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Without a doubt, the dominant strain of early Ozarks settlers was Scots-Irish. Troubled by continued reports of turbulence in his Irish population, King James I decided to repeople the island with Protestants. That was in 1607 and became known as the Ulster Plantation. Not surprisingly, the forced immigration caused conflict. The Scots held the native Irish in contempt as an inferior people, and Irish considered the Scots invaders. Fleeing hardship and religous persecution, the Scots-Irish flocked to America's shores in the early 18th Century. These relative newcomers contributed 12 of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence and 12 of the 54 delegates to the Constitutional Convention. They and their direct descendents have given America 13 of its 33 presidents. The Scots-Irish immigrants had an aversion to large population centers and migrated westward in large numbers to Kentucky and Tennessee. Often referred to derisively as "hillbillies," these hardy folks endured in a harsh and unforgiving land. In the early 19th century they pushed on to the Ozark Highlands. Nowhere is the heritage of the region more evident than in music. The fiddle may have given way to the iPod, and the barn dance to MTV, but the Celtic-inspired tunes of our forefathers will always hold a special place in our hearts. The Missouri Department of Conservation has produced a delightful CD filled with traditional, Ozarks folk music. Quoting from their web page: "You might call it an "Ozark" River Dance. Our new folk-music CD is a spirited mix of traditional Celtic jigs, foot-stomping Ozark bluegrass, and narrative enhanced by nature sounds. The CD brings to life the Scots-Irish and their trek from the lowlands of Scotland to the shores of America, and on to Missouri Ozark country. With more than 20 songs, "Fiddles and Forests" is the brainchild of fiddle player and Department employee Mike Fraser. The concept began as a live program in which he used music to entertain audiences while educating them about Ozark forests and history. The two-disc set features the story and songs on one disc and the music alone on the other." If you like good fiddle music, Fiddles And Forests just might be for you.
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474
logging in or signing up Robot Arm aSGuest58216 Download Post to : URL : Related Presentations : Share Add to Flag Embed Email Send to Blogs and Networks Add to Channel Uploaded from authorPOINT lite Insert YouTube videos in PowerPont slides with aS Desktop Copy embed code: Embed: Flash iPad Copy Does not support media & animations WordPress Embed Customize Embed URL: Copy Thumbnail: Copy The presentation is successfully added In Your Favorites. Views: 1039 Category: Product Traini.. License: All Rights Reserved Like it (0) Dislike it (0) Added: August 02, 2010 This Presentation is Public Favorites: 0 Presentation Description No description available. Comments Posting comment... Premium member Presentation Transcript Build Your Own Robot Arm : Build Your Own Robot Arm Trinidad September 2008 Nico Beute What will we do today? (1) : What will we do today? (1) We will build a robot arm from simple materials The arm would pick up a plastic cup from a distance of 45cm Lift the cup to a height of at least 15cm Bring the cup back to rest and release it You cannot get too close… : You cannot get too close… Cup Student Robot Arm 45cm You cannot get any closer than 45cm to the cup at any time What will we do today? (2) : What will we do today? (2) Lift and release the cup when it is upside down Lift and release the cup when it is full of candy Do not spill Use the same design (possibly with a modified end effector) to lift a pen Why is this experiment useful to teachers and students? : Why is this experiment useful to teachers and students? It teaches technological design It requires mathematical calculations for design It relates to the studies of motion and force It requires communication in writing (design) and orally (explaining the design principles) Principles & Standards for School Mathematics : Principles & Standards for School Mathematics Geometry: Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems Analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships Problem Solving: Recognize and apply geometric ideas in areas outside of the mathematics classroom Apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies Communication: Communicate mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others Outline and Procedures : Outline and Procedures Divide into teams of two (2) Review the requirements Discuss a solution and create a sketch of your design Build a model of your design with given materials Test your model Redesign after testing : Redesign after testing Discuss and agree upon a redesign If needed after testing, or to enhance the previous design Rebuild your robot arm Retest your model Answer reflection questions as a team Reflection Questions : Reflection Questions What was one thing you liked about your design? What is its main weakness? Are there algebraic and physical principles that can be applied to this activity? What is one thing you would change about your design based on your experience? How would you modify the instructions to create a better experience for the participants? Design requirements : Design requirements The arm would pick up a plastic cup from a distance of 45cm Lift the cup to a height of at least 15cm Bring the cup back to rest and release it Lift and release the cup when it is upside down Lift and release the cup when it is full of candy Use the same design (possibly with a modified end effector) to lift a pen You do not have the permission to view this presentation. In order to view it, please contact the author of the presentation.
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732
|Avesta -- Zoroastrian Archives||Contents||Prev||history3||Next||Glossary| THE IDEA OF GOD IN THE MILLENNIUM Yahweh, the only God of the Hebrews. We have already seen the eclipse of the old gods and the rise of the new ones in India during the millennium that opened with Zarathushtra and ended with the advent of Jesue. The monotheistic idea greatly developed during this period among the Jews who were a subject race under the Persians and whose religion was influenced by Zoroastrianism. As Judaism later gave much to Christianity and Mohammedanism, the knowledge of the belief in the godhead among this people is of great interest, and we shall discuss it in brief. A race of sturdy nomads of Semitic stock tending their flocks from times immemorial in the Arabian desert, of handsome features with prominent aquiline nose, is seen settling down in Palestine about thirteen centuries before the Christian era. Many of their kinsmen had laboured and suffered as slaves in Egypt, until Moses brought them deliverance. The Hebrews, as the people are known to history, found their new settlement already populated by the civilized Canaanites. The new-comers intermarried with them and adopted their civilization. They succeeded later in founding a kingdom, and under the heroic ruler David, Jerusalem became the centre of Jewish religious life and the sanctuary of their national God Yahweh. During the period of the divided kingdoms of Judah and Israel prophetic literature of great value arose and enriched human thought. The kingdom of Israel ended in 721 B.C., and Judah met with her destruction in 586 B.C. The Persians brought the Jews deliverance and allowed them to restore the temple of Jerusalem that was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. They flourished under the tolerant Persian rule, codified their religious laws, collected and copied the sermons and teachings and songs and ancient writings that they stilt possessed. Thus in a few centuries more there came into being the scriptures known as the Old Testament, the most precious legacy of the Hebrews to mankind. When they had lived in small groups, each tribe had its God, whom the people worshipped. Gradually a more powerful God from among these won the universal respect of the race. He was Yahweh, worshipped in the earlier stages in the form of a brazen serpent, until the idol worship gave place to a purer form of godhead. His dominion over men was contested by Baal of Tyre who received devotion from the people side by side with him both in Israel and Judah. Yahweh ultimately came out successful and remained the only God of the Hebrews. The prophet Amos (760 B.C.) raised him to monotheistic grandeur and spoke as the mouth-piece of Yahweh. Hosea and Isaiah preach against idolatry and the prophets are incessantly enjoining upon the people not to make idols or graven images and they exhort them not to worship any other God but Yahweh. It is said that Yahweh is a jealous God and brooks no homage but to him. The children of Israel had suffered in Egypt where they were in bondage. God heard their groaning and had compassion on them. He appeared unto Moses in a flame of fire, burning in a bush, and said that he had come down to deliver the suffering children of Israel from bondage to a place flowing with milk and honey. He gave him ten commandments for the guidance of the people. Therein he demands that man shall fear him, walk in his ways, cleave unto him, obey him, love him, and serve him with all his heart and all his soul. He has chosen Israel unto himself above all people as a beacon of light and righteousness to mankind. Consequently, he demands that they shall serve him faithfully, and transgress not his commandments. If people walk in the Lord's statutes and keep his commandments, he gives them seasonal rains, full crops, protection against the attacks of animals and men, victory and offspring. He goes with the armies of Israel to the battlefield and fights for them against the enemies. But when they transgress his commandments, worship idols or other gods or turn apostates, he breaks the pride of their power, lets loose their enemies over them, and chastises them by visiting their country with plagues and pestlences, famines and droughts, desolation and death. It was for the inequities of his wayward children that Yahweh sent Tiglath-Pileser as his scourge to punish them and put them under the Assyrian yoke. The prophet Isaiah tells the people that Yahweh uses Assyria as his rod to punish them. Those who seek Yahweh, find him. He does not fail or forsake them. But when they forsake him, and provoke him to anger, he casts them away forever. But even then if people repent, humble themselves before him, fall down on their faces, rend their clothes, and weep, he relents, forgives them, comes back to them, takes them under his protecting wings, helps them, and prospers them. The Psalms and Prophets are replete with higher ethical sentiment and aim at reforming the motives of conduct rather than regulating it by ceremonial observances. They are full of fervent expressions of religious emotion. God is depicted here as the compassionate Father who looks to all as his children. Judaism prepares the way for a nobler type of godhead that was to be preached by Jesus. Taoism and Confucianism. Animism and ancestral worship ministered to the spiritual needs of the people in China from the earliest times. As in the other parts of the world, the higher conceptions of gods or of some one supreme principle like Heaven as God were gradually evolving among the sages. Tradition places the Golden Age of China in about 3000 B.C. But the authentic historical records do not go beyond a millennium before the Christian era. It is in this period that great religious and social ideals were preached that have shaped the Chinese life for all time. The country was harassed by feudal warfare, and famine and pestilence worked havoc, adding to the misery of the people. Perplexed at the visitation of misfortunes and calamities, wail goes up to Heaven from a poet in the eighth century B. C. complaining that Heaven is unjust and merciless in its dealings with mankind. Such complaints are however drowned in the chorus that Heaven does not will evil. It is man's own fault, in consequence of which he suffers. Man is born good, it is said, but when he goes astray from the path of goodness, he brings calamity on his head. When there were strife and chaos stalking the earth, the sages felt that peace and harmony reigned above in heaven. Perfect was the Way or Heaven or the Tao or the one universal principle, the ultimate reality. Happiness would fall to the lot of mankind, if it followed faithfully the Way. The imitation of the Way or Heaven was therefore the ideal of earthly conduct. It was virtue and virtue brought happiness. Man's duty was to cultivate the Way and the sages undertook to teach it to mankind. The Way was one which to all thinkers looked alike, but the methods of reaching it as taught by them were different. Lao-tze, a great mystic born in 601 B.C., is the founder of Taoism. He teaches quietism. Confucius (551-479 B.C.) is the man of the world and teaches a moral code of personal conduct. His relgion is a discipline of life and his system is a reaction against Taoism. AHURA MAZDAAhura, Mazda, and Ahura Mazda. The name of God still retains its two elements separate. These have not yet coalesced into one word. In the metrical sections of the Younger Avesta the two elements are sometimes used apart from each other, or either one of the terms may be used to designate the Supreme Being, but in the prose compositions the collocation Ahura Mazda generally occurs as a compound phrase. In the formation of compounds, however, either Ahura or Mazda alone is used for the sake of convenience. The Ahura compounds such as Ahura-dhâta, 'created by Ahura,' Ahura-tkaesha, 'of the faith of Ahura,' or the adjectival form âhuiri, 'of Ahura,' invariably represent the divine lord Ahura Mazda. Similarly, the Mazda element in the compounds Mazda-dhâta, 'created by Mazda,' Mazda-yasna, 'worshipper of Mazda,' Mazdo-frasasta, 'taught by Mazda,' Mazdo-fraokhta, or Mazdaokhta, 'spoken by Mazda,' invariably stands for Ahura Mazda himself. |Ahura Mazda is the highest object of worship. Ahura Mazda still holds sovereign sway over both the worlds; his authority in the world of righteousness is undisputed, and his imperial right is unchallenged. He is the greatest and the very best of the angels.1 The Old Persian Inscriptions speak of him as the greatest of the divinities.2 The archangels and angels dutifully carry out Mazda's orders. Reverence for him has never abated, and adoration of him does not languish with the advent again of the old Indo-Iranian divinities. Like the dual divinities Varuna-Mitra who received joint invocation during the Indo-Iranian period, Ahura-Mithra or Mithra-Ahura are invoked together. Ahura generally takes precedence and Mithra stands second in the compound,3 but in the Nyaishes composed in honour of Hvare Khshaeta or the sun and Mithra, as also in the Yasht dedicated to Mithra,4 the order is reversed and we have then Mithra-Ahura. He is yet the sublimest goal of human aspiration. The best of all sacrifices and invocations are those of Mazda.5|| 1. Y16.1; Yt17.16. 2. Dar. Pers. d. 1; Xerx. Elv. 1; Xerx. Van. 1. 3. Y1.11; 2.11; 3.13; 4.16; 6.10; 7.13; 17.10; 22.13. 4. Ny1.7; 2.7, 12; Yt10.113, 145. The faithful acknowledge their indebtedness to Ahura Mazda and devoutly offer to him their homage and sacrifice.6 They worship him with the very life of the body,7 and they long to reach him through the medium of fire, through the Good Mind, through Righteousness, and through the deeds and words of wisdom, as well as through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.8 Ahura Mazda, in fact, is implored to be their very life and limb in both the worlds.9 It is through the Best Righteousness that the true in heart aspire to behold the Lord to approach him, and to associate with him.10 The attainment of the companionship and the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda is the pious wish of the supplicant.11 8. Y36.1, 4, 5. 11. Y40.2; 41.2, 5, 6. Mazda's titles. The Yasna sacrifice opens with the praise of Ahura Mazda and enumerates the following divine titles: maker, radiant, glorious, the greatest, the best, the most beautiful, the most firm, the most wise, of the most perfect form, the highest in righteousness, possessed of great joy, creator, fashioner, nourisher, and the Most Holy Spirit.12 He is all-pervading. There is no conceivable place where he is not. Closer than the nose is to the ears, or the ears are to the mouth, is he to all that which the corporeal world thinks, speaks, and does.13 He is the greatest temporal and spiritual lord.14 He is the absolute ruler.15 He is the most mighty and righteous.16 He is benevolent.17 He is the maker, the most holy, the most wise, and the best one to answer when questioned.18 His is the omnisscent wisdom.19 He is undeceivable.20 He is omniscient and never sleeping.21 Radiant and glorious are the most frequent epithets with which the texts open the invocation to the divinity. Above all Ahura Mazda is the spirit of spirits.22 This essential trait stands intact through all changes in the concept of God. He is not invested with any anthropomorphic chracter, and his multifarious epithets are truly the figurative expressions of human language used by man in his feeble attempt to give vent to an outburst of the feelings of devotion and reverence for his Heavenly Father. Ahura Mazda is synonymous with light, even as his opponent is identical with darkness, and the sun is spoken of as his most beautiful form.23 Just as the Rig Veda speaks of the sun as the eye of Mithra and Varuna,24 so do the Avestan texts call the sun the eye of Ahura Mazda.25 Speaking about the nature of Ahuta Mazda, Plutarch well remarks that among objects of sense the Zoroastrian godhead most of all resembles the light.26 The star-spangled heaven is his garment;27 the holy spell is his soul.28 Many are the names by which mankind have learnt to know him. The first Yasht, which is dedicated to him, enumerates seventy-four of these attributes. They are all descriptive of his wisdom, far-sightedness, power, righteousness justice, and mercy.29 13. TdFr. 58, 59. 14. Y27.1; Vr11.21. 18. Vd18.7, 13, 66. 21. Yt12.1; Vd. 19.20, 26. 23. Y36.6; 28.8. 24. RV. 1.115.1; 6.51.1; 7.61.1; 63.1; 10.37. 25. Y1.11; 3.13; 4.16; 7.13; 22.13. 26. Is. et Os. 46. 29. Yt1.7, 8, 12-15. Only the world of righteousness is created by Ahura Mazda. As the antithesis between the Deity and the Evil Spirit is now most strongly marked in the Later Avesta, the godhead is expressly described as the creator of everything that is good,30 evil being the counter-creation of Angara Mainyu. Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu in the younger texts are described as creating good and evil in turn. The archangels are Mazda's creations;31 so also are the angels and men, the animals, sky, water, trees, light, wind, and earth.32 In the various enquiries which Zarathushtra addresses to Ahura Mazda in the Vendidad, the divinity is portrayed as the creator of corporeal world. Ahura expressly says to Zarathushtra that he has created everything in the world, and yet nothing in his creation comes up to the level of man, who is the greatest and the best of all creations.33 Through the wisdom of Ahura Mazda the world has come into being, and through his divine wisdom it will come also to an 32. Y1.1, 2, 12; 2.12; 12.7; 17.12; 37.1; 38.3; Vr7.4; Vd19.13, 16, 35; 21.4, 8, 12; Aog. 30. 33. Aog. 30. SPENTA MAINYUBelief in an intermediary spirit between God and the world. From the days of Thales (about 600 B.C.), the head of the school of Miletus, the Greek thinkers were in touch with the Orient. The Ionians were in close contact with the Persians. Pythagoras, we have seen, was believed by the classical writers to have been the pupil of Zoroaster, though several centuries intervened between them. Numenius of Apamea says that Pythagoras and Plato reproduce the ancient wisdom of the Magi and Brahmans, Egyptians and Jews. Alexandria became later a cosmopolitan seat of learning, and the intellectual East and West met there. It was here that Judaism and afterwards Christianity were Hellenized. The wisdom of the East was held in high esteem at Alexandria. Persian influence, it seems, had been felt in Greece in the early formative period of its philosophy. Zarathushtra, we have noticed, postulated a quasi-independent spirit intermediary between the godhead and the universe, Anaxagoras calls it nous, acting between God, and the world as the regulating principle of existence. Plato says in his Timaeus that the universe becomes an organism through the universal World-Soul that is created by the Demiurge, the Supreme Deity. The Old Testament refers to the Spirit of Yahweh.1 Philo Judaeus unites the Greek and Jewish ideas about Logos and says that Logos is the first-born Son of God and acts as a viceregent of God between God and the world. He is the prototypal Man after whose image all men are created. Logos is something more than Plato's Idea of the Good, because, like Spenta Mainyu, he is creatively active. In common with Spenta Mainyu, Logos is not a personal being, and like Spenta Mainyu again, he appears sometimes as identified with God and at other times seems to be an attribute of God. The Avestan texts refer to Spenta Mainyu and his adversary Angra Mainyu as thworeshtar or the fashioners or cutters and, speaking about the work of Logos, Philo speaks of him as Tomeus, 'the cutter,' employing the word of the same meaning. Again as Spenta Mainyu or the spirit of light is shadowed by the opposite spirit of darkness, so Logos, says Philo, is the Shekinah or Glory or Light of God, but he is also the darkness or shadow of God. This is so because, he adds, the creature reveals only half the creator and hides the other half. In the Book of Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom, identical with the Greek Logos, is the divine essence, living a quasi-independent existence in God and side by side with God. She works as the active agent of god in the creation of the world. In Mithraism, Mithra held the position of the Mediator between God who was unknowable and unapproachable and mankind. He fashioned the world as Demiurge. The intermediary Spirit of God occurs throughout the New Testament. Numenius of Apamea, writing in the second century, says that God has bestowed divine qualities upon a second god who acts in the world as the power for good. The Supreme God or the First principle, he adds, works in the spiritual world, whereas the activity of the second god extends to the spiritual as well as material world. Origen, writing shortly after him, says that God created Logos or the Son. His relation to the Father is the same as that which exists between Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu. The Son or Logos, says Origen, is co-eternal and co-equal with the Father, but the Son is lesser than the Father. Clement of Alexandria says that Logos, represents the will, power, and energy of God. He is the creator on behalf of God. He has introduced harmony in the universe and conducts its affairs as the pilot. ||1. Genesis 1.2.| |The relation between Ahura Mazda and his Holy Spirit. It remains as subtle in the Younger Avestan texts as it was in the Gathas. We have already seen in the treatment of this highly abstract concept, as it is portrayed in the Gathic texts, that the term Spenta Mainyu either designated Ahura Mazda as his divine attribute, or occurred as a being separate from the godhead. The Later Avestan texts, it seems to us, lead us to the idea that Spenta Mainyu has no independent existence apart from Ahura Mazda, in other words, as shown above, he is not a personal being. The Later Avesta, moreover, as we shall see in the subsequent pages, teaches that all earthly and heavenly beings, belonging to the Kingdom of Goodness, including Ahura Mazda himself, have their Fravashis, or Guardian Spirits. Spenta Mainyu alone in the realm of the good is without his Guardian Spirit. Furthermore, Spenta Mainyu does not receive homage and invocation from man, as do Ahura Mazda, the Amesha Spentas, and the Yazatas. In one passage the faithful dedicate their thoughts, words, deeds, and all to him.2 Spenta Mainyu, therefore, may be taken as an attribute of Ahura Mazda which is either conjointly used with the godhead as his distinguishing epithet, or occurs alone by itself to designate the Supreme Being. In this latter use, it may be said, Spenta Mainyu represents Ahura Mazda, in the same manner as the royal title 'His Majesty' is frequently used as a substitute for the name of a king.||2. Y58.6.| |In contradistinction to the evil creation of Angra Mainyu, or the Evil Spirit, the Avestan texts speak of the good creation as belonging to Spenta Mainyu, the Holy Spirit.3 He maintains the sky, the waters, the earth, the plants, and the children to be born.4 The stars also are spoken of as the creatures of the Holy Spirit.5 He created Mithra's chariot, inlaid with stars and made of heavenly substance.6 He is spoken of as the holier of the two spirits.7 He struggles with Angra Mainyu to seize the Kingly Glory [khwarrah].8 Characteristic or the highly developed type of dualism of the Younger Avestan period, we find that the two rival spirits divide their sphere of influence in regard to the wind, or Vayu. The moderate wind that is conducive of good is called the wind of Spenta Mainyu,9 and only to this good part of Vayu are the faithful to offer sacrifice.10 Snavidhka, a tyrant foe of the Iranian hero Keresaspa, haughtily exclaims that if he ever grew to manhood he would make the heavens his chariot, convert the earth into a wheel, bring down Spenta Mainyu, or the Holy Spirit, from the shining paradise, and make Angra Mainyu, or the Evil Spirit, rush up from the dreary hell, and compel them to draw his chariot.11 In a couple of instances Ahura Mazda is depicted as speaking of the Holy Spirit as a part of himself. Speaking about the great work of the Fravashis, or the Guardian Spirits, Ahura Mazda says that had not the Ftavashis helped him, the wicked Druj would have smitten the good creation, and it would never have been possible for Spenta Mainyu to deal a blow to Angra Mainyu.12 Ahura Mazda sacrifices unto Vayu and asks from this angel of wind a boon, that he may smite the creation of Angra Mainyu but that none may smite the creation of Spenta Mainyu.13|| 3. Y1.16; 8.6, 11.13; 17.2; 57.17; Vr12.4; Yt6.2; 8.48; 11.11; 13.76; 15.3, 43, 44; Vd3.20; 5.33; 13.1, 2, 5, 6, 16. 4. Yt13.28, 29. 5. Y1.11; 3.13; 4.16; 7.13; 22.13; Yt12.32. 9. Y22.24; 25.5. 10. Yt15.5, 42, 57, 58; S1.21; 2.11. 11. Yt19.43, 44. 12. Yt13.12, 13. 13. Yt15.2, 3. The superlative forms, Spentotema Mainyu,14 or Spenishta Mainyu, meaning the Most Holy Spirit; are spoken of as Ahura Mazda's 14. Y1.1; 37.3. 15. Y19.1; Yt1.1; 14.1, 34, 42; Vd2.1; 7.1; 9.1; 10.1; 14.1; 18.14; A4.4. AMESHA SPENTASThe archangels. The higher celestial beings that had not expressly acquired a distinguishing name of their own in the Gathas are now designated as the Amesha Spentas, or 'Holy Immortal Ones.' They are thus addressed for the first time in the Haptanghaiti, or the Yasna of Seven Chapters, the earliest prose composition of the Avestan period, though still made in the Gathic dialect.1 They are all created by Ahura Mazda.2 Plutarch and Strabo refer to them in their works.3 With the godhead at the pinnacle they form a heptad and are henceforth mentioned as the seven Holy Immortal Ones.4 Severally they are both male and female.5 Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, and Khshathra Vairya are conceived of as masculine beings, though neuter in grammatical gender; Spenta Armaiti is pictured as a feminine concept; and Haurvatat and Ameretat are treated as masculine beings, though their grammatical gender is feminine. In a paramount degree they are all of one thought, one word, and one deed; their father and lord is the creator Ahura Mazda.6 They look into one another's soul;7 and they each have their special Fravashi.8 Garonmana [garothman], the highest heaven, is their dwelling-place, and there they occupy the golden seats that belong to spirits in the realm supernal.9 Their sacred names are the most mighty, most glorious, and the most victorious of the spells.10 To utter their name is synonymous with efficacy and power. Yasht 2 is devoted to their praise. 1. Y39.3; 42.6. 3. Is. et Os. 47; Strabo, p. 732; Thomas, Strabo and the Ameshaspands in J. J. Madressa Jubilee Volume, p. 173-176. 4. Yt2.13; 13.83; 19.16; For seven Babylonian Igigis and seven Elamite deities, see Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p. 17. 5. Y4.4; 24.9; 39.3; Vr9.4. 6. Yt13.83; 19.16. 7. Yt13.84; 19.17. 9. Vd19.32, 36. Their attributes. The Amesha Spentas are the ever-living and the ever-helping ones;11 they are the wise ones, and good rulers.12 It is they that are the shining ones; of efficacious eyes, exalted, mighty, valiant, imperishable, and righteous.12 They are the makers, rulers, fashioners, guardians, protectors, and preservers of the creation of Mazda,14 and Mazda has given them 11. Y4.4; 39.3; Vr9.4; 11.12. 12. Y2.2; 4.4; 6.1; 24.9; 25.4; 35.1; 58.5; 70.1; Vr8.1; 11.12; Vd19.9. 13. Y26.3; Yt13.82. 14. Y58.5; Yt19.18; Vd19.9. Their work. The archangels hold their celestial councils on the heights of the heavens.16 From there they come down to the seven zones into which the world was divided according to the Avesta,17 and rule over the realms of earth.18 They are naturally invited to the sacrifice,19 and offerings are placed by the devout for them to accept.20 The faithful pray that the Amesha Spentas may visit and enjoy sacrifices in their houses,21 for shining is the path by which they descend to earth to receive the libations offered in their honour.22 Even Mithra as a God-like embodiment sacrificed unto them,23 and for him they have made a dwelling.24 They are of one accord with the sun;25 and they gather together the light of the moon and pour it down upon the earth.26 They are the divine ones who help in bringing about the final restoration of the world.27 Each of them will smite his opponent at the time of the resurrection.28 17. Y57.23; Yt11.14. 22. Yt13.84; 19.17. 25. Yt10.51; 13.92. Zarathushtra the first among mortals to sacrifice unto the Amesha Spentas. Mazda asks his prophet to invoke the Amesha Spentas, even though he could not behold them with his eyes.29 Zarathushtra follows Mazda's behests; and he is the first man to invoke them.30 a spiritual predecessor having been Sraosha. For that reason the faithful sacrifice unto the Amesha Spentas with love and joy,31 and pray to them for help and protection.32 Their praise and sacrifice form one of the cardinal articles of faith.33 Hence it is that we find in the oft-repeated formulas of the Later Avestan texts that sacrifice, invocation, propitiation, and glorification are offered to them for the furtherance of prosperity in the world of righteousness.34 Nor must it be forgotten that in his benedictions upon King Vishtaspa the prophet invokes upon his royal patron the blessings of brightness, glory, riches, swift horses, and good sons that come as a benign gift from the archangels.35 The ceremonials performed in honour of the Amesha Spentas by unholy priests delight them not;36 on the other hand, distress and harm flee from that worshipper whose homage has reached them.37 When their loving votary performs his devotions and finds his spirit inflamed by their love, he forthwith dedicates to them the very life of his body and all his earthly possessions.38 31. Y15.1; Vr6.1. 36. Yt10.139; 24.12. 38. Y11.18; 14.1, 2; Vr5.2. His place in the Later Avesta. As the first in the creation of Ahura Mazda, Vohu Manah retains his pre-eminent position in the Later Avestan period. He occupies his seat next to Ahura Mazda in the celestial council. The other archangels live in him.39 In some cases Vohu Manah does not stand as the name of the archangel, but simply connotes its ordinary meaning good mind or thought. In fact, as in the Gathas, there is a subtlety of meaning that makes it difficult to decide in translation whether the concept or the archangel is intended. In Vd19.20, 23-25 the term designates a good man or even clean clothes. ||39. Y4.4; Vr11.12.| Vohu Manah guards wisdom. Vohu Manah's khratu, or wisdom, which occurs in the Gathas, is now classified in the later texts into two distinct types, âsna khratu, 'innate wisdom,' and gaoshosruta khratu, 'acquired wisdom.' These two types of knowledge are spoken of as objects worthy of sacrifice and propitiation.40 Ahura Mazda accordingly asks Zarathushtra to seek knowledge all the night long,41 because the true priest and his disciples work by day and by night for the increase of knowledge.42 Vohu Manah rejoices in man's endeavour to wrest from nature her secrets. 40. Y22.25; 25.6; Yt2.1; S1.2, 29; 2.2, 29. 42. Vd4.45; 18.6. |His Work. When the Evil Spirit first attacked creation Vohu Manah came to its succour.43 Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda to teach him the laws of both the worlds, so that men following his precepts may act in such a way that Vohu Manah may come to them.44 It is through his medium that the devout can aspire to reach Ahura Mazda;45 and on that account he is implored to further bodily life.46 It is said, moreover, that he is more a possession of the hard-working man of the world, who has married and toils for his family, than of the celibate or the ascetic.47 Vohu Manah's function of guarding the animal kingdom is not emphasized in the Avestan texts.|| 43. Yt13.77, 78. |Vohu Manah welcomes the righteous souls to paradise. When the blessed ones cross the great bridge and come up to the gates of heaven, this premier angel rises from his golden throne and in gracious words receives the new-comers.48||48. Vd19.31.| In the final conflict between the hosts of the rival powers, he will smite his adversary Aka Manah.48a The formation of the name. The Younger Avesta, in conformity with the Gathas, calls this archangel Asha and adds the epithet vahishta or 'best' to the name. The variant stem arta is, however, found as an element of Astvatereta, the name of the renovator [soshyant].49 It is also met with in the proper names during the Achaemenian period. We have, for example, Artakhshathra, Artadata, Artapata, and Artafarnah. Its forms areta, 'proper,' and anareta or anaretha, 'improper,' are likewise found.50 A righteous person is called ashavan which is equivalent to the Vedic rtâvan. In the use of Avestan ashahe khâ and Vedic khâ rtasya, 'source of righteousness,' we have an interesting instance of the common words employed by both.51 49. Yt13.110, 117, 128, 129; 19.92, 95. 50. Y12.4; 65.9; Vr1.2; 2.2. 51. Y10.4; RV2.28.5. |His righteousness remains the basic doctrine of Zoroastrianism during the Later Avestan period. Ahura Mazda is the righteous lord of righteousness.52 Among the many names by which Ahura Mazda is invoked in the hymn dedicated to him, the fourth is Asha Vahishta or Best Righteousness.53 Ahura Mazda has created Asha Vahishta, or Best Righteousness,54 who is the greatest, best, fairest, the radiant, the all-good archangel.55 In one instance he is called by the Indo-Iranian epithet bagha, 'divinity.' He it is who smites disease, death, fiends, sorcerers, noxious creatures, and his adversary Druj, Deceit or Wickedness.56 Zarathushtra for that reason proclaims the glory of Asha Vahishta, through whom the way to the abode of the archangels, paradise, becomes easy.57 The souls of the dead, who are the Fravashis of the righteous, dwell in the shining realm of Asha Vahishta.58 This celestial personification gives joy to the souls of the righteous dead.59 It is through him that the devotee aspires to behold and reach Ahura Mazda.60 He offers homage and adoration to him along with Ahura Mazda.61 Emphasizing Zarathushtra's dictum in the Gathas, the Younger Avesta affirms that there is one path alone that leads to the eternal life, and that is the Path of Righteousness.62 The Vedas likewise allude to the Path of Rta.63 The Achaemenian kings refer to the Right Path in their rock inscriptions.64 Buddha embodies his teachings in his noble Eightfold Path.65 During the same period Lao-tze interprets his philosophy in the Tao or the Way in China. Shinto or the Way of the gods appears in the national cult of Japan. The prophets and seers reveal the Path or Way of life to mankind and Jesus calls himself the Way, a thousand years after Zarathushtra. The faithful invoke the holy waters of Ahura Mazda for the attainment of this path which is the most upright and which leads to the paradise of the righteous.66 Atar, the genius of fire, leads to this straightest path all those who lie not unto Mithra.67 Referring to the guilty persons who have undergone punishments for the crime of assaulting other persons, the Vendidad68 admonishes sinners to walk in the path of righteousness in future. Darius likewise exhorts men not to leave the path which is right.69|| 55. Y13.8; 37.4; 59.32; 60.13; Yt1.22; 2.7; 13.91, 92; S1.3; 2.3. 59. TdFr. 72-74. 64. Naksh-i Rustam a. 6. 65. Mahâvagga, 1.6.18. 69. NR. a. 6. Zarathushtra was the first among mortais to praise this embodiment of holiness;70 and King Vishtaspa, by adopting the new faith, helped to open the way for righteousness in this world.71 The faithful beseech Ahura Mazda to bless them with intelligent men who embrace righteousness;72 Good, thoughts of the mind, good words of the tongue, and good deeds of the hand make man ashavan, or righteous.73 He obtains purity when he cleanses his own self with them.74 The friendship of Asha in this world and the next is the most coveted boon for all time.75 It is easy to understand why Asha is invoked to enter the house of the faithful to smite the wicked Druj.76 The excellence of religious thoughts, words, and deeds, which is ordained by Ahura Mazda, and nourished by Vohu Manah, is furnished by the righteousness of 71. Yt13.99; 19.93. 73. TdFr. 57-59; see Nariman, Buddhist parallels to Humata, Hukhta, Hvarashta in Dastur Hoshang Memorial Volume, p. 311-316. 75. Y40.2; 41.6. 77. Vr12.3, 4. Righteousness is the highest riches. Man, we are told, pines for the riches of the earth and often strives to obtain the boon of wealth even by unlawful means. On the contrary, he should rather aspire to a store of righteousness, which is the real and permanent wealth. When a man starts on a journey, he takes provisions and stores with him.78 He takes care to provide himself with more goods than are his actual requirements.79 How sad it is, then, that he should not furnish himself now, while it is time, with the spiritual stores of righteousness for the great journey which he will have one day to undertake and from which he will never return.80 In the end cattle are dust; gold and silver are dross; even the body of man mingles with clay. Righteousness alone does not mingle with the dust, but survives the bodily death of man.81 There comes a day or there comes a night, when the master leaves his cattle, when the cattle leave their master, and the soul leaves the body.82 But righteousness, which is the greatest and the best of all riches, accompanies the soul after death.83 Riches and fortune one cannot have for oneself, nor can one maintain form and beauty of body forever at will; but everyone can embrace righteousness and make it his own in this world.84 The best man is the righteous man. He is not heroic who is not heroic in righteousness, he is not valiant who is not valiant in righteousness.85 Life in departing leaves the richest empty in the midst of his abundance, if he lacks righteousness. 78. Aog. 41. 79. Aog. 42-44. 80. Aog. 46-47. 81. Aog. 84. 82. Aog. 51. 83. Aog. 52. 84. TdFr. 95-98. 85. TdFr. 103, 104. The world of righteousness, as against the world of wickedness. The universe is divided into two hostile camps. The righteous form a distinct world by themselves, and they are the favourite ones of Ahura Mazda. The men who have chosen to naturalize themselves as citizens of the Kingdom of Wickedness form a separate world of their own. The texts in the Later Avesta speak of the ashaono sti, 'the world of the righteous man,' as opposed to the drvato sti, 'the world of the wicked fiend,' The sorcerers and the wicked destroy the world of righteousness.86 It is the faithful that work for the furtherance of the one, and for the destruction of the other.87 The man that is holy rejoices in the prosperity of the former, just as he exults in the adversity of the latter.88 He who does not gladden a righteous person who comes within his gates has no lasting or true joy. To be charitable to such a one is to attain paradise.89 But again, he rejoices not who helps a wicked person that clamours for help. To help such an evil one is equivalent to hindering righteousness, inasmuch as he is wicked who is a source of goodness to the wicked.90 A gift bestowed upon a righteous man is the best of all libations,91 but not so when it is made to a wicked one. Refusing food to a demon-worshipper or a wicked one does not make one guilty.92 The faithful pray that a righteous king may rule over them, but that a wicked one may be baffled and defeated.93 89. TdFr. 107-109. 90. Y71.13; TdFr. 110-112. Bodily purity contributes to righteousness. Next to life the second best good for man is purity.94 This is the dictum of the Gathas, and it is most consistently developed throughout the entire subsequent literature. It is the favourite theme on which, the Zoroastrian theologians are never tired of expatiating. Purity of body is the most salient feature in the life of a Zoroastrian. It is rated higher than anything else. The problem of cleanness and uncleanness, purity and impurity, has evoked an extensive literature. The tenets of the faith in this respect have been worked out into a science of health. Bodily purity is indispensable to purity of mind. Cleanliness of body is an essential requisite for saintliness. The clean in body find it easy to be pure in mind, and the pure in heart have just a step to take to be holy in spirit. Asha Vahishta comes to be regarded as the healing spirit of bodily diseases. As the many kinds of healers restore bodily health by herbs and drugs, and remove the tumours and cancers by knife and implements, so there are healers that heal through righteousness or by the holy spell. We shall speak later on, in its proper place, of the art of healing by means of the holy spell. The Yasht which receives its name after Asha Vahishta is in fact mostly consecrated to Asha Vahishta's associate Airyaman, the guardian genius of human health. Of all the healers, the Avestan texts announce, the spiritual healer is the best one; it is he that heals the faithful through his own righteousness by means of the utterance of the holy spell.95 ||95. Yt3.6; Vd7.44.| Asha Vahishta's relation to fire. We have seen in the Gathas Asha's dual association with the universal order prevailing everywhere and fire. We find these early Zoroastrian conceptions reflected in the writings of the Greek philosophers of the period. Heraclitus, who flourished at Ephesus, near the end of the sixth century B.C., postulates fire as the first principle from which everything that exists has come. It is working as reason or Logos and reveals the stable, divine law in the eternal flow of things in the universe. Heraclitus left a deep impression on Greek philosophy and his conceptions appear in later thinkers.96 ||96. See also Carnoy, Zoroastrianism in ERE 12. 866.| In the Avestan liturgy Asha Vahishta is invoked together with Atar; the genius of fire.97 Angra Mainyu, as the devil, exclaims that Zarathushtra burns him with Asha Vahishta as with molten metal.98 This allegory of burning and annihilating the Evil Spirit through righteousness is taken literally in the later period of Zoroastrianism, Where Asha Vahishta is identified at times with the household fire on the hearth. Such identification in the realms of matter and of spirit serves only to bring more into prominence the main tenets of Zoroaster's teachings in regard to Asha. 97. Y1.4; 2.4; 3.6; 4.9; 6.3; 7.6, 17.3; 22.6; 59.3; Yt4.9; Sr1.7; 2.7; Afr. 4.2; G.2, 9, 12. The change that the concept undergoes. The Gathic Khshathra now takes Vairya, 'desirable,' as its standing epithet, and hence both the terms combine to form the name of this archangel. This archangel of Ahura Mazda99 gradually loses the abstract side of his nature in the Avestan texts. In the Gathic prose text of the Yasna Haptanghaiti the abstract idea of the Divine Kingdom occurs but once. In this solitary passage the devout long for the everlasting Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.100 Throughout the Younger Avestan texts this abstract idea of the spiritual kingdom recedes into the background, or rather is entirely lost sight of. True, Khshathra Vairya is still occasionally invoked by name along with the other celestial beings, but his higher function as the genius of the sovereign power in the abstract entirely falls out. |Khshathra Vairya as the genius of earthly wealth. Materially Khshathra Vairya is the genius of metal, and his activity is now limited to guarding this concrete creation of God. He is not spoken of as the genius of the celestial riches of the Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda. Khshathra Vairya and the molten metal are invoked side by side.101 In fact he very soon loses even this trait of his work; he is identified with metal and just becomes metal itself.102 Thrita, the first reputed healer of the bodies of mortals, received from him a surgical instrument for healing.103|| 101. Vr20.1; Yt2.7; Sr1.4; 2.4. 102. Yt10.125; Vd9.10; 16.6; 17.6, 8. As the genius of metal, Khshathra Vairya is the lord of earthly riches. He generously bestows his possessions on the poor. He is sometimes invoked in company of marezhdika, 'mercy,'104 who is styled the protector of the poor. We can trace this relation of Khshathra Vairya as the merciful helper of the poor to the Ahuna Vairya [Ahunwar] formula. ||104. Yt2.7; Sr1.4; 2.4.| Her position in the Avesta. As devotion personified on the abstract side, and as the genius of the earth on the concrete side, Spenta Armaiti, 'Holy Devotion,' retains her dual nature in the Younger Avesta. Through the medium of Devotion the faithful aspire to approach Ahura Mazda,105 and in the Confession of Faith the pious follower of Zarathushtra chooses Devotion, and yearns to make her his own.106 Upon lifting up his devotional prayer the house-lord prays that she may enter his house and thus rout heresy.107 The malice and harm of the wicked could be averted through her help.108 She is the daughter of Ahura Mazda and as the genius of devotion is the mother of Ashi Vanghulti, or the genius of Good Piety,109 while Rata, the guardian spirit of generosity, is invoked with her.110 105. Y13.6; 39, 5. 109. Yt17.16; Vd19.13, 16. 110. Sr1.5; 2.5. Armaiti as earth. From her position as the female genius of the earth,111 Armaiti very soon becomes the earth herself. She is now more frequently spoken of as the earth than as the genius of the earth.112 She wears the star-studded sky as her 112. Y16.10; Yt24.50; Vd2.10, 14, 18; 18.51, 64. HAURVATAT AND AMERETAT |The dual archangels. These two Amesha Spentas are closely united to each other and generally occur together side by side.114 Haurvatat has a Yasht consecrated to him, being invoked as the lord of seasons and years.115 Ahura Mazda created Haurvatat for the help, joy, comfort, and pleasure of the righteous ones.116 The man who invokes the name of Haurvatat as one of the archangels is able to smite the legion of demons.117 The two, Haurvatat and Ameretat, together form the reward of the righteous after death,118 while fire is invoked to grant the blessings of Haurvatat and Ameretat to its supplicants for help and joy.119 The two archangels together will smite the demons of hunger and thirst during the final conflict between the forces of good and evil.120|| 114. Y1.2; 3.1; 4.1; 6.17; 7.26; 8.1; 58.7; 70.2; 11.12; Vr9.5; Yt1.15; 10.92. 115. Yt4.0; S1.6; 2.6. Instances where the two archangels materially personify water and plants are not found in the Later Avestan texts. Examples, however, are not wanting, as is well known, in which they occur as meaning specifically water and plants in their healing effect on mankind.121 ||121. Y3.1; 4.1, 3; 7.1, 20; 8.1.| The Zoroastrian angels. Next in rank to the Amesha Spentas come the Yazatas, literally meaning the 'adorable ones.' We find the corresponding Skt. word Yajata in the Rig Veda, but it does not play any conspicuous part there. If the Amesha Spentas are the archangels in Zoroastrian theology, the Yazatas are the angels. They are numbered by hundreds and by thousands,1 by tens of thousands and by hundreds of thousands, nay even more.2 About forty only, however, are mentioned in the extant Avestan text. Plutarch refers to twenty-four.3 The prominent Yazatas mentioned by name in Y16.4-6; Sr1.8-30; 2.8-30, closely correspond to the number mentioned by the Greek writer. Several of the Yazatas have individually consecrated to them a Yasht, or hymn of praise, which narrates the doings and functions of its respective genius. Besides the Yashts that form a special biographical literature of these minor divinities, the whole Iranian literature is filled with the record of their achievements. Ahura Mazda himself is a Yazata,4 even as he is an Amesha Spenta. He is the greatest and the best Yazata.5 Zarathushtra himself is spoken of as a Yazata.6 2. Vr8.1; for a list of minor divinities see Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p, 221-224. 3. Is et Os., 47. 5. Y16.1; Yt17.16. 6. Y3.21; 7.21. History of the Yazatas. Some of these Yazatas are, as we have already seen, pre-Zoroastrian and go back to the Indo-Iraniam period; but with the exception of Sraosha, Atar, and Ashi, they do not appear in the Gathas, though frequent enough in the Later Avesta. In fact, they permeate all the later texts, and form an indissoluble part of the Zoroastrian pantheon. We shall group them under two headings and distinguish those that are common to the Indians and the Iranians from those that are Indo-lranian: Mithra, Airyaman, Haoma, Verethraghna, Parendi, Rata, Nairyosangha, Apam Napat, Ushah, and Vayu. Iranian: Atar, Ardvi Sura Anahita, Hvarekhshaeta, Maonghah, Tishtrya Drvaspa, Sraosha, Rashnu, Raman, Daena, Chisti, Erethe, Rasanstat, Ashi Vanghuhi, Arshtat, Asman, Zam, Manthra Spenta, Damoish Upamana, and Anaghra |Characteristics of the Yazatas. Like their celestial elders, the Amesha Spentas, the Yazatas impersonate abstract ideas and virtues, or concrete objects of nature. Many of them preside over both spiritual and material phenomena. The nature Yazatas Hvarekhshaeta, Mithra, Maonghah, Ardvi Sura, Atar, and others personify the sun, light, moon, water, and fire. At times their names designate merely the objects of nature that they personify. This simultaneous treatment of the dual aspect of these angels is frequently found in one and the same paragraph and makes it difficult to distinguish the actual impersonations from the personified objects. Very often praise and sacrifice are offered more to the sun, light, moon, water, and fire as such than to the Yazatas presiding over them. We learn from Herodotus that the Persians sacrificed unto the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds.7||7. Herod. 1.131.