bhai Bano in village Mangat, District Gujarat (now in Pakistan). After the partition of the country, this Bir was temporarily kept in the house of one Bhai Mastan Singh in village Barot, District Meerut (U.P.). It was here that this Bir was examined by Bhai Randhir Singh, a Gurdwara Inspector of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandak Committee. Later on, this Bir was installed in a Gurdwara built in the memory of Bhai Bano in Jawaharpur, Kanpur. Bhai Vir Singh Sahitya Sadan, New Delhi, has six manuscripts of Bhai Bano Bir pertaining to different periods.
Prof. Devinder Singh Chahal, PhD Writes about this section of SGGS:
“After the Sloka (acknowledgments) there is a small script called Raag Maala (Musical modes). There is a lot of controversy about the authenticity of Raag Maala being a part of AGGS. As it is written after Mundanvani and the Sloka, which suggests the end of AGGS, therefore, it cannot be considered a part of AGGS under any circumstances. But according to the “Sikh Rehit Maryada” published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), Amritsar the “Bhog of Akhand Path” (uninterrupted recitation of the whole AGGS) can be performed after recitation of the AGGS up to Mundanvani including Sloka or recitation of Raag Maala could also be included. The SGPC left it to the choice of the Granthis (who recite the Akhand Path) or the individuals, to recite Raag Maala or not, till further decision is taken by the SGPC. About 60 years have elapsed since the above decision was taken; the controversy has not been resolved yet. Recently Gyani Gurdit Singh has again raised this issue in his book, Mundawani, which has been recently banned by Bhai Iqbal Singh, Jathedar of Takht Patna Sahib. His critical study indicates that it is not the part of the AGGS and Mundawani is seal of the AGGS.”
Languages of SGGS
The main language of SGGS is the Punjabi dialect prevalent about 500 years ago in northern India. However there are also some hymns in Persian, medieval Prakrit, Hindi, Marathi, Sanskrit as well as Arabic. All of these hymns are written in the standard Punjabi script known as Gurumukhi. However, the grammar used within the SGGS is unique to the scripture and is not found in standard written Punjabi. Prof. Devinder Singh Chahal, PhD Writes:
“The language spoken today in Punjab (India) is quite different from that spoken during the period between the 12th and 17th century when the Bani was composed by Bhagats and Sikh Gurus. Although the Bani was composed and written in the language spoken by the then people, with the time it has become very difficult to understand and interpret it now. Therefore, knowledge of old languages and their grammars is essential to understand the Gurbani in its entirety and originality.”
Reverence of SGGS by Sikhs
Guru Arjun directed that during daytime the Holy Book should remain in the Harimandir and by night, after, Sohila was read, it should be taken to the room he had built for himself. As evening advanced, Bhai Buddha recited Sohila and made the concluding ardas or supplication. The Granth Sahib was closed and wrapped in silks. Bhai Buddha held it on his head and marched towards the chamber indicated by Guru Arjun. The Guru led the congregation singing hymns. The Granth Sahib was placed on the appointed seat, and the Guru slept on the ground by its side. Daily, in the morning, the Holy Book is taken out in state to the Harimandir and brought by night to rest in the room marked for it by Guru Arjun. The practice continues to this day. But the volume is not the same. That original copy was taken to Kartarpur when Guru Arjun’s successor, Guru Hargobind, left Amritsar in 1634. There it passed into the possession of his grandson, Dhir-Mall. It has since remained in that family.
Some Sikh scholars criticize this practice. Prof. Devinder Singh Chahal, PhD writes about the reverence of SGGS by Sikhs:
“One of the reasons has been explained by Dr Gopal Singh that due to improper understanding of ‘Sabd’ (Guru’s Word) the Granth started to be worshipped more than read, uttered as a magical formula or a Mantram for secular benefits. Now in almost all the Gurdwaras in the world, whether they are under the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC), Amritsar or any other organization, the Aad Guru Granth Sahib (AGGS) is treated almost as an idol. However, the idol worship is condemned in Nanakian Philosophy. Moreover, I was surprised to note, when I was casually glancing through “The Cambridge Factfinder”, which says under the subheading of ‘Beliefs in Sikhism’ as: “Worship of the Adi Granth” as one of the beliefs [11 - p 411]. It appears that such is the impression about Sikhism in the printed literature.”
He further writes:
“The irony is that the Sikhs are following the historical information in which the ‘Sabd Guru’ has been successively changed to ‘Granth Guru’ to ‘Visible Body of the Guru’ to ‘Darshan Guru’. Consequently, the Sikhs started to pay more and more attention to ritualistic aspects to the ‘Granth Guru’ than on the deliberation on the philosophy given in the ‘Sabd Guru’… Guru Nanak’s observation that there would be very few Sikhs, who will deliberate on the Bani/Sabd to be called as Gurumukh, is so true today as it was then at the time of Guru Nanak. There are many (apparent) Gurumukhs, but rare are those who understand the Bani in its real perspective. Therefore, Guru Nanak thought it necessary to emphasize the importance of listening, understanding, practicing the philosophy embodied in the Bani (Stanzas # 8-15 of JAP) Guru Amardas also noticed that many Sikhs used to come to have his darshan (just to visit the Guru to see/meet him) but were not interested to listen to his philosophy:
All the humans of the world desire to behold the True Guru1. One does not get salvation by merely seeing (the True Guru1), unless one deliberates/contemplates on his Sabd (Word). AGGS. M. 3, pg. 594.
Guru Amardas clearly means that it is the ‘Sabd’ that is the ‘Guru’ not the human body as the ‘Guru’. The same situation is seen today when most of Sikhs visit the Gurdwara just at the time of Bhog, paying their respect to the Aad Guru Granth Sahib for a few minutes then go to Langar Hall.… Since the Granth has been declared as Guru more and more attention is being paid to treat it as an idol and to have its Darshan (seeing). Moreover, continuous recitation of the AGGS (Akhand Paath) is considered a mantram for their worldly benefits as pointed out by Dr. Gopal Singh or it has become a fashion to entertain relatives and friends but never for deliberation of Sabd to understand the wisdom given in the Sabd Guru.” | [
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] | 4,530 |
God's Creatures Ministry
By Richard H. Schwartz, Ph.D. November 6, 2006
Not only do animals benefit from our compassion and concern -we, too, benefit by becoming more sensitive and more humane, as Jews and people.
Jewish worshipers chant every Sabbath morning, "The soul of every living being shall praise God's name" (Nishmat kol chai tva'rech et shim'chah). Yet, some come to synagogue during the winter months wearing coats that required the cruel treatment of some of those living beings whose souls praise God.
To decide whether the use of fur is a significant Jewish issue, we should consider several related questions:
Judaism and Animals
Judaism has beautiful and powerful teachings with regard to showing compassion to animals. The following are a few examples:
Moses and King David were considered worthy to be leaders of the Jewish people because of their compassionate treatment of animals, when they were shepherds. Rebecca was judged suitable to be a wife of the patriarch Isaac because of her kindness in watering the ten camels of Eliezer, Abraham's servant. Rabbi Yehuda the Prince, the redactor of the Mishna, was punished for many years at the hand of Heaven for speaking callously to a calf being led to slaughter who sought refuge beside him.
Many Torah laws mandate proper treatment of animals. One may not muzzle an ox while it is working in the field nor yoke a strong and a weak animal together. Animals, as well as their masters, are meant to rest on the Sabbath day. The importance of this concept is indicated by the fact that it is mentioned in the Ten Commandments and on every Sabbath morning as part of the kiddush ceremony.
The psalmist indicates God's concern for animals, stating that "His compassion is over all of His creatures" (Psalm 145:9). And there is a mitzvah (precept) in the Torah to emulate the Divine compassion, as it is written: "And you shall walk in His ways" (Deuteronomy 28:9). Perhaps the Jewish attitude toward animals is best expressed by Proverbs 12:10: "The righteous person considers the soul (life) of his or her animal." The Torah prohibits Jews from causing tsa'ar ba'alei chayim, any unnecessary pain, including psychological pain, to living creatures.
Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, an outstanding 19th century philosopher,
author, and Torah commentator, eloquently summarizes the Jewish view on
treatment of animals:
The Pain of Fur-bearing Animals
Fur is obtained from animals who are either trapped or raised on ranches. Both involve treatment of animals that appears to be far from the Jewish teachings that have been previously discussed:
Animals caught in steel-jaw leg hold traps suffer slow, agonizing deaths. Some are attacked by predators, freeze to death, or chew off their own legs to escape. It has been said that one can get a "feel for fur" by slamming your fingers in a car door.
A Canadian Wildlife service report
gives an idea of the terror that trapped animals face and their
efforts to escape:
Over 100 million wild animals are killed for their pelts every year.
Many species of animals killed for their furs have become endangered or have disappeared completely from some localities.