| Instances are not wanting in which a Yazata begins his career as the personification of some one particular virtue or an object of nature, but with the lapse of time either substitutes for it some other or widens his sphere of activity and takes some new virtue in the abstract or some new object of nature under his guardianship in addition to his original duty. Some of the Yazatas are lacking in real individuality. The functions of the Yazatas. Various are the boons that the Yazatas give unto man.8 By hundreds and by thousands they gather together the light of the sun and pour it upon the earth.9 Men invoke them with sacrifices10 and in return they help men, They have a share of invocation and sacrifice offered unto Ahura Mazda, who is not jealous of the oblations thus dedicated to his subordinates. They are the holy, mighty, beneficent ones,11 full of glory and healing.12 Apart from the general work which the Yazatas perform as a class of spiritual beings, they are severally allotted different functions, which we shall notice under their respective headings. 8. Y65.12, 14. 9. Yt6.1; Ny1.11 11. Y25.8; 65.12, 14; G2.6. Offerings and sacrifices to the Yazatas. Libations of milk and Haoma, of the Draonah [dron], or wafer-bread, and of meat are the objects generally dedicated to the angels, who always demand that man shall not forget their invocation and praise. They are ever eager to protect and help man in peace or war, provided that man propitiates them with offerings and sacrifices. To Anahita as celestial guardian of the waters, to Drvaspa, who protects cattle, and to Vayu, the wind, a hundred horses, a thousand oxen, and ten thousand sheep are consecrated in sacrifice by some of the early kings and heroes. We shall turn to this subject later. Division of the Yazatas according to their grammatical gender. The Yazatas are both males and females, or rather the personifications of virtues and ideas that are in gender masculine and feminine. There is no distinction between these male and female divinities. Both of them are on the same level, occupy the same place of honour, and receive the same amount of homage. The gentle work becoming to the fair sex is allotted to female angels, and they are as powerful and awe-inspiring in their own sphere of activity as their fellow-workers of the opposite sex are in theirs. The female angels are: Ushah, Zam, Ardvi Sura Anahita, Drvaspa, Daena, Chisti, Arshtat, Erethe, Rasanstat Ashi Vanghuhi, Parendi, and Rata. All others are the male sex. Group Yazatas. The usual manner of sacrificing unto the angels is to invoke each one separately by his name, or in company of his comrades and co-workers, or in joint pairs. On this last point we shall speak anon under a separate heading. Sometimes all the angels are invoked in a group under the comprehensive title of vispe Yazata, "all Yazatas,"13 closely corresponding to the Vedic vishve Devâh, 'all Divinities.' In fact an entire book of the ritual is dedicated to the various spiritual lords under the title Visperad, literally meaning 'all lords.' ||13. Y1.19; 2.18; Yt11.17; 17.19; WFr. 5.1.| Dual Yazatas. A particular feature common to the Avestan and Vedic religions is the arrangement of certain divinities in pairs, who are revered together. As some of the Yazatas guard more than one abstract virtue or impersonate more than one natural phenomenon, it is not uncommon to find one Yazata entering into partnership with various Yazatas according to the nature of his work. For instance, Mithra, as the sovereign lord of wide pastures, forms a pair with Ahura; as the lord of light, he works in consort with Hvarekhshaeta, the genius of light; as the lord of truth, he works in company with Rashnu; and as the lord of plenty and prosperity, he enters into a comradeship with Raman. The more prominent of the dual divinities are Ahura-Mithra,14 Hvarekhshaeta-Mithra,15 Mithra-Rashnu,16 Mithra-Raman,17 Rashnu-Arshtat,18 Raman-Vayu,19 Daena-Chisti,20 Ashi Vanghuhi-Parendi,21 and Asman-Zamyat.22 Sometimes a special attribute of one Yazata is extended to his associate, and they share the characteristic qualities and functions of each other. 14. Y1.11; 2.11; Ny1.7; 2.12; Yt10.113, 145. 15. Yt6; Ny1.2. 16. Vr7.2; Yt13.47, 48; 14.47; 24.52; Vd4.54. 17. Y2.3; 25.4; Vr2.9; Vd3.1; G1.2, 7, 8; S1.16, 2.16. 18. Y1.7; 2.7; Yt10.139; 12.40, S1.18; 2.18. 19. Y16.5; S1.21; 2.21. 20. Ny1.8; 2.8; S1.24; 2.24. 21. Y13.1; Yt8.38; 10.66; 24.8; S1.25; 2.25. 22. Yt1.16; 16.6; 42.3. |Classification of the Yazatas. The Avestan texts generally speak of two distinct orders of the Yazatas. They are mainyava, 'spiritual or celestial,' and gaethya, 'material or terrestrial.'23 We are not, however, informed what particular Yazatas are grouped under each of the two classes. A very recent gloss in the Pahlavi version of the Avestan Litany Khurshid Niyayesh explains that the terrestrial angels are such as Fire, Ardvi Sura's Waters, the Wind, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth. These are so called, adds the commentator, because they can be seen by man with his eyes, whereas the celestial ones cannot thus be seen.24|| 23. Y1.19; 3.4; 7.4; 16.9; 22.27; 25.8; 71.5; Yt6.3, 4; 10.13; 19.22; S1.30; 2.30; Ny1.9; G2.6; Vd2.21; 19.30; WFr. 1.2. 24. Cf. Dhalla, Nyaishes, p. 35, New York, 1908. In the following tabulation we shall class the Yazatas under two main divisions. Those Yazatas who commonly work for one and the same virtue, or preside over some one particular phenomenon, will be classed under the sub-titles of such a virtue or a phenomenon common to them. Thus, for example, all the Yazatas that guard rectitude will be treated in one group, and those that preside over 1ight will be dealt with together. In cases where a Yazata presides over more than one virtue, we shall class this particular angel under the most prominent and characteristic of his virtues. Religion deified. One of the least personified Yazatas is Daena, even though she is a female divinity of religion. Very little is known of her personality more than the fact that she is the genius of the Holy Law of Mazda. She has a Yasht assigned to her which is called after her name; and yet even this is entirely consecrated to Chisti, who is her usual associate. The offerings are made to her companion, and various boons are asked from her. Daena has no share in this. She is simply mentioned by name in invocation along with Chisti. Even here she is assigned a secondary place, for Chisti takes precedence over her. Throughout the Avestan texts in which the two are mentioned together, Daena stands second in the order of invocation.25 Ashi Vanghuhi, or Good Piety, is her sister and Sraosha, Rashnu, and Mithra are her brothers.26 The twenty-fourth day of every month is dedicated to her.27 25. Y22.24; 25.5; S1.24; 2.24; Ny1.8; 2.8. 26. Yt17.15, 17. The names of the religion. It is called the daena vanghu Mazdayasnya, 'the good Mazda-worshipping religion,'28 or daena Mazdayasna, 'the Mazda-worshipping religion.'29 It is named conjointly with Ahura and Zarathushtra and called Âhuirya Zarathushtri, 'the Ahurian Zarathushtrian.'30 It is further named dâta Zarathushtri, 'the Law of Zarathushtra.31 It is also spoken of without associating it with Ahura Mazda or Zarathushtra as hu-daena, 'good religion.'32 The religion in standing opposition to the Mazda-wotshipping religion is always called daevayasnya, 'the daeva-worshipping religion.' The preliminary short prayers, the Gahs, the Niyayeshes, the Yashts generally begin with a short confessionary formula in which the reciter says he is the worshipper of Mazda, a Zarathushtrian, he is against the daevas, and he is of Ahurian faith, Ahura-tkaesho. One of the Nasks, the Vendidad in its original form, vi-daeva-dâta, means 'the Law against the daevas or demons'.33 This religion of the demons is called aka-daena, 'evil religion';34 or duzh-daena, 'evil religion.'35 The man who follows the same religion is hâmo-daena, 'the co-religionist.'36 The man of other religion is of anya-tkaesha or anya-varena.37 27. Y16.6; S1.24; 2.24. 28. Y1.13; 2.13; 9.26; 11.16; 16.6; 22.24, 25; 25.5, 6; 70.3; Vr6.1; Yt2.13; 16.20; S1.24; 2.24; Ny1.8; 2.8; Vd19.6, 7, 13, 16. 29. Y8.1, 3; 22.25; 25.6; 71.4; Vr12.3; Yt8.23, 29; 10.68, 126, 127; 11.3; 16.17; 18.8; 19.2; 24.52; G2.7; Vd2.42; 3.30, 31, 41, 42; 5.21; 9.2, 47, 52; 10.18. 30. Y12.9; 60.3; Yt13.99; Vd2.1, 2. 31. Y1.13; 2.13; 22.25; 25.6; Yt11.3; Vd5.25; 19.16. 32. Vr3.3; Yt4.10; 19.95; 22.18; G4.8. 33. Y1.13; 2.13; 22.25; 25.6; 71.5; Yt11.17; Vd5.22; 19.16. 35. Y65.6; Yt5.109; 9.31; 19.47, 87; 22.36. 37. Y16.2; Vd12.21; 15.2. |The excellence of the Mazda-worshipping religion. The angel Sraosha is the teacher of the religion.38 Arshtat, the genius presiding over rectitude, is once identified with Daena.39 Ahura Mazda brought for Haoma the heavenly made star-bespangled girdle and the good Mazda-worshipping religion.40 He asked Yima to be the bearer of his religion to mankind, but the illustrious king pleaded his inability to undertake such a mighty task.41 Zarathushtra then became the prophet of Ahura Mazda, and brought his religion to the world. The Kingly Glory clave unto king Vishtaspa and he thought and spoke and acted according to the religion.42 He became the arm and support of the Ahurian Zoroastrian religion.43 He found her fettered in chains and made her widely known.44|| 38. Y57.24; Yt11.24. 41. Vd2.3, 4. The Ahurian Zoroastrian religion, We are told, is the greatest, best, and fairest of all religions that are and that will be.45 She is as much higher in greatness, goodness, and fairness than others as the Vourukasha is above all waters, or a great river, flowing swifter than a rivulet, or as a great tree overshadowing small plants, or as the heaven compassing the earth.46 She is beautiful and spread far and wide.47 As dissensions-dispelling, she causes weapons to be laid down.48 She rejoices, protects, and guards the righteous man.49 She takes away the sins of those who confess their wrongs and removes their evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds, as the powerfully blowing wind cleanses the plain.50 The Mazdayasnian religion gives all good things of life.51 She gives purification to him who cleanses his self with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.52 The place where the faithful pray and sacrifice according to religion is happy.53 Hard work and industry are prime Zoroastrian virtues. Agriculture is the staple industry of the people and the texts say that sowing corn again and again feeds the Mazda-worshipping religion, it makes her walk with a hundred men's feet and suckles her with a thousand women's breasts.54 The householder prays for the long-enduring excellence of the religion in his house.55 Priests going afar for the propagation of religion, pray for a good memory and the soundness of the body.56 He is not an athravan who has not girded his loins for religion.57 The white colour, it is said is symbolic of the Mazda-worshipping 50. Vd3.41, 42. 52. Vd5.21; 10.18. 54. Vd3.30, 31. |Divinity of religious wisdom. Unlike her partner, just mentioned, Chisti, divinity of religious wisdom, has a personality that is sharply defined. Her standing epithets are 'good' and 'most upright.' She is the most upright, holy, bearing libations, wearing a white garment as her emblem.59 Zarathushtra longs to own her and devoutly implores her to grant him, among other things, the clearest vision.60 The prophet's noble consort Hvovi, as well as the itinerant priests and the lords of the country, are among her supplicants, asking various boons, which she grants to those who are pure in heart.61 The faithful long to approach Ahura Mazda through the deeds of Chisti.62|| 61. Yt16.15, 17, 19. The word chisti is often used to denote spiritual wisdom. The eighth name of Ahura Mazda is chisti or wisdom, and the ninth is 'possessed of wisdom.'63 The world first came into being through Ahura Mazda's understanding and wisdom.64 Haoma makes the mind of the poor exalted with wisdom.65 63. Yt1.8, 9. His personality. Sraosha is one of the few angels whose prominence increases with the lapse of time. Two Yashts are dedicated to him. The latter of which occurs also in the Yasna. He is the angel whose name has reached afar and whose very body is the holy spell.66 Sraosha occupied a conspicuous place in the Gathas, and was associated with Ahura Mazda and his six abstract figures that have now become a corporate body of the seven Amesha Spentas. His close connection with them is remembered by the composers of the Later Avestan texts. We are told that he was the first in the entire creation to worship Ahura Mazda, the Amesha Spentas. and the two protectors.67 He chanted the five holy Gathas of Zarathushtra in order to propitiate the archangels.68 From his battles against the demons, he returns victorious to the celestial assembly of the archangels.69 His dwelling is supported by a thousand pillars, is self-lighted from within, and star-spangled from without.70 He drives forth in a heavenly chariot drawn by four white shining horses that are fleeter than the winds, fleeter than the rain, fleeter than the winged birds, and fleeter than the well-darted arrow.71 They overtake all, but none can overtake them, when Sraosha drives towards Hapta Hindu or the land of seven rivers in India.72 The sacred formula Ahuna Vairya [Ahunwar] and the other consecrated spells are his weapons.73 His sisters are Ashi and Daena, and his brothers are Rashnu and Mithra,74 and unto him Haoma offered sacrifice.75 Owing to his victorious courage and wisdom the archangels come down to the seven zones.76 66. Y3.20; 4.23; Yt13.85; Vd18.14. 67. Y57.2, 6. 71. Y57.27, 28. Sraosha's attributes. His standing epithets are: holy, well-shapen, victorious, ad world-increasing. He is the strongest, the sturdiest, the most active, the swiftest, and the most awe-inspiring of youths.77 He is the word incarnate, the valiant wielder of the club, which is levelled against all demoniacal powers, especially against the fiendish Druj.78 He is courageous, mighty, swift, powerful, terrible, and heroic.79 He is a formidable foe to the wicked. He is not afraid or anyone, but the demons tremble at his sight and flee to the region of darkness.80 His mace does havoc on them. He is the warrior of the strong arms, who breaks the skulls of the demons.81 Himself unconquerable, he is the conqueror of all. 78. Y3.20; 4.23; 57.1, 33; Yt11.0, 23; Sr1.17; Vd18.14. 79. Y57.3, 11, 12, 13, 23. 80. Y57.18; Yt11.13. 81. Y57.34; Yt11.9. |The work of Sraosha. Mazda has revealed his religion to Sraosha, who now teaches it to the world of humanity.82 This was the prime function, as we have seen above, that the Gathas allotted him. The Younger Avestan texts speak more of his all-absorbing work of combating the demons. In the Gathas he preached devout submission to Mazda's mandates; in the Later Avesta he does the fighting with the rebels that revolt against divine authority. He, the exalted one, comes down to the creation of Mazda, with loins girt up to fight the demons.83 Sleep has forsaken his eyelids since the two spirits Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu created the world.84 Ahura Mazda has created him to withstand the demon Aeshma.85 With an uplifted club he guards the world after sunset from the onslaughts of Aeshma, his constant rival, and against all the forces of wickedness.86 Three times during the day and three times during the night the holy Sraosha descends on earth to smite the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, Aeshma, the demons of Mazandaran, and all other demons.87 Just as the shepherd dog guards and protects cattle against harm, so does Sraosha protect men; and the faithful, therefore, yearn with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds to live under his constant guardianship.88 The fire of the hearth calls Sraosha for help in the third part of the night, for the demon Azi threatens to extinguish his life.89 Sraosha, thereupon, wakes up the cock Parodarsh, his ally, who lifts up his voice to rouse the world of humanity, and warns it against the mischief of Bushyansta, who lulls it to sleep.90 With his terrible mace levelled at the head of Druj, he enters into controversy with her, extorts from the demoness her secret devices,91 and smites her.92 As the teacher of religion unto men he moves about spreading religious lore at his will over the whole material world.93|| 82. Y57.24; Yt11.14. 84. Y57.17; Yt11.11, 12. 86. Y57.10, 16; Yt11.10, 11. 87. Y57.31, 32. 90. Vd18.23, 24. 92. Y57.15; Yt11.3, 10. The master of rituals takes his name from Sraosha and is called Sraoshâvarez.94 Parodarsh is called the Sraoshâvarez of Sraosha.95 The implement of administering stripes to the criminals is called Sraoshocharana.96 94. Vr3.1; Yt24.15; Vd5.25, 57, 58; 7.17, 18, 71; G3.5. 95. Vd18.14, 15. 96. Vd3.36, 37; etc. Sraosha's gifts. He is implored to give strength to the spans of the warriors' steeds in battle, soundness of body, and power to meet the adversary.96a He is like a firmly built house unto the poor, who look to him for support.97 The faithful entreat him to guard them in both the worlds.98 The householder invokes him to smite disobedience in his family.99 He smites Kunda.100 The Mazdayasnians are asked to sacrifice unto him.101 Evils of all kinds vanish from the house, clan, town, and country, wherein the righteous man thinking good thoughts, speaking good words, and doing good deeds, welcomes and sacrifices unto Sraosha.102 The faithful pray for all the houses protected by Sraosha, wherein he is friendly, beloved, and honoured.103 They beseech him to come to their help.104 97. Y51.10; Yt11.3. 103. Y57.35; Yt11.20. His place in the Avestan pantheon. Of all the Indo-Iranian divinities that have found their place in the Zarathushtrian theology, Mithra is the most prominent figure. As an associate of Varuna, Mithra's individuality was eclipsed during the Indo-Iranian period. After the separation of these two groups of the Aryan people, Mithra rose to great eminence, and was the premier divinity in Western Iran, when Zarathushtra preached his religion. During the period of syncretism after the passing away of the prophet, Mithra became the most conspicuous angel of the Younger Avestan period. The longest Yasht, which is eight times longer than the Yasht composed in honour of Ahura Mazda, celebrates his greatness. He is the most masculine, exacting, implacable, and relentless of all the Yazatas. Ahura Mazda has created him the most glorious of the spiritual Yazatas,105 as worthy of sacrifice and prayer as himself.106 The description of him in the Yasht that is dedicated in his honour gives a vivid picture of the character of the pre-Zarathushtrian divinities that came to be worshipped in Iran. Mithra was the most eminent of the primitive Ahuras, as he was conjointly worshipped with Ahura Mazda.107 The writer who consecrated Yasht 10 in his honour was conversant with the past greatness of this divinity, whose cult had struck so deep a root in the popular mind. He certainly was unsparing in eulogizing the work of this genius in the universe. The texts sometimes speak of Mithra in terms that are usually applied to Ahura Mazda, and the latter himself is represented in this particular Yasht as having sacrificed unto Mithra.108 The heptad of the Amesha Spentas having been already complete, Mithra is not raised to the rank of these higher beings. but is assigned a place among the Yazatas. The Old Persian Inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings mention a very limited number of the celestial beings. Mithra occupies a prominent place among these divinities. Artaxerxes Mnemon and Artaxerxes Ochus invoke Mithra for help and protection.109 105. Vd19.35; Ny1.7. 107. Y1.11; 2.11; Yt10.113, 145; Ny1.7; 2.12. 109. SUS. a; Ham. b; Pers.4. Mithra's attributes. Of all the Yazatas that rule over this earth, Mithra is the strongest, the most sturdy, the most active, the most swift, and the most victorious.110 Ahura Mazda has created him the most glorious of all the spiritual Yazatas.111 The composer of the Yasht who sings to his favourite divinity applies to him the same honorific epithets as are applied to the godhead. Mithra is called omniscient, which is strictly speaking the epithet of Mazda alone.112 He is the greatest of the Yazatas, with body shining like the moon, and face (ainika), as brilliant as Tishtrya.113 It is interesting to note that the Rig Veda uses the correspording Skt. form (anika), and says that Varuna's face is as shining as that of Agni.114 He is the strongest of the strong the sturdiest of the sturdy, the most intelligent among the divinities, victorious, glorious, heroic, and the undeceivable one, deep, courageous, weal-giving, propitiated when invoked, exalted, skilful, with a body made of spells, and a warrior of powerful ,arms, the leader of hosts, of a thousand devices, lordly, ruling, the all-knowing one, the one of good renown, of good form and glory, granting boons and pastures at his will, the giver of good, of ten thousand spies, heroic, and the all-knowing.115 He is ever afoot, watchful, valiant, a dominating figure in the assembly, causing the waters to flow, listening to appeals, causing the trees to grow, ruling over the district full of devices, a creature of wisdom.116 He is the swiftest among the swift, generous among the generous, valiant among the valiant, chief among the chiefs of assembly, increase-giving, fatness-giving, flock-giving, son-giving, life-giving, felicity-giving, joy-giving, glory-giving, kingdom-giving, and piety-giving.117 Mithra is highly merciful, foremost, and peerless.118 He is the protector and guardian of an creatures.119 He is the most fiend-smiting among all the Yazatas.120 He is both good and bad for men and nations, Peace and War between nations are from him.121 With his wide knowledge, he furthers the creation of Spenta Mainyu.122 The sixteenth day of a month and the seventh month of a year are sacred to Mithra. 110. Yt10.98, 135. 112. Yt10.24, 35. 113. Yt10.142, 143. 114. RV. 7.88, 2. 115. Yt10.24, 25, 27, 31, 35, 46, 56, 60, 63, 69, 82, 141, 143. 117. Yt10.16, 65. 120. Yt10.98, 135. Mithra's associates. Among those who work in unison with Mithra, Ahura Mazda stands first; Mithra-Ahura ate invoked together as a couple. Their union is pre-Zarathushtrian and corresponds to the Vedic Mitra-Varuna. A detailed account of their joint activity is not found in the Avesta, but they are called the two exalted, imperishable, and holy ones,123 and are invoked for special help.124 Mithra is again jointly invoked with Hvarkhshaeta, the angel presiding over the sun. This is natural, because one of the chief Iunctions of Mithra is to work as the guardian of light. Of the five Zoroastrian Nyaishes, or litanies, two are consecrated to the sun and Mithra, and these two are always recited together.125 On the moral side Mithra protects truth. Consequently at an early date he is associated with Rashnu, who is the chief genius of truth.126 They are united as two friends.127 One of the principal attributes of Mithra is that he is the lord of wide pastures. In this capacity he joins in partnership with Raman Khvastra, who is essentially the angel that gives good pastures and happy dwellings, together with full joy of life.128 123. Y1.11; 2.11; Ny1.7; 2.2; Yt10.113, 145. 125. Ny1.2; Yt6. 126. Vr7.2; Yt13.47, 48; 14.47; 24.52; Vd4.54. 127. Yt10.79, 81. 128. Y2.3; 25.4; Vr2.9; Vd3.1; G1.2, 7, 8; S1.16; 2.16. Mithra, the genius of light. On the material side Mithra presides over light, especially over the light that radiates from the sun with the radiance of which he is identical on the physical plane. As the harbinger of light and herald of the dawn, Mithra precedes the rising sun on the summits of mountains, and from there watches all Aryan settlements, nay more, even all the seven Zones of the world.129 The great vault of heaven is therefore Mithra's garment.130 Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spentas, being in one accord with the sun, have built up for Mithra a dwelling as wide as the earth in this material world, on the great mountain Hara Berezaiti (Alburz) where neither night nor darkness, nor cold wind, nor hot wind, nor sickness, impurity; death and clouds can ever reach.131 From this elysian abode Mithra surveys the whole universe at a glance.132 Sleepless and ever wakeful, he watches and spies the doings of men, like Vedic Mitra-Varuna, as an infallible sentinel of heaven. He has posted eight of his comrades as scouts on the celestial watch-towers to spy upon men's doings.133 After the sun has set, Mithra traverses the world all around, and surveys all that is between earth, and the heavens.134 Ahura Mazda consequently has ordained that Mithra should watch from on high over the entire moving world.135 The heat of Mithra it is, accordingly, that gives warmth and life to the plant world and bestows fertility upon this earth. Mithra, as a guardian genius in the celestial realm, superintends the vast expanse of the universe. Varuna has a thousand eyes,136 and Mithra is constantly spoken of as having a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes. The brilliant sun is the lord of yonder heavens, who with his infinite rays of light pervades the whole world, Mithra furthermore receives in the Avesta the standing epithets dainghu-paiti, 'the lord of countries,' and vourugaoyaoiti 'of wide pastures.' His light is the dispeller of darkness and of all the sin and evil concomitant with it. Nothing is secret from Mithra's penetrating gaze. Mitra-Varuna have a thousand-eyed spies (spasah), who descend from heaven and traverse the world, watching the doings of mankind. Mithra, as we have seen, has ten thousand spies (spaso), who work as his messengers. 129. Yt10.13, 15; Vd19.28. 131. Yt10.44, 50, 51. 136. RV. 7.34.10. |Mithra, the inveterate foe of falsehood. Yet after all, the greater and more important work of Mithra lies in the abstract sphere. At a very early date Mithra was styled the warder of truth. Light is synonymous with truth, as darkness is with falsehood. Mithra being primarily the lord of light, it was but a step from the physical to the moral sphere that he should be depicted impersonating truth. From the divine activity of Mithra, as portrayed in the Avestan texts, we gather more information of his aggressively active crusade against falsehood than of his work in upholding truth. In his warring capacity of lord of hosts, Mithra works more than all else to deal a destructive blow to the demon of falsehood, thereby strengthening the realm of truth.| To speak untruth was a henious sin. Truth Was a paramount among the ancient Iranians. It was regarded as everything, it was religion. On this very account we see human evil reflectively focussed in the Avesta as the druj, 'Lie,' which corresponds to drauga in the Old Persian Inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings, a conception almost like that of the devil. Herodotus writes that one of the first things that every Persian child was taught was to speak the truth.137 Lying unto Mithra brings the offender the sin of being a deceiver of Mithra. The faithful is exhorted never to lie, for Mithra is unforgiving toward liars. Sad is the abode wherein live those that lie unto Mithra, for they are childless, and even their cattle stray along the road shedding tears over their chins.138 Neither the lord of the house, nor the lord of the clan, nor the lord of the town, nor the lord of the country should ever lie unto this celestial being.139 He is the protector and guardian of these lords, only so long as they lie not unto him.140 If, however, they commit such a sin, Mithra is offended and angered, and destroys house, clan, town, and the country, along with their masters and nobles.141 Nor can these culprit lords escape him, for he overtakes them, no matter how swiftly they may run.142 The man of little faith who thinks that he can evade Mithra and indulges in falsehood is mistaken;143 but Mithra thinks in his mind that were the evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds of the earthly man a hundred times worse, they would not rise as high as the good thoughts, good words, and good deeds of the heavenly Mithra.144 Or again if the innate wisdom of the earthly man were a hundred times greater, it would not rise as high as the heavenly wisdom of the Mithra; or if the ears of the earthly man could hear a hundred times better, he would not hear so well as the heavenly Mithra who with a thousand devices of his, hears well and sees every man that tells a lie.145 To such a one Mithra gives neither strength nor vigour, glory nor reward,146 but on the contrary, he inflicts dire punishment. Into the hearts of all such he strikes terror, taking away the strength of their arms, fleetness from their feet, the sight from their eyes, and the hearing from their ears.147 It is he that hurls down their heads as he deals death.148 Mithra keeps back harm and death from him who lies not unto him.149 Neither the wound of the well-sharpened spear nor that of the well-darted arrow harm him whom Mithra comes to help.150 137. Herod. 1. 136| 147. Yt10.23, 48, 63. Mithra the guardian of contracts. Ahura Mazda enjoins upon Zarathushtra not to break the contract that is entered into with the righteous or with the wicked, for Mithra stands for both the righteous and the wicked.151 In his role of genius of light he guards the sanctity of oaths, and the word mithra in the Avesta is frequently used as a common noun, meaning 'contract.'152 For that reason, he who violates the oath, whether it be with a believer or a non-believer, feels the visitations of the stern angel's wrath. The crime of the one who thus violates a contract is called Mithra-druj, 'deceiving Mithra.' Such a criminal is heavily punished, and his guilt falls upon the shoulders of his kinsmen for years in the next world, making them answerable for it by punishment.153 The ethics of thus holding a man's family and kinsmen responsible for his guilt seems to be a relic of the primitive type of group morality. 152. Yt10.116, 117; Vd4.2-16. Mithra as a war divinity. Incidental allusion has been made above to Mithra as the lord of hosts. For that reason it is easy to comprehend the fact that warring nations invoke Mithra for help before going into battle; and the lord of hosts sides with that army which excels in offering sacrifice.154 When Mithra marches out amid the hostile armies on the battlefield, he throws confusion into the camp of the enemy that has offended him, binds the hands of his offenders, covers their eyesight, takes away their power of hearing, deprives their feet of movement,155 and breaks asunder their lines of battle, striking terror in their entire array.156 Though the enemy use arrows and spears, swords and maces, they nevertheless miss the mark in every case,157 and, all the while, Mithra rushes destructively from a thousand directions against the foes.158 The adversaries who have lied unto him he kills by fifties and hundreds, by hundreds and thousands, by thousands and tens of thousands, by tens of thousands and myriads.159 Confusing their minds, he shatters their limbs and breaks their bones asunder,160 at the same time as he throws down their heads161 he enters the battlefield in person, and levels his club at both the horse and the rider.162 155. Yt10.48, 63. 156. Yt10.36, 41. 157. Yt10.39, 40. 160. Yt10.71, 72. Mithra’s chariot. Mithra goes forth on his daily round through the heavens and upon the earth driving in a celestial car that rolls upon one golden wheel, evidently the sun, with a shining axle.163 Ahura Mazda made his chariot of heavenly substance and inlaid it with stars.164 Like Sraosha's vehicle it is drawn by four white stallions that eat celestial food and are are undying, shining, and spiritual.165 When Mithra drives on aloft over the seven zones he is escorted on the left and the right, in front and from behind, by Sraosha, Nairyosangha, Ashi Vanghuhi, Parendi, Nairya Ham-Vareti, Kingly Glory, the Sovereign Sky, Damoish Upamana, Rashnu, Chisti, Atar, Verethraghna, and the Fravashis.166 With bows and arrows, spears and clubs, and with swords and maces placed by thousands in his chariot, this divine war lord plunges, mace in hand, into the field of battle, smiting and killing the wicked that have been false to him.167 Even Angra Mainyu and the fiendish demons flee away in terror before Mithra.168 After smiting the demons and the men who have lied unto him, he drives forward through the seven Zones.169 165. Yt10. 68, 125. 167. Yt10.96, 102, 112, 127-132. 169. Yt10. 133. Mithra’s wrath. Mithra bemoans with uplifted hands before Ahura Mazda the disregard and negligence of men who do not invoke him by his name, even though he protects and guards them.170 If he were invoked by men, he says, as other angels are, he would come at the appointed time for help to the righteous.171 He looks, therefore, for votaries who will sacrifice unto him, so that in his might he may shower gifts upon them. Happy indeed is the man who thus gains the good-will of Mithra, for this divine angel henceforth bestows upon him radiance and glory, soundness of body, riches and weal, offspring and sovereignty.172 But woe is to him that is sparing in Mithra's invocation. For such a Wight calamity is in store, as Mithra is terrible to deal with when his righteous wrath is kindled. Mithra, when angered or disregarded in worship, inflicts poverty and wretchedness, sickness and death upon the offender, depriving him also of his offspring and power.173 The house, clan, town, and country in which an insult is offered to Mithra are levelled to the ground.174 He deprives the evil countries of their greatness and glory and victory, and renders them helpless.175 The wise therefore pray that they may never come across Mithra's wrath,176 and invocation is the best means of appeasing the vengeful angel.177 170. Yt10.53, 54. 172. Yt10.108, 109. 174. Yt10.28, 87. 176. Yt10.69, 98, 135. Sacrifices to Mithra. Varuna sits on the strewn grass at the sacrifice.178 Similarly, the faithful devoutly invoke Mithra by his name with libations, and implore him to come and sit at the sacrifice, to listen to the invocation, to be pleased with it, to accept it, and to place it with love to their credit in paradise.179 Ahura Mazda himself offered a sacrifice unto him in the shining Garonmana.180 Zarathushtra is asked to offer sacrifices unto Mithra and so are the Mazdayasnians asked to sacrifice unto him with cattle and birds, along with Haoma and libations.181 The faithful who desires to drink the holy libations consecrated in honour of Mithra is required to undergo certain penances. He has to wash his body for three days and three nights and undergo thirty stripes, or he might wash his body for two days and two nights and undergo twenty stripes, as the occasion requires. Anyone who has no knowledge of the ritual is prohibited from partaking of the sacred libation.182 In these observances we can recognize the beginnings of the later Mithraic rites and mysteries for which the cult of Mithra, centuries afterwards, became famous. Mithra demands that his sacrifice shall be performed with out-and-out devotion. Ahura Mazda says unto Zarathushtra that if a sacrifice is offered unto Mithra by a holy and righteous priest, Mithra will be satisfied, and will straightway come to the dwelling of the supplicant, but if it is performed by an unholy priest, it is rejected, no matter how long has been the sacrifice, nor how many bundles of the sacred twigs are consecrated.183 Mithra promptly comes to help when he is satisfied.184 He brings sovereignty for him who has piously offered him libations,185 and gives him a good abode with desirable possessions.186 He is to be offered sacrifices around and within countries, in and above countries, under and before and behind countries.187 178. RV. 1.2.64; 5.72.2. 187. Yt10.144; Ny2.11. Mithra's boons. He is constantly spoken of as giving happy and joyful abode, to the Aryan peoples. Many indeed are the boons asked for from Mithra by his votaries, who always approach him with love, homage and sacrifice. He is generally invoked to come to the faithful for help, freedom, joy, mercy, healing, victory, well-being, and sanctification. The masters of the house, clan, town, and country invoke him for help, so do the poor, when wronged, look to him for the redress of their grievances.188 The husbandman solicits that rich pasture may never fail him. Horsemen sacrifice unto him even from on horseback and beg swiftness for their teams, vigour for their bodies, and might for overthrowing their adversaries.189 Neither the spear of the foe nor his arrow hits the man whom Mithra helps,190 for he guards and protects man from behind and in front.191 furthers the possessions of man, he gives flocks of cattle, male offspring, chariots, spacious mansions, and prosperity192 he is therefore entreated to grant riches, courage, victory, good name and fame, felicity, wisdom, and strength to smite the adversaries.193 The worshipper prays that just as the sun, rising beyond the Alburz, reaches the height, so may he, with his ascending prayer, rise above the will of Angra Mainyu and approach Mithra.194 Mithra's help, it may be added, is invoked for both the worlds.195 188. Yt10.83, 84. 193. Yt10.33, 34, 58, 59. |Personification of truth. This angel is preeminently genius of truth. His standing epithet is razishta, 'most upright'. To adopt the phraseology of the Younger Avestan texts, Rashnu is the most holy, the most well-shaped, exalted, courageous, most knowing, the most discerning, the most fore-knowing, most far-seeing, the most helping, the greatest smiter of thieves and bandits.196 He is as bright as the fire.197 Zarathushtra blesses king Vishtaspa that he may be of right faith like Rashnu.198|| 196. Yt10.126; 12.5-8. 197. Vsp. 16.1. The eighteenth day of the month is consecrated to him.199 ||199. Y16.5; Sr. 1.18; 2.18.| |Rashnu presides at the ordeal court. The twelfth Yasht consecrated to Rashnu deals mainly with the preparation of the ordeal; and his presence at such trials is deemed indispensable.200 In fact he is the chief celestial judge who presides at the ordeal. No specific habitat is assigned to Rashnu. The officiating priest has to invoke him to come to the ordeal from whatever part of the world he happens to be in at that time, whether in one of the seven zones of the habitable world, or on the great waters or on some part of the wide earth, or on the high mountains, on the stars and the moon and the sun, or in the endless light, even in paradise.201 The man who lies at the ordeal offends both Rashnu and Mithra, and is consequently punished.202|| 200. See Dhalla, 'The Use of Ordeals among the Ancient Iranians,' in Le Museon, vol. II, p. 121-133, Louvain, 1910. We have already seen how Rashnu is often invoked in company with Mithra, and likewise with Sraosha; in a similar manner, as noted in the next paragraph, we generally find Arshtat the female personification of rectitude, invoked alongside of Rashnu.203 ||203. Y1.7; 2.7; Yt10.139; 12.40; Sr.1.18; 2.1.8.| |Divinity of rectitude. Arshtat or Arshti is the female genius of truth. She does not play any prominent part in the Younger Avestan period. She co-operates with Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu in the judgment of the dead. Although the 18th Yasht is dedicated to Arshtat and bears her name, there is not in it a single mention of her by name; the entire hymn treats only of the Aryan Glory. In two Sirozah passages (1.26, 2.26) Mount Ushidarena literally meaning 'the keeper of intelligence,' is invoked in company with Arshtat; and tradition points to this mountain at the place where Zarathushtra retired to meditate on the eternal problems of life and commune with the divine. As noted above, Arshtat is generally invoked with Rashnu;204 and she is called the world-increasing and the world-profiting.205 In one instance she is identified with the Mazdayasnian religion.206 The faithful invoke her excellence.207|| 204. Y1.7; 2.7; Yt10.139; 12.40; Sr. 1.18; 2.18. 205. Y1.7; 2.7; Vsp. 7.2; Yt10.139; 11.16; 13.18; Sr. 1.26; 2.26 206. Vsp. 7.2 As conjectured by Foy,208 and established by Jackson,209 after a careful examination of the Old Persian Inscription on the Behistan rock,210 the name of this angel occurs in the very short list of Zoroastrian divinities known to the Achaemenian kings. The twenty-sixth day of the month is sacred to her.211 208. KZ. 35.45; ZDMG. 54.364, n. 1. 209. Persia Past and Present, p. 203-205, New York, 1906. 210. Bh. 4.64. 211. Y16.6; Sr. 1.26; 2.26. ERETHE AND RASANSTAT |Minor divinities of truth. By the names of Erethe and Rasantat are designated two minor female angels presiding over truth. Nothing is known about them excepting that they are invoked by name along with Chisti and Ashi Vanghuhi.212 They are given the epithet 'good.' Erethe is once called courageous.213|| 212. Y1.14; 3.16; 4.19; Vsp. 9.4; Sr. 1.25. 213. Vsp. 9.4. |The angel of victory. Verethraghna belongs to the Indo-Iranian divinities. He is one of the most popular divinities of the Iranian cult. Indra's most distinctive epithet in the Rig Veda is Vrtrahan, 'the slayer of Vrtra.' Its Avestan corresponding word is Verethraghna which, however, is not used as an epithet of some angel, but is the name of a powerful angel. Verethraghna impersonates victory and he has preserved this trait throughout the various epochs of Iranian religious thought. The Yasht bearing his name celebrates his exploits. As the genius of victory, and created by Ahura Mazda, Verethraghna is the best armed of the spiritual angels.214 He is the most courageous in courage, the most victorious in victory, the most glorious in glory, the most abounding in favours, the best giver of welfare, and the most healing in health-giving.215 He is the giver of manliness, inflicting death, maker of a new world, resolute, and self-willed.216|| 215. Yt14.3, 7, etc. 216. Yt14.28, 30, 32. King Vishtaspa is blessed by Zarathushtra that he may be a conqueror of his enemies like Verethraghna.217 The twentieth day of the month is dedicated to him.218 His constant associates are Ama, 'Courage,' and Vanainti Uparatat, 'Dominating Excellence.' 217. AZ. 7. 218. Y16.5; Sr. 1.20; 2.20. The patron angel of the Iranian countries. Verethraghna is one of the national divinities of the Aryans. If the nation sacrificed unto Verethraghna with libations, and the sacred twigs, and consecrated cooked repast of cattle, either white or of some other colour, no hostile hordes, no plague, nor evil of any kind would enter the Aryan lands.219 The sacrifice is to be offered through righteousness, and none but the righteous should partake of the holy food dedicated to Verethraghna. Untold calamity would befall the Aryan countries if the wicked should have a share in the sacred feast. In such an event plagues and foes would devastate the country and the Aryans would be smitten by their fifties and their hundreds, by their hundreds and their thousands, by their thousands and their tens of thousands, by their tens of thousands and their myriads of myriads.220 219. Yt14. 48-50. Verethraghna's work. The armies that meet on the battlefield invoke Verethraghna for victory. He favours that army which first seeks his help.. The army that secures his aid is sure to conquer and not to be conquered, it smites and is not smitten.221 He breaks asunder the columns of the enemy, wounds them, shakes them, and cuts them to pieces.222 He brings illness and death into the army that has lied unto Mithra, binds their hands and feet, and deprives them of their eyesight and hearing.223 He destroys the malice of the malicious demons and men, sorcerers and fairies, the willfully blind, and the willfully deaf. 224 Zarathushtra sacrificed unto Verethraghna, imploring from him victory in thought, victory in word, victory in deed, victory in addressing. and victory in replying.225 Verethraghna imparts to the prophet the excellence of uprightness, the strength of the arms, the health of the body, the strength of the body, and the powerful vision of the eyes.226 221. Yt14.43, 44. 225. Yt14.28, 30, 32. His metamorphoses. Verethraghna, along with Dahma Afriti and Damoish Upamana, imports a peculiar aspect into the Iranian pantheon, that of assuming various shapes and manifesting his individuality in many forms. As the lord of victory he is ever ready to help those who invoke him, and comes down to his votary under different guises. Ten of such forms of Verethraghna are mentioned, when he appeared to Zarathushtra. The divinity successively assumes the form of the wind, a bull, a horse, a camel, a boar, a youth, a raven, a ram, a he-goat, and finally of a man.227 He escorts Mithra in the shape of a boar to smite those that have lied unto the guardian of truth.228 He causes the joy of life. Another instance of a hymn consecrated in name to one Yazata, but wholly devoted to the praise and glorification of another, is furnished by Ram Yasht (15). Raman is merely invoked by name along with Vayu at the beginning and the end of the Yasht. Vayu, the genius of wind, is the co-labourer of Raman, and the Yasht treats of his achievements. Raman Khvastra is the genius of the joy of life. The joy that he imparts is not the joy of the spirit, and does not convey any spiritual significance. It is the joy or pleasure pertaining to this life. Raman's joy makes man full of zest for life. Good abodes and good pastures that bring comfort and happiness in the present life are Raman's gifts. Savouriness of food is from him. Rich harvest, fertile fields, wide pasture, abundant fodder, and thick foliage, are the boons of Raman and his associate divinities, like Mithra and Vayu.229 In fact it is Mithra and Tishtrya who impart this joy to the abodes of the Aryan nations.230 The waters of Ardvi Sura Anahita are likewise invoked to grant joyful dwellings for the worshippers of Mazda.231 Zarathushtra wishes King Vishtaspa the joy of Raman.232 We have already seen that Zarathushtra's joyful outlook on life pervades the Younger Avesta. Gaiety of spirit and cheerfulness of nature characterize the people of the period. 229. Y1.3; 2.3; 22.23; 25.4; Vsp. 1.7; 2.9; Yt10.146. Yt15; Sr. 1.21; 2.21; Vd. 3.1; G. 1.7. 230. Yt8.2; 10.4. 232. Yt23.7; 24.6. |Physical and mental inequality leads to economic inequality. Providence does not distribute the physical and mental gifts to man on the basis of equality. Some are born with agile, robust, and healthy bodies, whereas others are burdened with sluggish, weak, and sickly bodies. Mankind has contributed considerably by its vice of ages to the deformity of body and derangement of mind. Men and women are born with unequal physical and mental strength. The strong and strenuous, cunning and resourceful, vigorous and adventurous mercilessly overthrow the weak and slow, simple and dull, timid and indolent in the fierce scramble for the good things of life. The unequal distribution by nature of the gifts of body and brain, aided by selfishness and greed on the part of man bring about economic inequality. The disparity of poverty and wealth has appeared on the face of the earth ever since society took to settled life and, with the division of labour, embarked upon earning means of livelihood by different kinds of work. The strong have exploited the labour of the weak and forced them to slave like beasts of burden with their eyes raining tears of sorrow. The fear of starvation has hovered over millions of huts like vultures. The poor have generally lived in squalor and sickness and died like flies. Countless persons have not experienced a full and satisfied stomach from birth to death. Kindly mothers have eaten only half the bread that their children may have the other half. Multitudes of children have lived with wasted cheeks, sunken eyes, and emaciated bodies among the dregs of life. Men and women have sweated and starved and grown gray before their time. Physical sufferings have rendered many the shadows of themselves, made them live two years in one and age fast. Many have found it hard to equate the income and expenses, and earned a precarious living. The people whose tragedy it has been to be poor have always outnumbered the rich in the world.| |When life has thus denied many the barest necessities of life, it has loaded others with abundance. Men of industry and enterprise have amassed riches, others have inherited wealth, still others have filled their coffers by foul means. Some have been parasites fattening upon the sweated toil of the tillers of the soil and have wrung from them the fruits of their labour. They have revelled in superfluous riches. They have lived in spacious halls with frescoed walls, and velvet hangings looped with golden tassels. They had a retinue of servants at their beck and call and lounged away their time upon luxurious divans. They had sumptuous tables laden with a dozen courses and sparkling wines and fed themselves to early death. Others gave themselves up to gaiety and licentiousness. Many have indulged in ostentatious and extravagant luxury when the vast numbers of the poor have clothed themselves in rags and their children have suffered from malnutrition. The insolence and hauteur, the cold behaviour and thinly concealed slights have stung the helpless poor to the quick.| The poor took the counsels of contentment given by the wise to heart and resigned themselves to the inscrutable will of God. Moreover, there have always been noble souls everywhere who have come forward to father society's orphans and destitutes. They have acted on the principle that wealth was not given them for their selfish use, and that the rich were the stewards of their wealth given them by God for the amelioration of the condition of the poor. When some have not given anything from their abundance, many have always given something, and the few have given up their all. Charity personified. The female genius of charity, grace, or alms-giving is Rata, the companion of Spenta Armaiti, with whom she is conjointly invoked in the hymns of praise.233 Through her Ahura Mazda gives reward,234 for he has spoken of her with express sanction to Zarathushtra, and in obedience the prophet has introduced her to humanity.235 The faithful pray that they may win Ahura Mazda's favours through Rata.236 She nourishes the poor.237 Sraosha is the best protector of the poor.238 He shelters poor men and women in his mansion.239 Haoma exalts the mind of the poor.239a With uplifted hands do the ill-treated poor call Mithra for help.240 The faithful fervently pray that the spirit of charity of the religious devotee241 may drive away the demon of stinginess from the house. If one of the faith approaches another seeking goods, or a wife, or knowledge, the man of means should help him with goods, he should arrange for the marriage of this poor coreligionist, he should pay for his instruction in religious matters.242 It is in every man's power to practise charity, either in thoughts, or in words, or in deeds. 233. Sr. 1.5; 2.5. |The angel of peace. This female divinity is peace personified, but even though perfectly clearly recognizable as such, she is very obscurely outlined as to traits. She is invoked in company with Vohu Manah, or Good Mind,243 for nothing can break the inner peace in which the spirit of a man of good thoughts reposes. Akhshti is usually called victorious.244|| 243. Yt2.1; Sr.1.2; 2.2. 244. Vsp. 7.1; Yt2.1, 6; 11,15; 15.1; Sr. 1.2; 2.2. The term Akhshti occurs also as a common noun. This peace as well as war lies in the power of Mithra to bring upon the country.245 The rulers invoke Chisti to procure peace for their countries,246 and the faithful pray that peace and concord may drive out discord and strife from their abodes.247 The spirit of the spells. The Gathas spoke of the mânthra, the sacred formula, or inspired utterance of great spiritual potency, but did not personify it. The Avestan texts do so, however, under the name Manthra Spenta, or Holy Formula. The manthras generally indicate the spells of magical charms in the Younger Avesta. Manthra Spenta, the embodiment of the holy spell, is invoked along with Daena, the genius of religion, and Vohu Manah's wisdom.248 As an angel presiding over the formulas of the faith he wards off evil, exorcises those possessed of the demons, and heals the sick; he is consequently invoked to heal the ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine diseases created by Angra Mainyu.249 He is efficacious and the most glorious one,250 and like every other angel, Manthra Spenta has his Fravashi.251 The twenty-ninth day of the month is sacred to him.252 248. Sr. 1.29; 2.29. 249. Vd. 22.2, 6. 250. Y1.13; 2.13; 25.6; Vsp. 21.2; Vd. 22.2, 6. 251. Yt13. 86. The potency of the spells. The collocation manthra spenta occurs more frequently in its ordinary meaning than as the name of the angel presiding over the holy spells. The term mânthra without its appellative spenta is also freely used to designate the sacred texts. It is also used for the magical spells of various degrees of efficacy. These spells are interspersed in the Avestan texts, especially in the Yashts and the Vendidad. Their conjuring efficacy is very great. They are supposed to have inherent mysterious power of their own, and the mere recital of these magical charms produces marvellous effects. The mystical compositions, as such, are credited with some kind of spiritual efficacy, some superhuman power; and through the recitation of them man can avert the baneful influence of the demons. Such spells are awful, efficacious, victorious, healing.253 The recital of the holy spell gives easy delivery at birth, and helps in the growth of the child.254 He who heals by the recital of the holy spells is the best healer, for he best drives away sickness from the body.255 These magical incantations are mostly used to drive away the demons of defilement, disease, and death. The holy spell is the very soul of Ahura Mazda.256 Whoso pronounces the names of Ahura Mazda by day and by night, on leaving his bed, or while retiring for sleep, or upon leaving his home or his town, is able to withstand the attacks of the demons, and will receive as much succour and help as a thousand men could jointly give to one man. 257 254 Vd. 21.6, 10, 14. 255 Yt3.6. Vd. 7.44. 256 Yt13.81; Vd. 19.14. The chief spells. Some of the most excellent, the most mighty, the most efficacious, the most smiting, the most victorious, the most healing, the greatest, and the best of the spells are the Ahuna Vairya formula, the Airyaman Ishya prayer, the names of Ahura Mazda and of the Amesha Spentas.258 The Airyaman Ishya is the greatest, best, fairest, most fearful, most firm most victorious, and the most healing of all spells.259 Saoshyant and his companions will recite the Airyaman Ishya prayer at the time of the renovation of the world. Through its intonation Angra Mainyu and his evil crew shall be hidden in the earth, the dead shall rise up, and Ahura Mazda shall rule according to his divine will.260 There are other sacred formulas of great importance, such as the Ashem Vohu and Yenghe Hatam. These are composed in the Gathic dialect and are of rare merit. They are next in importance only to the most sacred formula of all, the Ahuna Vairya, which is spoken of in the following paragraph. 258 Yt1.1-3; 3.5,6; 11.3; WFr. 4.1. 260 WFr. 4. See Haas, An Avestan Fragment on the Resurrection, with translation and notes in Spiegel Memorial Volume, p. 181-187, Bombay. 1908. |Ahuna Vairya. The greatest of all the spells, the Word par excellence of the Zarathushtrian theology, which is constantly on the tongue of the faithful, is the Ahuna Vairya. It is made up of twenty-one words, every one of which corresponds to one of the twenty-one Nasks which make up the complete Holy Writ of the Zoroastrians. It is the quintessence of the entire scriptures. In reply to the prophet's inquiry about the origin of this sacred formula, Ahura Mazda says that before the heavens, before the waters, before the earth, before the animals, before the trees, before the fire, before men, before the archangels, before the demons. and before the entire material existence, Ahuna Vairya was.261 Ahura Mazda pronounced it when the world was not.262 One correct recitation of it without any omission is worth the chanting of a hundred Gathas,263 and will enable the devout to reach paradise.264 Of all the sacred formulas that have ever been pronounced or are now recited, or which will be recited hereafter, this word that the Lord God has announced to the holy prophet is the best.265 It gives courage and victory to the soul and conscience of man.266 Humanity would redeem itself from the death by embracing it in the fullness of faith.267|| |Zarathushtra chants aloud this Word when the demon Buiti seeks his death, and he puts the fiend to flight by the mere recital of it.268 With the same word does the prophet repel the Evil Spirit himself, when he comes to tempt him.269|| 268 Vd. 19.2. 269 Vd. 19.9. The value of the recitation and the intonation of the formula is greatly impaired when it is inattentively chanted with errors and omissions.270 Ahura Mazda prevents the careless soul that makes such mistakes from entering paradise.271 The number of times that the spells are recited. The tenth Fargard or chapter, of the Vendidad gives a list of the Gathic stanzas which are to be repeated twice, three times, and four times at the beginning of the spells to repel evil. The Airyaman Ishya prayer is generally repeated four times. The most frequently occurring formulas that are repeated in various numbers, as the occasion demands, are the Ashem Vohu and the Ahuna Vairya. They are generally used at the opening or at the close of all prayers. The number of times which they are recited varies from one to a hundred thousand, or to be precise, the following specific numbers are found among the references to the different prayers: one, two, three, four, five, seven, eight, ten, twelve, twenty-one, one hundred, two hundred, twelve hundred, and a hundred thousand. Those privileged to recite the spells. Manthrans, or chanters are those who are privileged to recite the spells.272 Whoso seeks wisdom with pious intent is to be taught the holy spells.273 The knowledge of the secret formulas is to be zealously guarded, it is to be imparted only to the veriest few in the closest circle.274 The potency of such spells greatly lies in their careful and accurate recitation, without omitting any part of the prescribed formulas, or without violating the rigid rules of the manner of chanting. This requires that the reciter should be well versed in the art of exorcising, of healing, or in any other function he undertakes to perform with the help of the sacred spells. Teaching a manthra to an infidel is equivalent to giving a tongue to the wolf.275 272 Y7.24; 41.5. 273 Vd. 4.44. 274 Yt4.10; 14.46. 275 TdFr. 3; Nr. 17. She personifies the power of benediction. Each time that a righteous person offers sacrifices unto this personification of a divine blessing, she comes to him in the shape of a camel.276 She is beautiful and friendly, she fills the empty to over-filling and restores the sick to health.277 When the collocation is used as a common noun it means the blessings of the pious. A healer takes his fees from persons whom he heals. But when he cleanses or heals a priest he has to do so for just the ‘blessing of the pious' that the priest can give.278 276 TdFr. 64; 65. 277 Vd. 22.5,12,18. 278 Vd. 7.41; 9.37. He personifies the power of anathema. This embodiment of the power to utter an awful malediction upon an offender against righteousness is generally mentioned alongside of Mithra.279 When Mithra goes forth on his crusade against the demons and their followers throughout the seven zones, this angel, with the dread power of uttering fatal imprecations, Accompanies him in the shape of a ferocious boar. 280 This sharp-toothed and sharp-jawed frightful animal symbolizes the terrible power of the curse for injury to the wrong-doer. Furthermore, when Ahura Mazda, the supreme heavenly judge, comes down to attend the ordeal court, Damoish Upamana is one of those to join among the number of his co-adjutors.281 The contending parties were here put to self-imprecatory oaths. Divine wrath fell upon him who swore falsely and the dreadful boar that typified the awful potency of Dami Upamana's curse fell upon him and killed him at a stroke. He is also seen moving in the company of the Fravashis when they go out to the battlefield to help their favoured army.282 The sacrificing priest invites him to attend the Yasna-sacrifice.283 279 Yt10.9, 66, 68, 127. 283 Y1.15; 2.15. |The genius of health. This Indo-Iranian divinity originally conveys the idea of comradeship and occurs in the Vedas as a groomsman at the wedding rites and casually in the Avesta in connection with the wedding rites. The Fifty-fourth chapter of the Yasna is consecrated to Airyaman. He is invoked to come down to the wedding for the joy of the faithful.284 In regard to attributes given to Airyaman we may add in this connection that his standing epithet is 'the beloved one.'|| But Airyaman plays a more prominent part in the Iranian literature as the genius of health. He is an acolyte to Asha Vahishta, and is invoked together with him.285 The third Yasht, which bears the name of Asha Vahishta, is, in fact, mostly devoted to Airyaman. Ahura Mazda created this earth immune from any sickness and disease, but the Evil Spirit introduced therein ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine diseases.286 Ahura Mazda accordingly sends his messenger Nairyosangha to Airyaman with the request to go to the world with his healing remedies. Airyaman quickly obeys the divine command and begins his work.287 He smites and drives away all kinds of sickness and death, magic and sorcery.288 Airyaman does not heal by means of herbs and drugs, medicine and surgery, but by the holy spells. In fact one of the greatest of such sacred formulas, the Airyaman Ishya, as we have already seen, bears his name and is used to smite all manner of disease and death.289 At the recital of the magic formula flee sickness and death, demons and infidels, the two-legged brood of wolfish and serpentine nature, pride and scorn, slander and strife, falsehood and evil eye, courtezan and sorcery. 290 It is employed to rout sorcerers, fairies, and the progeny of evil.291 285 Sr. 1.3;2.3. 286 Vd. 22.2,9, 15. 287 Vd. 22.7-20. 289 Vd. 20.11, 12. 291 Vd. 20.9-12; 21.18-21. |The divinity of joint Indo-Iranian fame. One of the most distinctive features common to the Indo-Iranian peoples before their separation is the Haoma-Soma cult. The Avestan Haoma is identical with Vedic Soma, and both refer to the sacred drink prepared from a special plant and partaken of as a part of the ritual service. Haoma has secured a prominent place in the later Avestan theology and forms an essential part of the Zoroastrian liturgy. Haoma primarily is a plant of this world, from which the drink was quaffed as a religious act, but the idea soon evolves into an angel of the same name presiding over this plant. The two concepts are so closely interwoven that it often becomes difficult to ascertain whether the Haoma occuring in a certain passage is the genius of the plant of that name, or the plant itself. The same difficulty is witnessed with reference to Soma in the Vedas. The anthropomorphic character of both Haoma Soma is little pronounced. Three chapters of the Yasna and a Yasht mostly composed of excerpts from the Yasna are dedicated to Haoma. More than 120 hymns are devoted to Soma in Rig Veda.| Ahura Mazda brought for Haoma the star-bespangled spiritual girdle, that is, the Mazdayasnian religion. Girt with this he dwells on the top of the mountains,292 and from these heights he sacrifices unto Drvaspa, Sraosha, Mithra, and Ashi Vanghuhi.293 293 Y57.19; Yt9.17, 18; 10.88; 17.37, 38. Haoma pleads the greatness of his cult. He is anxious that his cult, which has been in vogue for centuries, be given a due place in the new faith and receive the sanction of the prophet. The poet depicts him as approaching Zarathusbtra for this particular purpose. One morning, we are informed, Haoma came to the prophet as he was chanting the sacred Gathas before the fire-altar and asked him to seek his favour by consecrating the Haoma juice for libations and to praise him as the other sages had praised him.294 Vivasvant, Yama, and Trita Aptya were the first to sacrifice unto Soma. The Avestan texts speak of the same persons who first offered sacrifices unto Haoma. In reply to Zarathushtra’s inquiry Haoma proceeds to give instances of some of the greatest of his celebrants. The first among the mortals to sacrifice unto the angel Haoma by pounding the Haoma plant for libation was Vivanhvant, and the great benefit he derived there from was that the glorious Yima was born unto him.295 Athwya, Thrita, and Pourushaspa, the father of the prophet himself, were among the other prominent men who sacrificed unto Haoma. Their reward was that illustrious sons were born unto them. Thus Zarathushtra himself was born unto Pourushaspa because the latter praised Haoma.296 Zarathushtra, the poet says, thereupon paid homage to the angel, and proclaimed his cult as the most praiseworthy.297 295 Y9.3, 4. 296 Y9. 6-13. Haoma’s titles. The standing epithet of Haoma is 'far from death.’ He is the powerful one, and rules according to his will.298 He is the lord of knowledge and possesses good wisdom.299 He is the healing one, beautiful, lordly, and of golden eyes.300 299 Y9.27; 10.2. 300 Yt9.17; 10.88.17.37. His gifts. Zarathushtra invokes Haoma and asks from him intelligence, courage, victory, health, increase, prosperity, vigour of body, and power to rule at will, and to smite the wicked that he may vanquish the evil done by the wicked men and demons.301 The prophet further prays to him for health of the body, long duration of life, the all-shining abode of the righteous, the realization of his wishes on earth, a complete triumph over the wicked and a foreknowledge of the evil intents of the wicked:302 Haoma bestows these boons upon him, Haoma in like manner gives knowledge to the aspiring students, husbands to the ripening maidens, beautiful offspring and righteous progeny to women, and paradise to the righteous.303 The devout worshipper, in return, dedicates his very body to him.304 Piety accompanied by joy enters the house in which Haoma dwells. 305 301 Y. 9.17, 18. 303 Y9.22,23; 11.10. 304 Y10.14; 11.10. Haoma implored to rout the wicked. This angel is invoked to guard the faithful from the harm of the wicked, to take away the power of their hands and feet and to confuse their minds, so that they cannot behold the universe with both their eyes.306 He is besought to hurl his weapons at the skulls of the wicked for the protection of the righteous,307 and to crush the thought of the maligner.308 Haoma's due. Haoma is to be propitiated with sacrifice. Among other objects animals were sacrificed in the Zoroastrian ritual unto the angels, and the different parts of the consecrated flesh were allotted to the various Yazatas. The Pahlavi books elaborately treat the question of reserving particular parts of the animal for the various Yazatas. We are told that Ahura Mazda has set apart for Haoma as his share in the sacrifice the jaw-bone, the tongue, and the left eye of the immolated animal.309 In general this is also in accordance with the statement of Herodotus310 regarding the Persian acts of sacrifice in worship. 310 Herod. 1.132. Haoma's curse. Haoma does not give good children of priestly virtues to the woman who wrongfully partakes of the sacred cake consecrated to him.311 Whosoever deprives Haoma of his portion in the sacrifice, displeases him, and the penalty he pays for this slight to Haoma is that a priest, a warrior, or a husbandman is not thereafter born in his house.312 The faithful is exhorted to propitiate him with his due portion, lest the offended angel should bind him with heavy iron chains as he bound Franrasyan.313 Haoma pronounces his curse of being childless and of evil name and fame against those who, like thieves, rob him of his legitimate portion in the sacrifice.314 He hurled down the arrogant Keresani from his 312 Y11.5, 6. Haoma, king of plants. Haoma is the sovereign lord of all plants among both the Indians and the Iranians. Physically it is the plant that grows on the highest summits of Mount Hara Berezaiti, the modern Alburz.316 According to the Vedic texts, it grows on the mount Mujavat. The birds carried it from there in all directions.317 An eagle brought it down, says the Veda.318 The nourishing earth is its mother where it grows in vales and dales, spreading sweet perfume all around.319 It is of golden hue, say both, and the celestial drink prepared from its branches is most invigorating and profitable for the soul of man.319a Indulgence in intoxicating beverages causes wrath and strife, quarrel and confusion, but the drink of Haoma is accompanied by righteousness and piety.320 It confers immortality. It is the source of righteousness.321 Haoma grows in abundance when it is praised by man. The pounding of the Haoma juice for sacrifice is tantamount to the destruction of the demons by thousands.322 Misery vanishes and happiness and health enter the house in which Haoma is prepared.323 The exhilarating drink gives inspiration and enlightenment to his supplicant and makes the beggar's mind as exalted as that of the rich.324 The faithful pray that the healing remedies of Haoma may reach them for the strength of their bodies.325 There is a close affinity between the Haoma-Soma cults and the rituals performed to celebrate them have great resemblance to each other. We shall notice it in our chapter on rituals. 318 RV. 3.43.7; 4.26.6, etc. 320 Y10.8; Yt17.5. Physically she stands for plenty, morally for piety. On the physical side Ashi Vanghuhi, or Good Sanctity, is the guardian of earthly riches. She fills the barns of men with grain and with cattle, their coffers with gold, the fields with foliage, the chests of virtuous women with ornaments and their boxes with fine garments.326 She brings happiness, cattle, fodder, and protection to him to whom the Glory cleaves.327 On the ethical side she personifies sanctity and thus represents spiritual riches. She is also the giver of the mental riches unto men, that is, the bright understanding and the innate wisdom.328 Ahura Mazda is her father and Spenta Armaiti, the embodiment of holy devotion, is her mother. The archangels, as well as Sraosha, Rashnu, and Mithra, are her brothers, and Daena, the genius of the holy faith of Zarathushtra, is her sister.329 As the genius of plenty she joins Mithra, who increases pastures and fodder.330 The seventeenth Yasht is dedicated to her. Parendi, Chisti, Erethe, and Rasanstat are invoked in her company.331 331 Yt17.62; Sr. 1.25. Ashi's attributes. She is bright, exalted, well-formed, well worthy of sacrifice, possessed of the bright chariot, courageous, giver of weal and health.332 She is beautiful, shining with joy, and far-reaching through radiance.333 She, the exalted one, is well-made and of noble origin; she rules at her will and is possessed of glory in her body.334 She, the courageous one, carries all desirable things in her hands.335 She is the protector, guardian, helper, healer, smiter of the malice of the demons and of the wicked men, the giver of good gifts, blessings, and success, and the bestower of the greatest, best, and the fairest reward unto men.336 She comes in the shape of a well-built, beautiful, tall, high-up girded maiden of noble birth.337 332 Y2.14; 57.3; Yt17.1; Sr. 2.25. Her supplicants. Haoshyangha, Yima, Thraetaona, Haoma, Haosravah, before Zoroaster, as well as the prophet himself and King Vishtaspa, his royal patron and helper in the propagation of the new faith, are among the most illustrious of her supplicants. These worshippers severally offered her sacrifices and asked for various boons from her, which she granted in answer to their prayers.338 The most favoured among her votaries is Zarathushtra himself; for him her loving regard is great.339 This is because the prophet himself is the visible embodiment of sanctity on earth and the promoter of righteousness among men. 338 Yt17.24-26, 28-31, 33-35, 37-39, 41-43, 45-47, 49-52, 61. Her work. She is ever ready to help the faithful. She leads to rectitude.340 She goes to those who invoke her from near or afar with pious libations.341 The house which Ashi graces with her presence becomes full of perfume.342 Happy indeed is the man whom Ashi attends, for riches, abundance, and prosperity spring in his house. The kings whom she favours have kingdoms rich in snorting horses, sounding chariots, flashing swords, large tributes, and an abundance of rich food.343 Happy indeed are they whom Ashi attends, for they come by well-furnished houses wherein live righteous persons, rich in cattle, who have well-adorned beds, with rich cushions, and with feet inlaid with gold.344 Their wives and daughters have square bored earrings and necklaces of gold.345 And the men on whom Ashi, the genius of fortune, smiles have hoards of silver and gold and rich garments and swift and loud neighing horses and chariots, and large-humped, fiery camels, and weapons of war.346 Glory is his whom she, in her goodness, attends.347 The devout pray and implore her not to turn her face from them and withhold her kindness from them.348 That Ashi may not quit their houses, is the fervent prayer of the faithful;349 and the Fravashis are invoked by the righteous to bring the blessed Ashi into their abodes.350 The householder prays that she may come and stay in his house.351 She follows the generous man who causes joy unto the righteous poor by his liberal gifts, and the moment she puts her one foot in the house, it is filled with a thousand fold flocks and horses and virtuous offspring.352 Zarathushtra asks Ashi to bestow her gifts upon King Vishtaspa.353 The twenty-sixth day of the month is sacred to her.354 341 Yt17. 2. 345 Yt17. 10, 11. What offends Ashi most. She is grieved at the sight of maidens who remain unmarried for a long time.355 She does not accept the libations offered by sterile persons and wicked courtesans.356 As the zealous guardian of the sanctity of matrimony, she abhors the wife who is untrue to the nuptial tie, the woman who violates the law of chastity, and the adulteress who sells her body for profit or pleasure.357 Three times does she raise her wailing at such a shameful display of unchastity and longs either to flee to the heavens or sink into the earth, whereupon Ahura Mazda consoles her and leads her to his celestial abode.358 357 Yt17; 57, 58. Ashi's associate. Parendi, as the female genius of riches, plenty, and activity, is identical with the Vedic Puramdhi, the goddess of plenty. She is the constant companion of Ashi Vanghuhi, and is invoked with her.359 She is active in thought, active in word, and active in deed, and gives activity to man's body.360 She moves about in a light chariot.361 As the impersonation of earthly riches Parendi accompanies the celestial car of Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, or again she attends Tishtrya. the genius of rain, in furthering the prosperity of the earth.362 Zarathushtra invokes her to enrich King Vishtaspa.363 359 Y13.1; 38.2; Yt8.38; 10.66; Sr. 1.25; 2.25. 360 Vsp. 7.2. 361 Yt8.38; 24. 9; Sr. 1.25; 2.25. 362 Yt8.38: 10.66. The female genius of cattle. She is a female genius of the animal world. As the guardian of herds, she is invoked in company with Geush Tashan and Geush Urvan.364 A Yasht (9) is consecrated to her and bears her name, or more familiarly that of Gosh or Geush Urvan. Drvaspa moves about in her own chariot of sounding wheels. Mazda has made her heroic and righteous. She is the bestower of health upon the cattle and kine. She watches well from afar, gives welfare and long continuing friendship. She is nourishing, courageous, well formed, possessed of weal, giver of health, and powerful helper of the righteous.365 364 Sr. 1.14; 2.14. Her sacrificers. The Yasht gives a list of her supplicants who have asked her to grant them various boons. They are the same persons that invoke Ashi Vanghuhi and pray for the same boons that they ask from her. The only difference between the forms of invoking Drvaspa and Ashi is that no offering is made to Ashi by any of her supplicants, whereas in the case of Drvaspa we see that with the exception of Haoma and Zarathushtra the other heroes, Haoshyangha, Yima. Thraetaona, Haosravah, and Vishtaspa, bring to her offerings of a hundred horses, a thousand oxen, ten thousand small cattle, and the libations.366 366 Yt9.3-5,8-11, 13.15, 17-19,21-23,25-27,29-32. GEUSH TASHAN AND GEUSH URVAN Drvaspa’s associates. We have seen above in the Gathas among the impersonations of the animal world two distinct beings Geush Tashan, Geush Urvan. Gav Azi represented the joy-giving cattle. In the later Avestan texts Geush Tashan appears about six times.367 We do not hear anything more definite regarding him than the fact that he is invoked by name along with other tutelary divinities. It may indeed be emphasized that he is entirely unknown from the time of the Pahlavi period onward. Geush Urvan is invoked in company with Geush Tashan and Drvaspa.368 Gav Azi occurs but once. The master of a house is enjoined to give a gav azi, or a three-year-old cow, to the cleanser who imparted him bodily purification.369 Verethraghna, the angel of victory, complains before Zarathushtra that the mischief of the demons and their worshippers increases upon earth because men do not offer sacrifices to Geush Urvan.370 367 Y1.2; 39.1; 70.2; Vsp. 9.5; Sr. 1.14; WFr. 6.1. 368 Y1.2; 39.1; 70.2; Vsp. 9.5; Sr. 1.14; 2.14. 369 Vd. 9.37. |The sun deified. Hvarekhshaeta is the shining sun as well as the genius presiding over him. The sixth Yasht and the first Nyaish are consecrated to him; but in fact the first two Nyaishes celebrate Hvarekhshaeta and Mithra conjointly. These two litanies, moreover, are always recited together during the day time. The treatment of the sun-Yazata, like that of Surya, the sun in the Rig Veda, and the physical sun as a phenomenon of nature is so complicated that it is difficult in many instances to distinguish the one from the other. It is not so much Havarekhshaeta in the capacity of an angel that figures here, as does Hvarekhshaeta, the sun itself. The writer of the hymn in honour of Hvarekhshaeta is more interested in depicting the movements of the sun itself as the orb of day than in giving account of the Yazata, or presiding genius of the sun. We have a vivid picture of the sun's movements, its rising and setting, its power to rout the fiends of uncleanness and impurity, but we have hardly anything which treats of the spiritual personality behind this great luminary of nature. The worship of the brilliant sun must have preceded the period of its deification, and the poet cannot quite rid himself of the fascination of the primitive form of nature-worship. The physical phenomenon of the sun is always present before the mind of the writer; and there is very little attempt to address the presiding genius through his visible image, the concrete representative being the direct object of praise and glorification. The sun rises up above the mountain Hara Berezaiti and enters upon his daily career.371|| 371 Yt10.118; Vd. 21.5. |Hvarekhshaeta is invoked by his name, and his standing epithets are 'the imperishable, radiant, and the swift-horsed.' Ovid attests that a horse was consecrated to the sun for the reason that the sun itself was swift moving like the horse.372 Several classical writers write about the homage and sacrifice offered by the Persians to the sun. A white horse of the best Nisaean breed was selected for the sacrifice to the sun.373 A white chariot, covered with garlands was sacred to the sun.374 A temple consecrated to the sun, with a priestess of the royal family at its head, is mentioned.375|| 372 Fasti, 1.385, 386. 373 Gray, op. cit., p. 85, 86; Fox and Pemberton, op. cit., p. 16,41,67, 69,84. 374 Xenophon, Cyropaedia, 8.3.12; Dio Chrysostom, Orationes, 36, 39. 375 Flavius Vopiscus, Aurelianus, 5.5. |The Amesha Spentas are all of one accord with the sun.376 When the sun warms with its light, a hundred and a thousand spiritual Yazatas gather its glory and distribute it upon the earth for the furtherance of the world of righteousness.377 When the sun rises up, purification comes unto the earth and unto the standing and flowing waters and unto the waters of the wells and seas, and unto the righteous creation of the Holy Spirit.378 If indeed the sun were not to rise high up, the demons would destroy all things that are in the seven regions. Not even the spiritual angels would find means to withstand and repel them.379 The offering of sacrifice unto the Sun in order to withstand darkness and demons, thieves and robbers, sorcerers and enchantresses, is equivalent to sacrificing unto Ahura Mazda, Amesha Spentas, the Yazatas, earthly and heavenly, and one's own soul.380 The demons who, in the darkness of night, come out by the million from the bowels of the earth, glide away as soon as the sun mounts the sky and the world is ablaze with its. light. Though they feast in the night time, as darkness is congenial to their nature, they fast during the day, for light is destructive to their being. When the light of Hvarekhshaeta breaks through the darkness of night, it drives away, not only darkness, but defilement, disease, and death. Like the moon and the stars, it grieves the sun to shine upon a defiled person.381 Ahura Mazda has the sun for his eye.382 In the Vedic literature, the sun is similarly spoken of as the eye of Mitra Varuna.383 In the Litany to the sun, homage is paid to the two eyes of Ahura Mazda,384 which are evidently the sun and the moon. The heavens bathed in the light of the sun form his garments.385 The eleventh day of the month is sacred to him.386|| 377 Yt6.1; Ny1.11. 378 Yt6.2; Ny1.12. 379 Yt6.3; Ny1.13. 380 Yt6.4; Ny1.14. 381 Vd. 9.41. 382 Y1.11; 3.13; 4.16; 7.13; 22.13; 68.22. 383 RV. l.115.1; 6.51.l; 7.61.1,63.1; 10.37.1. 385 Yt13. 3. Leprosy is especially regarded as a consequence of sinning against the sun, and Herodotus tells us that persons affected with the disease were not permitted to enter a town.387 387 Herod. 1.138. |The moon personified. Herodotus writes that the moon is the tutelary divinity of Persia.388 The case of this nature divinity is analogous to that of the sun. Maonghah is at one and the same time the moon and the personification of the moon. The seventh Yasht and the third Nyaish are dedicated to this divine personage. Here also we find throughout the description of the waxing and the waning of the moon, the periods of the new and the full moons, and the benefit that the light of the moon imparts to the world. We hear much of the concrete moon, but very little of the abstract person of the angel. The sole-created Bull, the progenitor of the animal world, is invoked along with the moon.389 The moon waxes and wanes through Ahura Mazda.390 The Amesha Spentas gather the glory of the moon and distribute it upon the earth.391 When the moon warms up with its light, the golden coloured plants grow up from the earth during the spring.392|| 388 Herod. 7.37. 389 Sr. 1.12; 2.12. 390 Yt7.2; Ny3.4. 391 Yt7.3; Ny3.5. 392 Yt7.4; Ny3.6. The moon is constantly spoken of as the possessor of the seed of the Bull.393 The moon is furthermore described as the bestower, radiant, glorious, possessed of water, possessed of warmth, possessed of knowledge, wealth, riches, discernment, weal, verdure, good, and the healing one.394 The twelfth day of the month is dedicated to the moon. 395 393 See Gray, in Spiegel Memorial Volume, p. 160-168. 394 Yt7.5; Ny3.7. |Deification of the endless light. Anaghra Raochah means the Endless Light. It is the celestial light as opposed to the earthly light.396 In the order of naming the various kinds of heavenly lights, Anaghra Raochah comes after the stars, moon and the sun.397 Like the stars, the moon, and the sun, this supreme light stood without motion until the Fravashis or the Guardian Spirits showed it its path of movement.398|| 397 Y71. 9; Yt12.35; 13.57; G. 3.6. Anaghra Raochah is personified as a Yazata, being invoked at the sacrifice,399 and the thirtieth day of the Zoroastrian calendar bears his name. In a couple of instances we find Paradise and the Bridge of Judgment, likewise Apam Napat, Haoma, Dahma Afriti, and Damoish Upamana, invoked along with Anaghra Raochah.400 It is the name of the highest paradise.401 399 Y1.16; 16.6; 71.9; Sr. 1.30; 2.30; Vd. 19.35. 400 Sr. 1.30; 2.30. Firmament deified. In its original meaning Asman means the sky; it is later personified as the genius of the sky, and invoked as a Yazata.402 He is shining, exalted, and powerful. Asman and Vahishta Ahu, or Paradise, are invoked together,403 and the twenty-seventh day of the Zoroastrian month is called after the name of Asman. 402 Y1.16; 16.6; Sr. 1.27; 2.27. 403 Sr. 1.27; 2.27. The female divinity of dawn. Ushah is identical with the Vedic Ushas, and is the female divinity of the dawn in both religions, thus coming down from the common Indo-Iranian period. It is she who announces as the first glimpse of light, to creation, the approach of dawn. Ushah's personality is very faintly pronounced both in the Rig Veda and in the Younger Avestan texts. The Vedic poets have, however, produced most exquisite lyric poetry in praise of the dawn in about twenty hymns. There is only a short Avestan hymn in prose composed to celebrate the dawn and even this has but six lines devoted to the subject of the composition. Here she is described as beautiful, resplendent, possessed of bright steeds, blessed, and heroic; and her light illumines all the seven zones.404 Auxiliaries to Ushah are Ushahina and Berejya and Nmanya. In fact Ushahina, who is also a male personification of dawn, is the name of the fifth period of the day, and the prayer consecrated to Ushah bears his name. The priest at the sacrifice undertakes to propitiate Ushahina by sacrifice, if he has in thought, word, deed, or will offended him.405 404 Yt5.62; Vd. 18.15, 23; G. 5.5. The star genius directs the rain. Next in importance to the sun and moon, among the heavenly luminaries, are the countless stars. Among the stars that are personified as objects of praise and reverence, the most prominent is the radiant and glorious star Tishtrya. He is the star Sirius in the constellation of Canis Major. The Yazata who impersonates this brilliant star bears naturally also the same name. The Tishtrya Yasht (8) sings the glory of the twofold work of Tishtrya, both as star and as the Yazata that presides over it. Tishtrya is, therefore, the rain-star, and the Yasht gives a lively picture of his movements in producing clouds and rain and sleet, and distributing them over all the world. Tishtrya's constant companions are the starYazatas, named Vanant, Satavaesa, and Haptoiringa, as guardian spirits of different regions of the heavens.406 The thirteenth day of the month406a and the fourth month of the year are sacred to him. 406 Sr. 1.13; 2.13; cf. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, p.23. Tishtrya's attributes. His standing epithets are 'the radiant' and 'the glorious.' He is the giver of fertility to the fields,407 the giver of happy and good abode unto men, the white, shining, seen from afar, the healing, and the exalted one.408 He is possessed of the seed of the waters, the valiant, the courageous, far reaching, the efficient,409 and of sound eyes.410 Ahura Mazda has appointed Tishtrya as the lord of all other stars, even as he has ordained Zarathushtra as the spiritual lord of all mankind.411 The creator has made him as worthy of sacrifice, as worthy of invocation, as worthy of propitiation, and as worthy of glorification as himself.412 According to Plutarch he is established as a scout over all other stars.413 410 Yt8.12; Ny1.8. 412 Yt8.50, 52. 413 Is. et Os. 47. |The sacrificial offerings enable Tishtrya to work with added vigour and strength. Tishtrya smites the wicked fairies.414 Like Verethraghna, he takes upon himself successive forms when he goes out for active work. He moves forward in the heavens for the first ten nights of the month in the form of a young man, for the next ten nights in the form of a bull, and then for the last ten nights in the shape of a white beautiful horse.415 In accordance with the will of Ahura Mazda and the archangels, he traverses the most distant parts of the earth,416 and the Iranian countries long for his advent, for it is through him that the country will witness a year of plenty or of drought.417 Men and beasts, the waters and all, look eagerly to the rising of the star Tishtrya, as he will send a flood of rain to fertilize their waste lands with water and bestow riches upon the earth, if the righteous faithfully offer him praise and worship.418 The farmer yearns for a few drops of Tishtrya's rain to moisten his parched fields, the gardener longs for a shower to brighten the foliage. The land smiles with rich harvests as a result of his fertilizing waters.|| 414 Yt8.8, 39,40,51-55. 415 Yt8.13,16,18; Vd.19.37. Tishtrya complains before Ahura Mazda about the indifference of men who do not sacrifice unto him. When invoked with sacrifice, as are the other angels, he is willing to hasten to the help of the righteous, whether for a single night, or two or fifty nights, or even a hundred nights.419 Tishtrya affirms that owing to his power to further righteousness, he is worthy of sacrifice and invocation, and if people will offer him libations and Haoma in sacrifice, he will grant them heroic children, and purity unto their souls, the riches of oxen and horses.420 He pours down water in abundance upon the earth, brings prosperity unto the whole creation, when he receives the offering of a sacrifice and is propitiated, rejoiced, and satisfied.421 Never, in that event, would the hostile horde invade the countries, nor would any calamity or evil of any kind befall them.422 Yet in spite of all this, the bounteous kindness of Tishtrya grants boons to his votary whether he prays for them or not.423 His fight with the demon of drought. Tishtrya is opposed in his work of producing rain by his adversary Apaosha, the demon of drought, who keeps back the rain. The Tishtrya Yasht gives a picturesque account of the struggle between them. In the combat with the fiend that holds the world in clutch through famine and drought, Apaosha, who appears in the form of a terrifying black horse, assaults his opponent and in their opening combat succeeds in forcing Tishtrya to retreat. Worsted by the fiend, Tishtrya mourns his defeat and complains that men do not sufficiently sacrifice unto him as they do unto other celestial powers, for had they not been sparing in their invocation, he would have been able to bring a further strength of ten horses, of ten camels, of ten oxen, of ten mountains, and of ten rivers to his side. Ahura Mazda himself, thereupon, offers a sacrifice unto Tishtrya and thus imparts new strength to him. Thus emboldened, he now, with renewed vigour, attacks his rival for the second time, and after a fierce struggle overcomes him. His triumph is hailed as the triumph of the waters, plants, and the religion of Mazda, for Tishtrya is now in a position to bring prosperity to the country.424 Ahura Mazda, the Amesha Spentas, as well as Mithra, Ashi Vanghuhi, and Parendi, are among those that help Tishtrya in this war of the elements for the benefit of mankind425 A star-Yazata. The other important star-Yazata besides Tishtrya who is classed among the spiritual beings is Vanant. The twentieth Yasht is composed in his honour. Tradition assigns to him the special work of guarding the gates of the great Alburz round which the sun, moon and the stars revolve, and accounts him as the leader of a constellation in the western heavens in the war against the planets. In the Avestan Yasht bearing this star-Yazata's name, Vanant is specially invoked to give help to smite the noxious creatures of Angra Mainyu.426 Some spells to this effect, composed in the Pazend language, are later appended to this particular Yasht. It is elsewhere stated in the Avesta that Ahura Mazda has created him,427 and that the faithful ask him for strength and victory to enable them to remove distress and tyranny.427a 427 Yt8.12; Ny1.8. An acolyte of Tishtrya. The star Satavaesa is also personified, but his individuality is very faintly pronounced. He has no Yasht or hymn composed to glorify him. As an acolyte of Tishtrya, he causes the waters of the sea Vourukasha to flow down to the seven zones for the nourishment of plants and animals, and for the fertility and prosperity of the Aryan nations.428 428 Yt8.9; 13.43; Sr. 1.13; 2.13. Another acolyte of Tishtrya. This constellation, Ursa Major, is also raised to the position of a lesser divinity. Ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine Fravashis watch over this stellar cluster.429 The genius of this star is invoked to enable mankind to oppose the evil caused by the sorcerers and fairies.430 430 Yt8.12; Sr. 2.13. The deification of the wind. Vayu, or Vata, is the Indo-Iranian impersonation of wind. The terms Vayu and Vata are variously used to represent either the wind or the genius of wind in both the Rig Veda and in the Avestan texts. Yet Vayu is chiefly the personification of the wind. As we have already seen, the whole of the Ram Yasht treats of the exploits of Raman's comrade Vayu. Vayu's wind is divided into two parts, the good and the evil. The wind is productive of good, but it also causes harm. That part of Vayu which is supposed to be the source of harm is branded as evil, and classed among Angra Mainyu's creations. Hence the faithful take care to sacrifice unto that part alone of Vayu which is the creation of Spenta Mainyu.431 The twenty-second day of the month is named after Vayu.432 431 Y22.24; 25.5; Yt15.5,42,57; Sr. 1.21; 2.21. Vayu’s attributes. The genius of wind is most frequently called 'working on high.' He strikes terror among all, and fearlessly enters the deepest and the darkest places to smite the demons.433 He is high-girt, of strong stature, of high foot, of wide breast, of broad thighs, and of powerful eyes.434 He wears a golden helm and a golden crown, a golden necklace, and golden garment; he has golden shoes and a golden girdle; and armed with golden weapons he rides in a golden chariot rolling on golden wheels.435 A fine image this, to immortalize Vayu in a golden statue! The poet gives a long list of the names of Vayu, and is very prolific in ascribing high attributes to him. In this the ancient composer follows the Yasht dedicated to Ahura Mazda. In fact Vayu is the only angel who is known, like Ahura Mazda, by many names. The text enumerates about forty-seven of such titles. Almost all of these attributes of Vayu are derived from the function of Vayu as wind, rather than from his activity as the genius of wind. They pertain to the atmospheric phenomenon more than to the abstract ideas about the angel. Some of the more important of the names of Vayu are as follows: the overtaker, the all-vanquishing, the good-doer, the one going forwards and backwards, the destroyer, smiter, usurper, the most valiant, the strongest, the firmest, the stoutest, the vanquisher at one stroke, the destroyer of malice, the liberator, the pervading one, and the glorious.436 Those who offer sacrifices unto Vayu. The recital of his names has a great efficacy, and Vayu asks Zarathushtra to invoke these names in the thick of the battle, or when the tyrant and heretic threaten him with their havocking hordes. The man in heavy fetters finds himself freed upon the recital of these names.437 Vayu is the greatest of the great and the strongest of the strong. The text briefly describes how some of the most illustrious personages invoked Vayu and begged of him various boons, and in this connection we may recall that Herodotus438 mentions the fact that the Persians sacrificed to the winds among other divine forces in nature. The list of Vayu's supplicants in Yasht 15 is headed by Ahura Mazda himself, who desired the boon that he may smite the creatures of Angra Mainyu, but that none may smite the creation of Spenta Mainyu.439 Among the kings, renowned heroes. and other personages who sacrificed unto Vayu, and to whom the angel granted their boons, are Haoshyangha, Takhma Urupi, Yima, Thraetaona, Keresaspa, Aurvasara, Hutaosa, and such maidens as are not yet given in marriage.440 Even the wicked Azhi Dahaka begged also of him a boon, but Vayu rejected his sacrifice.441 Men sacrifice unto Vayu with libations and prayers and ask for strength to vanquish their adversaries.442 Vayu asks Zarathushtra to invoke him, in order that neither Angra Mainyu, nor the sorcerers, nor the demons may be able to injure him.443 438 Herod. 1.131. 440 Yt15.7-17, 23-41. |The fire cult in Iran. The cult of the sacrificial fire goes back to the Indo-European period. The Skt. word agni, 'fire,' has for its equivalent Latin ignis and Slavonic ogni. The most prominent divinity after Indra in the Vedas is Agni and more than 200 hymns and several stray passages are devoted to his glorification. The Iranian word for fire as well as for the Yazata presiding over fire is Atar. Among both the Indians and the Iranians fire occupies the central position in all rituals. The priest who tended the fire is known by a common name among both the peoples. Among the Indians he is atharvan and among the Iranians âthravan, literally meaning, 'one who tends fire.’ A litany is composed in honour of Atar and he is celebrated many other passages. The ninth month of the year and the ninth day of the month are named after Atar.444|| Atar, or Fire, is most frequently called the son of Ahura Mazda in the Younger Avestan texts. The devout hunger in heart to reach Mazda through him as a mediary.445 Asha Vahishta’s association with the fire continues and they are often together. As the most holy symbol of his faith, the house-lord prays that the sacred element may ever burn in his house.446 We have already seen that the Avesta speaks of some fires consecrated by the pre-Zoroastrian kings in Iran. The Avestan works refer to the dâitya gâtu, 'proper place,' for the fire and the Old Persian Inscriptions speak of the âyadanâ as the places of worship.447 The bas-relief sculpture at Naksh-i-Rustam over the royal tomb shows an altar with fire on it. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek writers on Persia, however, informs us that the Persians did not erect temples in his days, but sacrificed unto the elements sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and wind on the summits of mountains.448 Dino, the contemporary of Alexander, does not mention the fire-temples and says that the Persians worshipped in the open air.449 It may be that the early writers did not come across temples in Iran, in the Greek sense of the term. But there must certainly have been some kind of structures to protect the sacred fire from being extinguished. Strabo450 for the first time mentions in Cappadocia places dedicated to fire, and speaks of enclosures with fire altars in the centre. No sacrifices, we are told, were offered to any divinity without the accompaniment of the invocation of fire. These altars, we are further informed by Strabo, were filled with ashes over which the sacred fire burned day and night. The Magi, he adds, tended the holy flames, and with Baresman twigs in their hands daily performed their devotions for about an hour.451 Pausanias (A.D. 173) corroborates this statement from his personal observation in Lydia.452 Xenophon and Curtius Rufus acquaint us with the practice of carrying fire on portable altars in religious processions.453 446 Y62.3; Ny5.9. 447 Bh. 1,14. 448 Herod. 1.131. 449 Cited by Clemens Alexandrinus, Protreptica, 5. 65.1. 450 60 B.C. 451 Strabo, p. 733. 452 Pausanias, 5.27.5,6. 453 Cyropaedia, 8. 3. 11-13; History of Alexander 3. 3. 9; see Edwards, Altar (Persian) in ERE. 1. 346-348. Atar is both the genius of fire and the element fire itself. As the fire dwells in every house, he is constantly spoken of in the Rig Veda as the lord of the house. The Yasna in the manner calls him the lord of all houses.454 He is the great Yazata.455 He is the most bountiful,456 of renowned name457 the beneficent warrior, and full of glory and healing.458 Besides being the angel that presides over fire, Atar is also fire as such. The two concepts are often so mixed up together that it becomes difficult to distinguish between the blazing fire burning upon the altar and the angel that personifies it. The difficulty is still more increased when we see the fire on the hearth conceived of as speaking and blessing as a person. The householders pray that the fire may ever burn and blaze in their houses.459 In the Vedas, Agni is a friend of the man who entertains him as a guest and feeds him with fuel.460 The fire of Mazda, likewise, solicits devotional offerings from those persons for whom he cooks the evening and the morning meal, he looks at the hands of all passers-by, to see if they bring some present for him or not, even as a friend for a friend. When the faithful bring to him fuel, dry and exposed to the light, he is propitiated, and in the fulfillment of his wish blesses the votary with a flock of cattle and a multitude of men, an active mind and an active spirit, and a joyous life.461 During the three watches of the night Atar wakes up the master of the house, the husbandman, and calls Sraosh for help.462 Here also it is not so much the angel Atar that acts, as it is the fire itself, for the master of the house and the husbandman are asked to wash their hands and bring fuel to it, lest the demon Azi should extinguish it.463 The man who responds with alacrity, and is the first to wake up and tend the fire with dry wood, receives Atar's blessings.464 The man who sacrifices unto fire with fuel in his hand, with the Baresman in his hand, with milk in his hand, with the mortar for crushing the branches of the sacred Haoma in his hand, is given happiness.465 Phoenix of Colophon (280 B.C.), cited in Athenaeus, speaks of the fire ritual of the Magi and mentions the Baresman.466 In the litany to the fire, the faithful are enjoined to feed the fire with fuel that is dry and well exposed to the light,467 and Strabo tells us that the fire-priests fed the sacred fire with dry wood, fat, and oil; and he further adds that some portions of the caul of the sacrificed animal were also placed on it.468 457 Vsp. 9.5. 458 Ny5.6; Sr. 1.9; 2.9. 459 Ny5.8, 9. 460 R.V. 4.2.6; 4.10. 461 Y62.7-10; Ny5.13-16. 462 Vd. 18. 18-22. 463 Vd. 18.19-21. 464 Vd. 18.26, 27. 465 Y62.1; Ny5.7. 466 Athenaeus, 12. p. 530. 467 Y62.10; Ny5.16. 468 Strabo, p. 732. Atar’s boons. Atar is invoked to grant well-being and sustenance in abundance, knowledge, holiness, a ready tongue, comprehensive, great, and imperishable wisdom, manly valour, watchfulness, an innate offspring worthy to sit in the assembly and work for the renown of his house and village, town and country, and for the glory of his country, name and fame in this world, as well as the shining, all-happy paradise of the righteous.469 Whoso does not treat the fire well displeases Ahura Mazda.470 Zarathushtra blesses King Vishtaspa that he may be as resplendent as the fire.471 469 Y68.4-6; Ny5.10-12. 