Millions of animals not wanted by trappers, including dogs, cats, and birds, die in traps annually and are discarded as "trash animals." Many trapped animals leave behind dependent offspring who are doomed to starvation.
Treatment of animals raised on "fur ranches" is also extremely cruel.
Confined to lifelong confinement, millions of foxes, beavers, minks, ocelots, rabbits, chinchillas, and other animals await extinction nothing to do, little room to move, and all their natural instincts thwarted. The animals are simply a means to the maximizing of production and profit, and there is no regard for their physical, mental, or emotional well being.
Because of the enforced confinement and lack of privacy, naturally wild animals often exhibit neurotic behaviors such as compulsive movements and self mutilation. The animals finally suffer hideous deaths by electrocution by rods thrust up their anuses, by suffocation, by poisoning, which causes painful muscle cramping, or by having their necks broken.
According to the International Society for Animal Rights, Inc., to make one fur garment requires 400 squirrels; 240 ermine; 200 chinchillas; 120 muskrats; 80 sables; 50 martens; 30 raccoons; 22 bobcats; 12 lynx; or 5 wolves.
Is Fur Necessary?
Judaism puts human beings on a higher level than animals and indicates that animals may be harmed and even killed if an essential human need is met. However, is the wearing of fur truly necessary for people to stay warm during wintry weather? There are many non-fur coats and hats, available in a variety of styles, that provide much warmth. Imitation fur is produced at such a high level of quality that even among Chasidim there is a small but growing trend to wear synthetic "shtreimlach" (fur-trimmed hats).
Based on the prohibition of tsa'ar ba'alei chayim, Rabbi Chaim Dovid Halevy, Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv issued a p'sak (rabbinic ruling) in March, 1992, indicating that Jews should not wear fur.
Rabbi Halevy asked: "Why should people be allowed to kill animals if it is not necessary, simply because they desire the pleasure of having the beauty and warmth of fur coats? Is it not possible to achieve the same degree of warmth without fur?"
In his book, The Jewish Encyclopedia of Moral and Ethical Issues, Rabbi Nachum Amsel, a modern Israeli educator, states: "If the only reason a person wears the fur coat is to "show off" one's wealth or to be a mere fashion statement, that would be considered to be a frivolous and not a legitimate need."
Rabbi Amsel also points out that hunting for sport is prohibited because it is not considered a legitimate need (Avodah Zarah 18b).
The Talmud teaches that Jews are "rachamanim b'nei rachamanim," compassionate children of compassionate ancestors (Beitza 32b). One has to wonder if the wearing of fur is consistent with that challenging mandate.
Are the words of Isaiah valid today if we fail to show compassion to animals?
Even though you make many prayers, I will not listen. Your hands are full of blood. (Isaiah 1:12-15)
What kind of lesson in Jewish values are young people getting when they see worshippers coming to synagogue in fur coats on the Sabbath day?
Not only do animals benefit from our compassion and concern -- we,
too, benefit by becoming more sensitive and more humane, as Jews and
civilized human beings.
Return to Articles
Your Comments are Welcome
Fair Use Notice: This document may contain copyrighted material whose use has not been specifically authorized by the copyright owners. We believe that this not-for-profit, educational use on the Web constitutes a fair use of the copyrighted material (as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law). If you wish to use this copyrighted material for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
God's Creatures Ministry is committed to spreading God's compassion to all He has made based on The Scriptures. Although we are a Christian Ministry, we encourage all to have their own animal welfare committee in their community. We extend our resources to those who would like to learn more or begin their own God's Creatures Ministry as an extension of us. God created us to have a vegetarian diet and commissioned us to protect His animals. Instead, we have exploited them for our entertainment, fashion, appetite and useless, torturous research. These creatures have the right to live as they were created to live. Because we live IN this world, but are not OF this world, we strive to bring God's mercy and justice to all. We live in God's Kingdom now where Jesus, The Sacrificial Lamb, The Prince of Peace, The Lion of Judah reigns. We look forward to that day when all of creation will be 'set free from slavery to corruption and share in the glorious freedom of the children of God' (Romans 8:21) where a little child will lead and guide God's creatures (see Isaiah 11:5-9).
This site is hosted and maintained by:
The Mary T. and Frank L. Hoffman Family Foundation
Thank you for visiting all-creatures.org. | [
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] | 1,826 |
April 1957 | Volume 8, Issue 3
Five successive Benjamin Harrisons created a private empire of tobacco and trade and a great Virginia plantation
One of the very first plantations settled in the New World, Berkeley evolved out of the wilderness to become the demesne of the Harrisons—Presidents of the United States, governors of Virginia, a Signer of the Declaration of Independence, and an ancestor of Robert K. Lee. The Harrisons helped shape their immediate region into one of the most powerful and fabled sections of Virginia. Their home place sat between the Westover of William Byrd and the Shirley of the Hills and Carters; President John Tyler lived nearby, and when he was William Henry Harrison’s Vice President it was probably the only time in the country’s history that a President and Vice President had grown up in the same neighborhood. Both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson came to that section for their wives, and Lee’s mother was born there.
The aristocratic pattern which was to characterize the Old South was created in that region, and the first democratic form of government on the continent was introduced there. The men were America’s first Indian fighters, first patrician grandees, and first rebels, fighting the power of England a hundred years before the successful revolution. Underlying all things, they were the country’s first planters.
The southern plantation seems remote today, almost legendary, intertwined with the half-romantic and half-barbarous myths of the ante-bellum South. In these myths of the slaveholding South, the plantation seems always to have existed in some perpetual and semi-tropical feudalism, where time ceased in the slumberous heat, the seasons never changed, and the cast of characters in the white-columned mansions, identical on each plantation, were as impervious to the mutations of life as the characters in a familiar play. The protagonist was always Old Massa. Ridden with debts and vice and high personal honor, always booted and spurred, with a whip in one hand and julep in the other, this highborn and arrogant wastrel kept a harem of mulattoes, a stable of blooded horses (on which he repeatedly ruined himself by betting), and, when he wasn’t out duelling under the live oaks, he was entertaining friends with prodigal lavishness.
Actually, for this composite image, many gentlemen in the South would contribute aspects to the whole. Some were debt-ridden (as William Byrd III), some were always booted and spurred (as John Randolph even in the halls of Congress), some were addicted to drink and some to horse racing (as President Andrew Jackson), some were impoverished by hospitality (as Thomas Jefferson), and some had Negro mistresses (or there would be no mulattoes). Certainly all held a high sense of personal honor, and duelling in protection of personal honor was an established custom, though actual duels were few.
But plantations were neither developed nor maintained by men who embodied all these traits or only these traits. They were built by men who, with whatever weaknesses of the flesh, combined the qualities which have made for success throughout the ages-ambition and energy, self-discipline and resourcefulness, and the power to conceive boldly.
Stripped of romantic connotations, the plantation was both a large-scale agricultural operation and a commercial center. In Virginia, where plantations were first established, the money crop was tobacco. For this operation, the virgin forests were cleared, the seeds planted, the plants tended, the leaves cut, stripped, and hung; then packed into hogsheads made on the place and shipped to England from the private wharf. Besides marketing their own crops, the big plantation owners bought tobacco from the small planters, shipped it for export and brought in English goods beyond their own needs, which they handled as importers. In addition to tobacco, the planter raised food for his own people, who might number as many as 1,000. Some river plantations baked hard biscuits which they sold to ships’ crews, as on the plantation of the Berkeley Harrisons’ kinsmen. Artisans made the clothes from cotton and wool, tanned hides, built the outbuildings and sometimes boats, as at Berkeley Hundred. Kroni their sawmills the planter sold planks and clapboards to England.
The plantation master was also responsible for every detail in the total group life of his microcosmic world: he represented law and order, the Church, and the courts. The mayor, judge, sheriff, and preacher combined would not be so powerful as he. In combination with other planters, he formed the ruling bodies of his immediate country, and his state; and from their ruling class the planters sent their own chosen representatives to London or, later, Washington. If you accused the planter of not being democratic, he would look at you in surprise and say, “Of course not. I am an aristocrat.”
For all his aristocratic manner and belief, however, the planter was not the firstcomer to Tidewater Virginia; others had preceded him. First to come and settle Jamestown in 1607 were 105 “Gentlemen” and “men of the common sorte,” picaresque characters all, all of them in search of gold and adventure. Led by the resolute John Smith, they found nothing of the former and rather more of the latter than they had bargained for, together with disease, starvation, and danger from Powhatan’s powerful Indians.
Successive waves of adventurers, some stockholders in the Virginia Company, many indentured to pay their passage, made up the depleted ranks, but Virginia did not even begin to show signs of lasting until a sturdier breed arrived, of whom John Rolfe is a good example. Rolfe made himself a romantic place in history by marrying Powhatan’s tempestuous daughter Pocahontas, but a more significant one by experimenting with tobacco, which turned out in the end to be the real wealth of the new El Dorado.