470 TdFr. 22,23. |His work. When Mithra goes on his usual round in his golden chariot, Atar drives behind him along with the other divine personifications.472 Like Agni who knows the paths leading to the gods,473 Atar shows the most upright path to those who lie not unto Mithra.474 When Angra Mainyu breaks into the creation of righteousness, Atar in company with Vohu Manah opposes the malice of the Evil Spirit.475 When Yima, reft of his senses through the Kingly Glory, revolts from Ahura Mazda, the Glory departs from him and he falls to destruction.476 It can well be imagined that the monster Azhi Dahaka should strive to capture the departed Glory, but Atar intervenes and vanquishes him.477|| 473 RV. 10.98.11. 476 Yt19.34-36, 38. What causes grief to Atar. Angra Mainyu has created the inexpiable crime of burning or cooking dead matter,478 and the Vendidad enjoins capital punishment for those who commit it.479 We are informed that the Persians considered it a mortal sin to defile fire by blowing it with the mouth, or by burning dead matter over it.480 The Achaemenian monarch Cambyses roused the indignation of his countrymen when he burnt the corpse of King Amasis at Sais.481 It is, therefore, a crime to bring back fire into a house in which a man has died, within nine nights in winter and a month in summer.482 Highly meritorious is the deed of bringing to the fire altar the embers of a fire desecrated by dead matter, and great shall be the doer's reward in the next world, when his soul has parted from his body.483 Elaborate rules are accordingly laid down for the purification of the fire defiled by the dead.484 There is no purification for the man who carries a corpse to the fire.485 In the case of every pollution of the pure element. Atar is inexorable. 478 Vd. 1.16. 479 Vd. 8.73, 74. 480 Strabo, p. 732; Ctesias, Persica, 57; Nicolas Damascenus, Frag. 68; FHG. 3.409. 481 Herodotus, 3.16. 482 Vd. 5.43,44. 483 Vd. 8.81,82. 484 Vd. 8.73-80. 485 Vd. 7.25-27. Mazda's celestial herald. Nairyosangha corresponds to the Vedic Narashamsa, generally applied to Agni as his epithet. He is expressly spoken of as a Yazata,486 and is well-shaped.487 Like Agni who is often called the messenger of gods between heaven and earth, Nairyosangha is the messenger of Ahura Mazda.488 When the Evil Spirit introduces disease and death in the world, Ahura Mazda dispatches him as his envoy to Airyaman to come with his healing remedies.489 He is invoked along with Atar, for he is Atar's associate. He is termed the offspring of sovereignty490 and as such he is entitled to go in Mithra's chariot with Sraosha.491 He has his Fravashi.492 488 Vd. 19.34. 489 Vd. 22.7, 13. 490 Y17.11; Ny5.6. 491 Yt10. 52. 492 Yt13, 85. ARDVI SURA ANAHITA |The angel of waters. Ardvi Sura, who bears the standing epithet anâhita, 'undefiled,' is the name of a mythical river as well as that of the female divinity of the waters. She resides in the starry regions.493 This deity of the heavenly stream gets recognition of the Achaemenian kings, and is included in the extremely short list of the Iranian divinities expressly mentioned in their inscriptions.494 Classical writers speak of her sanctuaries founded at Pasargadae, Ecbatana, Kangavar and other places.495 At a very early date her cult migrates to distant countries and is there assimilated to Artemis, Aphrodite, Athene-Minerva, Hera, Magna Mater, Ishtar, and Nanaia.496 She overleaps the barriers of Mount Alburz and gains her votaries in the far-off lands of East and West, where occasionally her cult degenerates into obscene rites. Herodotus who confuses her with Mithra says that her cult came to Iran from the Semites of Assyria and Arabia.497|| 493 Yt5.85, 88, 132. 494 Art. Sus. a; Ham. 495 See Gray, op cit., p. 57, 58; Fox and Pemberton, op. cit., 34-39, 58, 66, 68, 79. 496 Gray, ib., p. 57. 497 Herod. 1.131. She is celebrated in one of the longest Yashts and In 65th chapter of the Yasna. She is described as the most courageous, strong, of noble origin,498 good, and most beneficient.499 Ahura Mazda has assigned to her the work of guarding the creation, like a shepherd guarding his fiock.500 The eighth of the year and the tenth day of the month are named after waters of Ardvi Sura.501 499 Yt5.130, 131. 500 Yt5.6, 89. Her image in words found in the texts, corresponds with her statue in stone. The text gives a fine descriptive image of the female deity. She is a maiden of fair body, well-shaped, pure, courageous, tall, bright, beautiful, and glorious. Upon her head she wears a golden crown studded with a hundred stars and beautifully adorned, square golden earrings adorn her ears, a golden necklace decorates her neck, she wears a golden mantle, she has tightly girded her waist so that her beautiful breasts come out prominently, her white arms graced by elegant bracelets are stouter than a horse, she wears golden shoes, a rich garment of gold or of the skin of the beavers.502 Pliny says that a statue made of solid gold was set up in the temple of Anaitis.503 We have already seen on the authority of Berosus that Artaxerxes Mnemon (B.C. 404-358) introduced the worship of the images of Anahita among the Persians.504 502 Yt5.7, 15, 64, 78, 123, 126-129. 503 Historia Naturalis, 33, 4 (24) 82f. 504 Cited by Clemens Alexandrinus, Protreptica, 5, 65, 3; Jackson, Images and Idols (Persian) in ERE. 7. 151-155; cf. Cumont, Anâhita, in ERE. 1. 414, 415. Ahura Mazda heads the list of the sacrificers who entreat her for various boons. The Yasht dedicated to Ardvi Sura Anahita furnishes us with the names of those who have sacrificed unto her and begged of her various boons. The number of her supplicants exceeds that of any other angel. Ahura Mazda and Zarathushtra invoke her, with Haoma and Baresman, with spells and libations, whereas the majority of her other votaries severally offer her a hundred stallions, a thousand oxen, and ten thousand sheep. Haoshyangha, Yima, Thraetaona, Keresaspa, Kavi Usa, Haosravah, Tusa, Vafra Navaza, Jamaspa, Ashavazdah, the son of Pourudakhshti, and Ashavazdah and Thrita, the sons of Sayuzhdri, Vistauru, Yoishta, the members of the Hvova and Naotara families, Vishtaspa, and Zairi-vairi are all granted their diverse boons. These ask for sovereignty over all countries, victory on the battlefield, power to smite the adversaries in battle, to rout the sorcerers and fairies, the fiends and the demons; they pray likewise for bodily health, wisdom to answer the riddles of heretics, and for riches and swift horses.505 The boon that Ahura Mazda seeks is that he may win over Zarathushtra to think after his reljgion, to speak after his religion, and to act after his religion; the prophet in turn begs of her that he may gain to his side the mighty King Vishtaspa as a patron to embrace his religion.506 The rulers and chiefs invoke her that they may defeat their enemies and smite the demons, sorcerers, and fairies, the warriors beg of her swift horses and bodily health and glory, the priests and their disciples pray for knowledge, the maids beseech her to grant them strong husbands.507 Ardvi Sura Anahita bestows fruitfulness to women; she purifies the seeds of all males and the wombs of all females for bearing. Shes, as a divine bestower, gives easy childbirth to all females, and gives them right and timely milk.508 Ardvi Sura likewise grants boons unto all, because it lies in her power to do so. The sacrificing priest implores her to come down from the stars to the sacrificial altar, and to grant riches, horses, chariots, swords, food, and plenty to men.509 She gives health and increases flocks, possessions, and wealth.510 505 Yt5.21-27, 33-39, 45-55, 61-83, 98, 108-114. 506 Yt5.17-19, 104-106. 508 Y65.2; Yt5.2, 87; Ny4.3; Vd. 7.16. 509 Yt5. 130-132. 510 Y65.1; Yt5.1. She refuses to concede the wicked persons their wishes. Azhi Dahaka wickedly besought her to grant him a boon that he may make all the seven zones empty of men, and the Turanian Franrasyan sought her favour to secure the Glory, and the sons of Vaesaka implored her to grant that they may smite the Aryan nation by tens of thousands and myriads; Arejat-aspa and Vandaremainish craved for the defeat of King Vishtaspa, Zairivairi, and the Aryan nation; but Ardvi Sura Anahita refused to grant the evil wishes to these national foes of Iran.511 511 Yt5.29-31, 41-43, 57-59, 116-118. The offerings of libations. Ardvi Sura Anahita desires that men invoke her with libations and Haoma;512 these libations are to be drunk by the priest who is well versed in religious lore, and not by any wicked and deformed person.513 The faithful are to bring libations unto her at any time between the rising and the setting of the sun. Those brought to her after sunset do not reach her; on the contrary, they go to the demons, who revel in these misdirected offerings.514 We are informed that the man who dedicates these libations before sunrise or after sunset does no better deed than if he should pour them down into the jaws of a venomous snake.515 Besides invoking Ardvi Sura Anahita as the Yazata of water, the waters themselves are collectively invoked to grant boons. Zarathushtra is asked to offer a libation to the waters and to ask from them riches, power, and worthy offspring,516 a happy and a joyful abode in this world and the next, accompanied by riches and glory.517 The faithful pray that these waters may not be for those of evil thoughts, evil words, evil deeds, and evil religion, neither for the tormentors of their friends, neighbours, relatives, and priests.518 Nor may they be for their evil-wishers,519 nor for thieves and robbers, murderers and sorcerers, buriers of the dead, jealous and niggard, and heretics and wicked persons.520 512 Yt5.8, 11, 123, 124. 513 Yt5.92, 93. 514 Yt5.94, 95; Nr. 68. 515 Nr. 48. 517 Y68.13, 14, 21. Animal sacrifices to Anahita. Strabo relates the mode of sacrificing to the waters. The sacrificial animal, we are told, is taken to the bank of a river or a lake; a ditch is formed into which the animal is killed. The pieces of meat are then placed on myrtle or laurel, and holding tamarisk twigs in his hands, the priest pours oil mixed with honey and milk on the ground and chants the sacred formulas. Great care is taken that no drop of blood falls into the water while the animal is being immolated; nor must the mixture of oil, honey, and milk be poured into water.521 This precaution is taken lest the waters be defiled. 521 Strabo, p.732. Any defilement of the waters evokes Ardvi Sura's displeasure. It is sinful to contaminate the waters. Such an act incurs great displeasure on the part of the genius of waters. Those who wilfully bring dead matter to the waters become unclean for ever and ever.522 If a man while walking or running, riding or driving, happens to see a corpse ftoating in a river, he must enter the river and go down into the water ankle-deep, knee-deep, waist-deep, nay even a man's full depth if need be, and take out the decaying body and place it upon the dry ground exposed to the light of the sun.523 Herodotus informs us that the Persians do not make water, wash or bathe in a river.524 524 Herod. 1.138. Ardvi Sura's chariot. Like some of the Yazatas, Ardvi Sura Anahita has a chariot of her own, in which she drives forth in majesty. She holds the reins in her own hands, and controls four great chargers who are all of white color, of the same stock, and who smite the malice of all tyrants, demons, wicked men, sorcerers, fairies, oppressors, as well as those who are wilfully blind and wilfully deaf.525 The text enables us to understand the allegorical statement regarding the steeds that are yoked to her chariot, for we are told that the four chargers of Ardvi Sura are the wind, the rain, the cloud, and the sleet; and it was Ahura Mazda who made them for her.526 525 Yt5.11, 13. His nature and work. This Indo-Iranian divinity of waters seems very early to have been eclipsed by Anahita, who remains the chief genius presiding over waters in the cult. Apam Napat's Vedic counterpart has an aqueous as well as an igneous nature. In the association of the Avestan Apam Napat with the fire angel Nairyosangha, Spiegel sees traces of this secondary nature.527 Apam Napat literally means 'the offspring of waters,' and, like the Vedic genius, lives beneath the waters.528 He is the exalted lord and sovereign, the shining one, and the swift-horsed.529 The waters are addressed as females. Apam Napat in the Vedas is nourished by females.530 The Avestan texts speak of him as the lord of females.531 He is the most prompt to respond when invoked,532 and co-operates with Vayu and distributes the waters on earth.533 He furthers the riches of the countries and allays misfortunes;534 and when the Kingly Glory escapes from the contest of Atar and Azhi Dahaka to the sea Vourukasha it is Apam Napat who takes and protects it.535 This Yazata is also credited with having made and shaped men.536 527 Arische Periode, 192, 193, Leipzig, 1887; see Gray, Apam Napat, in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vol. 3, p. 18-51; and in The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p. 133-136. 528 Yt19.52; RV. 8.43.9. 529 Y1.5; 2.5; 65.12; 70.6; Yt5.72; 19.51. 530 RV. 2.35. 3, 5. 531 Yt5.72; 19.52. 534 Yt13. 95. Another water genius. A female Yazata, though of no great importance, is Ahurani, corresponding to the Vedic Varunani. She impersonates the Ahurian waters.537 She is invoked in company with the sea Vourukasha and other waters.538 The faithful devotee prays that if he has offended her in any way, he is ready to expiate his sin by an offering of the libations.539 She is implored to descend in person and grace the sacrifice with her presence and be propitiated by it.540 She is likewise invited to come with her gifts of health, prosperity, renown, the enlightenment of thoughts, words, and deeds, and for the well-being of the soul.541 She is asked to give offspring that will further the prosperity of the house, village, town, and country and add to the renown of the country.542 Riches and glory, endurance and vigour of body, a long life and the shining, all-happy abode of the righteous are the boons that the devout ask from her.543 The libations offered her are the most excellent and the fairest, and are filtered by pious men.544 Good thoughts, good words, and good deeds also serve as her libations.545 The libations offered to Ahurani cause joy to Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spentas.546 541 Y68.3, 4. |The earth deified. The Avestan term for earth is zam, from which the angel Zam, or Zamyat, derives her name. Her personality is very insipid as compared with Armaiti, who, as we have seen, has the earth under her care and is, in fact, a more active guardian genius of the earth than Zamyat. The twenty eighth day of every month is sacred to Zamyat.547 The poet who composed the Yasht in honour of Zamyat does not sing the glory of his heroine, but occupies himself rather with a description of the mountains of the world,548 and with the celebration of the Divine Glory that descends upon the Aryan race, symbolizing the greatness of the kings and the consecrated piety of the sainted souls.549 Cyrus, says Xenophon, sacrificed animals to the earth as the Magians directed.550|| 550 Cyropaedia, 8.24. |Avesta -- Zoroastrian Archives||Contents||Prev||history3||Next||Glossary|
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Reflections after 50 Years of Space A protege of Wernher von Braun, Jesco von Puttkamer has spent his long career working in human spaceflight. In this long essay, von Puttkamer gives his perspective on humanity's next steps into the universe. Here he discusses the lessons Mars has to teach us. For the longer future, the significance of the ISS for the opening of a new era of peaceful cooperation between nations will undoubtedly be of considerably greater import that the important work underway on board today. In the wake of the process of worldwide restructuring and redefinition following the Cold War of yesteryear, ISS is acting as a catalyst for international understanding and collaboration. It helps to foster and form new partnerships among the nations of the Earth, to inspire our youth, and to stimulate and support the next generation of scientists, engineers, entrepreneurs and businessmen. It cannot fail in that because, fundamentally, it represents an answer to the age-old human drive for exploration of the unknown, the push toward new goals and frontiers. I'll return to this aspect below. For human missions to Mars, the vision discussed here, the Space Station assumes a key position: as Residence in Space it will provide a kind of early bridgehead to the new continent outside Earth, to our next major goal, Mars. First of all, relative to its development and operation, the ISS can be considered something like an early "demo" model for a major international Mars program in later years. Even more, as an orbital research and development facility it establishes and cements, in the longer range, the scientific and technical foundations of future human planetary missions. For the latter, it could also, with appropriate extensions, serve as a transportation node and port-of-embarkation. As mentioned above, foremost among its research objectives are life sciences, particularly with regards to humans in space and all "human factors" associated with protection of health, well-being, and productivity of crews during extended stays in space - which do represent the toughest hurdles on the road to Mars. They are: the effects of zero-g and the development of potent countermeasures, protection against radiation, maintenance of stability and productivity of small multi-cultural groups of humans in close confinement and extended isolation, and the development of reliable closed-cycle life-support systems for multi-year missions. These missions also require new technologies such as aerobraking (to help conserve propellants by utilizing the atmospheres of Mars and Earth for flight maneuvers), storage and handling of cryogenics, (i.e., gases supercooled to liquid form), new spacesuits with greater flexibility and higher comfort for strenuous activity on the Mars surface, solar and nuclear power systems, and local-resources utilization for producing propellants and other substances necessary for life. To shorten flight time and thus reduce the en-route exposure to microgravity and space radiation, human Mars missions will also favor nuclear propulsion systems. NASA is studying advanced nuclear propulsion concepts, and our Russian ISS partner Roskosmos is well advanced in the development of nuclear-electric propulsion. Our exploration of the Red Planet is aimed not just at the search for life or later settlement by people but also at nearer-term objectives of quite concrete relevance for the present, motivated by fundamental questions such as why our Sun has planets in the first place, how is it possible that Earth and with it we humans exist, and is Earth's and our existence an extraordinary or normal occurrence in the cosmos? Why are we in this world, how did it come about, could it also have happened differently, and what will become of us? Even more importantly, we are also exploring Mars in order to better understand our terrestrial environment, to improve our ability to more accurately determine what we are changing on Earth by our activities - on its surface and its atmosphere. Mars is particularly well suited for such comparative planetology. The exploration of its topography, geology, geography, atmosphere, weather and climate conditions, developmental phases, indeed the entirety of its physical and chemical characteristics will add fundamentally to our knowledge and understanding of our own environment, thus serving considerably more than just the pure satisfaction of abstract human curiosity. Mars' formation and development still pose great riddles for science: It is the only other planet beside Earth with a surface clearly marked by complex geological processes caused by ice ages, glaciers, and flowing water in Niagara quantities. And that in a world which is so bone-dry today that all water in its presently considerably thinned-down carbon dioxide atmosphere would form a layer only two to five hundredths millimeter thick if it rained down to the ground all at once. Mars has ice fields, mysterious dark zones, bright "deserts", and various types of cloud formations which are subject to continual seasonal as well as sporadic changes. It is a world full of wonders and mysteries, sculpted by processes the likes of which have been found nowhere else: it has the highest volcanoes and the greatest canyons in the solar system, with gigantic planetary sand storms, countless dry river beds, and vast, densely branched stream valley networks where water once rushed in torrents. It has polar caps of water ice and frozen carbon dioxide, and there is evidence of underground permafrost deposits and probably also reservoirs of water in liquid state. Methane gas was recently discovered to exude from the ground at certain locations, which could be a sign of underground biological activity. Thus, it is not completely out of the question that even today adapted alien life forms might be found there. Mars, by all appearances, was created around the same time as Earth. But if these neighboring worlds had the same beginnings, how could it have happened that they took such distinctly different developmental paths? If scientific research discovers what actually took place when the climate on the planet changed so drastically, how long ago it occurred and why it happened, then we will clearly gain a better understanding also of the history and future of our own climates and environment. One of the reasons for the difference is thought to be the phenomenon of plate tectonics, i.e., the shifting of the separate plates forming Earth's solid outer shell, the lithosphere: its complete absence on Mars could have been the key to the origin of its current conditions. On Earth, plate tectonics causes a vertical convection process continuously mixing the materials deep in the Earth's core, stoked by radioactive decay and the primeval heat of planetary formation; it thereby intimately connects the complex interactions of atmosphere and oceans with the biosphere. Thus, by inference, it appears possible that our plate tectonics could have brought about the Earth as we know it, including our life - all terrestrial life. Has Mars a magnetic field like Earth? Or are we here, too, the exception among all Earth-like planets, perhaps because Earth with its iron core is the only planet in the inner Solar system sufficiently large and rotating fast enough to generate a significant magnetosphere? This question is of great importance for environmental research because our magnetic field, which shields Earth against energetic radiation from space, is possibly soon to undergo another plus/minus pole reversal as it did several times before in the past. During this process, unshielded space radiation would temporarily penetrate all the way down to Earth's surface. How did Mars lose a large part of its atmosphere when it underwent its world-shaking climatic changes, and where has all the water gone? Is it underground? How significant is the fact that despite its carbon dioxide atmosphere, Mars shows no greenhouse effect like Earth? In other words, what are the consequences of that phenomenon for our own environment? In order to reach such understandings, up to now mere theories which only now are being given substance by the counterexample of other worlds, we need the exploration of those planets -- and in the first place of our red neighbor. Next: When are humans likely to set foot on Mars?
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1,618
Cell Cycle Pathway The cell cycle pathway is a unidirectional process that governs cell division. This process, which cannot be reversed once started, is critical for cell survival. The cell cycle typically involves four phases: S phase, in which DNA is replicated, M phase, in which chromosomes are separated and two distinct cells are formed, and G1 and G2 phases during which the cell is preparing for cell division. The majority of the cell cycle pathway is regulated by two classes of proteins: cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and cyclins. Cyclins and CDKs form complexes that enable CDKs to phosphorylate and activate specific cell cycle intermediates. In the initial stages of the cell-cycle signal, cyclin D will bind to CDK4 and this complex will phosphorylate the retinoblastoma (Rb) gene. During a quiescent state, Rb is bound to DNA and blocks the transcription of specific genes. After phosphorylation, Rb becomes unbound and genes necessary for the cell cycle are now accessible. The cell cycle pathway is a highly-regulated process that incorporates three major checkpoints. The first checkpoint is the G1 checkpoint, which determines whether or not a cell will enter into the cell division process. The second checkpoint, G2, will determine if the cell will enter into mitosis. Both the G1 and G2 checkpoints can be affected by the presence or absence of various growth factors, DNA damage, or replicative senescence. The final checkpoint, metaphase, ensures proper chromosome alignment prior to cell division. The cell cycle pathway is intrinsically linked to cell survival and cell death. For instance, failure of a cell to meet the requirements of the individual cell cycle checkpoints will result in the cell undergoing apoptosis. In cancer, the cell cycle checkpoints are often dysfunctional. Checkpoint proteins, such as Rb or p53, are often mutated or inactivated and this can result in cell division despite incomplete DNA synthesis and segregation errors. Inappropriate continuation of the cell cycle can lead to genomic instability, which is a common feature of malignant cells. 1. Nigg. 1995. Cyclin-dependent protein kinases: key regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle. Bioessays. 17(6):471-80.
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Federal and state government agencies are required to follow certain procedures in order for their actions to be constitutional. For the federal government, these procedures are generally outlined by the Federal Administrative Procedure Act (FAPA). Each state government has its own set of administrative procedures as well, some of which are modeled after FAPA. An administrative law attorney specializes in administrative procedures at the federal and/or state level. Some examples of administrative agencies include the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). If, for example, the FDA passes new rules that affect your business, you may benefit from the services of an administrative law lawyer to better understand whether the FDA followed the correct procedure in passing these rules and whether you should contest them.
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161
A number of federal laws and ordinances protect U.S. employees from discrimination in the workplace. These laws are enforced by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). The EEOC is the main entity responsible for upholding and designating all employment laws in the United States, including federal job discrimination. Here's a look at federal job discrimination laws. Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII). This act protects employees from job discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. All aspects of employment are covered, including hiring, firing, promotion, wages, recruitment, training, and any other terms of employment. Equal Pay Act of 1963. This act ensures that employees receive the same pay, benefits, and opportunities as those employees of the opposite sex who perform the same work in the same establishment. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. This act protects workers who are 40 years of age or older from job discrimination that favors younger workers. Title I and Title V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. This act protects qualified workers with disabilities from job discrimination in the private and state and municipal sectors. Sections 501 and 505 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. This act protects qualified workers with disabilities who work for the federal government from job discrimination. Civil Rights Act of 1991. This act clarifies some of the ambiguous sections of Title VII, and provides monetary compensation for victims of federal job discrimination. If you think you are a victim of job discrimination If you think you are a victim of job discrimination under one of these federal laws, you can file a discrimination charge with the EEOC. In addition, a charge may be filed on your behalf by another person to protect your identity. You can file a charge by mail or in person at the nearest EEOC office. Importantly, you must file a claim with the EEOC within 90 days of the alleged discrimination before a private lawsuit can be filed. You must provide the following information in order to file a charge with the EEOC: - The complaining party's name, address, and telephone number - The name, address, and telephone number of the claim's respondent - The date and a short description of the alleged discrimination The EEOC will then investigate the claim. It will either dismiss the case, attempt to settle the case, bring the case to federal court, or issue the charging party a "right to sue," which allows the party to seek private counsel and bring suit upon the employer directly. Other job discrimination laws and agencies In addition to federal laws, many states and municipalities have their own laws that protect employees against discrimination. Workers and applicants who feel they are being discriminated against in regard to sexual orientation, parental status , marital status, political affiliation, and any other personal choice that does not affect their ability to do their job can research local and state ordinances to see whether they have legislative protection.
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601
By Dr. Aleksandra Drizo Dr. Aleksandra Drizo, PhosphoReduc LLC. CEO, 70 South Winooski Avenue; Burlington, VT, USA 05405. Corresponding author: [email protected] Phosphorus Pollution Problem Water eutrophication caused by excess nutrient loading from human activities has been recognized as one of the major water quality issues for several decades (1, 2). The World Resources Institute has identified 415 hypoxic coastal zones in the world. The situation is even more alarming for freshwater resources with 54% of lakes in Asia, 53% in Europe, 48% in North America, 41% in South America and 30% in Africa being identified as eutrophic (3). Although some environments are more greatly influenced by changing levels of nitrogen, addition of just 1 g of phosphorus promotes the growth of up to 100 g algae, and as such, represents the principal trigger of eutrophication and toxic blue-green algae blooms. The Effect of Algae Blooms These blooms can decrease the oxygen levels in the waters, resulting in fish kills and reduced biodiversity. They can also cause foul odors and tastes, diminishing the recreational appeal of the waters or their potential for use as a water supply source. Some species have even been found to release chemicals that are toxic to animals and humans. Sources of Phosphorus Pollution Given the magnitude of eutrophication worldwide, solutions for reducing phosphorus loading from municipal, agricultural, industrial, urban and rural point and nonpoint sources have been sought worldwide. While point source pollution is definable and thus controllable, nonpoint (diffuse) pollution originates from a variety of run-off sources, and consequently, controlling this type of contamination is even more complex, requiring an integration of technological, socio-economical and educational factors. Methods of Phosphorus Removal Methods for phosphorus removal from wastewaters and storm water runoff have emerged over the past few years. However, the current absence of the governmental regulations for phosphorus discharge limits, coupled with the extremely high costs of environmental technologies verification (ETV) programs impose insurmountable obstacles in phosphorus removal technologies applications. Current Regulatory Framework Despite the recognized need for phosphorus reduction worldwide (2-5), the current regulatory framework for attenuation of this type of contamination has been extremely limited. Phosphorus discharge criteria have been developed only for municipal wastewater treatment facilities (MWTF) and, in a very few developed countries. Moreover, the current phosphorus removal methods (either chemical or biological) used in MWWTF are complex, extremely expensive, consume large amounts of energy and generate large volumes of sludge that then must be appropriately disposed of (5). Phosphorus discharge criteria for other point and nonpoint pollution sources (agricultural, industrial, or residential onsite wastewater treatment systems (septic systems)), are not included in the current wastewater regulations. This situation is extremely alarming given the exponential growth of population, livestock and food production. For example, 30-40% of the population in developed countries rely on septic systems consisting of a septic tank and a drain field. A hundred years ago, soil drain fields were considered natural adsorbing materials for phosphorus. However, the phosphorus retention capacity of any adsorbing material is finite and once it’s reached, the material needs to be replaced. The situation is much more disturbing in developing countries, where peri-urban settlements are not approved by the local and national governments. As a result, many rivers in third world cities are being used as large open sewers. The lack of regulatory framework greatly diminishes funding and the aspiration for scientific advancements for phosphorus removal technologies. While there has been a growing interest in investigations on phosphorus sorbing materials that could be used in onsite wastewater treatment systems, this research has been mainly performed in university laboratories, while field testing and applications remain limited to the efforts by a very few scientist in Sweden and United States (6). The Road From Innovations to Applications The biggest obstacle to any environmental technology application is in the current costs and the time required by the Federal Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) Programs. In the United States for example, the costs range from $120-140,000 per application, lasting 24-36 months. This means that a small business such is PhosphoReduc would have to invest a minimum of $360,000 to obtain ETV certification for the 3 types of wastewater, e.g. municipal, residential and agricultural effluents treatment. Individual State Permits do not require such large financial investments during the review process, however the process is also extremely lengthy, lasting 24-30 months from the moment of application. Moreover, as phosphorus discharge limits currently do not exist in the regulatory framework, most of the water governmental agencies either reject applications or require intensive permitting processes, consisting of two different permit types: one for beneficial use of water filtration material and the other for general use of technology. Each of the two permit processes require intensive water quality monitoring by accredited laboratories, thus an investment of at least $85-100,000. And without certifications it is impossible to implement systems and bring water quality improvements. PhosphoReduc Innovative Technologies I have dedicated over 20 years of my professional life to research and development of sustainable technologies for phosphorus pollution prevention and control. During my doctoral research at the University of Edinburgh, UK, in the early 1990s, I have pioneered the research on use of various iron, aluminum and calcium based materials natural and industrial by-products that can be used as phosphorus sorbing materials in onsite treatment systems. As Research Professor at the University of Vermont, and the director of the University Constructed Wetlands Research Center (CWRC), along with my research team we have developed several suites of sustainable wastewater treatment technologies including: Integrated (multistage) constructed wetlands and phosphorus removal filter systems Phosphorus removal and sequestration “PRS-101” filters for the treatment of agricultural, municipal and residential wastewaters (point pollution sources) Simple “torpedo” filter systems for agricultural tile drain and urban storm water outflows (for capturing and treating phosphorus and solids pollution originating from nonpoint, diffuse pollution sources (Figure 1). These treatment technologies are efficient not only in phosphorus removal, but also in other pollutants reduction, including nitrogen, organic matter and suspended solids, pathogens and various metals and minerals. In addition, we have also shown that once the lifespan of the filter system is completed, the phosphorus retained by the filtration material can be re-used, instead of chemical fertilizer, to enhance soils used for agriculture, horticulture and forestry. In 2008, I applied for the Agricultural Innovation Fund to the University of Vermont College of Agriculture and Life Sciences and the Office for Technology Transfer (UVM TTO). I was awarded the seed start-up funding that enabled me to establish my business PhosphoReduc LLC (www.phosphoreduc.com). The seed funding also provided necessary funding for patent applications. We currently have patents pending for the two of our technologies, one for phosphorus removal from point pollution sources and the other for phosphorus removal from agricultural and urban drain outflows. Our filtration systems are passive systems consisting of one or more filter units filled with iron (Fe) and/or calcium (Ca) based filtration material, modified steel slag, a recyclable by-product from the steel industry. The filtration media is packed, arranged and engaged with one another in specially-designed modules so as to form a modular composite filter, according to the method developed by PhopshoReduc LLC. To date, we have demonstrated that PhosphoReduc filter systems reduce phosphorous, suspended solids and pathogens (E. coli) loads from sewage, agricultural and urban point and nonpoint pollution sources by 70 – 100 percent by systems implemented in a variety of climatic regions, on 4 continents. The examples of Phosphoreduc applications include: 1. Agricultural Runoff Treatment: a simple cartridge system installed to reduce phosphorus and solids from agricultural tile drains collecting water from 30 acres in Vermont achieved reductions averaging 72% and 75%, respectively (Figure 1). Currently, there is no agricultural practice designed to reduce phosphorus loading from agricultural tile drains. We have showed that phosphorus concentrations measured in 6 different agricultural drains over 10 spring storm events exceeded critical 0.1-0.2 mg/L P concentrations for incipient eutrophication in each rain event. feed bunks (silage leachate) runoff treatment, known as one of the most toxic waste streams on farms. Currently, the vegetative treatment area (practice code 635) is the major “best management practice” recommended by the US Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and widely implemented to treat silage leachate runoff on farms in the US (7). While it cannot achieve more than 20% phosphorus reduction efficiency, the current cost of this practice implementation is in order of $15,220 per acre. The results from a 2 year investigation by our research team has shown that the implementation of an innovative “treatment train” consisting of a PhosphoReduc filter, and a vegetative trench could achieve up to 90% phosphorus reduction at half the cost of the currently recommended 635 practice (8). 2. Urban Stormwater Treatment PhosphoReduc filter installed in Columbus, OH to treat a golf-course stormwater pond achieved an average of 85% reduction efficiency. Several follow up installations are planned in 2012. 3. Sewage Treatment PhosphoReduc filter has been implemented in southern Taiwan to test system efficacy in sewage wastewater treatment originating from the university student residences. This system showed nearly 100% reductions in dissolved and total phosphorus and suspended solids over 10 months of investigation (9). Following successful treatment in Taiwan, two filter installations are currently planned to reduce phosphorus loading originating from a mixed sewage and urban runoff effluent and causing eutrophication of Tubarao lagoons in Vitoria State, Brazil. The Future of Innovative Phosphorus Removal Technologies Despite all of the above obstacles, during the past two years PhosphoReduc technologies started to gain interest among governmental agencies in the US and internationally. We have contributed to eutrophication prevention and water quality improvements in over 40 laboratory, pilot, demonstration and full scale projects across 5 continents (Europe, North America, South America, Asia, New Zealand). In Sweden, professor Gunno Renman developed polonite based systems for phosphorus removal from residential septic systems. However, polonite filtration material is made from the natural calcium rich material found only in Poland, which restricts systems applications beyond these two countries. In any future research and development of Phosphorus removal technologies we ought to keep in mind the fact that as a key component of fertilizers, phosphorus is fundamental for the world’s food supplies, and an irreplaceable and essential element of life with its sole source as phosphate-bearing rocks (10-11). Phosphorus resources are non-renewable with global reserves estimated to reach their peak in the next 50-100 years (10). The current rate of phosphate extraction is reported at 167 million tonnes per year with a growing demand that accounts for a 2% annual increase. With continuing decline of global phosphate reserves, the impacts are likely be immense, particularly in terms of rising food prices, growing food insecurity and widening inequalities between developed and developing countries (10-11). Thus, not only should we continue research, development and implementation of phosphorus removal technologies but we have to invent the ways of phosphorus re-use as a soil amendment in agriculture, forestry, acid mine reclamation and horticulture. Sweden is the first country in the world that has established regulatory requirement to recycle phosphorus from municipal wastewater treatment effluents by 2016. It enabled professor Renman and I to start developing processes for phosphorus re-use from our phosphorus removal treatment systems. (1) Ryther, J.H. and Dunstan, W. M. (1971). Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Environments. Science 171: 1008-1013. (2) Conley, D.J., Paerl, H.W., Howarth, R.W., Boesch, D.F., Seitzinger, S.P., Havens, K.E., Lancelot, C. and Likens, G.E. (2009). Constrolling Eutrophication: Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Science 323: 1014-1015. (3) World Resources Institute (2012). Eutrophication and Hypoxia: Nutrient Pollution in Coastal Waters. url: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication (4) US EPA (2012). Water: Pollution Prevention and Control. url: http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/ (5) Jiang, F., Beck, M.B., Cummings, R.G., Rowles, K. and Russell, D. (2005). Estimation of Costs of Phosphorus Removal in wastewater Treatment Facilities: Adaptation of Existing Facilities. Water Policy Working Paper #2005-011. url: http://aysps.gsu.edu/WP2005011estimationofcosts.pdf (6) Westholm, Johansson, L., Drizo, A. and Renman, G. (2011). The Use of Blast Furnace and Electric Arc Furnace Steel Slag in Water Pollution Control. Ferrous Slag - Resource Development for an Environmentally Sustainable World. EUROSLAG Publication No.5. pp 103-11. url: http://www.euroslag.org/about-us/history/conferencesdetail/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=19&cHash=ae437d3893598f2b5faf16f5edf6a16c. (7) USDA NRCS (2008). Vegetative Treatment Area Practice 635. USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service―Practice Code 635. url: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026548.pdf (8) Drizo, A., Liang, K. and Gorres, J. (2011). Phosphorus and E.Coli Reduction from Silage Leachate via Innovative PhosphoReduc Filtration. Final Report to the Conservation Innovations Grants Program, submitted December 2011. University of Vermont Grant Agreement Number : 69-3A75-9-121. (9) AUTM, the Association of University Technology Managers (2011). Academic Filtration Innovations Aim to Solve What Ails a Perishable Resource: Water. Published in the 2011 Edition of a Better World Report. Respond, Recover, Restructure: Technologies Helping the World in the Face of Adversity, pp 78-83. www.betterworldrpoject.net (10) The Broker (2009). Peak Phosphorus- The next inconvenient truth. The Broker online 15, August 2009. url: http://globalpnetwork.net/resource/peak-phosphorus-next-inconvenient-truth (11) Yoshida, H., van Dijk, K., Drizo, A., Vanginkel, S., Matsubae, K. and Buehrer , M. (2011). Chapter 6: Phosphorus Recovery and Reuse. In: Dijk, K. and Yoshida, H. (ed.). Phosphorus, Food and Our Future. Frontiers in Life Sciences. In review.
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Your 5-year-old now Even children who parted easily at preschool sometimes turn into wailing "cling-ons" come the first days of kindergarten. Anxiety over the unknown is at the root of it. Will I make friends? Is learning to read going to be hard? Will I find the bus on time? Do I have to talk in class? Most schools offer a time to tour the classroom and meet the teacher before the first day. Do a dry run. Show your child where he'll be dropped off and how to get to his classroom. As fears surface, talk them out. The more specific he can be about what's bothering him, the better able you will be to strategize solutions. Most importantly, don't minimize your child's fears. "You'll meet new friends" isn't reassuring to a scared 5-year-old. Talk instead about how to approach new playmates. Role-play what he might say to start up a game. In times of upheaval, it's also important for kids to have structure. Keep things as sane as possible at home with before- and after-school schedules. Your life now Many parents grapple with the question of whether to let their children play with toy guns or engage in other violent play. It's an individual choice. But it can help to know that at age 5, your child's interest is less a reflection of our violent culture than a common, healthy developmental phase. Gunplay is a form of imaginative play that allows your child to feel he's exerting control over his world (vanquishing "bad guys," for example). There's no evidence linking toy guns to future acts of violence. The phase usually passes within a few years as your child moves on to other interests. Many parents ban toy guns only to find their kids creating weaponry out of a sandwich, a stick, or the state of Florida in a 50-state puzzle. You can avoid buying realistic weaponry but stopping the play altogether is more challenging. Rather than shaming your child about it, ask open-ended questions about why he likes such games. Play along and find subtle ways to talk about your values and nonviolence. Banning guns may also give them the power of being more attractive. The less of a big deal you make about gunplay — while being sure your child has lots of other playthings, too — the more quickly this stage tends to blow over.
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E. Cobham Brewer 18101897. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 1898. Os Sacrum. (See LUZ.) A triangular bone situate at the lower part of the vertebral column, of which it is a continuation. Some say that this bone was so called because it was in the part used in sacrifice, or the sacred part; Dr. Nash says it is so called because it is much bigger than any of the vertebræ; but the Jewish rabbins say the bone is called sacred because it resists decay, and will be the germ of the new body at the resurrection. (Hudibras, part iii. canto 2.)
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140
On March 12, 2002 the first results from the 2001 Census - population and dwelling counts - were released by Statistics Canada. Information on other characteristics of the B.C. population such as age, ethnicity, education, income, etc. will be released over the next two years. British Columbia was the third fastest growing province in Canada, increasing 4.9% between 1996 and 2001. On May 15, 2001, the population of B.C. was counted as 3,907,738, compared with 3,724,500 in May 1996. B.C.'s population growth was slightly stronger than the national rate of 4.0%. In the previous five year period, B.C.'s population had increased 13.5%, more than double the 5.7% increase in the Canadian population. Between 1996 and 2001, Alberta (10.3%) and Ontario (6.1%) had the strongest population growth among the provinces. Nunavut's population grew by 8.1%. Fewer than half (12 out of 28) of the regional districts in the province experienced population growth between 1996 and 2001. The regions that grew were concentrated in the southwest mainland, eastern Vancouver Island and Okanagan areas. Squamish-Lillooet (12.3%), Greater Vancouver (8.5%), Central Okanagan (8.2%) and Fraser Valley (6.8%) regional districts registered the strongest growth. On Vancouver Island, most of the growth occurred in the Nanaimo (4.3%) and Capital (2.4%) regional districts. The northern and Kootenay regions registered population declines over the 5-year period, with the largest decreases in Skeena-Queen Charlotte (-12.5%) and Mount Waddington (-10.2%). Among large municipalities (those with populations of more than 100,000), the strongest growth in the 1996-2001 period was posted in Surrey (14%), followed by Coquitlam (11%) and Richmond (10%). Among smaller municipalities (those with populations of more than 5,000), Whistler had the strongest growth (24%), although the small neighbouring community of Pemberton had even stronger growth (91%). Top Municipalities (> 5,000 people) in terms of growth from 1996 to 2000 |Municipality ||2001 Population || % Change | |Whistler ||8,896 ||24.0% | |Surrey ||347,825 ||14.2% | |Port Moody ||23,816 ||14.2% | |View Royal ||7,271 ||12.9% | |Maple Ridge ||63,169 ||12.5% | |Coquitlam ||112,890 ||10.9% | |New Westminster ||54,656 ||10.8% | |Richmond ||164,345 ||10.4% | |Port Coquitlam ||51,257 ||9.8% | |Abbotsford ||115,463 ||9.6% | Urban and Rural Population Between 1996 and 2001, the population has become more urbanised with 85% of the provincial population now living in urban areas, up from 82% in 1996 and 80% in 1991. Characteristics of Population Growth Although information on the characteristics of the population growth between 1996 and 2001 is not yet available from the 2001 Census, current population estimates provide insight into some aspects of the growth. About two thirds of the population growth between 1996 and 2001 was due to migration with natural increase (births minus deaths) accounting for the rest. The growth due to migration was entirely from international sources, as a large number of people left B.C. for Alberta and only small numbers arrived from other parts of Canada. Between 1991 and 1996, a similar number of people had arrived from international sources but there had also been almost as large a net inflow from other parts of the country. More than three quarters (77%) of the immigrants to B.C. over the 1996-2001 period were from Asian countries, followed by European sources (12%) and North and Central America (4%).
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852
The Walking Liberty half dollar has won many praises and criticisms in its time. Adolph Weinman’s Walking Liberty design was more than an attempt to beautify the half dollar. It represented a concerted effort to revitalize the denomination and to get half dollars back into circulation in again. The Mint was able to churn out plenty of Walking Liberty half dollars in the design’s first year. Of the first years mintage couldn’t compare to the numbers that were minted in the 1940s. Adolph Weinman was better known as a sculptor and medal designer. As such he won the competition to design the new half dollar. The Mint began producing the new Walking Liberty design in November, 1916. However it was January 2, 1917 before any of these dated half dollars entered into circulation. The new half dollars debut soon brought many praises and some criticisms. The Jan 23, 1917, issue of the Elyra, Ohio Evening Telegram is quoted as stating the Walking Liberty half dollar was more “elaborate” than the old Barber half dollar. And that both half dollars shared one thing in common—they both seemed to have been inspired by some French coin designs. For what ever reason, Weinman managed to work the American flag into the Walking Liberty half dollar design, which does seem to set it apart and gave it a more national character than other coin designs. Weinman had his own comments on the symbolism in his design: “The design of the Half dollar bears a full-length figure of Liberty, the folds of the Stars and Stripes flying to the breeze as a background. Progressing in full stride toward the dawn of a new day, carrying branches of laurel and oak, symbolic of civil and military glory. The hand of the figure is outstretched in bestowal of the spirit of liberty.” “The reverse of the half dollar shows an eagle perched high upon a mountain craig, his wings unfolded, fearless in spirit, and conscious of his power. Springing from a rift in the rock is a sapling of Mountain Pine, symbolic of America.” Many bird experts were amused at the design of the eagle displayed on the half dollar. It was quite unlike any other eagle pictured on other U.S. coins. One leading ornithologist remarked the eagle looked like a “turkey.” Very little was said about the branch of Mountain Pine. It did add a very dramatic touch to the design and is probably the coin’s most distinctive feature. The Walking Liberty is definitely the most distinctive half dollar created. In time the Walking Liberty half dollar gave way to the Franklin half dollar in 1948.
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550
Kids do not understand the dangers of fire and smoke and the havoc they can create if not used properly. Kids consider most of the things which can trigger fire like match-boxes and sticks, lighters, electrical equipment to be toys and like playing with them. It is very important to teach children about the impacts of these things at a young age. Educating children and making them aware about certain safety measures will make them responsible in the future as well. There are some basic safety tips which should be followed by children in order to keep themselves fire safe. The first and foremost thing is to tell them not to play with anything that can cause fire. They may take a match-box and lighter very lightly, but it is the parent’s duty to make them aware about the consequences of these things if not used properly. During any festivals it is important for the parents to stay along with their children in case they play with firecrackers. Children should never remain unattended during such festivals. Tell the children not to use a candle when no adult person is around them. Children in the process of growing up find certain things very interesting and try experimenting with them. Lighting paper to see whether it catches fire is one such thing which majority of the children tries during their growing up years. It is necessary for the parents to be aware of such facts and tell their children beforehand not to resort to such things. It is also important to make them aware that fire can get out of control in seconds and hence, a simple experiment can cause an outbreak of fire. If children are made aware of the cause and effects of fire right from the beginning, they will take good care and precaution so that such incidences do not occur.
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349
What is Iron Deficiency? If you feel like your energy levels are low, you’re lacking motivation and you could fall asleep at your desk everyday, don’t blame your job right away. Instead, take a close look at the signs and symptoms of iron deficiency. Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutrition deficiency in the world. It occurs when the body’s stores of iron are low (the stage prior to anemia), and, it may or may not cause any symptoms. Iron deficiency disproportionately affects those in developing countries but it is also prevalent in industrialized countries. Iron deficiency anemia develops when low iron stores persist for a period of time and the body cannot make enough healthy red blood cells to deliver oxygen throughout the body. In the United States, the largest nationwide survey, the National Nutrition and Health Examination Surveys (NHANES) found that approximately 16% of teenage girls aged 16-19 and 12% of women aged 20-49 are deficient in iron. These numbers are staggering in a country with an abundant food supply and an array of multivitamin and iron supplements. - Stoltzfus RJ. Defining iron-deficiency anemia in public health terms: reexamining the nature and magnitude of the public health problem. J Nutr 2001;131:565S-7S. - Micronutrient deficiencies. Iron deficiency anaemia. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/ida/en/index.html - Iron Deficiency Anemia. National Anemia Action Council. http://www.anemia.org/patients/faq/#ida - Iron Deficiency. MMWR Weekly. CDC. 2002;51(40):897-899. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5140a1.htm#tab1 - Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001. - Monson ER. Iron and absorption: dietary factors which impact iron bioavailability. J Am Dietet Assoc. 1988;88:786-90. - Tapiero H, Gate L, Tew KD. Iron: deficiencies and requirements. Biomed Pharmacother. 2001;55:324-32. - Pronsky ZM. Food Medication Interactions, 10th edition 1997. - Hemoglobin. Medline Plus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003645.htm - Hematocrit. Medline Plus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003646.htm
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615
Dread Nought Biography Biography Dread Nought , was launched in 1912]]The dreadnought was the predominant type of battleship of the 20th century. The revolutionary HMS Dreadnought of 1906 adopted an 'all-big-gun' armament and steam turbine propulsion; her impact was so great that battleships built after her were referred to as 'dreadnoughts' and earlier battleships became known aspre-dreadnoughts.The concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years prior to Dreadnought's construction, and the Imperial Japanese Navy had even begun work on an all-big-gun battleship in 1904.Gibbons, p. 168 The arrival of the dreadnoughts sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial symbol of national power.Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with rapid changes in armament, armor, and propulsion, meaning that ten years after Dreadnought's commissioning much more powerful ships were being built. These more powerful vessels were known as super-dreadnoughts. The only pitched battle between fleets of dreadnoughts was the Battle of Jutland, an indecisive clash that reflected Britain's continuing strategic dominance. Most of the dreadnoughts were scrapped or scuttled after the end of World War I, though some of the most advanced super-dreadnoughts continued in service through World War II.The term "dreadnought" gradually dropped from use after World War I, as the pre-dreadnoughts and the first generations of dreadnoughts were scrapped. However, all battleships built since then shared the characteristics of the dreadnought. "Dreadnought" can also be used to encompass battlecruisers, the other type of ship resulting from the dreadnought revolution.Mackay R. Fisher of Kilverstone, p.326, for instance 's Satsuma; the first ship designed as an 'all-big-gun' battleship]]The distinctive all-big-gun armament of the dreadnought was developed in the first years of the 20th century as navies sought to increase the firepower and range of their battleships. Most pre-dreadnoughts had a main armament of four heavy guns of 9.4-13.5 inch (24-34 cm), a secondary armament of six to eighteen quick/rapid-firing guns of 4.7-7.5 inch (12-19 cm), supplemented by a range of smaller weapons. Some American designs had an intermediate battery of four, later eight, 8-inch (20.3 cm) guns. By 1903, however, serious proposals for an all-big-gun armament were circulated in several countries.All-big-gun designs were begun almost simultaneously in three navies. The Imperial Japanese Navy authorised Satsuma, designed with twelve 12-inch guns, in 1904, and she was laid down in May 1905Jentshura, Jung, Mickel p.22-3. Evans & Peattie p.159. The Royal Navy began the design of HMS Dreadnought in January 1905 and she was laid down in October 1905Sumrall, p.15. The United States Navy gained authorisation for USS Michigan, carrying eight 12-inch guns, in March 1905Sumrall, p.15 and she was laid down in May 1906Sondhaus, p.199.The exact reasons for the move to an all-big-gun design are still a matter of some controversy. The newest, fast-firing 12-inch guns had more long-range firepower than a gun of 10-inch of 9.2-inch calibre.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development.It is often stated that mixed-calibre guns prevented accurate fire control because of the potential for confusion between shell-splashes of different calibre. However, more recent work suggests that shell-splashes and salvo firing were not of much importance in decision-making.Fairbanks, C The Dreadnought Revolution, International History Review 1991: this debate is also expanded on below The pre-dreadnought battleships combined heavy-calibre ship-killing guns, typically of 12 in calibre, with a secondary and tertiary armament that could generate a hail of fire destroying the less protected parts of enemy ships. At the Battle of the Yalu River and the Battle of Santiago de Cuba (1898], this hail of fire destroyed most of the vessels of the defeated side. At Santiago, none of the four US battleships present scored a single hit with their 12- and 13-inch guns.The Naval War Between China and Japan and Lesson From the War in the East, pages 90-143, The Naval Annual 1895.Naval Aspects of the Spanish-American War, pages 123-174, The Naval Annual 1899 These were short-range engagements. At the Battle of the Yalu River, the victorious Japanese did not open fire until the range had closed to 3,000 yards; naval guns were still too inaccurate to score hits at a longer range.By the early 1900s, British and American admirals expected that in future battleships would engage at considerably longer ranges.This was an Anglo-American trend. French battleships had been expecting to engage at 7-8,000 yards since the mid-1880s. They would need to do so, because torpedo ranges were increasing; "The addition of a gyroscope to the torpedo guidance mechanism in 1896, an invention perfected by 1900, overnight transformed the existing torpedo from a weapon accurate only at ranges up to 600 yards into one that could hit at three times this distance." Page 77, Lambert, Nicholas A. Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution, pub University of South Carolina, 1999, ISBN-1-57003-277-7; for example, in 1903, the US ordered a torpedo effective to 4,000 yardsPage 53, Friedman, US Battleships. Both British and American admirals concluded that they needed to engage the enemy at longer ranges. In 1900, Mediterranean Sir John A. Fisher commanding the Royal Navy Mediterranean Fleet ordered gunnery practice, with the 6-inch guns, at a range of 6,000 yards.Lambert, Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution. By 1904, the US Naval War College was considering the effects on battleship tactics of 7-8,000 yard range torpedoes.At the short ranges expected for combat in the 1890s, lighter guns had good accuracy; combined with their high rate of fire, this produced the lethal 'hail of fire' effect. As ranges increased, the accuracy of light and medium-calibre guns declined more rapidly than that of heavier weapons. Lighter projectiles have a lower ratio of mass to frontal surface area, and so their velocity is reduced more quickly by air resistance. If all things are equal, higher velocity means higher accuracy. "Moreover at long ranges gunners had to 'spot' the fall of shot to correct their aim... The longer the range, the lower the maximum theoretical rate of spotted fire."Page 52, Friedman, US Battleships.The early years of the 20th century saw the effective range of heavy guns increase. This was established on gunnery ranges by 1904, and proven in action at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. "By 1904, the gunnery of the largest weapons had improved to the point where decisive hits could be made at the greatest ranges. This conclusion was confirmed by battle experience in the Russo-Japanese War, but serious planning for all-big-gun ships came considerably earlier in the major navies, based on peacetime gunnery experiments."Friedman US Battlships p.52 All-big-gun mixed-calibre ships , an all-big-gun mixed-calibre ship of the Lord Nelson class. She carried four 12-inch and ten 9.2-inch guns.]]One approach to making more powerful battleships was to reduce the secondary battery, and substitute additional heavy guns: typically 9.2- or 10-inch. These ships, described as 'all-big-gun mixed-calibre' or later 'semi-dreadnought', included the British King Edward VII and Lord Nelson classes, the French Danton class, and the Japanese battleship Satsuma. The design process for these ships often included discussion of a pure, 'all-big-gun one-calibre', alternative.The June issue of Proceedings of the US Naval Institute contained an article by US Navy's leading gunnery expert Prof P.R Alger proposing a main battery of eight 12-inch guns in twin turrets. The future chief constructor David W Taylor responded suggesting that battleships of the future would be powered with steam turbines. Page 51, Friedman, Norman, US Battleships, an Illustrated Design History, pub Naval Institute Press, 1985, ISBN 0-87021-715-1 In May 1902, the Bureau of Construction and Repair submitted a design for the Mississippi class battleship with twelve 10-inch guns in twin turrets, two at the ends and four in the wings. Lt. Cdr. H. C. Poundstone submitted a paper to President Roosevelt in December 1902 arguing the case for larger battleships. In an appendix to his paper, Poundstone suggested a greater number of 11-inch and 9-inch guns was preferable to a smaller number of 12-inch and 9-inch. "In an appendix he argued, as had Signor, that there was little point in retaining the 8-inch gun. Better to replace the existing mix of 12- and 8-inch guns with 11 and 9 inch; better, too, to save weight and gain numbers by using the smallest possible heavy-calibre weapon. Poundstone's paper was not published by the Proceedings until the June and September 1903 issues." Page 52, Friedman, US Battleships. The Naval War College and C&R developed these ideas in studies between 1903 and 1905. War game studies begun in July 1903 "showed that a battleship armed with twelve 11- or 12-inch guns hexagonally arranged would be equal to three or more of the conventional type."Pages 53-58, Friedman, US BattleshipsIn the British navy the same trend occurred. A design had also been circulated in 1902-03 for "a powerful 'all big-gun' armament of two calibres, viz. four 12-inch and twelve 9.2-inch guns."Page 426, Parkes, quoting an I.N.A. paper of 9 April 1919 by Sir Philip Watts. However, the Admiralty decided to build three more King Edward (with a mixture of 12-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch) in the 1903-04 programme instead.Page 426, Parkes. The concept was revived for the 1904-05 programme, the Lord Nelson class. Restrictions on length and beam meant that the midships 9.2-inch turrets became single instead of twin, thus giving an armament of four 12-inch, ten 9.2-inch, and no 6-inch. The constructor for this design, J.H. Narbeth, submitted an alternative drawing showing an armament of twelve 12-inch guns, but the Admiralty was not prepared to accept this. Page 451-2, Parkes. Part of the rationale for the decision to retain mixed-calibre guns was the need to begin the building of the ships quickly because of the tense situation produced by the Russo-Japanese War.Breyer, S. Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World, p.113. The switch to all-big-gun designs The replacement of the 6-inch or 8-inch guns with weapons of 9.2-inch or 10-inch calibre improved the striking power of a battleship, particularly at longer ranges. However, making the move to a uniform calibre of heavy guns offered a number of benefits.A uniform heavy-gun armament offered advantages for logistics and damage control. When the US were considering whether to have a mixed-calibre main armament for the South Carolina class, For example, Sims and Poundstone stressed the advantages of homogeneity in terms of ammunition supply and the transfer of crews from the disengaged guns to replace wounded gunners.Friedman, US Battleships, p.55.A uniform calibre of gun meant streamlined fire control. The designers of Dreadnought prefered an all-big-gun design because it would mean only one set of calculations about adjustments to the range of the guns."Additional advantage is gained by having a uniform armament. A mixed armament necessitates separate control for each type; owing to a variety of causes the range passed to 12-in. guns is not the range that will suit the 9.2in. or 6-in. guns, although the distance of the target is the same." First Addendum to the Report of the Committee on Designs, quoted in Mackay R. Fisher of Kilverstone, p.322 It is often argued that a uniform calibre was particularly important because the risk of confusion between shell-splashes of 12-inch and lighter guns, which is held to make accurate ranging difficult. More recent investigation suggests that fire control in 1905 was not advanced enough to use the salvo-firing technique where this confusion might be importantFor the detail of this debate, see Fairbanks C. The Dreadnought Revolution, International History Review 1991 Vol 13 Part 2, in particular p.250; confusion of shell-splashes does not seem to have been a concern of those working on all-big gun designsIn Britain: "Fisher does not seem to have expressed interest in... the ability to hit an adversary at long range by spotting salvoes. It is also very diffficult to understand just when this method was first officially understood"; Mackay, Fisher of Kilverstone, p.322. And in America: "The possibility of gunnery confusion due to two calibres as close as 10 and 12 inches was never raised. For example, Sims and Poundstone stressed the advantages of homogeneity in terms of ammunition supply and the transfer of crews from the disengaged guns to replace wounded gunners. Friedman, US Battleships, p.55. Nevertheless, the likelihood of engagements at longer ranges was important in deciding that the heaviest possible guns should be adopted as standard; hence 12-inch rather than 10-inch. "In October W.L Rogers of the Naval War College wrote a long and detailed memorandum on this question, pointing out that as ranges became longer the difference in accuracy between even 10- and 12-inch guns became enormous" Page 55, Friedman, US Battleships; "The advantage at long range lies with the ship which carries the greatest number of guns of the largest type", Report of the Committee on Designs, quoted in Mackay Fisher of Kilverstone p.322Furthermore, the newer designs of 12-inch gun mounting had a considerably higher rate of fire, removing the advantage previously enjoyed by smaller calibres. In 1902, a 12-inch gun might fire two rounds per minute; in 1895, one round every four minutes was more likelyFriedman, Battleship Design and Development, p.98. In October 1903, the naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti published a paper in Jane's Fighting Ships entitled "An Ideal Battleship for the British Navy", which called for a 17,000 ton ship carrying a main armament of twelve 12-in guns, protected by 12-inch armour, and having a speed of 24 knots (44 km/h).Cuniberti, Vittorio, "An Ideal Battleship for the British Fleet", All The World?s Fighting Ships, 1903, pp.407-409. Cuniberti's idea - which he had already proposed the idea to his own navy, the Regia Marina - was to make use of the high rate of fire of new 12-inch guns to produce devastating rapid-fire from heavy guns to replace the 'hail of fire' from lighter weapons.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development 1905-45, p.98 Something similar lay behind the Japanese move towards heavier guns; Japanese shells contained a higher than normal proportion of high explosive, and were fused to explode on contact, starting fires rather than piercing armour.Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, p.63 The increased rate of fire overcame the principal objection to 12-inch guns and laid the foundations for future advances in fire control. Friedman, Battleship Design and Development, p.98 Building the first Dreadnoughts In Japan, the two battleships of the 1903-4 Programme were in fact the first to be laid down as all-big-gun designs, with eight 12-inch guns. However, the design had armour which was considered too thin, meaning a substantial redesignBreyer, Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World, p.331; the financial pressures of the Russo-Japanese War and the short supply of 12-inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant that these ships were completed as the with a mixed-calibre 10-inch and 12-inch armament. The 1903-4 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines. Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, p.159The dreadnought breakthrough occurred in Britain in 1905. The new First Sea Lord, Jackie Fisher had long been an advocate of new technology in the Royal Navy and had recently converted to the idea of an all-big-gun battleship.Fisher first firmly proposed the all-big-gun idea in a paper in 1904, where he called for battleships with sixteen 10-inch guns; by November 1904 he was convinced of the need for 12-inch guns. An 1902 letter, where he suggested powerful ships 'with equal fire all round', might have meant an all-big-gun design. Mackay, RFisher of Kilverstone p.312Fisher is often credited as the creator of the Dreadnought type and the father of Britain's great dreadnought battleship fleet, an impression he himself did much to reinforce. However, it is now seriously suggested Fisher's main interest was in developing the battlecruiser and not the battleship.Sumida, J. Sir John Fisher and the Dreadnought, Journal of Military History Vol.59 No.4; p.619-21 One of Fisher's first actions on coming to office was to set up a Committee on Designs to consider future battleships and armoured cruisers.The Committee's first task was to consider a new battleship. The specification for the new ship was a 12-inch main battery and anit-torpedo-boat guns but no intermediate calibres, and a 21-knot speed (two or three knots faster than existing battleships).Breyer, Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World, p.115 The initial designs intended twelve 12-inch guns, though difficulties in positioning these guns led the chief constructor at one stage to propose a return to four 12-inch guns with sixteen or eighteen 9.2-inch. The Committee settled on a design carrying ten 12-inch guns as her main armament, along with twenty-two 12-pounders (3 inch, 76 mm) as her secondary armamentBreyer, Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World, p.115. The Committee also took the adventurous step of giving Dreadnought steam turbine propulsion. This was unprecedented in a large warship. The greater efficiency of the turbines meant that the 21-knot design speed could be achieved in a smaller and cheaper shipBreyer, p.46, p.115Construction took place at a remarkable rate; her keel was laid on 2 October 1905, she was launched on 10 February 1906, and she was completed on 3 October 1906?an impressive demonstration of British industrial might.Sumrall, p.15 The new ship was named Dreadnought; the previous Dreadnought, having been stricken from the effective list in 1905.Page 10, The Naval Annual 1905The first US dreadnoughts were the South Carolina class. Detailed plans for these were worked out in July-November 1905, and approved by the Board of Construction on 23 November 1905.Page 62, Friedman, US Battleships However building progress was slow; specifications for bidders were issued on 21 March 1906, and the two ships were laid down in December 1906, after the completion of the British Dreadnought.Page 63, Friedman, US Battleships The design of dreadnoughts, like that of any warship, was a difficult struggle to provide as much protection, mobility and firepower as possible on a ship of a realistic size and costFriedman, N. Battleship Design and Development, p.19-21. The characteristic of a dreadnought was an 'all-big-gun' armament. Dreadnoughts also carried thick armour, principally in a thick belt around the waterline, though also in one or more armoured decks which became thicker over time. Protection against torpedoes, secondary armament, fire control and command equipment also had to be crammed into the hull.The inevitable consequence of demands for ever greater speed, striking power and staying power meant that the displacement and hence the cost of dreadnought designs tended to increase. Dreadnought size was only eventually limited by the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922, when an upper limit of 35,000 tons was agreed; in subsequent years a number of treaty battleships were commissioned designed to build up to this limit. Once war came on the horion again, however, the race towards bigger and bigger battleships resumed. showing the armament distribution of a typical early British dreadnoughts; main battery is in twin turrets, with two on the 'wings'; secondary battery is clustered around the superstructure.]]The defining characteristic of the dreadnought was the 'all-big-gun' armament: a large number of very heavy guns. The number and size of guns in the main battery could vary. Dreadnought herself mounted ten 12-inch guns; 12-inch armament had been standard in the pre-dreadnought and this continued the first generation of dreadnought battleships, though the German Navy continued to use 11.1-inch guns in its first class of dreadnoughts, the Nassau class.Breyer, p.54, 266As dreadnoughts developed, there were continuing demands for more firepower in the main battery to match or outpace the likely enemy. This meant either more powerful heavy guns, a greater number of such guns, or an arrangement which meant the same number of guns could be better used. Position of Main Armament The effectiveness of the guns depended in part on the layout of the turrets. Dreadnought, and the British ships which immediately followed her, carried five turrets: one ahead and two astern on the centreline of the ship, and two in the 'wings' next to the superstructure. This allowed three turrets to fire ahead and four turrets to fire broadside. Nassau and the first few classes of German dreadnoughts adopted a 'hexagonal' layout with one turret fore and aft and two wing-turrets on each side of the superstructure; this meant that more guns were mounted in total, but the same number could fire ahead or broadside as with Dreadnought.Dreadnought designs experimented with different layouts of turrets. An alternative was to mount the centre turrets en echelon. The British Neptune class staggered the wing turrets, so all ten guns could fire on the broadside, a feature copied by the German Kaiser class. This, however, risked blast damage to parts of the ship which the guns fired over, and put great stress on the ship's frame.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development, p.134The solution which imposed the least stress on the ship's hull was to put all the turrets on the centreline. This meant that every heavy gun could easily fire on the broadside, but fewer could fire end-on. It also meant the hull would be longer, and that the armoured belt would be heavier or thinner; the deep, heavily-armoured magazines which served each turret also interfered with the distribution of boilers and engines.Freidman, N. Battleship Design and Development, p.132 Agincourt carried fourteen 12-inch guns in seven centreline turrets, more heavy guns than any other dreadnought, but was not considered a success for these reasons.Breyer, p. 138An improved centreline layout involved raising some turrets so they could fire over a turret immediately forward or astern of them. The U.S. Navy adopted this feature with their very first dreadnoughts, the South Carolina class. Other navies were slower to do so, because of fears about the impact of the blast of the raised guns on the lower turret. Raised turrets also raised the centre of gravity of the ship, potentially reducing stability; for this reason it was impossible for more than two turrets to superfire, one fore and one aft.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development p.134 The most common superfiring arrangement was eight guns, with two turrets forward and two aft, allowing four guns to fire on either end and eight on a broadside. This was adopted as early as the South Carolinas, spread to the Royal Navy with the Orion class, and could be seen as late as the World War II designs like Bismarck and Vanguard.The alternative to more turrets was to put more guns into each turret. Economising on the number of turrets means the ship could be shorter or could devote more space to machinery. On the other hand, it meant that a higher proportion of the main battery could be put out of action by a single lucky enemy hit. The first nation to adopt the triple turret was Russia, with their first dreadnoughts of the Gangut classBreyer, p.393-6; first seen in the U.S. Navy in the Nevada class, triple turrets only became popular elsewhere during and after World War I.For instance, the British G3 and N3 designs of 1921; the first German triple-turreted capital ship was Scharnhorst. Several later designs used quadruple turrets, for instance the King George V.Fitzsimons, Volume 15, p.1635, and Volume 24, p.2587, "Washington". The quadruple turrets, however, often suffered from technical difficulties - most famously HMS Prince of Wales in her engagement with the Bismarck.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development, p.132 Main armament Power and Calibre used on super-dreadnoughts]]Another way to increase the sriking power of a dreadnought was to increase the power of each gun. This could be done by increasing either the calibre of the weapon and hence the weight of shell, or by lengthening the barrel to increase muzzle velocity. Either of these offered the chance to increase range and armour penetration.Both methods offered advantages and disadvantages. As guns fire, their barrels wear out, losing accuracy and eventually requiring replacement. At times, this became a problematic; the U.S. Navy seriously considered stopping practice firing of heavy guns in 1910 because of the wear on the barrels.Friedman Battleship Design and Development, p.129 The higher the muzzle velocity, the more pronounced the problem of gun wear. Heavier shells are also affected less by air resistance, and so retain greater penetrating power at long range. The disadvantages of heavier guns were twofold: firstly, the guns and turrets required weighed much more; and secondly, heavier and slower shells needed to be fired at a higher angle for the same range.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development, p.130Different navies approached the decision of calibre in different ways. The German navy, for instance, generally used a lighter calibre than the equivalent British ships, e.g. 12-inch calibre when the British standard was 13.5-inch. However, because German metallurgy was superior, the German 12-inch gun was superior to the British 12-inch in terms of shell weight and muzzle velocity; and because the German guns were lighter than the British 13.5-inch, German ships could afford more armour.Friedman, Battleship Design and Development, p.130On the whole, however, the calibre of guns tended to increase. In the Royal Navy, the Orion class, launched 1910, used ten 13.5-inch guns, all on the centreline; the Queen Elizabeth class, launched 1913, used eight 15-inch guns. In all navies, the calibre of guns increased and the number of guns tended to decrease to compensate. The fewer guns needed meant distributing them became less of an issue, and centreline turrets became entirely the norm.A further step change was planned for battleships designed and laid down at the end of World War I. The Japanese Nagato class in 1917 carried 16-inch guns, matched by the US Navy's Colorado class. Some designs went still further: the British "N3" class would have carried nine 18-inch guns, and the Japanese planned an un-named class, also with 18-inch armament. However, the Washington Naval Treaty meant these mammoth battleships never got off the drawing board.The trend towards larger calibres was arrested by the Naval Treaties. The Washington Naval Treaty limited battleship guns at 16-inch (406 mm) calibreBreyer, p.72. Later treaties preserved this limit, though reductions of the limit to 11-inch, 12-inch or 14-inch calibre were proposed.Breyer, p.73. The only battleships to break the limit were the Japanese Yamato class, begun in 1937, which carried 460-mm (18.1-inch) main gunsBreyer, p.84. By the middle of World War II, Britain was making use of 15-inch guns built as spares for the Queen Elizabeth class to arm the last British battleship, Vanguard.Breyer, p.82A number of World War II-era designs were drawn up proposing another move towards gigantic armament. The German H-43 and H-44 designs proposed 508-mm (20-inch) guns, and there is evidence that Hitler wanted calibres as high as 609-mm (24-inch)Breyer, p.214; the Japanese 'Super Yamato' design also used 508-mm gunsBreyer, p.367. None of these proposals went further than very preliminary design work. shows a typical dreadnought protection scheme, with very thick armour protecting the turrets, magazines and engine spaces tapering away in less vital areas; also note the subdivided underwater compartments to prevent sinking.]]Dreadnoughts were protected by thick steel armour around their most vital areas. An armoured warship like a battleship was only of any use in a pitched battle if it could withstand seveal hits from the heaviest weapons it was likely to face and still be able to fight. The critical areas to defend were the engines, main armament and magazines; a hit to the magazines could result in the ship blowing up, while damage to the engines could stop the battleship in the water, making it tactically useless and a sitting duck for further attacks. The question dreadnought designers faced was how to get the most effective protection for their vessels without the weight of armour critically slowing the ship.The earliest dreadnoughts were intended to take part in a pitched battle against other battleships at ranges of up to 10,000 yards. In such an encounter, shells would fly on a relatively flat trajectory. For this reason, the early dreadnoughts' armour was concentrated in a thick belt around the waterline; this had a thickness of 11 in in Dreadnought. Behind this belt were arranged the ship's coal bunkers, to further protect the engineering spaces. To protect the innards of the ship from fragments of shells which detonated on the superstructure, much thinner steel armour was applied to the decks of the ship. Dreadnought carried a total f 2.5 in of deck armour on two decks.The final element of the protection scheme of the first dreadnoughts was the subdivision of the ship below the waterline into several watertight compartments. If the hull was holed - by shellfire, mine, torpedo, or collision - then, in theory, only one area would flood and the ship could survive. To make this precaution even more effective, many dreadnoughts had no hatches between different underwater sections, so that even a surprise hole below the waterline need not sink the ship. However, there were still a number of instances where flooding spread between underwater compartments.During the evolution of the dreadnought, armour schemes changed to reflect the greater risk of plunging shells from long-range gunfire, the increasing threat from both bombs dropped by aircraft and the need to protect battleships more adequately from torpedoes and mines.The threat of plunging fire and bombing meant a greater thickness of steel on the armoured deck, and the amont of protection devoted to the deck increased much more rapidly than did the amount in the main belt. For instance, the Japanese superbattleship Yamato carried a 16.5 in main belt, as opposed to Dreadnought's 11 but a deck as thick as 9 in against Dreadnought's 2 in. The main belt itself was increasingly angled inwards to give a greater effective thickness against low-angle shells.The greatest evolution in dreadnought protection came with the development of the torpedo bulge and torpedo belt, both attempts to protect against underwater damage by mines and torpedoes. blades, in this case from the Polish destroyer Wicher]]Dreadnoughts were propelled by two to four screw propellors. Dreadnought herself, and all British dreadnoughts, had screw shafts driven by steam turbines. However, the turbine was a very experimental technology; the first generation of dreadnoughts built in other nations used the slower triple-expansion steam engine which had been standard in pre-dreadnought battleships. Within a few years, the turbine was standard for new battleship construction.Turbines were more powerful and more reliable than the older steam engine. They were, however, less fuel-efficient at slower, cruising speeds. To address this, some navies adopted the turbo-electric drive where the steam tubine genereated electrical power whcih then drove the propellors; and ultimately the geared turbine which used mechanical means to get greater efficiency at higher speeds. Turbines were never replaced in battleship design.The first generation of dreadnoughts used coal to fire the boilers which fed steam to the turbines. Coal had been in use since the very first steam warships, but had many disadvantages; it was labour-intensive to pack coal into the ship's bunkers and then feed it into the boilers, which became clogged with ash; coal produced thick black smoke which gave away the position of a fleet. In addition, coal was very bulky and had comparatively low thermal efficiency, meaning navies had to have numerous coaling stations at strategic points around the globe; control of these could, and did, provoke naval battles. The alternative, oil, had many advantages for naval architects and officers at sea alike. It reduced smoke, making ships less vulnerable. It could be fed into boilers automatically, rather than by hand. And it had had higher thermal efficiency and less bulk than coal. For comparable range, much less oil was needed, saving space; using the same volume, much more oil could be carried (much greater bunkerage, technically), providing significantly greater range. The only problem with oil was, every nation except the USA had to import it, a strategic concern which meant oil was only gradually adopted through the First World War and after. Oil's advantages outweighed its drawbacks, and it was not long before all battleships were oil-fired.Interwar, another advantage of oil would appear: it could be more easily transferred between ships, making underway refuelling much simpler, paving the way for the carrier task force, which would replace the battle line. In 1897 the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and of 50 over Germany,The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Paul M. Kennedy, ISBN 0-333-35094-4, p.209. and nations as distant (and unlikely to be met in combat) as Brazil could (in theory) match the best Britain had. In November 1906, Dreadnought had the field to herself; there were no challengers. The new class prompted an arms race with serious strategic and economic consequences. Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts to catch up with the United Kingdom. Possession of modern battleships was not only vital to naval power, but as with nuclear weapons today, represented a nation's standing in the world. Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Austria and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; and second-rank powers including Turkey, Argentina, Brazil and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards.The First World War, John Keegan, ISBN 0-7126-6645-1, p.281. The Anglo-German arms race See also: Causes of World War IBritain and Germany had for some years been locked into a strategic struggle, as Germany asserted herself as a colonial as well as a European power. It was this threat which prompted the building of Dreadnought and made a naval arms race between the two nations inevitable.While Fisher's reorganisation of the Navy in 1904 and 1905 actually cut the Naval Estimates,The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Paul M. Kennedy, ISBN 0-333-35094-4, p. 218. the pressing need for more and better ships to ensure naval superiority caused friction in the British government. The costs of maintaining the Royal Navy at a level capable of taking on the next two navies at the same time were immense.Greger, René, Schlachtschiffe der Welt, pp.11 & 15.The first German response to Dreadnought came with the Nassau-class, laid down in 1907, followed by the Helgoland-class in 1909. Together with two battlecruisers — a type for which the Germans had less admiration than Fisher, but which could be built under authorisation for armored cruisers, rather than capital ships — these classes gave Germany a total of ten modern capital ships built or building in 1909. While the British ships were somewhat faster and more powerful than their German equivalents, a 12:10 ratio fell very short of the 2:1 ratio that the Royal Navy wanted to maintain.In 1909, the British Parliament authorised an additional four capital ships, holding out hope Germany would be willing to negotiate a treaty about battleship numbers. If no such solution could be found, an additional four ships would be laid down in 1910. Even this compromise solution meant (when taken together with some social reforms) raising taxes enough to prompt a constitutional crisis in Britain in 1909-10.In 1910, the British eight-ship construction plan went ahead, including four Orion-class super-dreadnoughts, and augmented by battlecruisers purchased by Australia and New Zealand. In the same period of time, Germany laid down only three ships, giving Britain a superiority of 22 ships to 13. The British resolve demonstrated by their construction programme led the Germans to seek a negotiated end to the arms race. While the Admiralty's new target of a 60% lead over Germany was near enough to Tirpitz's goal of cutting the British lead to 50%, talks foundered on the question on whether British Commonwealth battlecruisers should be included in the count, as well as non-naval matters like the German demands for recognition of her ownership of Alsace-Lorraine.The pace of the dreadnought race stepped up in both nations' 1910 and 1911 budgets, with Germany laying down four capital ships each year and Britain five. The tensions came to a head following the German Naval Law of 1912. This proposed a fleet of 33 German battleships and battlecruisers, outnumbering the Royal Navy in home waters. To make matters worse, the Austro-Hungarian Fleet was building 4 dreadnoughts, while the Italians had four and were building two more. Against such threats, the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee vital British interests. Britain was faced with a choice of building more battleships, withdrawing from the Mediterranean, or seeking an alliance with France. Further naval construction was unacceptably expensive at a time when social welfare provision was making calls on the budget. Withdrawing from the Mediterranean would mean a huge loss of influence, weakening British diplomacy in the Mediterranean and shaking the stability of the British Empire. The only acceptable option, and the one taken by First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, was to overturn a hundred years of splendid isolation and seek an alliance with France.The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Paul M. Kennedy, ISBN 0-333-35094-4, p. 224In spite of these important strategic consequences, the 1912 Naval Law had little bearing on the battleship force ratios. Britain responded by laying down ten new super-dreadnoughts in her 1912 and 1913 budgets—ships of the Queen Elizabeth and Revenge classes, which introduced a further step change in armament, speed and protection—while Germany laid down only five, focusing resources on the Army. U.S. Navy dreadnoughts The American South Carolina-class battleships were the first all-big-gun ships to be completed by one of Britain's rivals. The planning for the type had begun before the Dreadnought was launched, perhaps aided by secret briefing by sympathetic Royal Navy officials. Construction began in 1906, after the completion of the Dreadnought, and the type had no turbines.Smaller than Dreadnought at 16,000 tons standard displacement, they carried eight 12-inch (305 mm) guns in four twin turrets arranged in superfiring pairs fore and aft along the centerline of the keel. This arrangement gave South Carolina and her sister Michigan a broadside equal to Dreadnought's without requiring the cumbersome wing turrets of the first few British dreadnought classes. The superfiring or superimposed arrangement had not been proven until after South Carolina went to sea, and it was initially feared the weakness of the previous Virginia-class would recur. Half of the first ten U.S. dreadnoughts used the older and less efficient reciprocating engines rather than turbines, which made many U.S. battleships slower than their British counterparts, but gave them much greater range, something of great importance in the Pacific. With the defeat of the Russians, the Japanese navy became concerned about the potential for conflict with the USA. Japanese theorist Sato Tetsutaro developed the concept of a fleet at a minimum 70% of the U.S.'s. This would enable the Japanese navy to win two decisive battles, the first early in a war, against the US Pacific Fleet, and the second against the US Atlantic Fleet which would inevitably be despatched as reinforcements. Evans and Peattie, KaigunJapan's first priority was to refit the pre-dreadnoughts she had captured from Russia, and to complete Satsuma and Aki. Like the South Carolinas, the Satsumas were designed before Dreadnought, but gun shortages in Britain (which supplied them) delayed her completion and resulted in her carrying a mixed armament, so she was known as a semi-dreadnought. These were followed by a modified Aki-type: Kawachi and Settsu, which were laid down in 1909 and complete in 1912, and were armed with four 12-inch/50, eight 12-inch/45, ten 6-inch/45, and eight 4.7-inch/40. "Although nominally dreadnoughts, these ships did not have a really uniform main battery, since the guns differed in length, and therefore in performance, particularly at very long range."Page 229, Gardiner, Robert and Gray, Randal (ed) Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906 - 1921, Conway Maritime Press, London, 1982. ISBN 0-85177-245-5. This would have made fire control very difficult. Dreadnoughts in other countries , a Bretagne-class battleship.]]Compared to the other major naval powers, France was slow to start building dreadnoughts, instead finishing the planned Danton-class of pre-dreadnoughts, laying down five in 1907 and 1908. It was not until September 1910 the first of the Courbet-class was laid down, making France the eleventh nation to enter the dreadnought race. The dreadnought race saw France drop from second to fifth in terms of naval power; however, the closer alliance with Britain made these reduced forces more than adequate for French needs.Even though Cuniberti had promoted the idea of an all-big-gun battleship in Italy well before Dreadnought, it took until 1909 for Italy to lay down one of her own. The construction of Dante Alighieri was prompted by rumours of Austro-Hungarian dreadnought building. A further five Dreadnoughts of the Cavour- and Andrea Doria-class followed as Italy sought to maintain its lead over Austria-Hungary. These ships remained the core of Italian naval strength until World War II. The subsequent Caracciolo-class were cancelled on the outbreak of WWI.In January 1909, Austro-Hungarian admirals circulated a document calling for a fleet of four dreadnoughts. However, a constitutional crisis in 1909-10 meant no construction could be approved. In spite of this, two dreadnoughts were laid down by shipyards on a speculative basis, and later approved along with an additional two. The resulting ships, all Tegetthoff-class, were to be accompanied by a further four ships, but these were cancelled on the outbreak of World War I.In June 1909, the Russian Empire laid down four dreadnoughts of the Gangut-class for the Baltic Fleet and in 1911 three more Imperatritsa Mariya-class dreadnoughts for the Black Sea.Gibbons, p.205 Taking lessons from Tsushima and influenced by Cuniberti, they ended up more closely resembling Fisher's battlecruisers than Dreadnought and proved badly flawed.Fitzsimons, Bernard, editor. "Gangut", in The Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Weapons and Warfare, Volume 10, p.1086.Spain commissioned three dreadnoughts of the España-class, laying the first down in 1909. The Españas were the lightest dreadnoughts ever built. While built in Spain, the construction was reliant on British assistance.Gibbons, p.195Brazil managed the remarkable achievement of being the third country with a dreadnought under construction, laying down two in British shipyards in 1907. This sparked off a small-scale arms race in South America, as Argentina and then Chile commissioned dreadnoughts. Argentina placed orders in American yards and Chile in Britain, meaning that both of Chile's two battleships were purchased by the British on the outbreak of war. One of them was later returned to the Chilean government.Turkey ordered two dreadnoughts from British yards which were seized by the British while Greece's, ordered from Germany, was taken over by the Germans. The main armament, ordered in the United States, consequently equipped a class of British monitors. Greece in 1914 purchased two pre-dreadnoughts from the United States Navy, renaming them Kilkis and Limnos in Royal Hellenic Navy service.The seizure of the two Turkish dreadnoughts, Reshadiye and Sultan Osman I(HMS Erin and Agincourt) nearing completion in 1914 in Britain, resulted in far-reaching international repercussions. The Turks were outraged by the British move and the Germans saw an opening. Through skillful diplomacy and by handing over the battlecruiser Goeben and the cruiser Breslau, the Germans maneuvered the Ottoman Empire into the Central Powers.Greger, René: Schlachtschiffe der Welt, p. 252 in line]]Even after Dreadnought's commission, battleships continued to grow in size, guns, and technical proficiency as countries vied to have the best ships. By 1914 Dreadnought was obsolete.The arrival of super–Dreadnoughts is not as clearly identified with a single ship in the same way that the Dreadnought era was initiated by HMS Dreadnought. However, it is commonly held to start with the British Orion-class, and for the German navy with the König. What made them "super" was the unprecedented jump in displacement of 2,000–tons over the previous class, the introduction of the heavier 13.5inch (343 mm) gun, and the distribution of all the main armament on the centreline. Thus, in the four years between the laying down of Dreadnought and Orion, displacement had increased by 25%, and weight of broadside had doubled.British super-dreadnoughts were joined by other nations as well. In Japan, two Fuso-class super-dreadnoughts were laid down in 1912, followed by the Ise in 1914, with both classes carrying twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns. In 1917, the Nagato-class was ordered, the first dreadnoughts to mount guns, possibly making them the most powerful warships in the world. All were increasingly built from Japanese rather than imported components. In France, the Courbets were followed by three super-dreadnoughts of the Bretagne-class; another five Normandie were cancelled on the outbreak of World War One.The later super-dreadnoughts, principally the Queen Elizabeth-class, dispensed with the "Q" turret amidships, so weight and volume were freed up for larger, oil-fired boilers. Oil had many advantages as a fuel over coal. It had more energy density than coal, and its liquid form vastly simplified refuelling arrangements; oil required no stokers, and emitted much less smoke, aiding gun laying and making the ships less visible on the horizon. The new 15 inch gun (381 mm) gave greater firepower in spite of the loss of a turret, and there was a thicker armour belt and improved underwater protection. The class had a 25 knot (46 km/h) design speed and they were considered the first fast battleships.The design weakness of super-dreadnoughts, which distinguished them from post-World War I designs, was armor disposition. Their design placed emphasis on vertical protection, needed in short range battles. These ships were capable of engaging the enemy at 20,000 metres, but were vulnerable to the high angle ("plunging") fire at such ranges. Post-war designs typically had 5 to 6 inches (130 to 150 mm) of deck armor to defend against this. The concept of zone of immunity became a major part of the thinking behind battleship design. Lack of underwater protection was also a weakness of these pre-World War I designs which were developed only as the threat of the torpedo became real.The United States Navy's "standard"-type battleships, beginning with the Nevada-class, or "Battleship 1912", were designed with long-range engagements and plunging fire in mind; the first of these was laid down in 1912, five years before the Battle of Jutland taught the dangers of long-range fire to European navies. Important features of the standard battleships were "all or nothing" armor and "raft" construction, a philosophy under which only the parts of the ship worth giving the thickest possible protection were worth armoring at all, and enough reserve buoyancy should be contained within the resulting armored "raft" to keep afloat the entire ship in the event the unarmored bow and stern were thoroughly riddled and flooded. This design was proven in battle at the Battle of Guadalcanal, when an ill-timed turn by USS South Dakota silhouetted her to Japanese guns. Though she suffered a terrible battering and her bow and stern were riddled and thoroughly flooded, her "raft" remained untouched and she remained both afloat and fully operational at the end of action. during World War I]]The First World War was almost an anticlimax for the great Dreadnought fleets. There was no decisive clash of modern battlefleets to compare with the Battle of Tsushima. The role of battleships was marginal to the great land struggle in France and Russia; and it was equally marginal to the First Battle of the Atlantic, the battle between German submarines and British merchant shipping.By virtue of geography, the Royal Navy could keep the German High Seas Fleet bottled up in the North Sea with relative ease. Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British Dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would result in a British victory. The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on favourable terms: either inducing a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly fields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds.The First World War, John Keegan, ISBN 0-7126-6645-1, p. 289The first two years of war saw conflict in the North Sea limited to skirmishes by battlecruisers at the Battle of Heligoland Bight and Battle of Dogger Bank and raids on the English coast. In the summer of 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on favourable terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland: an indecisive engagement.Ireland, Bernard: Jane's War At Sea, pp. 88-95In the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles. In the Black Sea, Russian and Turkish battleships skirmished, but nothing more. In the Baltic, action was largely limited to convoy raiding and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre-dreadnought was lost. The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by British and French blockading fleets. And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli.The course of the war also illustrated the vulnerability of battleships to cheaper weapons. In September 1914, the U-boat threat to capital ships was demonstrated by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine U-9 in less than an hour. Sea mines proved a threat the next month, when the recently commissioned British super-Dreadnought Audacious struck a mine. By the end of October, British strategy and tactics in the North Sea had changed to reduce the risk of U-boat attack.Massie, Robert. Castles of Steel, London, 2005. pp127-145 While Jutland was the only major clash of battleship fleets in history, the German plan for the battle relied on U-boat attacks on the British fleet; and the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers closing on British battleships, causing them to turn away to avoid the threat of torpedo attack. Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing paranoia in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships. By October 1916, the Royal Navy had essentially abandoned the North Sea, instructing the Grand Fleet not to go south of the Farne Islands unless adequately protected by destroyers.For the German part, the High Seas Fleet determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were more needed for commerce raiding, the fleet stayed in port for the remainder of the war.The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Paul Kennedy, ISBN 0-333-35094-4, pp. 247-249 Other theatres equally showed the role of small craft in damaging or destroying Dreadnoughts. The two Austrian Dreadnoughts lost in 1918 were the casualties of torpedo boats and of frogmen. After World War I The great dreadnought fleets came to an end a few years after World War I. The German dreadnought fleet was scuttled in its entirety Scapa Flow by its crew in 1919. Britain, the USA and Japan planned another bout of naval expansion including bigger and more powerful battleships than ever before: 'N3', Kii, and South Dakota classes.Instead of this cripplingly expensive expansion programme, the major naval powers concluded the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922. The Treaty laid out a list of ships, including most of the older dreadnoughts and almost all the newer ships under construction, which were to be scrapped or otherwise put out of use. It furthermore declared a 'building holiday' during which no new battleships or battlecruisers were to be laid down. The ships which survived the treaty, including the most modern super-dreadnoughts of all three navies, formed the bulk of international capital ship strength through the 1920s and 1930s and, with some modernisation, into World War II.From this point on, 'dreadnought' became less widely used. The pre-dreadnought battleships, long obsolete, were almost without exception scrapped in the 1920s to comply with the Washington Treaty, so the term 'dreadnought' became less necessary. Many capital ships, both battleships and battlecruisers, were rebuilt as 'fast battleships'. While still sometimes referred to as dreadnoughts, these ships were the battleships which came to be used in World War II. All text is available under the terms of the 0 Dread Nought Biography
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- For other places called Lodi, see Lodi. Lodi is a town in Lombardy, Italy, on the right shore of the river Adda. It is the capital of the province of Lodi. The commune has an area of 41,42 sq. km; population (2001) 40,805. Its name is pronounced by Italians as LAW-dee. It was a Celtic village that in Roman times was called in Latin Laus Pompeia (probably in honor of the consul Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo) and was known also because its position allowed many Gauls of Gallia Cisalpina to obtain Roman citizenship. It was in an important position at the crossing of vital Roman roads. In became a Catholic diocese and its first bishop, Saint Bassiano , (319-409), is the patron saint of the town (celebrated on January 19). A free Comune (municipality) around 1000, it fiercely resisted the Milanese, who destroyed it in April 24 1158. Frederick Barbarossa re-built it on its current location. Starting from 1220, the Lodigiani (inhabitants of Lodi) spent some decades in realizing an important work of hydraulic engineering: a system of miles and miles of artificial rivers and channels (called Consorzio di Muzza) was created in order to give water to the countryside, turning some arid areas into one of the (still now) most important agricultural areas of the region. Lodi was ruled by the Visconti family, who built a castle. In 1423, the antipope Antipope John XXIII, from Lodi's Duomo, launched his bolla by which he convened the Council of Constance (end of the Great Schism). In 1454 representatives from all the regional states of Italy met in Lodi to sign the treaty known as the peace of Lodi, by which they intended to work in the direction of Italian unification, but this peace lasted only 40 years. The town was then ruled by the Sforza family, France, Spain, Austria. In 1786 it became the eponymous capital of a province that included Crema. On May 10, 1796: Battle of Lodi: the young Corsican general Napoleon Bonaparte won on the river Adda his first important battle, defeating the Austrians and later entering Milan. This is why in many towns there are streets dedicated to the famous bridge (for instance in Paris 6th arrondissement, Rue du Pont de Lodi). In 1945, the Italian petrol company Agip, directed by Enrico Mattei, started extracting methane from its fields, and Lodi was the first Italian town with a regular domestic gas service.