Soon, maintaining an uneasy peace with the remarkable Indian leader, the colony spread out beyond the palisaded fort at Jamestown, and small holdings spread up the lazy James River, which became a sort of watery Main Street for the colonists. Now appeared in 1619 a boatload of indentured wives, sturdy but anonymous ladies from whom, apparently, no one in Virginia is today descended, but a welcome sign of permanence in their own time. And there was established this same year a kind of popular government, the House of Burgesses. This self-governing body would give England trouble later, but no more, certainly, than was foreshadowed for this new land by the arrival, also in the notable year 1619, of a shipload of black slaves from Africa.
It was in 1619 that Berkeley Hundred was founded as a private venture by a small group of English investors, headed by one John Smythe, Esq., of Nibley. To stave off failure, the Virginia Company had begun chartering settlements known as “hundreds” (either because a hundred acres was the basic grant for a share of stock or because 100 was the ideal number of settlers). At Berkeley, 38 settlers arrived after two and a half months on the ship Margaret, to build their settlement on a tract of 8,000 acres, stretching for three miles along the north bank of the James River. The next spring found the colonists living in split-log houses and experimenting with mulberry trees for silk and grape vines for wine, as well as with tobacco, while the English backers impatiently waited for the colony to become self-supporting. At this and neighboring hundreds, though the dream had shifted from gold to tobacco, the methods had not been discovered for the big killing. Probably the British financiers would never have discovered the way to colonial riches. As it happened, they were not given the opportunity.
The blow from which the Virginia Company and its proprietors never recovered occurred on Good Friday morning, March 22, 1622. By then the great Powhatan had died, and his brother, ferocious Opechancanough (Opie-can-canoe) did not feel bound to the truce. With the kind of wiliness that used to be associated only with the savage, he encouraged the whites to believe in the Indians’ friendship until he had them set up, off guard, for the stroke designed to annihilate the colony.
At breakfast time, at practically every holding in Virginia, groups of friendly Indians drifted in without weapons. At Berkeley Hundred they were received warmly and invited to sit down in the assembly hall for a breakfast of gruel. No white man or woman saw a signal given, but as if by some group impulse, the unarmed Indians suddenly snatched up the muskets which the unsuspecting settlers had propped in corners. The men fought hard for their lives but the records list eleven Berkeley settlers as “slayne.”
Many of the plantations were virtually wiped out. Small family units perished and their holdings were reclaimed by the brush. The college recently founded at the new city of Henricus, south of the river, and the iron works nearby were destroyed beyond repair. Only Jamestown was saved. A converted Indian warned an adventurer on the mainland, and this Richard Pace, with no poet to make a Paul Revere of him, rowed at daybreak to the island and saved the colony from destruction.
As it was, 347 of the 1,200 inhabitants were killed in America’s greatest massacre. Stored corn was burned in the crude barns, cattle and hogs were run off, and the wholesale disaster—just when the colony seemed to have turned the corner—was more than the Virginia Company could absorb. James the First, impatient for gain from this genesis of empire, withdrew the charter in 1624 and made colonizing the business of the Crown. With this change, the age of the yeomanry began to supersede that of the adventurer.
During the age of the yeomanry, half a century long, Virginia had her only approach to a classless society. Her citizens, in a soundly growing colony, formed what later became the stalwart middle class. Yet, even while the yeomanry enjoyed its hour, the men of the future were settling in Virginia. These were people of substance who dreamed of acquiring in the New World the positions of rank and privilege pre-empted at home by kinsmen. These were the embryonic plantation masters, who came with the baronial dream.
Of the first Benjamin Harrison only the barest facts are known. He evidently arrived in Virginia some time after the massacre and settled south of the James River. Of somewhat more substance than the average yeoman, he did not adventure to the colony with the means of, say Richard Lee and some of the later large landowners. He did, however, possess at least sufficient education to become clerk of the Council, he enjoyed sufficient standing in his locale to he elected to the House of Burgesses, and he laid the foundation on which his family was to rise into the ruling class.
The year following his occupancy of the clerk’s job Harrison bought 200 acres outright—a good average holding in that day of the yeomanry’s small agricultural operations—and at an unrecorded date he married a woman whom history can only know as Mary. She was illiterate, signing an X for her name, though this was typical for the times. Perhaps through his salary, more than through his small holding, Harrison prospered sufficiently to buy in 1643 a 500-acre grant on the south side of the James River, across from Jamestown. In 1645 his wife bore a son, and shortly after, on an unknown date and at an unknown age, this sire of Presidents died.
The second Benjamin Harrison came into the world with the arrival of the Cavaliers to Virginia. These elegant gentlemen, followers of the late King Charles I, came to Virginia as refugees from the rule of Oliver Cromwell. Virginians, loyal to the Crown and shocked at the King’s execution, welcomed the Cavaliers; the colonial governor, Sir William Berkeley, made them at home in his Green Spring estate, the first great house in the New World. The Cavaliers had a graciousness of manner, and a flair for fashion, which sonic of the natives admiringly noticed, and a taste for good living that was welcomed by those long exposed to the harshness of a dangerous frontier.
The second Benjamin Harrison’s world was influenced by these courtly Cavaliers and the elegant life they lived in Virginia during the harsh years of Cromwell’s Protectorate. But it was shaped even more decisively by the impact on Virginia of the Restoration of King Charles II. That irresponsible monarch, whose reign brought ease and gayety to England, brought disaster to the yeoman economy of Virginia. Viewing the colonies simply as a means of fattening the royal purse, Charles imposed restrictions on the tobacco trade which drove prices down to a penny a pound and ruined the small growers. The big planter could by volume operate on a smaller margin of profit.
To Benjamin Harrison II, growing into young manhood during these dynamic changes, the pattern of the big planters determined the course of his own ambitions. In his late teens, when Charles’s Navigation Act began to crush the small planter, Harrison was, in practical terms, among the relatively small himself—except that he did not think as they thought.
In any emergency for the many there is opportunity for the few. Harrison was among those men, of all ages, who can turn a time of crisis into personal advantage. Since profit depended on volume and volume depended on workers, he must get more workers: further, since profits from small acreage were insufficient for the purchase of new indentures or slaves, he must find another way to cash profit. He found it in trading and began to operate a river-front store.
A planter’s “store” was something of a combination wharf, tobacco warehouse, and importing storage house. Harrison had small boats built and he plied the bark creeks to take on the tobacco hogs-heads of small planters. In London, the tobacco would be credited against goods which he imported, and from his store some of the goods would be taken by the small planters in exchange for their tobacco. Some he sold for cash. He profited both from a charge on handling their tobacco and a markup on the goods. By these manipulations he established favorable credit balances with his British factor and could sell his own tobacco for cash—to buy more people and get more land. His operation would grow bigger, and he would be recognized as a planter of substance—“discreet,” as the coldly sagacious were called—worthy to share the honors and the burdens of the ruling group. Except for the few who came well endowed to the colony, this is the way they all got to be Old Maassa.
Harrison was still a young man when the yeomanry made its last stand against the domination of the planters in the affair known as Bacon’s Rebellion. Harrison appears to have stood outside that struggle, but two years after the rebellion was over he had done well enough to be given the profitable and honorable steppingstone of sheriff of his county. In 1680 he was sent to the House of Burgesses from Surry County.
Once in the government, Harrison showed himself to be as astute a politician as he was a planter. After serving five terms over a period of eighteen years, Harrison was established among the political rulers even before he was tapped for the Council at 53. As councilors were the recognized royalty of Virginia’s untitled nobility, Benjamin Harrison II had gone as far as there was to go.
He had won the top position himself in a life of steady, unobtrusive acquisition. Building soundly lrom the first 500 acres, and then his river-front store, he paid quit-rent on 2,750 acres in several working plantations, in addition to land settled on his sons. Though he seems to have tended less to conspicuous consumption than some of his more lavish-minded friends, he made the standard investments in silver and books and furnishings from England. He wanted of all things to do well by his children, and this he most certainly accomplished.
Benjamin Harrison II had married a lady named Hannah, whose last name, as with his mother, has remained undiscovered by the most diligent genealogists. Evidently she belonged to the class of his birth and not to the well-recorded ruling class to which her husband was striving. With her children it would be a different story.
Hannah Harrison’s children were trained for the large responsibility—to their estate, their class, their country (Virginia). They were born too late to remember the frontier. They matured as aristocrats with an inherited sense of privilege, a position of rule, and a dedication to sustain the existing order. One daughter married Philip Ludwell’s son, himself a Councillor, and from their union came an ancestor of Robert E. Lee. Another married “Commissary” Blair, commissioner of the Church to Virginia (unofficial bishop, as the Church never established Virginia as a diocese), founder and first president of William and Mary College, and long president of the Council. Benjamin Harrison III married the daughter of another Councillor, Colonel Lewis Burwell, who had done extremely well in land and indenture speculation.
In sterner times the purpose of training was not to postpone a child’s assumption of responsibility but to hasten it. The early growth was particularly developed on plantations. At his father’s river store—that combination of wharf, warehouse, and trading post—young Ben learned his ciphering and practical balancing of books. The knowledge of planting he also acquired in the same way, by observing and doing under tutelage. He had to know how tobacco plants needed to be guarded from suckers and worms and weeds, how the tobacco stem had to be cut in a single strong stroke downward and sliced off at the bottom, how the leaves were hung and graded as they cured in the sheds, and how the sizes were arranged for packing in hogsheads. It was not intended that young Harrison should ever work in the hot fields or roll a hogshead to the boat, but he must be able to judge tobacco and know when others were working poorly.
Reversing the English procedure, Benjamin III, the oldest son, left the home place, and established his line of the family on the north side of the river at Berkeley Hundred. He might have been sensible of the ghosts of the early settlers who tried to farm those acres before the Indian massacre, but the source of his attraction was that three-mile river front with a landing where “the big boats could ride.”
When Benjamin Harrison III was 27, he was given the special assignment of acting attorney general for the prosecution of criminals on trial, with the title of “His Majesty’s Council at Law.” He went up very fast. Within five years of his special appointment, he became treasurer of the colony, while already Speaker of the House of Burgesses.
His Berkeley Hundred house was commodious and well built, but neither pretentious nor designed for the ages. Around the time when William Byrd II became Benjamin Harrison’s neighbor, the big planters were just beginning to envision great houses as the crowning glory of their baronies. The Governor’s Mansion in Williamsburg perhaps inspired the idea of the splendor that was to come later. Then, too, as the planters began to buy slaves for the house as well as the fields, the families acquired the servants necessary to maintain a large establishment. Benjamin Harrison III had the servants before the great house. Along with his wharf and shipping enterprises, he worked eighty slaves at Berkeley plus twenty at his south-side holdings.
The broadly based sufficiency of his operations enabled his home plantation to run with such outward blandness that, on the surface, his life could appear to illustrate the idyll of the legend. Place him in one of those typical paintings of a life in thrall. There, with family and friends, playing cricket of a warm afternoon, the group figure would be frozen in time, as graceful and as lifeless as a pageant. The frame would contain the broad, shaded lawn, the background of the tidal river and a cloudless sky. To one side of the happy cricket players would stand a sleek, saddled horse, held by a brightly liveried Negro, and on the other side, to balance, little Ben Harrison IV, born in 1700, would be caught in some moment of childish grace with a fat Mammy beaming over him. Squarely in the center a Negro butler, with starched front, would stand smiling with a vast silver tray containing decanters and goblets. In the foreground the master, in silver knee breeches, blue silk-lined coat with silver buttons and linen neckpiece, would stand transfixed forever with a mallet in his hand while the sun, breaking through a willow tree, would fall like a nimbus upon his head.
Like the legendary image of the Old Massa, all these components existed, though scarcely in such idyllic arrangement.
The composite picture would fail to suggest what existed beyond its frame—the wharf and warehouses, tobacco fields and sheds, sawmill and stock barns, and the countless small buildings where wool was carded, hides were tanned, bread was baked, and hogsheads made. All that was outside the picture constituted the life of Benjamin Harrison far more than the idle hours passed on the shaded lawn.
Though no routine was fixed in Benjamin Harrison’s fluid pattern (except for going to nearby Westover Church on Sunday morning), his mornings usually started early with a conference with his overseers and an inspection tour of his fields. Some planters began the day by reading Greek or Hebrew, some by making love to their wives (as recorded in diaries); some ate a light breakfast and some ate heartily; none by record began the day with a hooker of rum or brandy, and all began the day very early—between five and six.
The long mornings were the least likely to be interrupted by visitors, and if house guests were around they amused themselves. After Harrison assured himself that his planting and subsidiary operations were moving as they should, he went to his wharf and shipyard, where masts for his boats were cut from nearby virgin timber. The buying of tobacco and selling of imports were closely under his own supervision, as was the shipping on the boats which he either owned or had interest in. His shipping of other planters’ tobacco was so extensive that his plantation came in time to be popularly called “Harrison’s Landing.”
Harrison had put in something close to an eight-hour day when, around two o’clock, the family gathered for the midday dinner. Unless they were entertaining specially, wine was not likely to be served, though before a heavy meal the master might take a hot rum toddy in the winter or a cooled punch in the summer. This main meal was the time for casual visiting with intimates.
In the afternoons, unless his visitors tarried, Harrison settled down to his greatest time consumer—letters to London and what amounted to bookkeeping. He, like other planters, engaged in constant wrangles with British factors, who regarded Virginia planters as existing entirely to be milched by English businessmen. Factors showed endless ingenuity in finding new charges for handling tobacco and imports, and, to be blunt, they cheated all except the most wary.
For his young son, Benjamin Harrison provided a school at Berkeley, to which planters in the neighborhood sent their boys of Ben’s age. Young Ben was still a boy when his father died suddenly at 37, leaving him heir to Berkeley.
Benjamin Harrison IV entered William and Mary, to become the family’s first college man. “The College,” established at the new capital, Williamsburg, taught him rhetoric, logic and ethics, physics, metaphysics, and mathematics. It was some time after he returned as master of Berkeley that he married Anne, daughter of Robert “King” Carter, the richest man in Virginia, owner of 330,000 acres, one thousand slaves, and large sums of cash. Although he neither needed position nor had an interest in politics, Benjamin Harrison IV accepted his class responsibilities as a member of the House of Burgesses.
Now in this generation, the dream of the private principality was completed with the erection of the baronial mansion to serve as the symbol and center for the new dynasties. The money was there; it no longer needed to be earned.
When the Harrisons’ neighbors built on either side, at Shirley and Westover, the new houses were erected near the site of the old, close to the river. From the living room at Shirley, you look right into the water. At Westover, the classically beautiful house is back about fifty yards on a broad lawn, so that the river, shaded lawn, and house form an open court of slumberous tranquillity.
The Harrisons abandoned the old site of Berkeley closer to the river and built the new house on a slight elevation nearly a quarter of a mile back, which gave to their foreground (it was not all lawn) a vast and impressive sweep. During the Civil War all of McClellan’s army—one hundred thousand men with animals, guns, and wagons—camped there between the house and the river.
At Berkeley, the walls, three feet thick, were laid in English bond below the water table and Flemish bond above. The unknown journeyman architect enclosed the top story with the first heroic pediment roof in Virginia, which he presumably copied from a bookplate of James Gibbs’s church at Derby, England.
The house at Berkeley was, in brief, an advanced representation of the greatest architectural flowering ever in an American colony. When Anne and Benjamin moved into their new house in 1726, the design of the baronial life of the Virginia planter was completed. They were, as far as they knew, as integrated in time as the country life of the British aristocracy on which they modeled themselves.
Harrison’s nearest neighbor, William Byrd, writing to a friend in England, described the planter’s life:
“Like one of the patriarchs I have my flocks and my herds, my bond-men and bond-women, and every sort of trade amongst my own servants, so that I live in a kind of independence on everyone but providence. … My doors are open to everybody … and a half-crown will rest undisturbed in my pocket for many moons together … we sit securely under our vines and figtrees … [and] can rest securely in our beds with all doors and windows open, and yet find everything exactly in place the next morning. We can travel all over the country by night and by day, unguarded and unarmed….”
Though Byrd might have been trying to sell himself on “the advantages of a pure air,” his description evoked the aura of the perfected plantation life in the age of the aristocrat when, on the surface, there was not even threat of internal conflict or whisper of change.
Byrd had said that they were independent of everyone but Providence, and it was an act of Providence that ended the idyll for Benjamin Harrison IV. In the summer of his forty-fourth year, a violent electric storm lashed Tidewater Virginia. Harrison was not alarmed by the storm, only mindful of the rain driving through the open windows on his imported furniture. Since no house servant was handy, the master went upstairs to close a bedroom window. He had been playing at the time with two of his daughters and took them along, one in his arms. Perhaps he was telling them there was nothing to fear as he approached the window. In the instant that he stood there, a bolt of lightning struck, and Harrison and his two little girls were killed instantly.
Benjamin Harrison V was an eighteen-year-old student at William and Mary College when his father’s death made him master of Berkeley. Tall and handsome, without the great weight that years would add to his frame, he moved with ease, grace, and the air of a born aristocrat. A genial good humor was the quality which his fellows most remarked in him, then as later.
For this fifth of the line, the plantation offered small challenge. From the beginning of his career, when he entered the House of Burgesses, he found politics his most absorbing interest. These were the years when the young Washington, whose marriage to Martha Custis made him a brother-in-law of Harrison’s wife Elizabeth Bassett, was making his reputation in the war with the French on the Allegheny frontier. In the political events of that struggle, and later in the growing contest with England, Benjamin Harrison found a natural field for his talents.