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577
They are both nest-building social insects, but paper wasps and honey bees organize their colonies in very different ways. In a new study, researchers report that despite their differences, these insects rely on the same network of genes to guide their social behavior. The study appears in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Honey bees and paper wasps are separated by more than 100 million years of evolution, and there are striking differences in how they divvy up the work of maintaining a colony, said University of Illinois entomology professor Gene Robinson, who led the study with postdoctoral researcher Amy Toth. "Honey bees have a sharp division of labor between queens, which reproduce, and workers, which care for the brood and forage for food, while among paper wasps social roles are much more fluid," he said. "And yet the same genes can be used by these different organisms to do similar kinds of things. This is the genetic toolkit idea: The same genetic elements are used for different types of division of labor." A genetic toolkit already has been found for physical traits, such as the development of eyes, said Robinson, who is also a professor in the Institute for Genomic Biology. For example, the same gene, called PAX-6, is involved in eye development in mammals and insects, even though it is virtually certain that these structures did not evolve from a similar structure in a common ancestor. For the new study, the researchers compared the activation of genes in the brains of four groups of female paper wasps (Polistes metricus) that have different roles in the nest, with some more active in reproduction and others more active in provisioning the brood. The purpose of the study was to determine if differences in brain gene activity between the wasps rely on the same networks of genes that in the honey bee (Apis mellifera) drive their division of labor. A previous study of paper wasps by Robinson, Toth and their colleagues obtained a partial sequence of the wasp genome and looked at the expression of 32 genes. That analysis, published in Science in 2007, showed that – as in honey bees – most of the targeted genes are activated differently in different groups of paper wasps. But those genes were hand-picked because they were important to honey bees, Robinson said. For this reason, the team wanted to take a second look at the broad array of genes in the wasp – to be sure that the pattern they had identified was indeed special to wasps as well as bees. Crop sciences professor Matt Hudson, the team's bioinformatics expert, used a computer algorithm to mine the sequencing data from the previous study to design a microarray. The microarray allowed the researchers to simultaneously measure those genes that were most active in the paper wasp brain. "We expect that Polistes has got somewhere in the range of 10,000 genes, and we expect that at least half of them, but not all of them, would be expressed in the brain," said Hudson, who also is a professor in the Institute for Genomic Biology. The effort identified more than 4,900 genes that were active in the wasp brain. The new analysis confirmed that the same genes and gene regulators that are important to the division of labor within a honey bee hive also are used by the wasps as they take on different roles in the nest.
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699
Observations on zugunruhe in spring migrating Eared Grebes. |Abstract:||About 200 North American Eared Grebes (Podiceps nigricollis californicus) at Tule Lake Refuge in northern California were observed engaging in successive waves of mass pattering and pattering flights on 25 May 2011. Most grebes present in a part of a canal were involved in this activity. Counts of grebes on the morning of 26 May suggest an important portion of the Eared Grebes seen in pattering could have left the area over night. The behavior was characterized as zugunruhe. Directed mass pattering of Eared Grebes may contribute to synchronization of the onward migration of the birds involved.| Migratory birds (Research) Animal flight (Research) |Publication:||Name: The Wilson Journal of Ornithology Publisher: Wilson Ornithological Society Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal Subject: Biological sciences Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2012 Wilson Ornithological Society ISSN: 1559-4491| |Issue:||Date: March, 2012 Source Volume: 124 Source Issue: 1| |Topic:||Event Code: 310 Science & research| |Geographic:||Geographic Scope: United States Geographic Code: 1USA United States| North American Eared Grebes (Podiceps nigricollis californicus) are seldom seen in flight, except when they migrate (Bent 1919, Gaunt et al. 1990). The migration of the species has been well studied (Storer and Jehl 1985, Gaunt et al. 1990, Jehl 1997, Cullen et al. 1999, Jehl and McKernan 2002, Jehl and Henry 2010). Cullen et al. (1999) indicate migration flights begin around dusk and end before dawn. Jehl and Henry (2010) note strict correspondence of departure with near-total darkness. Grebes tend to gather as the time for departure nears (Jehl and McKernan 2002). Predeparture activities include group diving, and submerging and surfacing in near unison. A unique call is given as grebes prepare to depart and immediately before actual take-off (Jehl and Henry 2010). Daytime flights are possibly observed only when grebes rebuild their flight muscles prior to migration when they may perform one or two short practice flights (Jehl and Henry 2010) or race across the surface in short practice flights, often in small groups (Jehl and McKernan 2002). I was surprised to observe a mix of pattering and flight by larger groups of Eared Grebes in Northern California during daylight conditions. I describe these common pattering flight maneuvers and discuss their possible meaning. A study of courtship of Eared Grebes was undertaken at Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon, and Lower Klamath Refuge and Tule Lake Refuge, both in northern California, from 14 to 27 May 2011. This region is known to support thousands of Eared Grebes each year for nesting, water levels permitting. The California refuges hosted 7,397 and 3,700 nests, respectively, in 2003 and 2004 (Shuford et al. 2006). Fieldwork was from 0700 to 1700 hrs each day using a car as a blind. The car was parked at suitable places along roads near bodies of water and remained immobile for up to 3 hrs. The behavior and displays of grebes were documented either by photograph, video film or immediate voice recording. All observations of pattering flights are from Tule Lake Refuge, part of the Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuges, an artificial water impoundment of mostly open water covering ~5,200 ha at an altitude of 1,200 m and surrounded by croplands. The observations were in an area called the English Channel (41[degrees] 51' 202 N, 121[degrees] 29' 727 W) in the central part of the wildlife tour into the refuge. This is an L-shaped canal, <50 m in width. It opens at its northern end into large sump lA, an open and shallow area of the lake. It takes a left turn after ~1.6 km in a straight line from north to south (NS canal or NS part of the English Channel) and continues east for another 0.5 km (EW canal or EW part of the English Channel) until ending at a dam-levee that separates it from the adjacent larger sump 1B (Fig. 1). The entire canal is devoid of emerging vegetation. I differentiate between pattering (a grebe with flapping wings runs with paddling feet or even partially glides over the water surface, but remains in constant contact with the water), pattering flight (after an initial pattering, a grebe is airborne for a distance limited to a few meters during which it does not touch the water surface), and real flight (the distance covered while airborne exceeds 10 m). It is well established that Eared Grebes use pattering in the retreat display and during escape/pursuit or more generally during aggression (McAllister 1958, Cullen et al. 1999); these occurrences are not included. My objectives in this paper are to provide a full description of pattering and pattering flights by larger numbers of grebes, and to discuss possible reasons for their occurrences. Observations in the southern English Channel on 25 May started at 0900 hrs. Over 200 Eared Grebes were scattered partially in loose groups all over the EW part of the English Channel around midday when about three quarters of them engaged in pattering. The grebes did so in consecutive waves, all into a western direction towards the connection to the NS canal. The sudden take-off by one or two grebes seemed to cause others in their immediate vicinity and on their way to move in the same direction. Groups of 10-30 birds pattered over a short distance (20-30 m), some briefly loosing contact with the water surface in a pattering flight. Grebes getting briefly airborne possibly did so to avoid collision with conspecifics that remained stationary on the water surface. Grebes landed ahead of others that started similar maneuvers in their wake, perhaps carrying along some of those that had just stopped pattering. A few additional waves of pattering were launched. Some birds dived after landing; others elevated their necks, remained alert, and looked around without changing their westward orientation. Most of the population, including subgroups closer to the NS canal which were not observed to patter, was swimming in the direction of the NS canal. The eastern and central parts of the EW canal were rather empty of Eared Grebes after some 2-3 rain, leaving only a few Westem (Aechmophorus occidentalis) and Clark's grebes (A. clarkii) and a few ducks remaining. Fewer than 100 Eared Grebes were still swimming in the western part of the EW canal towards the connection with the NS canal when they encountered about 40 birds swimming in a group to reenter the EW canal. A rough count less than 10 min later indicated that >200 Eared Grebes had again spread over this canal. Pattering and pattering flights started anew only ~20 min after the start of the first general movement by the Eared Grebes. Take-off by one or two Eared Grebes incited others in their surroundings to join as before. The birds moved westward in several waves and continued swimming into the same direction after landing. More grebes left the EW canal where only about 30 remained, all towards its western end. A first group of swimming grebes returned ~1 min later. It was followed by other loose groups. I counted 130 grebes 5 rain later and soon >240 birds were again present inside the EW canal. A longer period without group pattering, but with continuous calling, occasional displays and much surface feeding on phantom midges (Chaoborus crystillinus) followed until ~1400 hrs. Individual grebes performed feeding dives, but no group diving, or submerging and surfacing in near unison was observed. The general pattering in waves and westward swimming towards the connection with the NS canal started again and most Eared Grebes finally left the EW canal. The first grebes had turned and swam to return to the EW canal when a sudden simultaneous eastward pattering of >50 re-entering grebes occurred. Two or three more waves by other groups followed immediately. Five minutes later, 232 grebes were counted inside the EW canal. Only the continuous and contiguous calls of the birds were heard for ~20 min. Ten birds then initiated a fourth round of pattering in waves. This time, the grebes had no common general direction. The grebes more in the central part of the observed area moved towards the dam, those already closer to the eastern end pattered into a more southwestward to westward direction. The population present divided into two groups. About 100 grebes were clustered near the dam and another 100 were scattered over the upper western third of the EW canal. The space in between both groups remained mostly empty. The western group started immediately to swim eastward while the eastern group slowly dispersed. The groups soon melted and spread over the empty space that had separated them. Perhaps five additional pattering flights of up to 4-5 grebes were observed in between the different mass pattering and pattering flights. It was not known whether these were premature attempts to initiate a wave or whether they were unrelated to the mass movements. The observations ended at ~1700 hrs and 257 grebes were counted in the EW canal (26 in the connecting corner square to the NS canal), 65 were present in the lower half of the NS canal and 347 in the upper half. Only five additional Eared Grebes were detected at the mouth to sump 1A. Other parts of the sump close to the English Channel were empty of Eared Grebes. A count of the birds at 0700 hrs on the following day totaled exactly 400 individuals, 269 less than the previous count. Only 77 grebes were observed inside the EW canal (28 in the connecting corner square) while the NS canal had 323 grebes. Three hours later, 126 Eared Grebes were recorded in the EW canal and 337 in the NS canal. The two counts on 26 May revealed quite differing numbers of grebes. The EW canal held 131 to 180 grebes less and the entire English Channel held 206 to 269 grebes less than on the afternoon of 25 May. Eared Grebes had arrived at Tule Lake Refuge in the course of the previous 2-3 weeks. I assume that shortly after arrival, their wing muscles were still in good flight condition on 25 May and intense practicing could not have explained the mass pattering. Most birds were actively courting, but the group pattering did not appear to be related to pair bonding. There is also no reason to believe the grebes tried to divert an aerial predator with common flight activity as several instances of Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) appearing in flight over the grebes or even trying a catch in the canal did not trigger much reaction. Birds pattering to escape a pursuing conspecific or to flee possible danger incited alarm at the most to a handful of other Eared Grebes in their immediate vicinity. The generalized pattering by larger groups of Eared Grebes observed appeared unrelated to courtship, aggression, fear or predator presence. A similar or comparable behavior by Black-necked Grebes (P. n. nigricollis) in Europe has not been reported. There is comparable agitation in Silvery Grebes (P. occipitalis) during migration towards breeding areas. Fjeldsa (1982) noted that Silvery Grebes show high restlessness and form long lines that move back and forth on a lake from where, in the subsequent night, at least part of the population departed. He termed this pre-migratory restlessness. Movements of a group of 70 Silvery Grebes at Laguna Las Encadenadas, Argentina, in December 2006, were not limited to swimming, but included sudden quasi-simultaneous take-offs of individuals more at the rear end of the line. Some flew up, reaching a height of ~2 m, possibly to avoid collision with the birds preceding them. They landed again in front of the group that was moving in one direction. The grebes at the rear end acted similarly. The group changed direction as it approached the shore, but continued swimming in a line, and pattering and flying from the back to the front (Konter 2009). Eared Grebes at Tule Lake Refuge all swam actively into the same direction, although they did not form one line. They showed pattering and pattering flights in waves and repeated the directed group movements. A priori the comparison of total counts of grebes inside the English Channel on the following day strongly suggests at least a major portion of the population had left the area. Zugunruhe seems an appropriate characterization for the Eared Grebes' behavior. Additional pre-departure activities at Tule Lake Refuge including group diving, submerging and surfacing in near unison as reported by Jehl and Henry (2010) were not obvious. The grebes' diving and swimming seemed to be predominantly related to feeding, except the dives after mass pattering involved only a minority of a group. Active vocalization may have helped group cohesion, but it could not be distinguished from advertising by solitary birds or from contact calling by partners momentarily separated. It is not known to where the departing grebes flew and whether they targeted breeding areas in the region or flew a long distance. Eared Grebes can move to other sites used for breeding, even after arrival in a breeding area, or emigrate from the region (Cullen 1998). It is also unknown whether the grebes departed in flocks from the English Channel and whether they headed in one or different directions. I assume they were migrants and the extent of their pattering flight maneuvers suggests an eagerness to move on. The counts of 25 and 26 May show that not all Eared Grebes had left the English Channel over night. Grebes present in the NS part were not observed on 25 May and they may not have engaged in group pattering. The first count on 26 May showed that low numbers of grebes were present inside the EW canal and the higher later count suggests that new grebes were continuously settling there. Over 200 Eared Grebes left the English Channel during the night and this number corresponds as an order of magnitude to the numbers involved in the group pattering. Thus, most pattering grebes could have left over night and it is likely their zugunruhe contributed to a simultaneous departure. They were gradually replaced by conspecifics moving into the EW canal on the following day. Eared Grebes often do not arrive within a short lapse of time inside a breeding region where numbers generally build up over several weeks. They synchronize, however, nest establishment (McAllister 1956, Boe 1994). In this context, it is of interest to further investigate how a conspicuous pre-migratory group pattering as observed at Tule Lake Refuge may contribute to a coordinated onward flight inside a breeding region that would facilitate simultaneous colony establishment by large numbers of pairs. Unfortunately, the data from Tule Lake Refuge do not permit any conclusion to be drawn. I am grateful to Michele Nuss from the Tule Lake Refuge Headquarters who was of great help in the preparation of my fieldwork. I thank J. R. Jehl Jr and C. E. Braun for critical review and constructive comments on the first draft. Received 13 July 2011. Accepted 19 September 2011. BENT, A. C. 1919. Life histories of North American diving birds, Order Pygopodes. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 107:1-47. BOE, J. S. 1994. Nest site selection by Eared Grebes in Minnesota. Condor 96:19-35. CULLEN, S. A. 1998. Population biology of Eared Grebes in naturally fragmented habitat. Thesis. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. CULLEN, S. A., J. R. JEHL, AND G. L. NUECHTERLEIN. 1999. Eared Grebe. The birds of North America. Number 433. FJELDSA, J. 1982. Some behaviour patterns of four closely related grebes, Podiceps nigricollis, P. gallardoi, P. occipitalis, and P. taczanowskii, with reflections on phylogeny and adaptive aspects of the evolution of displays. Dansk Ornithologisk Forenings Tidsskrift 76:37-68. GAUNT, A. S., R. S. HIKIDA, J. R. JEHL JR., AND L. FENBERT. 1990. Rapid atrophy and hypertrophy of an avian flight muscle. Auk 107:649-659. JEHL JR., J. R. 1997. Cyclical changes in body composition in the annual cycle and migration of the Eared Grebe Podiceps nigricollis. Journal of Avian Biology 28:132-142. JEHL JR., J. R. AND A. E. HENRY. 2010. The postbreeding migration of Eared Grebes. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 122:217-227. JEHL JR., J. R. AND R. L. MCKERNAN. 2002. Biology and migration of Eared Grebes at Salton Sea. Hydrobiologia 473:245-253. KONTER, A. 2009. Observations on diving times, on pre-migratory restlessness and on some displays of Silvery Grebes Podiceps occipitalis. Regulus Wissenschaftliche Berichte 24:67-71. MCALLISTER, N. 1958. Courtship, hostile behavior, nest-establishment and egg laying in the Eared Grebe (Podiceps caspicus). Auk 75:290-311. SHUFORD, W. D., D. L. THOMSON, D. M. MAUSER, AND J. BECKSTRAND. 2006. Abundance and distribution of nongame waterbirds in the Klamath Basin of Oregon and California from comprehensive surveys in 2003 and 2004. PRBO Conservation Science, Petaluma, California, USA. STORER, R. W. AND J. R. JEHL JR. 1985. Moult patterns and moult migration in the Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis. Ornis Scandinavica 16:253-260. Andre Konter (1) (1) Museum of Natural History, 25, rue Munster, Luxembourg L-2150, Luxembourg; e-mail: [email protected] |Gale Copyright:||Copyright 2012 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.|
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Before 1680 the ancient towns and villages now absorbed in Greater London were rarely considered important enough to be mapped in their own right. From the 1680s, as the villages became socially and economically integrated into the London region, this changed. They were shown like stars surrounding the central sun of London, which had previously been depicted only with the villages of Middlesex, north of the Thames. Road surfaces improved considerably from the late 18th century. Coaches began to run regularly between the centre of town and the outlying villages and it became possible for businessmen to live permanently in their country villas with their families and commute on a daily basis. Nevertheless, despite their increasing integration with London, most villages were still surrounded by fields in 1850. Click the pins on the Google Map above or follow the links below to view some of the key maps from this period in our Online Gallery. Survey of the Parish of Islington, 1735 Plan of a proposed Turnpike road from Marylebone to Finchley, 1824 Plan of the Fitz Roy Farm and Highgate Estate, 1840 View of the Highgate Archway Road, 1813 View from Hampstead looking towards London, 1800 of sight: the East End
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Drone Hijacking? That’s Just the Start of GPS TroublesJuly 8, 2012 On the evening of June 19, a group of researchers from the University of Texas successfully hijacked a civilian drone at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico during a test organized by the Department of Homeland Security. The drone, an Adaptive Flight Hornet Mini, was hovering at around 60 feet, locked into a predetermined position guided by GPS. Then, with a device that cost around $1,000 and the help of sophisticated software that took four years to develop, the researchers sent a radio signal from a hilltop one kilometer away. In security lingo, they carried out a spoofing attack. “We fooled the UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) into thinking that it was rising straight up,” says Todd Humphreys, assistant professor at the Radionavigation Laboratory at the University of Texas. Deceiving the drone’s GPS receiver, they changed its perceived coordinates. To compensate, the small copter dove straight down, thinking it was returning to its programmed position. If not for a safety pilot intervening before the drone hit the ground, it would have crashed. But for Humphreys playing the part of an evil genius in a thriller movie, everything worked exactly to plan. “It was beautiful,” he tells Danger Room.
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Sport Education: International Perspectives presents a series of studies of the innovative pedagogical model that has taken the physical education world by storm. Since the emergence of the Sport Education model in the mid-1990s it has been adopted and adapted in physical education programs around the world and a new research literature has followed in its wake. This book offers a review of international Sport Education schemes and projects, and documents what it takes to run a successful Sport Education program. Exploring Sport Education across all levels of education, from the elementary school to the university, the book provides answers to key question such as: With contributions from leading international scholars and practitioners from the US, Europe and Asia, this book offers a more thoughtful and critical set of perspectives on Sport Education than any other. It is essential reading for any student, pre-service teacher, classroom teacher or university instructor working in SE, PE, youth sport, sports coaching or related disciplines About The Author: Peter Hastie is a professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Auburn University, USA. His research interests focus on examining various aspects of Sport Education in the attempt to find ways in which the model can be most effective in school and sports settings. Table Of Contents: 1 The nature and purpose of Sport Education as an educational experience - Peter Hastie Part 1 Contexts of adoption of Sport Education 2 Sustainable Sport Education in primary education: An English case study - Toni O’donovan, Ann Mcphail and David Kirk 3 Sport Education in Korean schools - Jinhee Kim 4 The emergence of Sport Education in Scottish primary schools - Mike Jess, Nicola Carse, Paul Mcmillan and Matt Atencio 5 Applying the Sport Education model in university basic instruction courses - Wesley Meeteer, Lynn Housner, Sean Bulger, Andrew Hawkins and Robert Wiegand Part 2 Students and teachers responses to Sport Education 6 Sport Education in the elementary school: A report from Cyprus - Niki Tsangaridou 7 Sport Education through the eyes of a teacher researcher and his students - Ashley Casey 8 A Spanish teacher’s experience with Sport Education: A narrative account - Diego Martínez De Ojeda, Antonio Calderón Luquin and Peter Hastie 9 Pursuing social and emotional learning outcomes through Sport Education: An Australian case study - Swee Chong Ang, Dawn Penney and Karen Swabey 10 Explaining the attraction: Understanding the motivational responses of students to Sport Education - Tristan Wallhead Part 3 Professional development for Sport Education 11 Preparing preservice physical education teachers to teach Sport Education - Matthew Curtner-Smith 12 Learning Sport Education through reflective inquiry: Four case studies - Gary Kinchin 13 Professional learning of primary generalist teachers in Ireland: Modelling Sport Education - Ann Macphail and Deborah Tannehill 14 Within school, in-depth professional development for Sport Education: A Russian model - Oleg Sinelnikov |Book:||Sport Education: International Perspectives| |Publisher:||Taylor & Francis, Inc.| |Number of Pages:||248| Please Note - * We sell only NEW book and do NOT sell old or used books. * The book images and summary displayed may be of a different edition or binding of the same title. * Book reviews are not added by BookAdda. * Price can change due to reprinting, price change by publisher / distributor. BookAdda (www.bookadda.com) is a premier online book store in selling books online across India at the most competitive prices. BookAdda sells fiction, business, non fiction, literature, AIEEE, medical, engineering, computer book, etc. The books are delivered across India FREE of cost.
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764
No zeros occur in this puzzle. A: N across + E across. E: a cubic number. F: the reverse of F across is a prime number. H: I across + K down. I: subtract D down from I across, and the result is a square number. J: a prime number. L: all digits of L across are the same. N: subtract L across from A across and read the result backwards, and you get N across. A: D down multiplied with E across. B: a square number. C: another square number. D: a prime number. G: D down multiplied with the reverse of I across. K: I across - D down. L: a palindrome. M: a prime number.
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173
How machine learning can help to understand brain signals If a neurotechnological prosthesis should act upon commands from the brain, these have to be interpreted correctly. It is a challenging task because the amount of data is huge and the signals that the brain emits also change over time. Computer scientists therefore want to leave it to learning machines to solve this ever-changing puzzle. |Gunnar Grah talked to Martin Riedmiller, Machine Learning Lab| The usual way to make a computer do something goes like this: You decide what problem the machine is supposed to solve for you, then you write a programme that does exactly this. Modern washing machines work that way. They have been told exactly what to do at what moment. This approach works very well for clearly defined problems, like getting dirt out of laundry. But there are many problems where solutions are not obvious, and the point of departure might always be a little bit different and require different solutions. In this case, computer scientists opt for letting the computer figure out the optimal solution for itself, an approach that is called “machine learning”. The human as trainer, not programmer Machine learning resembles somewhat how humans acquire new skills, i.e. through examples, the structuring of a problem, and gaining experience. If, for instance, a computer is supposed to learn the different appearances of a broad-leaved tree and a conifer, a human “trainer” would provide the learning machine with examples of both classes, telling it in each case which class the tree on the picture belongs to. After some time, the computer will be able to correctly classify the presented trees, even though no human ever provided it with an actual list of things to look out for in order to master the task. If a problem requires not only a classification, but learning a complex procedure, like a robot walking on two legs without falling over, a trainer will at first be required to tell the machine whether an approach was “good” or “bad”. After sufficient training, the machine will master the problem and show some robustness in its solution, even if the situation varies slightly. Also, a trained machine will be able to solve a new situation – e.g. the robot carrying something and therefore changing its weight distribution – faster than if it was starting from scratch. Learning from the brain The secret of machine learning lies in the nature of the software that is at work at its base. A solution to a problem does not exist as specific lines of code that govern how the input from the environment is dealt with in order to reach a desired outcome. Instead, it employs an “artificial neural network”. This is a kind of programme that took its inspiration from the structure of the brain, where many individual items (the nerve cells) solve relatively simple problems (like adding or multiplying values), but are able to tackle much more complex tasks by being connected and existing in large numbers. An artificial neural network takes this concept into the realm of bits and bytes, but plays by the same rules. Learning, just as in the real brain, manifests itself in the change of connections between individual neurons. These connectivity patterns between a multitude of mathematically represented nerve cells are where the solution to a given problem is stored. In consequence, there exists no neat equation that provides the solution, even though the final answer that the machine provides to a given problem is simple. The biological brain has acted as an inspiration, but computer scientists take this metaphor only as far as it is useful to them. To date, making the individual artificial neuron more and more complex, and thus ever more life-like, has not provided any real advantages, and software engineers therefore tend to go for what works best, not necessarily what comes closest to a real nerve cell. In terms of the general architecture however, natural evolution has led to time-tested concepts that are being exploited. Machine learning programmes that analyse images, for instance, draw upon the structure of the visual cortex and the way how it breaks down the task into extracting individual features from a scene. Using artificial networks to understand real ones Within BrainLinks-BrainTools, the task is a formidable one: Machine learning is destined to help analysing signals recorded from brain activity. There is no intrinsic connection though that makes this link between a real and an artificial neural network something special: Neither is machine learning the only approach to make sense of the activity of billions of nerve cells, nor is it less suitable to analyse completely different sets of data, like stock market developments. Ultimately, machine learning should make it possible to read out movement commands from the brain’s surface. These could then be sent to a prosthesis or an assistive device like a robot – the use-case which the strategy “LiNC” within the cluster aims for. So far, it is an open question what kind of commands could actually be discriminated within the patterns of signals that electrodes can read out from the brain’s surface. Could machine learning reliably identify the difference between different grasp movements, for instance as they are necessary to grab either a pen or a bottle? Will the computer look for individual movements, or will it be able to extract whole intentions like “I want to put the bottle back into the fridge”? Such higher concepts would be an elegant way to steer a prosthetic arm. The user would not have to think all commands in the right order and with the right extent, but could leave it to the autonomously planning prosthesis to figure out the best way after sending a general command. However, there is a pitfall: In abstract concepts, it might become even more difficult to know what the activity pattern actually stands for. We might find an activity pattern that appears every time that the person thinks “fridge”, but it might actually stand for an association that the person makes, like “cold”. Between the infinite number of possible thoughts and possible connections, this will be an ambitious challenge for data analysis by machine learning. Furthermore, it remains to be seen how many activity patterns are identical between individuals. Ideally, a patient should not have to go through lengthy training sessions to teach the system all manners of different movements from scratch, but the device should arrive with some pre-installed knowledge of the most basic patterns. Even then, there would be enough that the system would have to learn in order to adapt to the individual patient. After all, no two brains – not even those of twins – are identical. And it is very likely that the same holds true for the brain’s activity patterns. But computer scientists are optimistic that these training sessions would not take too long – rather minutes or hours than days and weeks. But machine learning is not only a useful tool on the user’s end. Likewise, artificial neural networks could come in handy to help a robotic arm or other assistive device to execute movements and find the ideal action to reach a certain goal. What makes machine learning an attractive candidate for this task it that its artificial neural network learned the solution to a problem and wasn’t spoon-fed a singular answer. Therefore, the system is able to dynamically handle changes in the task or the environment in which it has to be executed.
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Brazil's National Department of Mineral Production (DNPM) is coordinating an analysis of the largest Brazilian sylvite beds found in the state of Amazonas, with the objective of establishing partnerships for exploration. Sylvite is a mineral from which potassium chloride (KCl) is extracted to be used as a fertilizer. Currently, Brazil imports 85% of the total potassium chloride consumed in the country. The remaining 15% come from the Taquari-Vassouras mine, located in the state of Sergipe, in the Northeast of the Brazil. Amazon sylvite beds were found in the 1980s, by Petrobrás. Estimated reserves are to the order of 1 billion tons, more than twice the 450 million-ton beds found initially in Sergipe, where sylvite is explored by the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce. Current annual production of potassium chloride is 600 thousand tons, which supplies part of the Center-South of the country. One of Brazil's government priorities is to invest in mineral research and exploration, says minister of Mines and Energy, Dilma Rousseff. According to the minister, if Brazil is to have development in mining, the government has to have an updated and modern mining department. Brazil was told last year that Canadian mining interests could invest as much as US$ 2 billion in gold, nickel, copper and diamond operations in Brazil. Last year the DNPM inaugurated a data bank network connecting its 25 districts nationwide at a cost of US$ 25 million. Translation: Andréa Alves
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By Raji Edayathumangalam, PhD The answer to that question depends on whether your daily vitamin D intake is adequate or whether you have any risk factors for vitamin D deficiency and adverse effects on bone health. Factors that place individuals in the high-risk category include obesity, very dark skin, not spending adequate time in the sun daily, habitually wearing sunscreen (which reduces skin’s capacity to make vitamin D), always wearing protective clothing, osteoporosis, taking anti-seizure medications that accelerate vitamin D clearance from the body, inflammatory bowel disorder with distal small bowel removed (where much of the vitamin D is absorbed), and other vitamin D malabsorption disorders. If one or more of these risk factors applies to you, then the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and expert researchers collectively recommend that your healthcare provider measure your blood vitamin D levels to determine what your daily vitamin D intake should be. Further, they recommend that your clinician re-measure levels every couple of months and adjust your daily supplement accordingly to make sure that your blood vitamin D reaches optimum levels. The Vitamin D Debate Last year, the IOM announced an increased daily recommendation of 600 international units (IU) for children and adults less than 70 years, 800 IU for adults over age 70, and an increased daily, safe upper limit from 2,000 IU to 4,000 IU. At a recent lecture and panel discussion at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, vitamin D researchers disputed the IOM’s conclusion that most of the US population has adequate vitamin D levels. The featured speaker was Bess Dawson-Hughes, MD, Senior Scientist and Director of Bone Metabolism Laboratory at Tufts University, who was joined by a panel of BWH vitamin D experts including Scott T. Weiss, MD, Joann Manson, MD, and Meryl S. LeBoff, MD, who moderated the discussion. Based on her scientific evidence, Dr. Dawson-Hughes recommended that individuals at average risk for vitamin D deficiency should take 800-1000 IU of vitamin D daily and need not be clinically tested. She also pointed out that a significant proportion of the US population satisfies one or more of the above-mentioned high-risk criteria (like obesity) and cautioned that the IOM’s public recommendations are therefore still too dangerously low for the high-risk individuals. Despite the ongoing debate between the IOM and the scientific community on what daily vitamin D intake levels should be and precisely what proportion of the US population is at high risk for vitamin D deficiency, all parties agree on the importance of vitamin D and calcium in maintaining bone health. As to the role of vitamin D deficiency in cardiovascular disease, certain cancers and other non-skeletal diseases, the evidence is preliminary and controversial, and more research and clinical trials need to be done to provide definitive recommendations.
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Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. ...each day of the church year); and the psaltikon and asmatikon (solo and choral parts, respectively, for kontakion and some other solo choral chants). In the Akolouthiai, or Anthologion, were ordinary chants for Vespers, Matins, funerals, and the three liturgies (of St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil, and the Preconsecrated Offerings), as well as optional chants, some of... use in Eastern church The Eastern church has never adopted one book to be used by the celebrant of the liturgy. The Anthologion, an Eastern book similar to the Western missal, was used by some beginning in the 13th century, and an edition was published in Athens as late as 1882. Small hand missals are commonly used by the worshipers in the Eastern church. What made you want to look up "Anthologion"? Please share what surprised you most...
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Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. features of Mars ...in a drawing of Mars of that date by Christiaan Huygens. It is an extensive regional slope elongated north to south that drops 4 km (2.5 miles) from its western boundary (Aeria) to its eastern edge ( Isidis). Assiduously observed for more than a century because of its seasonal and long-term variability, especially near its eastern boundary, Syrtis Major was first considered a shallow sea. Later... What made you want to look up "Isidis"? Please share what surprised you most...
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KingaroyArticle Free Pass Kingaroy, town, southeastern Queensland, Australia, in the South Burnett area. It originated in 1886 as Kingaroy Paddock, deriving its name from the Aboriginal term kingerroy, meaning “red ant,” and was proclaimed a shire in 1912. The area’s rich, red soils yield an important peanut (groundnut) crop, and the state peanut-marketing board is in Kingaroy. Other local products are grains, soybeans, dairy foods, and beef cattle. Agricultural machinery is made in Kingaroy, which is linked to Brisbane (100 miles [160 km] southeast) by rail and air and by the Bunya Highway. The nearby Bunya Mountains, which rise to 3,727 feet (1,136 metres) at Mount Kiangarow, were important to the Aborigines as a source of bunya pine nuts and have now been included within Bunya Mountains National Park. Pop. (2006) local government area, 12,222. What made you want to look up "Kingaroy"? Please share what surprised you most...
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Thomas ArcherArticle Free Pass Thomas Archer, (born c. 1668—died May 23, 1743, Whitehall, London, Eng.), British architect and practitioner of what was, for England, an extraordinarily extravagant Baroque style, marked by lavish curves, large scale, and bold detail. Archer, the son of a Warwickshire squire, was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and then spent four years abroad. After receiving several lucrative royal appointments, he bought the manor of Hale, Hampshire, in 1715 and rebuilt the house and church. Archer’s dynamic work borrowed much from the 17th-century Italian architects Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini. Although he was not as original as some of the prominent English architects of his time, he was considered important. Most of his designs were executed from 1705 to 1715, including the north front of Chatsworth House (c. 1705) in Derbyshire, Heythrop House (1707–10) in Oxfordshire, a garden pavilion at Wrest Park (1709–11) in Bedfordshire, Roehampton House (c. 1712) in Surrey (now in Wandsworth, London), and the churches of St. Philip (c. 1710–15) in Birmingham, St. Paul (1712–30) in Deptford, and St. John (1713–28) in Westminster. The last two resulted from his appointment in 1711 as a commissioner for the building of 50 new churches. What made you want to look up "Thomas Archer"? Please share what surprised you most...
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Gotthold Ephraim LessingArticle Free Pass Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, (born Jan. 22, 1729, Kamenz, Upper Lusatia, Saxony [Germany]—died Feb. 15, 1781, Braunschweig, Brunswick [Germany]), German dramatist, critic, and writer on philosophy and aesthetics. He helped free German drama from the influence of classical and French models and wrote plays of lasting importance. His critical essays greatly stimulated German letters and combated conservative dogmatism and cant while affirming religious and intellectual tolerance and the unbiased search for truth. Education and first dramatic works. Lessing’s father, a highly respected theologian, was hard put to support his large family even though he occupied the position of pastor primarius (chief pastor). At the age of 12, Lessing, even then an avid reader, entered the famous Fürstenschule (“elector’s school”) of St. Afra, in Meissen. A gifted and eager student, Lessing acquired a good knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, while his admiration for the plays of the Latin dramatists Plautus and Terence fired him with the ambition to write comedies himself. In the autumn of 1746 Lessing entered the University of Leipzig as a student of theology. His real interests, however, lay toward literature, philosophy, and art. Lessing became fascinated by the theatre in Leipzig, which had recently been revitalized by the work of a talented and energetic actress, Caroline Neuber. Neuber took an interest in the young poet and in 1748 successfully produced his comedy Der junge Gelehrte (“The Young Scholar”). The play is a delightful satire on an arrogant, superficial, vain, and easily offended scholar, a figure through which Lessing mocked his own bookishness. The other comedies belonging to this Leipzig period of 1747–49 (Damon, Die alte Jungfer [“The Old Maid”], Der Misogyn [“The Misogynist”], Die Juden [“The Jews”], Der Freigeist [“The Free Thinker”]) are witty commentaries on human weaknesses—bigotry, prejudice, nagging, fortune hunting, matchmaking, intrigue, hypocrisy, corruption, and frivolity. Set against this background are virtuous men and women who are considerate and selfless, sensitive and helpful, forthright, and faithful in love. In Die Juden Lessing praised unappreciated nobility of mind and thus struck a blow against bigotry toward the Jews at a time when they were still confined to a ghetto life. Lessing had set himself the goal of becoming the German Molière: in these comedies he most interestingly begins to draw his characters as recognizable individuals, breaking away from the traditional dramatic “types.” Early in 1748 Lessing’s parents, who disapproved of his association with the theatre in Leipzig, summoned him home. But he managed to win their consent to begin studying medicine and was soon allowed to return to Leipzig. He quickly found himself in difficulties because he had generously stood surety for some members of the Neuber company—although himself heavily in debt. When the company folded, he fled from Leipzig in order to avoid being arrested for debt. He eventually reached Berlin in 1748, where he hoped to find work as a journalist through his cousin Mylius, who was by this time an established editor. In the next four years he undertook a variety of jobs, mainly translating French and English historical and philosophical works into German. But he also began to make a name for himself through his brilliant and witty criticism for the Berlinische Privilegierte Zeitung, on which he was book review editor. He also launched a periodical of his own, Beiträge zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theaters (“Contributions to the History and Improvement of the Theatre”), which was discontinued in 1750. What made you want to look up "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing"? Please share what surprised you most...
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886
Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. history of Bono The kings of Bono are said to have played a major role in the gold-mining industry; both Obunumankoma (flourished c. 1450–75) and ʿAlī Kwame (flourished c. 1550–60) are thought to have introduced new mining techniques from the western Sudan to the Akan fields, and Owusu Aduam (flourished c. 1650) is reported to have completely reorganized the industry. From... What made you want to look up "Obunumankoma"? Please share what surprised you most...
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166
Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. rules of ice hockey The game is divided into three periods of 20 minutes playing time each, with a 15-minute intermission between periods. Hockey games may end in a tie unless the rules stipulate an overtime period to serve as a tiebreaker. In the case of a tie in college hockey, one 10-minute sudden-death overtime period is played in regular season play. NHL teams play a five-minute sudden-death overtime period,... What made you want to look up "overtime"? Please share what surprised you most...
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147
stressArticle Free Pass stress, in physical sciences and engineering, force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour. A stress is expressed as a quotient of a force divided by an area. There are many kinds of stress. Normal stress arises from forces that are perpendicular to a cross-sectional area of the material, whereas shear stress arises from forces that are parallel to, and lie in, the plane of the cross-sectional area. If a bar having a cross-sectional area of 4 square inches (26 square cm) is pulled lengthwise by a force of 40,000 pounds (180,000 newtons) at each end, the normal stress within the bar is equal to 40,000 pounds divided by 4 square inches, or 10,000 pounds per square inch (psi; 7,000 newtons per square cm). This specific normal stress that results from tension is called tensile stress. If the two forces are reversed, so as to compress the bar along its length, the normal stress is called compressive stress. If the forces are everywhere perpendicular to all surfaces of a material, as in the case of an object immersed in a fluid that may be compressed itself, the normal stress is called hydrostatic pressure, or simply pressure. The stress beneath the Earth’s surface that compresses rock bodies to great densities is called lithostatic pressure. Shear stress in solids results from actions such as twisting a metal bar about a longitudinal axis as in tightening a screw. Shear stress in fluids results from actions such as the flow of liquids and gases through pipes, the sliding of a metal surface over a liquid lubricant, and the passage of an airplane through air. Shear stresses, however small, applied to true fluids produce continuous deformation or flow as layers of the fluid move over each other at different velocities like individual cards in a deck of cards that is spread. For shear stress, see also shear modulus. Reaction to stresses within elastic solids causes them to return to their original shape when the applied forces are removed. Yield stress, marking the transition from elastic to plastic behaviour, is the minimum stress at which a solid will undergo permanent deformation or plastic flow without a significant increase in the load or external force. The Earth shows an elastic response to the stresses caused by earthquakes in the way it propagates seismic waves, whereas it undergoes plastic deformation beneath the surface under great lithostatic pressure. What made you want to look up "stress"? Please share what surprised you most...