Harrison was a man of the committees. While others harangued across the green-covered table in the House of Burgesses wing, Harrison lounged at ease in the small rooms where a few men worked at the serious business of preparing bills to be presented. To the give-and-take of committee work, he brought a bluff equanimity, a forthrightness that gained force by his good nature. With his uncomplex nervous system insulated within his huge frame, Harrison smiled through wrangles that caused his friends to shout and sulk and grow damp under their tailored wigs. When business got snarled in personality clashes, Harrison broke the tension with a spontaneous line of bawdy humor. For a man who seemed to move so indolently, he was very quick verbally, especially in terms of humor. However, when business reached the point of decision, he was immovable in his firmness, and supported his position with a soundly practical intelligence.
Harrison was one of the class whose members, said a visitor, “are jealous of their liberties, impatient of restraint, and can scarcely bear the thought of being controlled by any superior power.” That was true enough. But despite his own imperiousness, cheerful Harrison believed that matters could be worked out with England so that he would be free of intruding control.
By the time the political struggle with England came to a crisis, Benjamin Harrison was a man of substance, heavy in body and broad in face, with a habitual expression of humorous benevolence. Neither political theorist nor rabble-rousing orator, the master of Berkeley Plantation was more typical than Patrick Henry or Thomas Jefferson of the men of estate who moved slowly in the decade from the Stamp Act protest to the formation of the extremely effective Committees of Correspondence between the colonies. His cousin, Richard Henry Lee, originally a conservative, took a bigger jump and joined Henry and Jefferson in forming the potent committee. But Benjamin Harrison, though he participated in the activist committee, was operating from the manor house of a dynasty of which he was the titular head as his cousin was not, and he was weighted with personal responsibilities that Henry never had and Jefferson never fully assumed.
When Virginia responded to the call for a Continental Congress, Harrison was chosen a delegate. In the hot August of 1774 he set out in his own fine planter’s coach, with two men on the box, for the long trip to Philadelphia.
In the three years that followed, Harrison had plenty of chance to observe the North and his northern associates to observe him. An acquaintance recorded the impressions Philadelphia made on Harrison and his friends: “They allow the City to be fine, neat and large … but they complain of the small rooms, uniformity of the buildings, and several other like faults. They call the inhabitants grave and reserved; and the women remarkably homely, hard-favored and sour!” Harrison personally offered to give a guinea for every handsome face found in Philadelphia, if anyone else would give a copper for every face that was not comely.
For their part, the northerners had some reservations about Harrison. He was, wrote John Adams in his diary, “an indolent, luxurious, heavy gentleman, reported to be … at home … a cornerstone in which the two walls of party meet.” Though certainly Adams did not mean this as a compliment, the description of Harrison’s function in revolutionary times would describe a very useful citizen, and his fellow Virginians so regarded him.
Even Adams conceded Harrison’s “many pleasantries” that steadied rough sessions of the Congress, and the big Virginian was almost continually made chairman of the Committee of the Whole, second in importance only to the presidency. It was Harrison, replacing John Hancock in the president’s chair, who solemnly read to the Congress the words of the Declaration of Independence.
“When the time of hanging comes,” the large Harrison said to small Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, “I shall have the advantage over you. It will be all over with me in a minute, but you will be kicking in the air for half an hour after I am gone.”
More than three years had passed since the Signer’s carriage had first carried him northward across the far Pennsylvania countryside. Now, as he started home, the cushions in the carriage were worn, the lamps no longer polished, and the homeward-bound planter, wrapped in a greatcoat against the winter’s chill, did not look—and probably did not feel—any part of the legendary master of a plantation.
No Harrison clan head had ever so diverted his attention from planting and mercantile enterprises. His long stretches away from home had made Berkeley almost an absentee-owned plantation, and the marks of neglect were visible. The planter, despite the later-day Virginian’s scorn of trade, was a trader and Harrison’s trading markets were cut off. He was living off capital. Harrison understood this but it was too late in the day for him to do anything about it.
In the war years the radical party of Henry and Jefferson had won political ascendancy at Williamsburg over the conservative party of Washington and Harrison. Jefferson believed that a landed aristocracy long entrenched in power grew stultified and protective of its own interest, without regard to the welfare of the commonwealth. Under his influence the Virginia legislature passed measures which shrewdly undermined those supports which had sustained the oligarchy in power. It liberalized the land-owning restrictions on the voting franchise to increase the popular vote; it abolished the English-inherited laws on entail and primogeniture; it separated Church from State in a Statute of Religious Freedom, which broke the community power of the Episcopal vestries.
In the traditional revolution, the aristocrat was destroyed by the people; in the American Revolution the Virginia aristocrat destroyed himself. In order to sustain his society, Benjamin Harrison had been led, step by step—often reluctantly, sometimes protestingly—into his present situation where, if his society were sustained at all, its idyllic quality was lost; and within the broken idyll his family had lost security. Along the way, there was nothing he could have done to change events. When issues he had fought became facts, he had adapted to the necessity and given of his time, talents, and fortune. He was Speaker of the House of Delegates when, in 1778, the military situation in Virginia grew seriously ominous. Two thousand British regulars, commanded by the traitor Benedict Arnold, landed by boat at the mouth of the James River and began a campaign of ravagement along both sides of the river. With the lion among them, the Virginians hastily dispatched Harrison to Philadelphia to plead with Congress for troops to defend them. It was Washington who made the painful decision to hold his army outside New York, to immobilize Clinton, and not come to the rescue of his countrymen.
Before leaving Virginia, Harrison had taken the precaution of moving his family from the exposed river plantation of Berkeley to the less accessible plantations of other members of the family. It was fortunate for the girls that he did. On January fourth, Arnold’s hard-bitten force disembarked at the foot of the wide lawn of Westover, where the shade of elegant William Byrd strolled in the evening, and pushed across to neighboring Berkeley by the path that the Byrds and Harrisons had so often followed when visiting in the olden days.
Arnold did not miss the chance to hurt a Signer of the Declaration and a close friend of the man he had betrayed. As a fellow American, he recognized the sensitive point of a Virginia aristocrat, and there was a subtlety in his cruelty which would touch Harrison without destroying his plantation’s future usefulness. He removed all the portraits from the walls and placed them on a bonfire in front of the mansion. That not only hurt the Signer’s family—for the planters spent heavily on journeymen artists to preserve their likenesses into earthly immortality—but also future historians seeking portraits of the Harrisons.
The festivities of the portrait fire incited the idling soldiers to practice target shooting on Harrison’s cows while frightened Negroes gathered in the nearby quarters. Since the Berkeley slaves belonged to Washington’s friend, Arnold directed his men to herd along forty of the likeliest and unknowingly dealt Benjamin Harrison a deadlier blow than the hurt to his pride. This capital loss (one third of his active slaves) was more than the fading fortunes of Berkeley could absorb.
By the end of the war, Berkeley had drifted into a state of muted splendor which characterized the older plantations of Virginia from the upheaval of the Revolution to the destruction of the Civil War. It was during this period that plantation life, observed by northern visitors when already in decline, assumed its mythical character. At Berkeley an outsider would find the hot land and the crops, the great manor house and outbuildings, the gardens and the river-bordered lawn, grazing animals and playing children, and the Negroes, wearing bright-colored cotton and speaking in soft, liquid voices, but the scene began to hold the hushed, slightly decayed quality of the legend.
No boats were built on the fortune-making docks, and few ocean-going trading vessels rode the swells of the tidal river. The gristmill and sawmill, the blacksmith shop, and what they called “merchant mills” still operated, but on the lackadaisical schedule of overseers. Produce was grown for the plantation’s people, providing that lavish self-sufficiency which gave plantation life its air of indolent abundance.
After Yorktown Benjamin Harrison was elected first governor of the independent republic of Virginia. In a period of painful readjustment the governor’s job was a hard, inglorious one, but the men who had made the Revolution did not feel that in conscience they could quit until the task was finished. Unlike Washington, whose years on the national scene had committed him to the cause of a strong union, Harrison still thought as a Virginian and, despite his great friend’s entreaties, opposed the Constitution that was drafted at Philadelphia. Yet when there was talk of a new revolution against the Constitution, it was Harrison who rose to the floor, his face red and puffy, his heavy body held with effort in its customary erectness, to urge them against any effort to overthrow the union that he himself had opposed. It was the gouty old gentleman’s last outstanding act for his country. Within three vears he was dead.
That genetic drive to plantation mastery which spanned four generations in Virginia faltered in the fifth, and Benjamin Harrison’s three sons did not want to work at planting, nor did any of his four sons-in-law. They still wanted to work, for they were not yet the idle generation, but the plantation was no longer a challenge to them. It was a home to support; a way of life rather than a career. The youngest boy aspired to be a doctor, the middle boy became a lawyer, and the eldest, Benjamin Harrison VI, heir to the home plantation, was an unstable young man who failed in a mercantile business he started at Richmond and returned to live at Berkeley. There, free at last to indulge his true gift for fine living, he revived high style in the manor house, as if land and slaves could be sold off forever. To him Berkeley owes the lovely Adam woodwork with which, in a gesture of gallantry, he replaced the sturdier and simpler paneling deemed adequate by his vastly rich grandparents. Berkeley was never more splendid than during his brief reign.
The younger sons of Virginia with energy and resourcefulness began to leave the state. Among those who migrated to a totally new area, the most representative—with typical Harrison adaptiveness—was the youngest of the Signer’s sons, William Henry, who became President of the United States and grandfather of another President.
William Henry Harrison was an eighteen-year-old medical student in Philadelphia when his father died and left him a tract of land in the original Berkeley Hundred. There was in the slim, well-made six-footer a strong strain of self-reliance. A child at home during the impoverishing dislocations of the Revolution, he had heard from his mother the tales of his ancestors’ greatness, and had formed early the ambition to excel on his own. The physical tumult of the Revolutionary fighting on his own land also exerted an influence on the impressionable boy, who at the age of eight had seen Benedict Arnold’s redcoats. Nothing would indicate more keenly the fading glory of the plantation than the choice of the son of the master of Berkeley to migrate west of the Alleghenies—the dividing line between civilization and the wilderness.
With a commission as an ensign in the Army obtained for him in 1791 by Washington, young Harrison rose fast in what Virginians called “the West” and won national fame for his victory over the Indians at Tippecanoe. He had inherited his father’s cheerfulness, generosity, and forthrightness, and it was simple to express his innate courtesy in the plain manners of the frontier. Too self-assured for snobbishness, he quickly put others at their ease. All of this caused him to be accepted as a simple son of democracy. As in the day of the big planters his ancestors became the biggest, in the day of the plain man William Henry became the plainest.
It was Harrison’s folksiness that the powers in the new Whig party seized upon as a campaign asset when they nominated him for President in 1840. The son of Virginia’s plantation aristocracy thus became “Old Tippecanoe,” the log-cabin candidate, and beat poor, foppish Martin Van Buren, who was born over a saloon, to the tune of:
And lounge on his cushioned settee.
Content with hard cider is he.
On his way to Washington, William Henry made a sentimental journey to his birthplace. He perhaps knew that Berkeley would not be much longer in the family. His 54-year-old nephew, Benjamin Harrison VII, had deeded the remnants of the plantation to the Bank of the United States for a twenty-thousand dollar debt, the top loan that could be made on the deteriorated property. The Signer’s grandson was living on in such fashion as he could sustain in the manor house he no longer owned.
Berkeley’s fortunes were beginning a long decline in which the land would change hands many times and the great house would fall into disrepair, its fine chairs split up for kindling by McClellan’s Union army and its beautiful old brick painted over with red barn paint. Not until another century dawned would the house at last fall into hands that would restore it with loving care as a relic of a distant past. By then the Harrisons’ last tie with Berkeley would have long since been cut and the name of Benjamin Harrison would have been made more famous than ever by William Henry’s grandson, a Republican and an abolitionist, whose rise to the White House began with his command of a Union brigade in Sherman’s campaign of devastation through the South.
All this lay in the future when William Henry Harrison, in February of 1841, returned to the great-roomed house and went into his mother’s bedroom, where he was born. From there he could look across the idle land to Westover, where the Harrisons and Byrds had walked together in other years, and where Benedict Arnold’s redcoats made their landing. From the shelves in that eastern room he took down the books he had studied in his youth and marked the classic quotations with which he loved to fill his speeches. Then, in the ancestral home that was fast becoming as remote from the pattern of American life as it was from his own later years, Berkeley’s most famous son sat down to write his inaugural address as ninth President of the United States. | [
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2005,
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1997,
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1969,
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262,
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2003,
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1986,
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] | 9,453 |
Advanced Placement Economics - Macroeconomics : Student Activities - ISBN 1561835676
Advanced Placement Economics: Teacher Resource Manual - ISBN 1561835668
The Council for Economic Education envisions a world in which people are empowered through economic and financial literacy to make informed and responsible choices throughout their lives as consumers, savers, investors, workers, citizens, and participants in our global economy.
Some of the areas in K-12 education we publish in include:
- Establishing and building credit
- Managing personal finances
- Understanding economics on a local, national, and global level
- Using economics in other subject areas: Social Studies, Geography, History, etc. | [
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] | 141 |
Edward Lear’s natural-history illustration won him scientific credibility. Now his nonsense verse may do the same
“How pleasant to know Mr. Lear,” begins one of Edward Lear’s poems. His bicentennary last year helped many people know him better, with multiple exhibits of his natural-history paintings and drawings.
Lear gained acclaim as an illustrator at age 19 for his work on parrots. Shortly thereafter, The Earl of Derby invited Lear to his estate near Liverpool to make portraits of specimens in his vast collection of exotic animals and plants. “Lear was somewhat lonely at Knowsley Hall,” says Robert Peck, a Lear scholar and senior fellow of Drexel University’s Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. “He was overwhelmed at times by the English social class structure.” To overcome this, he began making drawings and verses for the Earl’s grandchildren. Later he published the verses, but he used a pseudonym for many years. “He was concerned that the frivolous nature of his limericks would undercut his credibility as a scientific illustrator,” Peck says.
Those verses have recently come to seem a bit less frivolous. Margaret Wallace Nilsson, now a Ph.D. candidate in history at Linnaeus University, took up the question of how Lear’s poems might help children learn. “All children like repetitive rhyme sounds,” she says. “I thought, why not apply this to Swedish students of English? It might help them improve their pronunciation and, later on, be able identify new words with the same phonetical patterns.” In a 2011 master’s thesis for the School of Teacher Education at Kristianstad University in Sweden, Nilsson taught a control group of fourth graders a list of vocabulary words taken from Lear’s Nonsense ABC. An experimental group was asked to learn verses from it. “The children in the second group not only learned to recognize the phonetical sounds of the verses, but actually started to spontaneously rhyme other English words,” she says. When tested, students in the second group remembered words from the verses better. Nilsson thinks nonsense poems may help adult language learners as well. And she’s not alone in her interest. In 2012, Juliette Smeed of New Zealand Tertiary College in Auckland published an essay in He Kupu, an early childhood education journal, describing types of nonsense verse and discussing strategies for responding to children’s nonsense play.
Lear’s poetry and sketches often employed the scientific knowledge he cultivated for his “serious” work. Peck points to Lear’s “Nonsense Botany” series. “He’s playing with the Linnaean binomial nomenclature, the form of the flower and people’s love of flowers,” Peck says. “He could take this very serious scientific world in which he traveled and turn it literally upside down and make it fun for kids—and for everyone.” If Nilsson and others are right, Lear’s upside-down world may have more to offer than just fun.
Thanks to Harvard University's Houghton Library, we have a slide show featuring Lear's nonsense botanicals and other drawings. You can find it here. | [
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] | 697 |
Wildlife Research at the Ames Plantation
Ames Plantation is home to a wide array of wildlife, including species that are not usually found in western Tennessee. For example, eagles have been seen here. Rare species such as the painted bunting and Bachman Sparrow also have been seen at Ames. These animals require special habitats to support them. These habitats are often found in places associated with areas maintained to support quail populations or places where intense forest practices have been conducted.
On the other hand, game animals abound. Deer and turkey are abundant. Squirrels are numerous. And, of course, as home to the Nation Championship Field Trials, quail habitat is intensively managed to support excellent quail populations.
Research has been conducted on many wildlife species, including studies on mice, hawks, beaver, coyotes and deer, just to name a few. Wildlife research often requires that students be at Ames for weeks, and sometimes, months at a time. Students from the University of Tennessee, University of Memphis and Mississippi State University conduct research at Ames. Scholars from around the world come to see what is happening here.
A hunting program to manage big game animals is in place at Ames. Hunters have the opportunity to hunt deer, turkey and squirrel. Duck habitats and blinds are under construction.
Ames Plantation’s wildlife provides unique opportunities to observe, hunt or conduct research. Ames is place where wildlife can thrive. | [
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Best times to reach me: before 7:50, 9:20-10:00, after 3:00
WELCOME TO THIRD GRADE!!
Welcome to another exciting year! I look forward to working with you and your child in third grade.
Some FYI news:
Birthdays - We celebrate every child’s special day. If you would like to send treats there are 25 students in our class. Please be sure they are commercially packaged items.
Homework folders – Daily we fill in a chart outlining the day’s activities and the evening’s homework. Please take time to go over this each evening with your child.
Home Links – Most evenings there will be a math Home Link. Each is an extension of a skill we are, or will be, working on. These are not designed to frustrate parents! They are activities designed to explore possibilities; there is no one correct way for it to be done. It is also designed to allow families time to work together. Have fun!