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René Waldeck-RousseauArticle Free Pass René Waldeck-Rousseau, in full Pierre-marie-rené Waldeck-rousseau (born Dec. 2, 1846, Nantes, France—died Aug. 10, 1904, Corbeil), politician who, as premier of France, settled the Dreyfus Affair. He was also responsible for the legalization of trade unions in France (1884). A rising conservative lawyer, known for his eloquence and mastery of legal detail, Waldeck-Rousseau was elected a deputy in 1879. In 1881 he became minister of the interior in the Cabinet of Léon Gambetta, one of the founders of the Third Republic, and he filled the same post, under Jules Ferry, from 1883 to 1885. In 1884 he sponsored the Loi Waldeck-Rousseau, which made trade unions legal, though with important restrictions. After another term as deputy (1885–89), he retired to make his fortune at the bar. In 1894, however, he became a senator. In June 1899, when demonstrations and counterdemonstrations over the Dreyfus Affair threatened public order, Waldeck-Rousseau was asked to form a “government of republican defense.” His Cabinet was based on pro-Dreyfus moderates but included members of both the right and the left, such as Alexandre Millerand, the first Socialist to hold Cabinet office. When a military court persisted in finding Alfred Dreyfus guilty of treason (September 1899), though some of the evidence against him was known to be forged, the government persuaded the president to pardon him in the hope of avoiding further controversy. The most important measure of the later part of Waldeck-Rousseau’s administration was the Associations Act of July 1901, which abolished all restrictions on the right of association for legal purposes. This freedom was withheld from religious associations, however, because they were directed from abroad. Waldeck-Rousseau personally thought the act too severe to the religious congregations. He resigned because of ill health in June 1902 but emerged from retirement to protest against the interpretation of the law by his successor, the militantly anticlerical Émile Combes, who refused to authorize any religious associations and was responsible for the closing of thousands of Roman Catholic schools. What made you want to look up "Rene Waldeck-Rousseau"? Please share what surprised you most...
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Hittite, 14th-13th century BC Probably from Anatolia (modern Turkey) This beautiful figurine of a young Hittite girl is made of ivory. Her hair is drawn back and hangs in a pig-tail down her back. She stands in a formal pose with her hands by her sides. The proportions of the figure, lacking curves, show her youth. The treatment is naturalistic except for the stylized ears and the triangles indicating the knees. The pubic triangle was originally inlaid, and other parts of the ivory may have been covered in precious metal. The function of the figurine is unknown, but ivory was widely used in the ancient world to decorate furniture The dowel hole in the square base of the figure suggests it was once attached to something. From around 1650 BC a Hittite king rebuilt Hattusa (modern Bogazköy) and made it his capital. Between about 1400 and 1200 BC the Hittites established one of the great empires of the ancient Near East, extending into western Anatolia and south into Syria. They adopted many of the traditions of Syria and Mesopotamia, including the cuneiform writing system, and vied with the Egyptians for control of the wealthy Canaanite cities on the coast. D. Collon, Ancient Near Eastern art (London, The British Museum Press, 1995)
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Get Ready for Fuel Switching In regions of the country that rely primarily on heating oil or propane for heat, including the Northeast and parts of the Upper Midwest, something pretty surprising has happened over the past six months. The cost of delivered heat from these fuels has risen above that of electricity—even when that electricity is used for electric-resistance heating in baseboard radiators. (For more on comparing fuel costs,.) Electric-resistance heat can sometimes be cheaper than even natural gas, particularly for buildings with old furnaces and leaky, poorly insulated ducts. If a heat pump is used to double or triple the efficiency of electric heating, heating with electricity is almost always cheaper than using natural gas, oil, or propane (though purchasing and installing a heat pump is expensive). Barring a significant price drop for heating oil or propane, and if the price of natural gas keeps rising faster than that of electricity (which is regulated), lots of buildings may be switching from their standard heating fuels to electric heat this coming winter—which could wreak havoc in the utility industry. ...
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Published by Bupa's Health Information Team, October 2011. This factsheet is for people who are having a bone marrow or stem cell transplant, or who would like information about the procedure. A bone marrow or stem cell transplant is where stem cells from a person's bone marrow are destroyed and replaced with new ones, either from themselves or from a donor. You will meet the doctor or nurse carrying out your procedure to discuss your care. It may differ from what is described here as it will be designed to meet your individual needs. Bone marrow is a spongy substance in the centre of your bones. Your bone marrow contains stem cells, which are a type of cell from which other cells in your body can develop. The stem cells in your bone marrow mature into three types of cells. These are: The cells are then released into your bloodstream. Although it's often called a bone marrow transplant, this procedure is really a transplant of your bone marrow stem cells. If you have a bone marrow transplant, your unhealthy bone marrow will be replaced with healthy stem cells. The healthy stem cells are fed into your blood through a drip and find their way to your bone marrow to make new cells. The stem cells can come from another person (a donor) – this is called an allogeneic transplant. Alternatively the cells can come from your own bone marrow – this is called an autologous treatment. However, this can only happen if the stem cells were removed at a time when they were healthy. If you have stem cells from another person, they can come from the bone marrow or the blood of the donor. When they come from the blood, this is called peripheral stem cell harvest. If they come from the bone marrow, your donor will usually be a close relative because they are likely to have the best match. After a blood test, your doctor will compare both of your blood cells to see how well they match. This is called tissue typing. Sometimes, doctors can find a matching donor who isn't related to you through the National Blood Service or a charity, such as the Anthony Nolan Trust. Stem cells can also come from babies' umbilical cords, although this treatment is only suitable for children and small adults, and is still being tested. Bone marrow transplantation is used to treat conditions that stop your stem cells working. You may have a bone marrow transplant if: Doctors usually consider a bone marrow transplant only if other treatments don’t work or aren’t suitable for you. A bone marrow transplant is a very intensive treatment. Your doctor will take your age and general health into consideration when deciding whether it's right for you. If you’re having a stem cell transplant from a donor, you generally need to be under 55. Doctors are researching new, alternative treatments to a bone marrow transplant. Mini transplants involve giving a standard dose of chemotherapy because the person isn't fit enough or young enough for a high dose. It's given over five days and then donor stem cells or bone marrow are transplanted. Tandem transplants are when high-dose chemotherapy is given followed by a stem cell transplant, which is then repeated after several weeks or months. Your doctor and nurse will discuss with you what will happen before, during and after your transplant. This is your opportunity to understand what will happen, and you can help yourself by preparing questions to ask about the risks, benefits and any alternatives to a bone marrow transplant. This will help you to be informed, so you can give your consent for the procedure to go ahead, which you may be asked to do by signing a consent form. You may need to have chemotherapy, and possibly radiotherapy, before a bone marrow transplant if your cancer or leukaemia isn't in remission. This is because the cancer needs to be at the lowest possible level for a bone marrow transplant to work. The first step is to collect, or 'harvest', the stem cells. The exact process depends on whether the stem cells are coming from a donor or from you. Peripheral blood stem cell harvest You or your donor will be given injections of growth factors for around four days. These help the bone marrow to make lots of stem cells for harvesting. Growth factors can also help your stem cells to make blood cells more quickly to help you recover from the transplant. Harvesting the stem cells from blood takes three to four hours. You or your donor will lie down on a bed and have a drip connected to each arm, or sometimes an arm and a leg. Blood is taken from one arm and goes through a machine called a cell separator. This separates out the stem cells from the other blood cells. It will keep the stem cells and return any other blood cells to the bloodstream through the drip in the other arm or leg. Sometimes the stem cells are cleaned or 'purged' to kill off any last cancer cells, although this is a new treatment and is still being tested. The stem cells are then frozen until you have had your high dose of chemotherapy. Harvesting stem cells directly from the bone marrow Stem cells can also be harvested by taking them out of the bone marrow through a needle inserted into your own or your donor's pelvic bones, or sometimes breast bone. You will have usually have a general anaesthetic or an epidural before this procedure, and will feel sore for a few days afterwards. If you have a general anaesthetic, it means you will be asleep during the procedure. You will then have a high dose of chemotherapy to completely destroy your own bone marrow and any remaining cancer cells in your body. This treatment may take several days and can make you feel sick or vomit, and generally unwell. Your doctor or nurse will give you medicines to help relieve this. A day or more after chemotherapy, your own or your donor's stem cells are fed through a drip into your bloodstream. It will take between two and four weeks before there are enough new stem cells in your bone marrow to start making new blood cells. While your levels of blood cells are low, you will need blood and platelet transfusions. You will also need to take antibiotics to protect you from infection because of a lack of white blood cells. You may need to stay in hospital until your blood cells have gone back up to a safe level. Autologous treatment usually causes fewer side-effects than a donor (allogeneic) transplant, because your body is less likely to reject stem cells that have come from your own body. Donor stem cell transplants are physically and emotionally demanding. You may need to stay in hospital for four to six weeks and you will probably feel very ill for some of the time. You will have your own room to help protect you from infections. Once the levels of your blood cells have returned to a safe level, you will be able to leave the hospital. You will have regular outpatient appointments afterwards. Your doctor will tell you symptoms to look out for, such as fever, which may be a sign of a complication. As with every procedure, there are some risks associated with bone marrow transplantation. We have not included the chance of these happening as they are specific to you and differ for every person. Ask your doctor or nurse to explain how these risks apply to you. Side-effects are the unwanted, but mostly temporary, effects you might get after having the procedure. Straight after a bone marrow transplant, the levels of blood cells in your body will be very low. Side-effects of this include: Complications are when problems occur during or after the procedure. One possible complication of receiving bone marrow cells from a donor is graft versus host disease. This happens when the white blood cells of the donor attack the tissues of your body. You will be given medicines to prevent this so usually the symptoms are mild, although in some people they may be more serious. The new stem cells that have been fed into your blood may not produce enough blood cells. If this happens, you will need another stem cell transplant. For answers to frequently asked questions on this topic, see FAQs. For sources and links to further information, see Resources. The bone marrow is a spongy substance in the centre of your bones. Your bone marrow contains stem cells, which are the most basic kind of blood cell. These stem cells in your bone marrow mature into three types of cells. These are: The cells are then released into your bloodstream. Bupa can offer NHS and private patients professional cancer care and support at home including IV and oral chemotherapy via our Chemotherapy at Home Service. Already a member? Find a Bupa approved cancer unit near you including breast, bowel and gynaecological specialist units. This information was published by Bupa's Health Information Team and is based on reputable sources of medical evidence. It has been reviewed by appropriate medical or clinical professionals. Photos are only for illustrative purposes and do not reflect every presentation of a condition. The content is intended only for general information and does not replace the need for personal advice from a qualified health professional. For more details on how we produce our content and its sources, visit the About our Health Information page. Publication date: October 2011
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1,894
America's workplaces are safer now compared to previous years, but some jobs are still more dangerous than others. According to the most recent results published by the National Census of Fatal Occupation Injuries program conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the occupations that recorded the highest work-related deaths were fishermen, loggers and pilots. In 2011, workers in the fishing industry recorded fatal work injuries of 121.2 per 100,000 full-time workers, loggers recorded 102.4 and pilots had 57 fatal work injuries per 100,000 full-time workers. The national average is listed as 3.5 fatal work injuries per 100,000 full-time workers, a decrease from the previous year's recorded 3.6. The chart below shows America's deadliest jobs:
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159
by Michael F. Potter, Extension Entomologist University of Kentucky College of Agriculture Paper wasps, hornets and yellowjackets are a potential health threat to Kentuckians. Hundreds (perhaps thousands) of people in the United States die each year from allergic reactions to the venom of these insects. Wasps, hornets and yellowjackets are more dangerous and unpredictable than honey bees and should be treated with respect; nests should be eliminated with great care and in a specific manner. Paper wasps, hornets and yellowjackets construct nests of a paper-like material which is a mixture of finely chewed wood fragments and salivary secretions of the wasps. Paper wasps typically build their umbrella-shaped nests under eaves and ledges. These wasps are not as aggressive as yellowjackets or hornets, and can be eliminated rather easily with a wasp and hornet spray sold at most grocery and hardware stores. These formulations have an added advantage in that they often spray as far as 20 feet. Treatment of wasps, hornets, and yellowjackets is best performed at night; paper wasps can be eliminated during the daytime provided you do not stand directly below the nest during treatment. Most wasp and hornet sprays cause insects to drop instantly when contacted by the insecticide. Standing directly below a nest increases one's risk of being stung. Following treatment, wait a day to ensure that the colony is destroyed, then scrape or knock down the nest. This will prevent secondary problems from carpet beetles, ants and other scavenging insects. Hornets are far more difficult and dangerous to control than paper wasps. The nests resemble a large, inverted tear-drop shaped ball which typically is attached to a tree, bush or side of a building. Hornet nests may contain thousands of wasps which are extremely aggressive when disturbed. The nests are often located out of reach and removal is best accomplished by a professional pest control firm. A full wasp suit sealed at the wrists, ankles and collar is recommended when disposing of a hornet nest. Treatment can be accomplished by applying a wasp freeze-type, aerosol insecticide or dust formulation (Sevin, or Ficam,) directly into the nest opening. Hornet nests have a single opening, usually toward the bottom, where the wasps enter and exit. It is essential that the paper envelope of the nest not be broken open during treatment or the irritated wasps will scatter in all directions, causing even greater problems. Following treatment, wait at least a day before removing the nest to ensure that all of the wasps are killed. If hornets continue to be observed, the application may need to be repeated. Experienced pest control operators will sometimes remove a hornet nest which is attached to a branch by slipping a plastic garbage bag over the intact nest and clipping it at the point of attachment. This technique should not be attempted by anyone else and should only be done at night with a wasp suit. Yellowjackets are another dangerous wasp encountered around homes and buildings. Nests are often located underground in an old rodent burrow, beneath a landscape timber, or in a rock wall or wall of a building.If the nest can be located, it can usually be eliminated by carefully applying a wasp spray insecticide into the nest opening. Sevin (tm), or Ficam (tm), dust is also very effective provided a handduster or similar type applicator is used to dispense several puffs of the insecticide dust in to the nest opening (an empty, dry liquid detergent bottle, filled no more than halfway with dust and shaken before dispensing works well). Treatment should be performed late at night after all yellowjackets are in the nest and less active. It's best to pinpoint the nest opening during the daytime so you will remember where to direct your treatment after dark. Approach the nest slowly and do not shine the beam of the flashlight directly into the nest entrance as this may startle the wasps; instead, cast the beam to the side to illuminate the nest indirectly and place the light on the ground rather than in your hand. Similar to hornets, yellowjackets are extremely aggressive when the nest is disturbed. It may be prudent to call a professional pest control company, particularly when access to the nest is difficult. An Alternative Solution If the nest is located away from high traffic areas, another option is to wait and do nothing. In Kentucky, wasp, hornet and yellowjacket colonies die off naturally after the weather turns cold, and the paper carton disintegrates over the winter months. People Who Are Allergic to the Venom Wasp, hornet and yellowjacket stings can be life-threatening to persons who are allergic to the venom. People who develop hives, difficulty breathing or swallowing, wheezing or similar symptoms of allergic reaction should seek medical attention immediately. Itching, pain and localized swelling can be somewhat reduced with antihistamines and a cold compress. CAUTION! Pesticide recommendations in this publication are registered for use in Kentucky, USA ONLY! The use of some products may not be legal in your state or country. Please check with your local county agent or regulatory official before using any pesticide mentioned in this publication. Of course, ALWAYS READ AND FOLLOW LABEL DIRECTIONS FOR SAFE USE OF ANY PESTICIDE!
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1,113
Canada and Belgium are two officially multilingual countries with federal political systems. For a great many years, our countries have maintained excellent bilateral relations based on bonds of friendship and trust, as well as the shared values of liberty, democracy, solidarity and tolerance. These bonds were strengthened by Canada’s contribution to the liberation of Belgium in the First and Second World Wars and the major convergences between the foreign policies of our two countries, based on a strong commitment to multilateralism on the basis of international law, the promotion of good governance and the maintenance of strong transatlantic ties. Canada and Belgium have both deployed troops to Afghanistan in order to support that country's security, governance and development. Both countries are also actively seeking solutions to crises and conflicts, notably in Africa, and the fight against arms build-up and the recruitment of child soldiers. We also collaborate on issues of natural resource development in situations of conflict. Canada and Belgium cooperate, in particular, in the context of the United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Belgium's role in the European Union is another important aspect of our bilateral political dialogue. In recognition of the importance of strengthening the ties between our two countries and of establishing a "privileged dialogue", the Canadian and Belgian departments of foreign affairs signed a joint declaration on December 16, 1999, concerning the strengthening of bilateral relations. Belgium and Canada also signed bilateral agreements in the areas of taxation, social security, judicial cooperation on crime, air transportation, reciprocal recognition of drivers’ licences, as well as in scientific, industrial and technological cooperation. In 2005, Belgium and Canada signed an agreement on youth mobility. The agreement, which came into force January 1, 2007, allows young Belgians to travel to Canada and young Canadians to Belgium, for no more than a year, in order to visit the country and discover its culture while having the opportunity to work there. The Government of Canada maintains three diplomatic missions in Belgium: the Embassy of Canada to the Kingdom of Belgium and the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg, the Mission of Canada to the European Union, and the Canadian Joint Delegation to NATO. Canada also has an honorary consul for Flanders. Moreover, the Province of Quebec is represented by the Délégation générale du Québec in Brussels. In Canada, Belgium is represented by its Embassy in Ottawa and its consulates in Montreal and Toronto; it also has a network of honorary consuls in Halifax, Edmonton, Quebec City, Vancouver and Winnipeg. The three Belgian regions (Walloon Region, Brussels-Capital Region and Flemish Region) have separate economic and trade offices in Montreal and a shared office in Toronto. The Walloon Region and the French community of Belgium also have a delegation in Quebec City. Canadian exports to Belgium were close to CAD 2.4 billion in 2011. It is important to note that the port of Antwerp is a major point of entry for Canadian goods in Europe. Belgium also serves as a point of entry to Europe as 70% of Belgium’s trade is conducted with its European Union (EU) partners. In 2011, Canada's imports from Belgium were valued at nearly CAD 1.7 billion. Bilateral investment is very important for both countries. Canadian investments in Belgium totalled nearly CAD 2.75 billion in 2011, ranking 26th among Canadian direct investment destinations globally. The stock of Belgian direct investment in Canada was worth CAD 4 billion in 2011, making Belgium the 14th largest foreign direct investor in Canada on a global basis. There are over 70 Belgian subsidiaries in Canada and about the same number of Canadian subsidiaries in Belgium. Canadian and Belgian institutions and companies enjoy collaborative relations in science and technology, mostly based on similar approaches to development and synergies in a range of sectors, including life sciences, microelectronics, environmental and imaging technologies. Numerous cooperative agreements have been signed in this area between the three Belgian regions and the provinces of Quebec, Ontario and Alberta. For more information on Canada-Belgium trade and investment, please see the following pages. Canadian companies interested in doing business in Belgium should consult the section entitled "Services for Canadian companies.” Belgian companies interested in Canadian business opportunities are invited to consult the section entitled “Services for non-Canadian companies” (information available in French and Dutch). Cultural relations between Canada and Belgium have grown and diversified over the past 30 years. Belgian programmers frequently host Canadian artists, both Anglophone and Francophone, in the areas of theatre, music, cinema and literature, the visual arts, and dance. Every year, there are several dozen cultural events, featuring individual artists or groups of artists, particularly in contemporary arts, new technologies and new media. Conversely, many Belgian artists perform in Canada, whether in the plastic arts, music, children’s theatre, and especially dance, as part of festivals or in art centres in major cities (Montreal, Quebec City, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver). Belgian and Canadian universities have been developing cooperative and exchange agreements and relations for many years. About 20 Canadian universities work with Belgian universities in areas as varied as pure sciences, the humanities and social sciences, health, etc. The North American Studies Centre (CENA) at the Université Libre de Bruxelles is a reference not only in Canadian studies, but also for Belgium’s knowledge of Canada. In Flanders, Studiegenootschap Canada (the Flemish association for Canadian studies) supports teaching and research on Canada by organizing and participating in colloquiums, seminars, courses and publications. The Université de Liège has a Centre for Quebec Studies. Belgian research centres also cooperate in bilateral or multilateral programs through framework agreements with the European Union. Occasionally, there are even direct collaborations between Belgian centres and Canadian businesses (ex. the Metallurgy Research Centre at the Université de Liège or IMEC, a microelectronics centre affiliated with the University of Leuven (KUL). * Note: To view the PDF version of a document you may require Acrobat Reader available free of charge from Adobe or other software capable of viewing PDF files. An accessible version of Acrobat Reader, which includes support for screen readers, is also available. Alternatively, you can convert a PDF file to HTML or ASCII text by using one of Adobe’s conversion services.
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1,350
upper house of Tennessee's General Assembly is called the Senate. The state is divided into 33 senatorial districts, from each of which one senator is elected. Senators are elected to four-year terms with those from even-numbered districts being elected in the same general election, and those representing odd-numbered districts being elected two years later. Thus, about half of the 33 senators are standing for election at the same time. Re-election to the Senate is constitutionally permissible, as it is in the House, and there is no limit on the number of terms a legislator may serve. To qualify for election to the Senate, one must be 30 years old, a U.S. citizen, a state resident for three years and a resident of the district in which he is elected for one year immediately preceding his election. The leader of the Senate, or speaker, is also the state's lieutenant governor. The speaker of the Senate is elected by the Senate at each organizational session of the General Assembly. The lieutenant governor stands in immediate succession to the governorship if such is necessary. Other leaders in the Senate include the speaker pro tem, deputy speaker and the majority and minority leaders, who are the primary spokesmen for their respective parties concerning Senate matters. Two other key Senate officers are the Democratic and Republican caucus chairmen, who preside over meetings of their political parties to consider and formulate party policy. The Senate has certain powers and obligations that are different from those of the House of Representatives. The Senate is given the power to try impeachment proceedings initiated by the House. Any officer of the state may be impeached, but two-thirds of the Senate must concur before removal from office occurs. Political makeup of the Senate of the 108th General Assembly is 26 Republicans and 7 Democrats. The 108th General Assembly will convene on January 8, 2013.
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389
The Village of Waterloo, on the Elkhorn and Platte Rivers, was founded by two men: John Logan, who came in 1863 right after his discharge from the Second Nebraska Volunteer Cavalry, and Elias Kelsey, who arrived in 1867. Logan established a post office in 1864, and a school in 1865. Designated a station on the Union Pacific Railroad in 1870, the town's future was assured. Named "Waterloo" [presumably for a battlefield in Belgium], an attempt to incorporate in 1871 failed, as did a second attempt. The third petition in 1883 was successful, by which time an addition had already been made. History notes "a spectacular train wreck" near Waterloo in 1873, when a $30,000 cargo of fish bound for California fell into the Elkhorn River just east of the town. For many years Waterloo was the world's largest producer of vine and seed corn. Coy & Sons, started in 1879, became Cornhusker Seed in the 1950s. Other companies were: Emerson Seed, Omaha Elevator, Hively Seed, Hopper Grain, Waldron Seed, Western Seed & Irrigation, Waterloo Elevator and Stimmel Seed. The J.C.Robinson Seed Company was established in 1888 and is still owned and managed by the family. It became the biggest, most prominent, and is the only one at this location today. The largest single vine seed sale occurred in the 1920s when eight railcar-loads of cucumber seeds were shipped. Some well-known citizens include: -- William Denton, territorial representative in 1866-67, who later opened one of the first stores in town. -- Isaac Noyes, state senator from 1892-1900. -- James Riggs, state senator in 1903. -- Mabel Wilson (known throughout the state for her knowledge of Nebraska Indians and wild flowers) and her husband, Otto, who were awarded second place in the National Yard and Garden Contest in 1931. -- Aunt Eckie Teal, a great Christian woman who had no children of her own, raised 15 orphans. -- An inventor, P.H.Dubois, who patented a horse collar fastener in 1899. -- John Douglas Pederson, with patents in 1905-06 dealt mostly with slide or pump action and repeating shotguns manufactured by Remington Armory. -- Hiland Noyes and Richard Fies who invented a bank coin counter. -- Eugene Jacobson who designed and patented the marsh buggy and muskeg tractor. He also spearheaded research and development of the technology for measuring gasoline and other liquid hydrocarbons for Gulf Oil. -- Dan Shepherd who invented and patented a telescopic gun sight in 1981, sold as the Shepherd Scope. Several shootings in the 1880s, and a promotional fight between a bulldog and bobcat in 1889, brought notoriety to the town. As a recreation area, Waterloo had a small excursion boat called "The Swastika," owned by H.A.Simmons. A humorous note in our history is a 1910 ordinance prohibiting barbers from eating onions. In 1903 the Waterloo Women's Club started our library. Carrie Nation, the Kansas saloon smasher, visited Waterloo in 1908. In 1920 it was reported that 26 women voted. Governor Franklin D.Roosevelt visited the Sumnick family farm south of Waterloo in 1932. They visited him in Washington when he became president. A viaduct built over the Union Pacific mainline near Waterloo in 1936 was often called "Cochran Alps," because of the efforts by Governor Robert L.Cochran to have it constructed. It was replaced by a new one in 1986. Because of its location on two very unpredictable rivers, Waterloo has been ravaged by many floods. A bond issue in 1965 resulted in a levee to help protect the town. Waterloo has a fine fire and rescue department. Chief John Love, after 36 years of service, retired in 1987. The current population of Waterloo is about 450. While we have lost some businesses, we boast of having more celebrities visit our town than any other community this size in Nebraska. We are justly proud of our fine eating establishments. Stop by and check them out. By Ralph C.Wilson, 501 Jefferson Street, Waterloo, NE 68069.
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891
Chapter VI-C. Sacred Vessels 289. Among the requisites for the celebration of Mass, the sacred vessels hold a place of honor, especially the chalice and paten, which are used in presenting, consecrating, and receiving the bread and wine. 290. Vessels should be made from materials that are solid and that in the particular region are regarded as noble. The conference of bishops will be the judge in this matter. But preference is to be given to materials that do not break easily or become unusable. 291. Chalices and other vessels that serve as receptacles for the blood of the Lord are to have a cup of nonabsorbent material. The base may be of any other solid and worthy material. 292. Vessels that serve as receptacles for the eucharistic bread, such as paten, ciborium, pyx, monstrance, etc., may be made of other materials that are prized in the region, for example, ebony or other hard woods, as long as they are suited to sacred use. 293. For the consecration of hosts one rather large paten may properly be used; on it is placed the bread for the priest as well as for the ministers and the faithful. 294. Vessels made from metal should ordinarily be gilded on the inside if the metal is one that rusts; gilding is not necessary if the metal is more precious than gold and does not rust. 295. The artist may fashion the sacred vessels in a shape that is in keeping with the culture of each region, provided each type of vessel is suited to the intended liturgical use. 296. For the blessing or consecration of vessels the rites prescribed in the liturgical books are to be followed.
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367
More than 1 billion people—one-sixth of the world's population—suffer from one or more Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). NTDs are a group of infectious diseases that are the source of tremendous suffering because of their disfiguring, debilitating, and sometimes deadly impact. They are called neglected because they have been largely wiped out in the more developed parts of the world and persist only in the poorest, most marginalized communities and conflict areas. Social stigma is a major consequence of NTDs. In addition to causing physical and emotional suffering, these devastating diseases hamper a person's ability to work, keep children out of school, and prevent families and communities from thriving. Image: Nigerian children at-risk of infection with NTDs. Credit: CDC photo, Sonia Pelletreau.
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166
What Can I do to Help Prevent Traumatic Brain Injury? There are many ways to reduce the chances of sustaining a traumatic brain injury, including: - Buckling your child in the car using a child safety seat, booster seat, or seat belt (according to the child's height, weight, and age). - Rear-facing child safety seat. For the best possible protection, infants and children should be kept in a rear-facing child safety seat, in the back seat buckled with the seat’s harness, until they reach the upper weight or height limits of their particular seat. The weight and height limits on rear-facing child safety seats can accommodate most children through age 2, check the seat’s owner’s manual for details. - Forward-facing child safety seat. When children outgrow their rear-facing seats (the weight and height limits on rear-facing car seats can accommodate most children through age 2) they should ride in forward-facing child safety seats, in the back seat buckled with the seat’s harness, until they reach the upper weight or height limit of their particular seat (usually around age 4 and 40 pounds, many newer seats have higher weight limits-check the seat’s owner’s manual for details). - Booster seat. Once children outgrow their forward-facing seats (by reaching the upper height and weight limits of their seat), they should ride in belt positioning booster seats. Remember to keep children in the back seat for the best possible protection. - Seat belts. Children should use booster seats until adult seat belts fit them properly. Seat belts fit properly when the lap belt lays across the upper thighs (not the stomach) and the shoulder belt fits across the chest (not the neck). When adult seat belts fit children properly they can use the adult seat belts without booster seats. For the best possible protection keep children in the back seat and use lap-and-shoulder belts. - All children younger than 13 years should ride in the back seat. Airbags can kill young children riding in the front seat. Never place a rear-facing car seat in the front seat or in front of an air bag. Know the Stages - Wearing a seat belt every time you drive or ride in a motor vehicle. - Never driving while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. - Wearing a helmet and making sure your children wear helmets when: - Riding a bike, motorcycle, snowmobile, scooter, or all-terrain vehicle; - Playing a contact sport, such as football, ice hockey, or boxing; - Using in-line skates or riding a skateboard; - Batting and running bases in baseball or softball; - Riding a horse; or - Skiing or snowboarding. - Making living areas safer for seniors, by: - Removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs and clutter in walkways; - Using nonslip mats in the bathtub and on shower floors; Installing grab bars next to the toilet and in the tub or shower; - Installing handrails on both sides of stairways; - Improving lighting throughout the home; and - Maintaining a regular physical activity program, if your doctor agrees, to improve lower body strength and balance.1,2,3 - Making living areas safer for children, by: - Installing window guards to keep young children from falling out of open windows; and - Using safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs when young children are around. - Making sure the surface on your child's playground is made of shock-absorbing material, such as hardwood mulch or sand.4 - Judge JO, Lindsey C, Underwood M, Winsemius D. Balance improvements in older women: effects of exercise training. Physical Therapy 1993;73(4):254–265. - Lord SR, Caplan GA, Ward JA. Balance, reaction time, and muscle strength in exercising older women: a pilot study. Archives of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 1993;74(8):837–839. - Campbell AJ, Robertson MC, Gardner MM, Norton RN, Buchner DM. Falls prevention over 2 years: a randomized controlled trial in women 80 years and older. Age and Aging 1999;28:513–518. - Mack MG, Sacks JJ, Thompson D. Testing the impact attenuation of loose fill playground surfaces. Injury Prevention 2000;6:141–144.
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936
evidence suggests that life originated in extreme environments, for example, at high temperatures. The National Science Foundation (NSF) has initiated a program called Life in the Extreme Environment (LExEn) that is dedicated to finding new and exciting organisms that live in harsh environments. The Extreme 2000 research expedition, at hydrothermal vent sites in the Sea of Cortés, is led by marine scientists George Luther and Craig Cary from the University of Delaware and Anna-Louise Reysenbach from Portland State University. Their chief objective is to make real-time chemical measurements at the vents using microsensors developed by Dr. Luthers group, which will guide the microbiologists and molecular biologists in Dr. Carys and Dr. Reysenbachs groups in finding organisms that are descendants of early Chemical Detective Work at the Bottom of the Sea hydrothermal vents home to the closest relatives of the oldest life on Earth? Using special tools housed in a wand on the sub Alvin, researchers will be testing the chemistry of vent water in search of microscopic organisms. The wand houses a thermometer, an apparatus called the Sipper to collect small water samples, and a super-sensitive The analyzer is like a sophisticated underwater snooper. It can be used near the vents and, from its chemical readings, tell scientists what kind of microbes might live there. While our food chain is based on energy from the sun, the suns rays never reach the deep sea. There, organisms must rely on a different energy source: the chemicals that rocket out of the vents. During a previous expedition, the Extreme 2000 scientific team found that the presence of two compounds hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and iron monosulfide (FeS) may be an important indicator of the oldest microscopic vent life. These compounds react to form the mineral pyrite (fools gold) and hydrogen gas. The hydrogen provides the energy that these microbes need to grow. With the analyzers help, marine scientists may be able to track down the nearest descendants of the first life on Earth, and perhaps on other planets. Europa, one of the moons of Jupiter, is covered in ice. However, recent findings suggest that portions of the ice move, which is strong evidence that liquid water lies beneath the ice. The water may be maintained in its liquid state by hydrothermal vents. If hydrothermal vents exist on Europa, theres a possibility that ancient microbes could live
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In March 2011, the U.S. computer security company RSA announced that hackers had gained access to security tokens it produces that let millions of government and private-sector employees, including those of defense contractors such as Lockheed Martin, connect remotely to their office computers. Most critical information systems in the United States are operated by the private sector and remain vulnerable to cyber attacks. Newly proposed legislation would require businesses to meet minimum standards of protection, but has raised concerns about regulatory overreach. Grounded in a realistic assessment of technology, Matthew C. Waxman and Kenneth Anderson outline a practical alternative with which to evaluate the use of autonomous weaponry that incorporates codes of conduct based on traditional legal and ethical principles governing weapons and warfare. Adam Segal says the recent Chinese cyberattacks on Bloomberg and the New York Timeshighlights both the willingness of Beijing to shape the narrative about China, as well as the vulnerability the top leadership feels about how they are portrayed. Cyber weapons are different from conventional weapons in that their effects do not directly manifest themselves in the "real world." There are three broad categories of potential effects of cyberattacks: personal, economic, and physical. Adam Segal, CFR's Maurice R. Greenberg senior fellow for China studies, leads a conversation on U.S.-China relations through the lens of cybersecurity issues, as part of CFR's Academic Conference Call series. Linda Robinson discusses her recently released Council Special Report, The Future of U.S. Special Operations Forces, which calls for conceptual, institutional, and operational changes to reorient U.S. special operations forces to ensure that they are employed to best effect. Foreign governments, non-state actors, and criminal networks are targeting the digital networks of the United States with increasing frequency and sophistication. U.S. cybersecurity has made progress, but relies heavily on the private sector to secure infrastructure critical to national security. Cybersecurity expert Knake recommends the United States use international forums to promote mechanisms that address security concerns in cyberspace while ensuring the Internet remains open for the free exchange of ideas across national boundaries. The Council on Foreign Relations' David Rockefeller Studies Program—CFR's "think tank"—is home to more than seventy full-time, adjunct, and visiting scholars and practitioners (called "fellows"). Their expertise covers the world's major regions as well as the critical issues shaping today's global agenda. Download the printable CFR Experts Guide.