Spelling – Each Monday your child will make her/his own personalized list. The first five will be class words, coming from a high frequency list, curriculum, or usage needs. The other five will come from each child’s writing. Throughout the week we will practice and use these words. Friday there is a test. The goal is to improve daily writing.
Word A Week–Wednesday evenings we will have a word-a-week assignment. This involves finding a short definition, writing a sentence, and creating an illustration for a “new” word. The following Friday we will discuss these words and then work on using them in conversation and writing. We are also always on the look out for Wondrous Words. If your child/family comes across a word that is particularly cool or interesting send the word to school on the gold wondrous words sheet.
Library check out – We are scheduled for library time on Friday at 10:15. We also encourage each child to visit the many public libraries in our area. Reading aloud to/with your child increases fluency, vocabulary and interest. This is a great before-bed activity. Computer time is scheduled weekly. (Wednesday/Friday) We will be reinforcing skills and learning new ways to use the computer.
Daily Reading Minutes – the best way to become a better reader is to read. Third grade encourages each student to read at least 75 minutes each week outside of school. This is about 10 minutes each evening. The day’s total is recorded in the homework folder. A weekly total will be taken as one indicator of reading progress.
Evening Writing – This year Bendix will be focusing on making our writing better. We will continue to work on mechanics, spelling, and content in school, but I will be asking that students practice these skills more in an authentic setting at home. A notebook will be coming home outlining the requirements of the evening write.
As you can see, we will be very busy this year. In addition to those things just described, we will be learning cursive handwriting and multiplication! There will also be time for lots and lots of fun.
If you have any questions please feel free to call
274-8218 x1221 or e-mail ([email protected])
See the links on the left for 3rd Grade curriculum, supply lists, and additional links.
8:15 - Opening
(Current Events, Birthdays, Picture books)
8:30 - Reading
9:15 - Specials
Day One: Music
Day Two: Phy. Ed.
Day Three: Art
Day Four: Phy. Ed.
10:00 - Snack and Silent Read
10:15 - Computer (Wednesday), Library(Friday)
10:20 - Writer's Workshop
11:00 - Math
11:50- Lunch and Noon Play
12:50 - Story
1:15 - Word Work/Spelling
1:40 - Social / Science / Health (T, W, Th)
Social: Cultual Studies, Map Skills, Geography
Science: Measurement, Sound, Human Body
Health: Let's Eat, When Bodies Have Problems, My Family, Your Family, Things You might Catch, The Better To See You
Word Work / Poetry (M, F)
2:20 - Homework Folders
2:30 - Class Novel
3:00 - Dismissal | [
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] | 928 |
News - Ocean Observations
Photo credit: Peter Rejcek
Posted: July 7, 2010
Courtesy: Antarctic Sun
By Peter Rejcek
Underwater robots and marine animals outfitted with scientific sensors are part of a proposed strategy for monitoring polar oceans into the 21st century, particularly a stretch of sea along the western Antarctic Peninsula, which is undergoing rapid climate changes.
The proposal comes in the June 18, 2010 issue of the journal Science by a group of scientists who conduct research in Antarctica, most of whom currently work on the Palmer Long Term Ecological Research (PAL LTER) program.
Since 1993, the PAL LTER has monitored the region near the U.S. Antarctic Program ’s Palmer Station , close to the northern end of the peninsula, mainly on an annual ship-based survey each January. The scientists suggest profound changes to the environment necessitate new ways to make measurements of the ocean and atmosphere.
For example, midwinter surface temperatures have increased by about 6 degrees centigrade in the past 50 years. Eighty-seven percent of the western peninsula glaciers are in retreat, and the sea ice season has shortened by nearly 90 days.
In their report, the scientists describe a multi-faceted approach to ocean observation, using glider robots that measure ocean characteristics continuously for weeks at a time and tourist vessels, ferries, and other “ships of opportunity†outfitted with chemical and biological sensors.
In the last few years, the PAL LTER program added autonomous underwater vehicles called Slocum gliders through a group from Rutgers University led by Oscar Schofield , who is the lead author on the review paper in Science.
“In just the first few weeks that we had the glider out last year, we collected as much data as the cruises had collected since 1993,†said Hugh Ducklow , a co-author of the Science paper and lead principal investigator for the PAL LTER, in an earlier interview with the Sun.
The authors also suggest outfitting oceanographic instruments on animals such as elephant seals and penguins to provide information on animal behavior and oceanographic conditions. Recent tagging of Adélie penguins nesting near Palmer Station has helped scientists understand the link between nutrient upwelling in underwater canyons and where penguins forage.
“We’re looking for ways to use our existing capabilities to obtain data,†said Ducklow, director of the Ecosystems Centerat the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL), in a recent press release from MBL. “Our goal is to make things cheaper and get a lot of them out there. This will help to narrow down uncertainty about the effects of warming on the polar oceans in the coming decades to century.â€
The authors concede that deployment of the observational systems will “require international cooperation given the scale of effort required; however, because many of the technologies have been demonstrated to be effective it is not unreasonable to believe that these networks could be deployed in five to 10 years.
“The benefits of better understanding the marine ecosystem, and being better able to predict, protect, and make use of its resources, are strong drivers to make this a reality.†| [
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Solar storms active, but normal
Illustration showing blasts of particles and magnetic field from the Sun that impact the magnetosphere, the magnetic bubble around the Earth (courtesy NASA).
Outbursts observed on the sun last week do not portend new problems for GPS reception or other systems as solar flares and eruptive events known as coronal mass ejections fire up during an increasingly active phase, said a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration space weather expert.
Widespread reports of last week’s solar activity, following a very tranquil period, may have created an impression that solar storms were unusually powerful, the expert said. Magnetic fields on the sun’s surface have intensified, showing up as increased sunspots and generating eruptive activity as a quiet portion of a well-known 11-year sunspot cycle ends.
“We have come out of such a quiet period that it’s pretty interesting from that point of view,” said Joseph Kunches, a space weather scientist for NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center. “The last outbreak was back in 2006. The sun has been pretty dormant.”
A ball of hot gas, the sun does not rotate as a rigid body. Turbulent effects of that uneven rotation can produce explosive results on the surface, Kunches said.
The recently noted outbursts featured a coronal mass ejection measured at Level 3 on a 1 to 5 scale for solar storms. Putting that in context, Level 3 events occur approximately 200 times during the 11-year cycle, with most outbursts clustered near the cycle’s peak, Kunches said.
Although a solar flare’s “lightning-bolt-like quick indication” can be the earliest evidence of a sudden release of energy on the sun, Kunches said, a more subtle development scientists monitor is whether a portion of the sun’s outer mass--its corona--has been blown off into space.
Such coronal mass ejections are “very directional,” sending a cloud of charged particles hurtling away from the sun. When a coronal mass ejection is observed “right in the middle of the sun,” watch for a plasma cloud to head for the earth, taking between 30 and 72 hours to arrive.
“Last week we had three eruptions from the center,” he said. “Some time later we felt the effects of those plasma fields that disturbed and energized the earth’s magnetic field.” Spaceweather.com reported that an Aug. 9 flare emanating from sunspot 1263 was followed by brief disruption of communications “at some VLF and HF radio frequencies.”
The potential for GPS interference exists because atmospheric noise generated by a coronal mass ejection can drown out the GPS signal, which may be unable to “punch through this mush of electrons.” Or, a GPS unit may seem to be working properly, but its indications are off by up to 50 meters, Kunches said. He consults this real-time map to monitor electron activity in the atmosphere.
Perhaps it was a combination of the solar cycle and the news cycle that generated the interest in solar activity, which, he said, “just wasn’t that big a deal last week.”
On Aug. 10, the Space Weather Prediction Center’s three-day report of solar and geophysical activity reported high solar activity for Aug. 8 and 9, but predicted low to moderate activity for the following three days as an active area rotated around the sun’s west limb.
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] | 754 |
Reishiki - the external expression of respect
In Iaido dojo you will practice with a wooden sword (Bokken), or a training sword (Iaito), or even a real Japanese sword with a cutting blade (Katana). There will be numerous people practicing, all in one room. Following the rules of etiquette ensures that no one gets injured. Also, following the rules of etiquette enhances practice in other ways. The teacher can more quickly determine skill levels when students line up in the order of rank. The ceremonial bowing serves as a concentration and focusing point; when bowing, practitioners shows respect for others. Maintaining observant silence allows students to focus their attention and practice reading body language. Cleaning the dojo after practice leaves it ready for the next group.
Always remember, reishiki comes from the heart and without sincere respect it will be only an empty gestures.
- Be on time.
- Do not make class wait.
- Finger and toe nails must be cut short and all jewelry removed.
- Remove shoes before entering.
- A sword should be untied and held in the right hand.
- Step directly in to the dojo.
- Do not block doorway.
- Stop and bow to Shinzen.
- Avoid drawing or pointing a sword toward Shinzen.
- Before practice, be sure your sword is in proper shape.
- Check the Mekugi.
- Place it at Shimoza (opposite side of room from shinzen) with the Ha to the wall.
- Never touch a sword without the owner's permission.
- Do not knock or step over any sword.
- The floor must be cleared and swept.
- Leave the Dojo ready for those who practice after you.
- Eating, drinking, and smoking are not allowed on the Dojo floor.
- When on the practice floor do not have private conversations other than iaido related subjects.
- Tell the teacher of any injuries or problems, or of having to leave early.
- Do not leave without permission.
- Do not speak when teacher is speaking.
- Thank the teacher.
- Show respect to other iaidoka (students)
- Do not draw directly towards others.
- Do not do anything that may distract or injure a fellow practitioner or spectator. | [
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] | [
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] | 484 |
What is a poster?
A poster is a “public” piece of paper conveying information through text (words) and/or graphic images (symbols or pictures). It’s usually designed to be displayed vertically on a wall or window and is large enough to be seen and read from a relatively short distance. Its main target audience is the person walking by. A poster must convey its message with immediacy and purpose, because people on the street are often in a hurry.
Posters are sometimes huge and can be seen from a long distance and may appear along highways (on bill boards) or on the sides of buildings. Posters may also appear in much smaller versions, sometimes like a postcard, and are called handbills. Whatever the size or shape, posters have a job to do and that is to convey information.
Posters carry many kinds of information:
- they may call the population to rally, revolt or celebrate (e.g. political or propaganda posters)
- they may alert citizens to health hazards or the presence of other dangers in the community (e.g. educational posters)
- they may announce the coming of a wonderful theatre, music or dance performance (e.g. marketing posters)
All effective posters must:
- grab your attention
- entice you to read the information they display
- present the information clearly and fully, so that you understand what the poster wants to say
- convince you to rally, revolt, take part, take precautions, be on the lookout or buy a ticket.
The marketing poster is an important tool in most campaigns to sell arts events to the public. | [
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] | 341 |
Turner created a revolution in painting at the beginning of the 19th century, responding to a modern industrial landscape with a freer style and new approaches to composition. Yet a lasting dialogue with the 17th-century painter Claude lay at the heart of these developments.
This exhibition offers the chance to compare closely related works by Turner and Claude and discover the extent to which Turner was inspired by Claude's mastery of light and landscape.
Works on display
'Turner Inspired: In the Light of Claude' is the most in-depth examination of Turner's experience of Claude's art to date.
The exhibition includes oils, watercolours and sketchbooks and introduces visitors to the story of the Turner Bequest and its importance in the history of the National Gallery. The final room of the show exhibits archive material dedicated to this relationship.
On his death, Turner left the National Gallery two paintings – Dido building Carthage and Sun rising through Vapour. He made the gift in his will on condition that the works were hung between two pictures by Claude, which he named as 'The Seaport' (Seaport with the Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba) and 'The Mill' (Landscape with the Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca).
Turner Inspired: In the Light of Claude is a National Gallery exhibition created in collaboration with Tate Britain. | [
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] | 279 |
Understanding Children Who Have Been Affected by Maltreatment and Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Both maltreatment and prenatal alcohol exposure result in lifelong impairments that significantly affect multiple developmental processes of school-age children, including language, social communication, social cognition, and executive functioning. This program provides a framework for the creation of more effective assessment and intervention processes for this population by speech-language pathologists and audiologists.
You will be able to:
- discuss the brain structures and functions that are affected by complex trauma and prenatal alcohol exposure and the relative effects on the developmental functions of attachment, affect regulation, and information processing.
- recognize sensory modulation difficulties in children with the potential to have maltreatment and/or prenatal alcohol exposure.
- use a framework appropriate for assessing the social communication of children who have been affected by maltreatment and prenatal alcohol exposure.
- discuss connections among emotional competence, alexithymia, and communication and language impairments.
- recognize cultural issues involved in appropriately identifying the occurrence of maltreatment.
- enumerate various ways the child welfare system affects the lives of the children and families who have been affected by maltreatment and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).
View the Table of Contents [PDF]
6/17/2012 to 5/3/2015 | [
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] | 265 |
kalash is a common sight in the Indian household, at the
altar. Any auspicious function has the kalash in place
is a kalash?
earthen or brass pot is a pot with an opening at one end
and is blocked to hold things, usually water. A pot is
empty, but has the potential to contain many a thing!
The pot thus represents the inert body, which when
filled with the water of wisdom becomes a fully
functioning body, capable of fulfilling life’s needs!
Kalash is a pot which contains water, on which a few
sprigs of mango leaves are placed at the mouth and
finally a full coconut also placed, with its head into
the mouth and the conical part of the coconut springing
out. Sometimes, this coconut is placed on a cloth
containing rice. A pot is tied with a thread across its
length and breath to form
small diamond shaped pattern.
kumbha (pot) when filled with rice representing
fertility and prosperity is called the poorna kumbha,
signifies completeness. It also could mean that water
and food that are needed to nourish our body.
is decorated with a symbol of swastika and filled with
water too. The ‘swastika’ a Sanskrit word literally
translates as swasti meaning the well-being of all and
‘ka’ meaning symbol. The swastika symbol that looks
alike from all directions, also represents the Sun-the
life giver. When portrayed on a pot of water, the kalash
automatically symbolizes power, the water being the
water of wisdom.
means prosperity, wisdom and divine consciousness, as it
is the waters of the seas that brings down the rain,
plants need water, and it is in the seas that in days of
yore, people conducted trades. A ship laden with goods,
even today is considered a fortunate symbol. Thus, the
kalash with water in it and the swastika symbol
decorated outside symbolizes the importance of both sun
and rains for a good yield of crops! The coconut placed
at the mouth of the kalash represents the vegetation
that grows with the help of sunlight and water. Although
some kalash contain a lotus flower, most have a coconut.
coconut trees dot the sea-shore and coastal areas are
incomplete without these trees. Coconut also known as
the Kalpa Vruksha is a tree whose every part is used by
humans. Tender coconut water is as sweet as nectar to
the parched throat and the shells in ancient days were
used to produce fire. The leaves are still used to cover
roofs in huts. The fine stalk in between the many leaves
is collected and toed around to form a broom! Need there
be any mention of the famed coconut oil? Little wonder
then why coconut is placed at the mouth of the kalash!
times, instead of mango leaves, the leaves of peepal
tree (bodhi-ficus religiosa), jackfruit leaves are also
placed. While the Bodhi or peepal tree is associated
with Buddha’s enlightenment, the mango is a very sweet
and rare fruit and jackfruit also a prosperous tree.
thread across the pot
length and breath of the poorna kumbha is tied with a
thread, to form a diamond shaped pattern. This thread is
the common thread of love that binds all beings across
the world. A smile is a universal symbol of love,
compassion, acceptance and happiness. A smile and love,
is the thread binding the universe.
wisdom of the four Vedas, the waters from holy rivers
and the blessings of all deities are invoked when
anything auspicious is undertaken. Thus, the couple
united in wedlock, the young Brahmachari boy, whose
spiritual journey begins with the tying of the sacred
thread on his torso, the woman who is blessed for the
smooth delivery of her progeny and the family that
enters into a brand new house, all place the Kalash,
seeking the wisdom of the waters, the fertility and
prosperity of the leaves and rice, the omnipotence of
the coconut, well-being of the swastika and the love
that binds all. | [
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] | 942 |
What can we learn about land stewardship from The Lord of the
By John Amodeo, ASLA
Build me an army worthy of Mordor,” commands Sauron in
The Fellowship of the Ring. With a maniacal greed for power,
the easily corrupted Saruman turns his cavernous lair beneath Isengard
into a frenzied factory of orcs and armor, fueled by burning the
region’s trees, which he clear-cuts with reckless abandon.
When an orc reports to Saruman, “The trees are strong, my
lord; their roots grow deep,” Saruman barks, “Take them
all down,” and down they come.
Thus J. R. R. Tolkien draws the lines of evil in his wondrous tale,
The Lord of the Rings. Since the trilogy’s initial
publication in 1954, many have analyzed, debated, and deconstructed
Tolkien on the topics of linguistics, history, anthropology, sociology,
mythology, and war, but rare is the discussion on Tolkien’s
environmental commentary, though all the signs are there. Although
Tolkien, who died in 1973, vehemently discouraged using his books
as an allegory for real events, he favored use of them in ways that
are applicable to readers’ own thoughts and experiences. Looking
beneath the fun, the action, and the mysticism of Tolkien’s
fantastic creation, landscape architects need only observe the ways
in which the forces of good and evil treat Mother Earth to discover
that Tolkien wove a conservationist morality tale within its pages
(evident in the films as well) that resonates strongly in the society
in which we practice.
.To read the entire article, subscribe to LAM!
| Annual Meeting | [
2061,
460,
356,
2193,
546,
1956,
38030,
1056,
422,
383,
4453,
286,
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Subsets and Splits