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493
An ambulatory electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) records the electrical activity of your heart while you do your usual activities. (Ambulatory means that you are able to walk.) Ambulatory monitors are referred to by several names, including ambulatory electrocardiogram, ambulatory EKG, Holter monitoring, 24-hour EKG, or cardiac event monitoring. Many heart problems become noticeable only during activity, such as exercise, eating, sex, stress, bowel movements, or even sleeping. A continuous 24-hour recording is more likely to detect any abnormal heartbeats that occur during these activities. Many people have irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias) from time to time. The importance of irregular heartbeats depends on the type of pattern they produce, how often they occur, how long they last, and whether they occur at the same time you have symptoms. Because arrhythmias can occur off and on, it may be hard to record an arrhythmia while you are in the doctor's office. There are several different types of ambulatory monitors. Your doctor will choose the type that is most appropriate for you and is most likely to help diagnose your heart problem. Why It Is Done Ambulatory EKG monitoring is done to: - Look for and record irregular heartbeats that occur intermittently or during certain activities. - Find out what is causing chest pain, dizziness, or fainting. These are symptoms of possible heart problems. - Look for poor blood flow to your heart muscle (ischemia). - Check to see if treatment for an irregular heartbeat is working. How To Prepare Many medicines may change the results of this test. Be sure to tell your doctor about all the nonprescription and prescription medicines you take. Since an EKG is often used to monitor a preexisting heart condition, such as an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), make sure that your doctor has copies of any previous EKG results. Take a shower or bath before the discs are put on. You will not be able to get the discs wet during the test. Wear a loose blouse or shirt. Do not wear jewelry or clothes with metal buttons or buckles, because these can interfere with the recording. Women should not wear an underwire bra for the same reason. If your doctor asks you to keep a symptom and activity diary, be sure you have a method. In this diary, you will record activities and symptoms and the times they occurred. The accuracy and usefulness of your test depend on how carefully you keep this record. If you are getting a monitor implanted under your skin, you will receive instructions on how to prepare for the procedure. Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form(What is a PDF document?). How It Is Done Continuous recorders are the most common type of ambulatory electrocardiogram monitor. This type includes the Holter monitor. A continuous recorder provides a 24- to 72-hour record of the electrical signals from your heart. A standard EKG monitors only 40 to 50 heartbeats during the brief period you are attached to the machine. A continuous recorder monitors about 100,000 heartbeats in 24 hours and is likely to find any heart problems that happen with activity. For this test, you wear a lightweight, battery-operated tape recorder (monitor) on a strap over your shoulder or around your waist. The recorder is connected by wires to small metal discs (electrodes) taped to your chest. The electrodes detect the electrical signals from your heart. A clock is connected to the recorder so you can note what time it is when you have any symptoms. See a picture of a Holter monitor. You will be fitted with the recorder and electrodes by a technician in a doctor's office or hospital room. - Several areas on your chest may be shaved and cleaned, and then a small amount of electrode paste or gel will be applied to those areas. - The electrode pads will then be attached to the skin of your chest, with thin wires connecting the electrodes to the monitor. - You may be hooked up briefly to a standard EKG machine to ensure that the electrodes are working properly. While wearing the continuous recorder, you will also be asked to keep a diary of all your activities and symptoms, including the type of activity you were doing and the time your symptoms started. In the diary, write down the exact times when you exercise, climb stairs, eat, urinate, have a bowel movement, have sex, sleep, get emotionally upset, take medicine, or perform other activities. If you have any symptoms of heart problems, such as dizziness, fainting, chest pain, or palpitations, push the event-marker button on the recorder to mark it and write down the exact time and how long the symptom lasts. For example, you might write: "12:30 p.m. Ate lunch. 1:00 p.m. Argument with boss, had chest tightness for several minutes." When you sleep, try to stay on your back with the recorder carefully positioned at your side so that the electrodes are not pulled off. If one of the electrodes or lead wires comes loose, a light on the monitor will flash. Press on the center of each electrode to see if you can restore the contact. Call your doctor if one of the electrodes comes off and you can't get it to stay on. While you are wearing a monitor, try to stay away from magnets, metal detectors, high-voltage areas, garage door openers, microwave ovens, and electric blankets. Do not use an electric toothbrush or shaver. Signals from these types of electronic equipment can sometimes interfere with the recording. At the end of the recording period (usually 24 to 72 hours), you will return to the doctor's office or hospital to have the electrodes removed, or you may be able to remove the electrodes yourself. You will return the Holter monitor to your doctor's office or hospital. The recorded tape will be read by computer to provide information about your heart rate, the frequency of your heartbeats, and any irregularities. Your doctor will also look at your records of activities and symptoms and times they occurred. Your doctor will compare the timing of your activities and symptoms with the recorded heart pattern. Implantable continuous recorders Another type of continuous recorder can be implanted under the skin of the chest. This recorder can be kept in your chest for more than a year to record the electrical signals from your heart. Another kind of ambulatory EKG monitoring is the intermittent recorder, which is used when symptoms of an abnormal heart rhythm do not occur very often. An intermittent recorder can be used for a longer time than a continuous recorder. The information collected by an intermittent recorder can often be sent over the phone to a doctor's office, clinic, or hospital. You may be instructed to call your doctor, clinic, or hospital while you are having symptoms or soon after you record your heart rhythm so that the information on the monitor can be analyzed right away. The procedure for intermittent recording depends on the type of monitor used. Loop recorder. A loop recorder constantly records your heartbeats. This recorder lets you indicate when you have symptoms. Loop recorders also save a small amount of information about how your heart was beating when you pressed the recording button (presymptom recording). This feature is especially useful for people who lose consciousness when their heart problems occur and can press the button only after they wake up. - Electrodes will be attached to your chest in the same way as a continuous recorder. When you have symptoms, you press a button on the monitor to record your heart rhythm. If you pass out, you should start the recorder as soon as you wake up. Also, be sure a friend or family member knows how to start the recorder if you pass out. - An implantable form of the loop recorder can be worn for several weeks and may be a good choice for people who have symptoms that occur rarely, such as once every 6 months. It is surgically placed under the skin of the chest. The recorder might automatically start recording when it detects an arrhythmia. Or, you might use a handheld device to start the monitor when symptoms occur. Event monitor. This small device records your heartbeats only when symptoms of the heart problem occur. You are not attached to the machine. There are two types of event monitors. - One type is worn on the wrist like a watch. When symptoms occur, you press a button to start the EKG recording. - The other type is a device that you carry where you can reach it easily, such as in your purse or pocket. When symptoms occur, you press the back of the device against your chest and then press a button to start the recording. The back of the device has small metal discs that work like electrodes. These handheld monitors can be very small (some are about the size and shape of a credit card). The event monitor records heart signals only when you are holding it against your chest. How It Feels If you have electrodes placed on your skin, the electrode sites may itch slightly during the ambulatory EKG recording, and the skin on your chest may look or feel irritated when the electrodes are removed. The recording unit is very lightweight, so carrying it usually is not uncomfortable. There is no risk from ambulatory EKG monitoring. The electrodes placed on your skin detect only the electrical signals from your heart. No electricity is sent through your body, and there is no possibility of receiving an electric shock. An ambulatory electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) is a test that records the electrical signals that control your heartbeat while you do your everyday activities. No abnormal heart rhythms are found in the EKG information collected by the recorder. Your heart rate may go up when you are active and go down when you are sleeping. Many kinds of irregular heartbeats can be detected by ambulatory monitoring. The results of ambulatory heart monitoring are compared with your medical history, symptoms, and other test results. You may need to have the test repeated if the results aren't clear. What Affects the Test You may not be able to have the test or the results may not be helpful if: - You do not keep a detailed diary of your daily activities and symptoms. The intermittent recorder will give accurate results only if you remember to start the recorder when symptoms of possible heart problems occur. - The electrodes are not in the right spot. Ambulatory heart monitoring is most effective when you are able and willing to carefully follow instructions throughout the monitoring period. If you tend to pass out from a heart problem, your doctor will choose a monitor that will record these episodes. The continuous recorder and the loop recorder work best for people who pass out when they have symptoms of a heart problem. The loop recorder is not useful if you lose consciousness for more than a few minutes or if you are so confused when you wake up that you are unable to start the recorder. What To Think About - Many people have irregular heartbeats from time to time. What this means depends on the type of pattern these heartbeats produce, how often they occur, how long they last, and whether they occur at the same time you have symptoms. Irregular heartbeats that occur at the same time you have other symptoms, such as dizziness or chest pain, may mean that the irregular heartbeats are causing your symptoms. - Because a standard 12-lead electrocardiogram (EKG) is safe, inexpensive, and provides valuable information, your doctor will try it first before using an ambulatory monitor to test your heart function. A continuous recorder generally has 5 leads and provides less complete information than a 12-lead EKG. But a continuous recorder is more effective than a standard EKG for evaluating heart symptoms that occur intermittently. For more information, see the topic Electrocardiogram. Other Places To Get Help |American Heart Association (AHA)| |7272 Greenville Avenue| |Dallas, TX 75231| Visit the American Heart Association (AHA) website for information on physical activity, diet, and various heart-related conditions. You can search for information on heart disease and stroke, share information with friends and family, and use tools to help you make heart-healthy goals and plans. Contact the AHA to find your nearest local or state AHA group. The AHA provides brochures and information about support groups and community programs, including Mended Hearts, a nationwide organization whose members visit people with heart problems and provide information and support. |Heart Rhythm Society| |1400 K Street NW| |Washington, DC 20005| The Heart Rhythm Society provides information for patients and the public about heart rhythm problems. The website includes a section that focuses on patient information. This information includes causes, prevention, tests, treatment, and patient stories about heart rhythm problems. You can use the Find a Specialist section of the website to search for a heart rhythm specialist practicing in your area. |National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)| |P.O. Box 30105| |Bethesda, MD 20824-0105| The U.S. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) information center offers information and publications about preventing and treating: - Fischbach FT, Dunning MB III, eds. (2009). Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Other Works Consulted - Chernecky CC, Berger BJ (2008). Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures, 5th ed. St. Louis: Saunders. - Fischbach FT, Dunning MB III, eds. (2009). Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. - Pagana KD, Pagana TJ (2010). Mosby’s Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests, 4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby Elsevier. |Primary Medical Reviewer||Rakesh K. Pai, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology| |Specialist Medical Reviewer||George Philippides, MD - Cardiology| |Last Revised||December 9, 2011| Last Revised: December 9, 2011 Author: Healthwise Staff To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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|Tests and Services Inhalation Therapy Instruction What is a peak flow meter? A peak flow meter (PFM) is a device used to measure how well your child's asthma is under control. The device measures air flowing out of the lungs, called peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), as a child with asthma forcefully blows into the device. A peak flow meter, when used properly, can reveal narrowing of the airways well in advance of an asthma attack. Used mainly by children with moderate to severe and persistent asthma, peak flow meters can help determine: Why should a peak flow meter be used? - when to seek emergency medical care. - the effectiveness of your child's asthma management and treatment plan. - when to stop or add medication, as directed by your child's physician. - what triggers the asthma attack (such as exercise-induced asthma). The PFM removes a lot of guesswork out of managing your child's asthma. It can provide you, your child's physician, or even the school teachers with information about how open the airways are in your child's lungs. The PFM can detect small changes in the large airways before your child starts to wheeze. Using a PFM every day will let you know when your child's peak flows are starting to drop. This allows you to make early changes in your child's medication or routine to help prevent your child's asthma symptoms from getting worse. The PFM can also identify the value at which you will need to call your child's physician or go to the emergency room. How to use a peak flow meter: What are peak flow zones? - Use the PFM once daily and whenever your child is experiencing early warning signs. Always use the PFM before taking reliever medication. - Hold the PFM by the handle. - Before each use, make sure the pointer is reset to zero. - Have your child stand up straight. Remove chewing gum or any food from your child's mouth. - Have your child take a deep breath and put the mouthpiece in his/her mouth. Seal his/her lips and teeth tightly around the mouthpiece. - Let your child blow out as hard and as fast as he/she can. Remember a fast blast is better than a slow blow. - Note the number where the pointer has stopped on the scale. - Reset the pointer to zero. - Repeat this routine three times. You will know your child has done the technique correctly when the numbers from all three tries are close together. - Record the highest of the three readings on a graph or in a notebook. Do not average these numbers together. This is called your peak flow. - Use the peak flow meter once a day. Measure peak flows about the same time each day. A good time might be when your child first wakes up or at bedtime. Peak flow zones are based on the traffic light concept: red means danger, yellow means caution, and green means safe. These zones are different for each person. Your child's physician will help determine your child's peak flow zones. The three peak flow zones include: The goal of the peak flow zones is to help recognize when the asthma may start to become uncontrolled. - Green: This is the GO zone! This zone is from 80 to 100 percent of your child's highest peak flow reading. This is the zone your child should be in every day. This is a signal that air moves well through the large airways and that your child can do the usual activities and go to sleep without trouble. When the peak flow readings are in this zone, your child should: avoid asthma triggers. - use controller medications every day. - use the reliever medications 15 to 20 minutes before exercise if your child has exercise-induced asthma, as directed by your child's physician. - Yellow: This is the CAUTION or SLOW DOWN zone! This zone is from 50 to 80 percent of your child's highest peak flow reading. This is a clue that the large airways are starting to narrow. Your child may begin to have mild symptoms. Your child may be coughing, feeling tired, feeling short of breath, or feeling like his/her chest is tightening. These symptoms may keep your child from his/her usual activities or from sleeping well. To keep your child's peak flow numbers from getting worse and get your child's asthma back under control, you will need to: continue to use the controller medication as your child's physician has ordered and avoid asthma triggers. - use the reliever medication as ordered by your child's physician. - make sure you are using the proper technique with your child's metered-dose inhaler and spacer. Red: This is the STOP zone! This zone is less than 50 percent of your child's highest peak flow reading. Readings in this zone are a medical emergency and you will need to get help right away. This means severe narrowing of the large airways has occurred. Your child may now be coughing, very short of breath, wheezing both when breathing in and out, or having retractions. Your child may also have problems walking and talking. Have your child take his/her reliever medication now and call your child's physician. How is a personal best peak flow measured? Each child's peak flow zones are based on his/her personal best peak flow number. To establish your child's personal best peak flow, have your child take his/her peak flow measurement each day at the same time for two to three weeks, when the asthma is under control. After recording your child's peak flow measurements for two to three weeks consistently, your child's physician may also measure the optimum lung function with a spirometer (a device that can check lung function by measuring both the amount of air expelled and how quickly the air was expelled). The spirometer measurement may then be compared with the peak flow meter record to help set up an asthma management and treatment plan. Your child's personal best peak flow measurement may change over time. Consult your child's physician as to when to check for a new personal best peak flow measurement. When should a peak flow meter be used? Peak flow meters should be used regularly to check how well the asthma is being controlled. In addition, the peak flow meter may be a valuable tool during an asthma attack, because it can help determine how well the short-term, quick-relief asthma medication is working. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) recommends measuring lung function during the following times: The peak flow meter is a tool to help collect information. The key to successful asthma management is communicating this information (the peak flow meter recordings, the severity of your child's symptoms, and the effectiveness of your child's medications) to your child's physician. - every morning, before taking asthma medications - during asthma symptoms or an asthma attack - after taking medication for an asthma attack - other times as recommended by your child's physician How can I obtain a peak flow meter? Consult your child's physician about obtaining a peak flow meter and for step-by-step instructions on how to use the device. If you are using more than one peak flow meter, be sure they are the same brand. What are oximeters? An oximeter is a small machine that measures oxygen saturation (the amount of oxygen) in your child's blood. To get this measurement, a small sensor (similar to an adhesive bandage) is taped onto your child's finger or toe. When the oximeter is on, a small red light can be seen in the sensor. The sensor is painless and the red light does not get hot. What is a spirometer? A spirometer is a device used by your child's physician that assesses lung function. Spirometry, the evaluation of lung function with a spirometer, is one of the simplest, most common pulmonary function tests and may be necessary for any of the following reasons: After taking a deep breath, your child forcefully breathes out into the spirometer as completely and forcefully as possible. The spirometer measures both the amount of air expelled and how quickly the air was expelled from the lungs. The measurements are recorded by the spirometer. - to determine how well the lungs receive, hold, and utilize air - to monitor a lung disease - to monitor the effectiveness of treatment - to determine the severity of a lung disease - to determine whether the lung disease is restrictive (decreased airflow) or obstructive (disruption of airflow) The normal, healthy values measured by the spirometer for the amount of air exhaled vary from child to child. Your results are compared to the average expected in someone of the same age, height, sex, and race, according to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). However, if the values fall below 85 percent of the average, it may indicate a lung disease or other airflow obstruction. If a child has abnormal spirometer measurements, he/she may be referred for other lung tests to establish a diagnosis. Hand-Held Nebulizer Treatments A nebulizer is a type of inhaler that sprays a fine, liquid mist of medication. This is done through a mask, using oxygen or air under pressure, or an ultrasonic machine (often used by persons who cannot use a metered-dose inhaler, such as infants and young children, and persons with severe asthma). A mouthpiece is connected to a machine via plastic tubing to deliver the medication. The medications used in nebulizers help your child by loosening the mucus in the lungs so it can be coughed out more easily, and by relaxing the airway muscles so that more air can move in and out of the lungs. Breathing the medication straight into the lungs works better and faster than taking the medication by mouth. Nebulizer treatments take about 15 to 20 minutes to give the medication. Giving a treatment: The following steps are recommended when giving a treatment to your child. However, always consult your child's physician for specific instructions. After each treatment: Gather supplies needed, including: - medication to be nebulized - nebulizer set (nebulizer cup, mouthpiece or mask, tubing to connect to nebulizer machine) - Find a quiet activity to do while your child sits up for the treatment (i.e., reading a book or playing a quiet game). - Place the nebulizer on a flat surface (i.e., table or the floor). - Plug the unit into a wall outlet. - Connect the air tubing to the nebulizer machine. - Put the medication into the nebulizer cup and screw the cap on securely. - Connect the other end of the air tubing to the nebulizer cup. - Connect the mouthpiece or face mask to the nebulizer cup. - Turn the machine on. - Check to make sure a fine mist of medication is coming through the face mask or mouthpiece. - Place the mouthpiece in the child's mouth with the lips sealed around the mouthpiece. - Encourage your child to take slow deep breaths in and out of their mouth. The mist should disappear with each breath. - Place the mask over your child's mouth and nose. The adjustable elastic band may be used to hold the mask in place. - Encourage your child to take deep breaths in and out for the duration of the treatment. - Encourage your child to continue slow, deep breaths until all the medication in the nebulizer cup is gone. You may need to tap the sides of the nebulizer cup to ensure all medication is given. - Turn the nebulizer off. - If the child's treatment plan orders peak flow measurements, obtain these before the treatment starts and after the treatment is completed. Notes for parents: - Disconnect the nebulizer cup from the tubing. - Open the cup and wash all pieces in a mild dish soap and water. (Do not wash or rinse the tubing.) - Rinse all pieces. - Air dry on a clean towel. - Store the dried nebulizer cup and tubing in a plastic bag. - Once a week rinse the nebulizer cup in a vinegar/water solution, as directed by you physician, after washing. - Stay with your child throughout the nebulizer treatment. - If your child should vomit or have a severe coughing spell during the treatment, stop the treatment, let the child rest for a few minutes, then resume the treatment. - Check the filter on the nebulizer machine once a week. When it becomes discolored, replace with a new filter. - Always keep a spare nebulizer kit at home. When you are down to your last two kits, contact your medical equipment company to deliver more. What medications are commonly used for children with asthma? The use of medications in children is highly individualized, based on the severity of the child's symptoms, the age of the child, and the ability of the child to take inhaled medications. The following are the most commonly used medications: Inhalation Therapy Instruction - Departments & Programs - Children's National Medical Center These medications are used to help open the narrowed lungs and may relieve coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, or difficulty in breathing. These are usually considered rescue medications for acute attacks of asthma. Types of bronchodilators are beta-agonists, theophylline, and anticholinergics. These medications come inhaled, in pill form, liquid, or injectables. The short-acting bronchodilators are used as needed as symptoms occur. Longer acting bronchodilators may be used for maintenance or on a daily basis to help control flare-ups from occurring. - anti-inflammatory medications These medications help to decrease the inflammation that is happening in the airways with asthma. These include two types of medications: - nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) Cromolyn and nedocromil are two types of nonsteroidal medications that are usually inhaled by the child. These medications can be given in a variety of ways. Some of them are inhaled, while others may be taken as a pill or liquid, or even as an injection. The steroids taken by mouth can have more side effects than those that are inhaled. Inhaled steroids are safe and effective controller medications and should be taken every day. Consult your child's physician about the best choice for your child. These are a relatively new type of medication being used to help control the symptoms of asthma. These medications help to decrease the narrowing of the lung and to decrease the chance of fluids in the lungs. These are usually given by mouth.
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ADOLESCENT MEDICINE :: Orthopaedic Problems What is scoliosis? A normal spine, when viewed from behind, appears straight. However, a spine affected by scoliosis shows evidence of a lateral, or sideways, curvature, and a rotation of the back bones (vertebrae), giving the appearance that the person is leaning to one side. The Scoliosis Research Society defines scoliosis as a curvature of the spine measuring 10 degrees or greater on x-ray. Scoliosis is a type of spinal deformity and should not be confused with poor posture. Four common types of curve patterns seen in scoliosis are: What causes scoliosis? In most (80 to 85 percent) cases, the cause of scoliosis is unknown - a condition called idiopathic scoliosis. Scoliosis is more common in females than males. According to the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, three to five out of every 1,000 children develop spinal curves that are considered large enough to require treatment. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, in cooperation with the Scoliosis Research Society, describe three different types of scoliosis that can occur in children - congenital (present at birth), neuromuscular, or idiopathic. Other causes of scoliosis may include: What are the symptoms of scoliosis? The following are the most common symptoms of scoliosis. However, each adolescent may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include: Back pain, leg pain, and changes in bowel and bladder habits are not commonly associated with idiopathic scoliosis. A adolescent experiencing these types of symptoms requires further medical evaluation by a physician. The symptoms of scoliosis may resemble other spinal conditions or deformities, or may be a result of an injury or infection. Always consult your adolescent's physician for a diagnosis. How is scoliosis diagnosed? The physician makes the diagnosis of scoliosis with a complete medical history of the adolescent, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. The physician obtains a complete prenatal and birth history of the adolescent and asks if other family members are known to have scoliosis. The physician will also ask about developmental milestones since some types of scoliosis can be associated with other neuromuscular disorders. Developmental delays may require further medical evaluation. In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, x-rays (a diagnostic test which uses invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs onto film) are the primary diagnostic tool for scoliosis. In establishing a diagnosis of scoliosis, the physician measures the degree of spinal curvature on the x-ray. The following other diagnostic procedures may be performed for nonidiopathic curvatures, atypical curve patterns, or congenital scoliosis: Early detection of scoliosis is most important for successful treatment. Pediatricians or family physicians, and even some school programs, routinely look for signs that scoliosis may be present. Treatment of scoliosis: Specific treatment of scoliosis will be determined by your adolescent's physician based on: The goal of treatment is to stop the progression of the curve and prevent deformity. Treatment may include: According to the Scoliosis Research Society, there is no scientific evidence to show that other methods for treating scoliosis (i.e., manipulation, electrical stimulation, and corrective exercise) prevent the progression of the disease. Long-term outlook for an adolescent with scoliosis: The management of scoliosis is individualized for each adolescent depending on his/her age, amount of curvature, and amount of time remaining for skeletal growth. Scoliosis will require frequent examinations by your adolescent's physician to monitor the curve as your adolescent grows and develops. Early detection is important. If left untreated, scoliosis can cause problems with heart and lung function. Click here to view the It is important to remember the health information found on this website is for reference only not intended to replace the advice and guidance of your healthcare provider. Always seek the advice of your physician with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. If you think you may have a medical emergency, call your physician or 911 immediately. © Children's Hospital of Orange County
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913
The Psychological Meaning of Words: LIWC and Computerized Text Analysis Methods We are in the midst of a technological revolution whereby, for the first time, researchers can link daily word use to a broad array of real-world behaviors. This article reviews several computerized text analysis methods and describes how Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) was created and validated. LIWC is a transparent text analysis program that counts words in psychologically meaningful categories. Empirical results using LIWC demonstrate its ability to detect meaning in a wide variety of experimental settings, including to show attentional focus, emotionality, social relationships, thinking styles, and individual differences.
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133
The one thing that most people know about Don Carlo Gesualdo, Prince of Venosa, is that in 1590 he caught his wife and her lover in bed together and murdered them both. Indeed, his biography, rather than his music, kept his name alive for a number of centuries and even revived it in the first twentieth-century biography – Heseltine and Gray's Carlo Gesualdo, Prince of Venosa: Musician and Murderer. What is less known, however, is that Gesualdo probably had been aware of the affair for two years. This has led some scholars to speculate that the murder was political, rather than a crime of passion. After his trial (he was acquitted), Gesualdo kept mainly to his estate. Music, heretofore a semi-secret passion (he published a book of madrigals under the name Gioseppe Pilonij), became almost the only thing he cared about. Contemporary writers talk about his "mad passion" for music. In 1594, Gesualdo visited the court of Ferrara, mainly to sample the music there. He picked up a second wife, Leonora d'Este, niece of Ferrara's duke, an illustrious marriage which rehabilitated him in Italian society. His musical obsessions grew. Poems and musical treatises were dedicated to him. He published a grand total of seven books of madrigals, as well as a great deal of sacred music. As he grew older, severe depression seemed to overcome him, in the end to the point of psychopathy. He also became increasingly ill. Contemporaries describe him as caring for nothing but making music and money. His second marriage proved unhappy, but fortunately not as unhappy as the first. Husband and wife essentially separated. Musically, Gesualdo is an example of musical Mannerism, seen in such figures as early Monteverdi, Marenzio, and Luzzaschi. The portrayal of emotional extremes – melancholia, tormented love, for example – tends to attract this group. Gesualdo goes to the extreme of the extremes. His dissonance often reaches the border of tonality – and his sadness plumbs ever-blacker depths of self-pity. His counterpoint – unlike Monteverdi's, clumsy and even primitive – often seems to result from noodling around the keyboard. However, one cannot deny the power of his harmonies. A great artist not only discovers new things, he discovers and keeps things that others might reject and makes these discoveries necessary. Stravinsky, to whom (and to Robert Craft) we owe a large part of the revival of this music, once remarked that musical history would have taken a different course, had composers only followed Gesualdo. As we know, however, composers walked other paths, and this, in Gesualdo's modern rebirth, has allowed him to retain his ability to shock and to surprise. ~ Steve Schwartz
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608
Polonium: Deadly radioactive substance Whether a radioactive substance called polonium-210 was involved in Yasser Arafat's death is under investigation. The body of the former Palestine Liberation Organization leader was exhumed Tuesday for this purpose and reburied. Arafat died in 2004. A murder inquiry into his death was opened this year after high levels of polonium-210 were found on Arafat's toothbrush, clothing and keffiyeh, the black-and-white headscarf he often wore. Tawfiq Tirawi, head of the Palestinian investigation committee, said forensic experts from France, Switzerland and Russia took their own samples for independent analysis. Polonium-210 is not a radioactive substance that emits gamma particles, which can travel through walls at extremely high energies. Instead, as polonium-210 decays, it releases alpha particles, which can't even pass through a piece of paper. But alpha particles are still dangerous. They travel short distances and retain a high amount of energy. In nature, it takes about 138 days for half of a given quantity of polonium-210 to decay. But because biological processes also work to eliminate the substance, it takes about 50 days for half of it to disappear while inside the body, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (PDF). Polonium-210 is a problem to humans only when it gets into the body. The International Atomic Energy Agency says that careful hand-washing and showering can eliminate most traces of this substance. The radioactive substance can enter body by eating or drinking contaminated things, breathing contaminated air, or inhaling or ingesting bodily fluids from someone contaminated with it. A wound can also become contaminated. "Radiation, just like with any toxic chemical, is related to dose," said Cham Dallas, a professor and toxicologist at the University of Georgia's Institute for Health Management and Mass Destruction Defense. "If you get a big dose, then you'll die sooner." And with polonium-210, a dangerous dose can be a matter of micrograms: smaller than a single speck of pepper, he said. If you ingest polonium-210, about 50% to 90% of the substance will exit the body through feces, according to a fact sheet from Argonne National Laboratory (PDF). What is left will enter the bloodstream. About 45% of polonium ingested gets into the spleen, kidneys and liver, and 10% is deposited in the bone marrow. Radiation poisoning from polonium-210 looks like the end stage of cancer, Dallas said. Liver and kidney damage ensue, along with extreme nausea and severe headaches. Victims often experience vomiting, diarrhea and hair loss. The alpha particles emitted from the decaying substance get absorbed in the body, which is what causes harm. Death may come in a matter of days, sometimes weeks. There is no cure for severe radiation poisoning, Dallas said. A few experimental treatments are in the works for people who are able to stay on the edge of potential survival, but they have not been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Arafat died at age 75 at a Paris military hospital after he suffered a brain hemorrhage and slipped into a coma. Palestinian officials said in the days before his death that Arafat had a blood disorder -- though they ruled out leukemia -- and that he had digestive problems. Rumors of poisoning circulated at the time, but Palestinian officials denied them, and then-Foreign Minister Nabil Sha'ath said he "totally" ruled them out. Over the course of a year, through natural sources and medical tests, the average American gets an effective radiation dose of 6.2 millisieverts (mSv). A potentially lethal dose of polonium-210 is 5 sieverts (Sv), Dallas said, which is about 1,000 times more powerful than that average year's worth of exposure. Low concentrations of polonium are all around the environment. Additionally, tobacco contains polonium, and about twice as much of the radioactive substance has been found in the ribs of smokers than non nonsmokers, according to the Argonne report. As for investigating a polonium poisoning, there are instruments that can detect low concentrations of polonium, Dallas said. But there's also a background level of polonium found in nature, so if an alleged poisoning happened many years ago, the remaining quantity in the body may be close to the background level. Another tricky part about investigating a situation like this years after a potential poisoning: It would be relatively easy for someone to contaminate evidence after the fact with a small amount of the substance, Dallas said. So it's possible that someone could have planted small amounts of polonium-210 in Arafat's belongings, Dallas said. High levels were found by a team of Swiss researchers at the Institut de Radiophysique. Even through exhuming the body, it's not clear that detection would be foolproof, Dallas said. As time goes on, there's less and less of the radioactive substance left, so it would be more and more difficult to tell how much polonium-210 Arafat was exposed to, if any. "It's going to be very hard to determine whether polonium was ever introduced there," Dallas said. "There will be a lot of dispute, I guess, depending on who is incriminated by this." Copyright 2012 by CNN NewSource. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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1,159
Authorities say they've confirmed that a puppy in southwestern Michigan contracted Eastern equine encephalitis, a potentially deadly viral disease. The Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Michigan State University's Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health on Wednesday confirmed the case in an 8-week-old Van Buren County puppy. Officials say it may be the first such case in a dog in Michigan. Officials say the puppy was euthanized. The disease is rare but can be deadly among humans. It's spread by mosquitoes. It typically affects people, horses and poultry, but also can occur in other mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Health officials say people should take steps to avoid being bitten by mosquitoes and horses should be vaccinated. For more information on diseases found in Michigan Click HERE.
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Since African Americans fought for freedom from slavery in the 19th century, many have called for reparations–financial compensation for the years of chattel slavery. Although former slaves were promised 40 acres and a mule to help them rebound from being enslaved, the program was short-lived, and many have been wondering if African Americans–like their Jewish counterparts–would ever see proper compensation for suffering such heinous atrocities in this country. While we will probably never see financial compensation for slavery, many have argued that blacks in America should receive reparations in the form of a free college education or student loan debt forgiveness, while other still hold fast to the “40 acres and a mule” philosophy and want land. In June, the National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America (NCOBRA) is holding a conference to examine why African Americans should still be granted reparations more than 150 years after slavery ended. “After the passage of the 13Th and 14Th amendments, laws were passed to re-enslave people of African descent through Jim Crow laws. The New Jim Crow is a result of the low-intensity war against the Black community under the guise of a ‘War on Drugs,’ in addition to ongoing discrimination, and an extension of the slavery experience for Black people,” NCOBRA writes. NCOBRA’s reparations conference takes place in Philadelphia June 22-24. What are your thoughts on reparations? Do you think African Americans will ever see some form of reparations by the U.S. government?
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325
The success of a concurrent system depends on well designed hardware, flexible software that controls the hardware, and clear marketing vision. To adapt the changing marketing requirement, hardware and software need to have flexible architectures. This article is focused on software development issues, and discusses concurrency design at application layer as opposed to concurrency inside the Operating System. Any multi-threaded system can be considered a concurrent system; for example, a lengthy task can be implemented as a background thread so that it will not block the graphical user interface. Here, we are discussing concurrent systems which can be characterized by the following traits: - System input and output can be clearly identified. - System internal consists of system resources, such as hardware modules, which are used to process system input and generates system output. - One or more execution steps are needed for a system input to be processed by system resources and to become a system output. - The system resources and their relationship are identified by system analysis. The concurrency properties of system resources determine the constraints between execution steps, which ultimately define the system concurrency behavior. The above description can be illustrated in figure 1. The system consists of three resources: 2 inputs and 2 outputs. Each input needs to go through two steps to become output. Resources 1 and 2 are independent and can be parallel. The output of resources 1 and 2 are the input of resource 3, which is independent of 1 and 2. Figure 1. A Sample Concurrent System Most concurrent systems have these design goals: - Have an easy to understand software architecture so that the desired concurrency can be implemented and verified quickly. - Have a solid system concurrency kernel to adapt system environmental changes such as inconsistent hardware responses, and still achieve high system reliability. - Have a good scalable architecture to adapt new requirement changes. - System concurrency and throughput are well understood by all teams involved in the system specification and design, not just by a few key software engineers. Therefore, the concurrent software should expose how the current system internally works with minimum cost, so that the team communications can be conducted effectively. - Different system concurrencies can be achieved with different execution configurations without major interruption to the system reliability. For a complex concurrent system, the design cost to achieve such goals could be very high for inexperienced engineers. Most systems end up with only a few engineers who can understand and maintain the fragile concurrent kernels. What is needed to meet the concurrent system design goal from a management perspective? - To have the capability to quickly understand the marketing or hardware concurrency requirement, and to provide a clear road map on how to achieve the desired software system concurrency at an early stage of development, not when delivering the alpha or beta product. This requires the software engineer to have a clear understanding of the system resource concurrency at the very beginning. - To shorten the cycle of turning the desired concurrency into a real functioning software system. - To communicate the achievable concurrency goal to other teams frequently, and to adjust the concurrency accordingly based on new marketing input, or new resource constraints improvements or limitations, such as hardware. The followings are common issues found in a concurrent software design: - The software team member is not very experienced in concurrency design. Most teams have engineers knowing threads, critical sections, semaphores, and events. But, this usually does not guarantee achieving the design goals listed above. - The understanding of system concurrency is very slow. The software engineer could not present a full picture of how the system concurrency design is going to be working until the alpha or beta stage. Therefore, nobody will question how the system concurrency is designed since there is no good method to communicate the software design. The engineer usually gives you his/her understanding of the system concurrency on small pieces, which is hard to convince the software team manager or other teams that the software team has fully understood the system and will be able to deliver on schedule. - The marketing group has a wrong system throughput assumption and commitment at the beginning of a project, with false understanding of the system resource constraints, or the complexity for available engineers to achieve the desired high throughput without sacrificing software system reliability. The marketing group might assume that software engineers could just achieve it, but have no way to verify it during the process until it is too late. - Almost all designs do not have a clear distinction between the code controlling the system resource operation and the code performing the system resource concurrency. This architecture makes it very hard to enhance upon new concurrency requirements. By simply using a synchronization object, such as a critical section, event, or semaphore from the Operating System, it's almost impossible to perform such a partition without a major investment on the system architecture design. Unfortunately, most applications do not separate the two domains and let one engineer handle all of them, who is already overwhelmed by the concurrency choreography. The software manager usually does not understand the importance of such a design, or they don't have the time to spend on infrastructure building, and just want to see something is beginning to work. The result is that more time will be wasted during debugging and the feature enhancement period. - The fragile concurrency architecture is hard to understand. It is almost impossible for new engineers to take over the design, except to abandon the old one, and then propose a "better architecture" which usually goes through the same design cycle and delays the schedule. The software manager usually is not aware of the engineer's redesign approach except to accept it, since both the engineer and manager have no choice to improve the old architecture. - The manager and software engineer mistakenly think that object oriented analysis of the concurrent hardware modules will guarantee a good concurrent software design which delivers a flexible concurrent software architecture. Most OOA just help engineers to identify objects in a system without concurrency analysis, and engineers have to use a synchronization object in the Operating System to address concurrency. If this approach is used, it will not help achieve the concurrent system design goals listed above. Unfortunately, most systems are designed with such approach. - Engineers begin to experience an unexplained hang, and begin to put a sleep function somewhere to solve weird timing problems, simply because the understanding of system resource concurrency is not complete at the beginning, and the design can not adapt to a different running environment. When switching to different platforms, such as a faster machine, software needs major retest, or a possible overhaul. And the engineer and the manager begin to hide facts from the upper manager. The development cost goes up, and the software always needs major "improvements" to adapt to a new hardware with a newly tuned concurrency, which should not happen if it is well designed at the beginning. - Typically, the design of a system concurrency is architected by a senior person in a team, and it is very hard for other people to challenge the delicate design. System maintenance and enhancement for the concurrency part is a major issue with such a design approach. How to Address Those Issues The cost of making a complex concurrent system flexible and reliable is extremely high for average engineers who simply use the Operating System's critical section, semaphore, event, and thread. To address the above problems, we need to develop a platform to help engineers in modeling a concurrent system with an easily understood object model, communicating the design by a user friendly graphical user interface, and verifying the internal concurrency of the design quickly by simulation. - A simple concurrent object model is needed. An object oriented analysis method based on the model should be easy to perform. - An inter-task communication mechanism is provided based on the object model to allow task synchronization. - A design development toolkit is needed to support the object oriented analysis, and helps software engineers to spend more time on understanding the system concurrency, and system resource controlling during implementation, instead of struggling with multithreaded code that is implemented with Operating System synchronization objects such as critical sections, semaphores, and events. - The design platform provides a graphic presentation of the system concurrent execution status that helps software engineers to present and to validate a design effectively. Eventually, it will help the whole team, even different groups, to understand the system concurrency internals. - The object model and its development toolkit allow separation of the code performing system resource concurrency and the code performing system resource control. In figure 1, the code controlling Resource 1 is a resource control domain. The code controlling independent Resources 1 and 2 to operate in parallel is a system resource concurrency domain. This architecture helps the manager to partition the concurrent system design work into two domains so that it can be assigned to different engineers to improve team productivity and product reliability. Usually, a manager will not offer a resource to implement above the environment to help the design long term, since it is very time consuming and no immediate results can be seen. JEK Platform is designed to address these issues with the above concurrent system design goals, and makes concurrent problems easier to model for software engineers. JEK SDK automatically turns a modeled application job into a concurrent execution engine. The object model also separates the resource synchronization code and the resource control code, so that the engineer can spend more time understanding system concurrency, instead of dealing with Operating System synchronization objects, which is used by most software engineers. It will also help the engineer to spend more time communicating their understanding of the system concurrency within a team, or with other teams. Here, two samples are presented (please go to www.jekplatform.com/CodeProjectSamples.htm to get the source code) to demonstrate how the JEK Platform works: - Sample 1: Philosophers dining problem. - Sample 2: Automated coffee machine. Sample 1. Philosophers Dining Problem The philosophers dining problem is five philosophers sitting around a table doing what they do best: thinking and eating. In the middle of the table is a plate of food, and in between each philosopher is a fork. The philosophers spend most of their time thinking, but when they get hungry, they reach for the two forks next to them and start eating. A philosopher cannot begin eating until he has both forks. When he is done eating, he puts the sticks down and continues thinking. To solve the problem with JEK Platform, five routes are defined to represent the actions of five philosophers. Each route has two tasks: eat and think. Obviously, eat task of each philosopher's route can not be active at the same time because of resource constraints. A Mutex synchronization resource is used to restrict the eat task of each philosopher. The resource allocation scheduling algorithm in the JEK Kernel has an important feature to avoid a deadlock in this sample: if one philosopher gets a fork and finds another is already taken, it will release the one and notify other tasks in other routes so that other philosopher can continue to eat. The following diagram, figure 2, illustrates the philosopher dining job execution engine's timing diagram. The application code is pretty simply since it does not need to handle threads and thread synchronization that is handled in the JEK SDK, but simply describes the resources (forks) and tasks (philosophers' actions). Figure 2. JEK Studio monitors the philosophers dining job execution In figure 2, JEK Studio GUI has four components illustrated by four yellow bubbles: - The task matrix presents the application engine internal structure and the real-time execution activity status. - The task timing diagram presents a more detailed real-time execution status for tasks, which helps developers to understand and to validate concurrent system behavior quickly. - The activity resource matrix presents real-time task activity resource status. - The synchronization resource matrix presents real-time task occupy status. - The task trace window displays log status, which is also saved in a log file. In JEK Studio, five routes are shown in the task matrix. Its execution is shown in the task execution timing diagram. The four blue bubbles are explained as follows: - Blue bubble 1. Job execution engine starts to execute job. Philosophers 1 and 4 start to eat. - Blue bubble 2. Philosophers 3 and 5 start to eat at the same time. Philosophers 1 and 4 start to rest at the same time. The reason that philosopher 3 and 5 can start to eat at the same time is because the application code is configured so that the eat time for all philosophers are the same. The rest times are also the same for all philosophers. - Blue bubble 3. It's interesting to observe the job execution status after a few loops. Philosophers 1, 2, 4 are resting. Philosophers 3 and 5 are eating. If observed carefully, philosophers 3 and 5 are not starting to eat at the exact same time. Philosophers 1, 2, 4 do not rest at the same time. - Blue bubble 4. This is another interesting job execution status. Only one philosopher, #2, is eating at this moment. Philosophers 1, 3, 4, 5 are all resting. The reason, the resting times of all philosophers are longer than eating times. - Another observation is that fairness is not guaranteed for each route. It's unpredictable which philosopher will get a chance to eat next time based on the scheduler used. - Route starvation is possible. In other words, some philosophers might never get a chance to eat. This is not demonstrated in the graph since the result is random. You can try to start the engine a few times and the results could be different each time. If not using simulation, it is very hard for a software engineer to answer: if scenarios marked by the blue bubbles 3 and 4 are possible. Sample 2. Automated Coffee Machine An automated coffee machine mixes milk, sugar, and coffee into a cup, and serves the cup to customer when it is done. Figure 3. Coffee machine model analysis The coffee machine has five robots: - Platform robot. It holds the coffee cup, so that milk, sugar, and coffee can be poured into it and gets mixed. After the coffee is mixed, it moves the cup with the mixed coffee to a customer. - Cup robot. It puts an empty cup onto the platform robot. - Milk robot. It pours milk into the coffee cup on the platform robot. - Sugar robot. It pours sugar into the coffee cup on the platform robot. - Coffee robot. It pours coffee into the coffee cup on the platform robot. Coffee machine operating procedure: - All robots are in initial positions. - Cup robot puts an empty cup onto the platform cup. - Milk robot pours milk into cup. - Sugar robot pours sugar into cup. - Step 3 and step 4 can be parallel. - Coffee robot pours coffee into cup. - Platform robot moves mixed coffee to customer. Important operating requirements of the coffee machine are as follows: - Above operating procedures have to be followed. Otherwise, the robot's positions might be in wrong places, and results in robot damages. - Milk and sugar need to be poured into the cup before coffee, so that the coffee can be mixed properly without requiring adding a coffee stir robot that increases the complexity of the machine. To solve the problem with JEK Platform, two routes are defined. One route is designed to control the cup robot and the platform robots. Another route is designed to control milk, sugar, and coffee robots. The reason to define these routes is that the task steps inside each route are sequential. The synchronization resource between routes is the platform robot. For detailed analysis and code, please go to http://www.jekplatform.com/CodeProjectSamples.htm to download the complete JEK Platform and to look for sample section 7: Machine Control. Figure 4 is the coffee machine execution timing diagram implemented with the JEK SDK and presented with the JEK Studio. X axis is time. Y axis is tasks. A bar is the execution time for a task. Tasks within one route are displayed with one color. Different tasks in one route are displayed with different Y axis values. Multiple bars in the same Y axis represent the same task executed at different times. Route 1 controlling milk, sugar, and coffee robot (orange color) has three tasks from bottom to top: - Task1_1: control milk robot to pour milk. - Task1_2: control sugar robot to pour sugar. - Task1_3: control coffee robot to pour coffee. Route 2 controlling cup robot (blue) has two tasks from bottom to top: - Task2_1: control cup robot to put cup onto platform robot. - Task2_2: control platform robot to serve mixed coffee to customer. The six blue bubbles in figure 4 are explained as follows: - Blue bubble 1. Task2_1 puts a cup onto the platform robot. - Blue bubble 2. Task1_1 and Task1_2 pour milk and sugar into an empty cup at the same time. - Blue bubble 3. Task1_2 finishes pouring sugar and Task1_1 is still pouring milk. - Blue bubble 4. Task1_3 starts pouring coffee. - Blue bubble 5. Task2_2 controls the platform robot to serve mixed coffee. - Blue bubble 6. Repeat the same process. Figure 4. Coffee machine execution status of solution 1 This robot is not very efficient. Route 1 is idle after blue bubble 5. To increase the throughput, another independent platform robot is added to make route 1 as busy as possible. The position of platform robot 1 is different from that of platform robot 2. Therefore, the control code for pouring milk, sugar, and coffee is different in context, but have the same structure. Figure 5 is a new robot diagram. Figure 5. Platform 2 robot is added Route 3 (burgundy red color) is added to serve second cup, which is presented as red in figure 6. It has identical tasks as defined in route 2. Since a new platform robot is added, route 2 and 3 are redefined as follows: Route 2 controlling cup robot (blue) has two tasks: - Task2_1: control cup robot to put cup onto platform robot 1. - Task2_2: control platform robot 1 to serve mixed coffee to customer 1. Route 3 controlling cup robot (burgundy red) has two tasks: - Task3_1: control cup robot to put cup onto platform robot 2. - Task3_2: control platform robot 2 to serve mixed coffee to customer 2. Figure 6. Solution 2 coffee machine has two platform robots The five blue bubbles in figure 6 are explained as follows. - Blue bubble 1. Task3_1 puts the cup onto platform robot 2. Both routes 2 and 3 are started at the same time, but only one route can use the cup robot. It is random that route 2 gets the cup robot. - Blue bubble 2. Task1_1 and Task1_2 pour milk and sugar into an empty cup at the same time after a cup is put on platform robot 2. Note: the execution context of route 2 is platform robot 1 since it has a different location than platform robot 2. In other words, the control code is different when the context is different. - Blue bubble 3. Task2_1 starts to put a cup on platform robot 1. Coffee robot uses task1_3 to pour coffee into the cup on platform robot 1. Both tasks are started at the same time. - Blue bubble 4. Platform robot 2 uses task3_2 to serve mixed coffee to customer 2. Task1_1 and Task1_2 pour milk and sugar into an empty cup on platform robot 1. The route 1 execution context (pouring milk, sugar, and coffee into which platform robot) is not visible from the timing diagram. It is only visible from the trace window or log file. - Blue bubble 5. Task1_3 pours coffee into platform robot 1. Comparing figures 4 and 6, route 1 is almost busy all the time. Therefore, the throughput of the coffee machine with two platform robots is increased. But, if looking carefully, the machine with two platform robots can be even faster. The reason is that the coffee robot can serve another platform robot while milk and sugar robots are serving one platform robot, if the time of putting one cup on the platform is shorter than the time of pouring coffee by the coffee robot. To increase the speed of the coffee machine, an engine design with different route configuration is used. Route 1 represents the actions of serving sugar, milk, and coffee to platform robot 1. Route 2 represents the actions of serving sugar, milk, and coffee to platform robot 2. The design of route 3 and 4 are the same as before. Figure 7 is the timing diagram of a new coffee machine. Figure 7. New concurrency of higher system throughput for the coffee machine with 2 platform robots The five blue bubbles in figure 7 are explained as follows: - Blue bubble 1. Task4_1 puts cup onto platform robot 1. - Blue bubble 2. Task1_1 and Task1_2 pour milk and sugar into empty cup at the same time to the cup platform robot 1. The cut robot starts to put a cup on platform 2 since it is free at this time. - Blue bubble 3. Task2_2 starts to add sugar into cup 2 on platform robot 2. The reason that this action can happen is that the sugar robot just finishes adding sugar for cup 1 on platform robot 1. It is also clear that the milk robot is still busy pouring milk into cup 1. Therefore, cup 2 only has sugar for now. - Blue bubble 4. Task2_1 starts to pour milk into cup 2 since it just finishes pouring milk for cup 1 on platform robot 1. Coffee robot begins to add coffee into cup 1 on platform robot 1. - Blue bubble 5. Cup robot begins to serve cup 1 to customer since coffee is done for cup 1. It is obvious that the choreography of this new coffee machine is different from that of the previous coffee machine. It appears to a user that its robots are smarter and works more intelligently since it starts to do the next job more promptly. The above three samples demonstrate the following: - It is easy to model and to analyze the concurrency of machine control with the JEK Platform. - To adapt to a new hardware configuration, the JEK SDK helps achieve new system concurrency with minimum code changes. - JEK Studio can visually identify system throughput potential quickly so that better throughput can be achieved. - The samples demonstrated in these solutions have a pretty simple architecture (see downloaded code). If not using the JEK Platform, can we solve the problem quickly? A few questions are raised here. - If several teams, such as marketing, hardware, and software, are working on the product, they might stop when solution 2 is working. Do they know that solution 3 is the best solution? Can they figure it out quickly? - Team members might be satisfied when they see that robots are working in parallel. If it is found that improvements can be made, how much code change is needed from solution 2 to solution 3 if implemented with synchronization objects in the Operating System? - How much competitiveness a company would gain to have a more efficient and reliable machine? How to Get the Two Samples Please go to http://www.jekplatform.com/CodeProjectSamples.htm to download the complete JEK Platform which includes the two samples.
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The exhibition Voyage on Uncanny Seas, curated by Mark Dion, at the Gallery Diet in Miami, Florida, convenes a collection of visual artists committed to a focused consideration of the Ocean, including works by Brian Booth, David Brooks, Barbara de Vries, Klara Hobza, Pam Longobardi, Katherine McLeod, James Prosek, Alexis Rockman, Dana Sherwood, Juan Valadez, and Bryan Wilson. Katherine McLeod, "Two Triangles, 2011" One of the themes that provides a conceptual framework of the exhibition is the occasion of the completion of the decade long Census of Marine Life, the world’s largest scientific collaboration which brought together 2,700 scientists from 80 nations to conduct over 530 expeditions of discovery to develop a comprehensive view of the past, present and future of life in the world’s seas. This resulted in the finding of more that 6000 new species, of which only 1500 have been thus far described. The oceans were affirmed as the site of mega-biodiversity, and animals and plants of uncanny strangeness and wondrous behavior were brought to light.
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This multimedia lesson for Grades 7-10 explores the physical forces that act in concert to create snowflakes. Students build an apparatus that creates conditions similar to a winter cloud and produce their own snow crystals indoors. By watching the snow crystals grow, they learn about how snowflake size and shape is determined by the forces that act on water molecules at the atomic and molecular levels. Digital models and snowflake photo galleries bring together a cohesive package to help kids visualize what's happening at the molecular scale. Editor's Note: This lab activity calls for dry ice. See Related Materials for a link to the NOAA's "Dry Ice Safety" Guidelines, and for a link to snow crystal images produced by an electron microscope. Lewis structures, VSEPR, condensation, covalent bond, crystals, electron sharing, ice, physics of snowflakes, snow formation, valence electrons, valence shell Metadata instance created January 2, 2013 by Caroline Hall January 2, 2013 by Caroline Hall AAAS Benchmark Alignments (2008 Version) 4. The Physical Setting 4B. The Earth 6-8: 4B/M15. The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases. 4D. The Structure of Matter 6-8: 4D/M1a. All matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope. 6-8: 4D/M1cd. Atoms may link together in well-defined molecules, or may be packed together in crystal patterns. Different arrangements of atoms into groups compose all substances and determine the characteristic properties of substances. 6-8: 4D/M3cd. In solids, the atoms or molecules are closely locked in position and can only vibrate. In liquids, they have higher energy, are more loosely connected, and can slide past one another; some molecules may get enough energy to escape into a gas. In gases, the atoms or molecules have still more energy and are free of one another except during occasional collisions. 9-12: 4D/H2. The number of protons in the nucleus determines what an atom's electron configuration can be and so defines the element. An atom's electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. Atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons. 9-12: 4D/H7a. Atoms often join with one another in various combinations in distinct molecules or in repeating three-dimensional crystal patterns. 12. Habits of Mind 12C. Manipulation and Observation 6-8: 12C/M3. Make accurate measurements of length, volume, weight, elapsed time, rates, and temperature by using appropriate devices. <a href="http://www.compadre.org/precollege/items/detail.cfm?ID=12568">WGBH Educational Foundation. Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 2010.</a> Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes? (WGBH Educational Foundation, Boston, 2010), WWW Document, (http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/). Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. (2010). Retrieved May 21, 2013, from WGBH Educational Foundation: http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/ WGBH Educational Foundation. Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 2010. http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/ (accessed 21 May 2013). Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 2010. 21 May 2013 <http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/>. %T Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes? %D 2010 %I WGBH Educational Foundation %C Boston %U http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/ %O application/pdf %0 Electronic Source %D 2010 %T Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes? %I WGBH Educational Foundation %V 2013 %N 21 May 2013 %9 application/pdf %U http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/ Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.
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The Irian Jaya training RAP was made possible with funding from the Smart Family Foundation, The MacArthur Foundation, and USAID. Special thanks to CI's Irian Jaya and Indonesia programs, the University of Cenderawasih, the Irian Jaya Environmental Foundation, and Dewan Adat Mamberamo Raya. Irian Jaya Training Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) The biological diversity of Irian Jaya is extremely high and unique, but virtually unstudied. To collect biodiversity data to fill this knowledge gap and contribute to conservation planning, CI's RAP program is conducting its second expedition to Irian Jaya. On this expedition they will also conduct a training course for local scientists. Expert biologists will train Indonesian participants in rapid biodiversity assessment methods for six taxonomic groups. The hands-on training course will lead to an actual scientific survey of birds, insects, freshwater fish, mammals, herpetofauna and vegetation. Yongsu and the Mamberamo River basin, Irian Jaya, Indonesia Located in the western portion of the world's highest and largest tropical island, Irian Jaya is considered the last great rainforest wilderness in Indonesia. The province's range of altitudes (from sea level to the highest mountains in the Asia-Pacific region) helps to create an extraordinary array of ecosystems, biodiversity, and endemic species (those species found nowhere else in the world). This island treasure is at risk, however, from land conversion, which is ascribed to logging, transmigration, plantation agriculture, mining, oil and gas operations, the introduction of alien (non-native) species, and infrastructure projects such as dams and roads. August 19 - September 15, 2000 From August 19 to August 30, more than 20 participants will take part in the training course. Then six participants will join the expert biologists in the Mamberamo River basin to conduct a rapid biodiversity assessment from September 1-15. August 19-30, 2000: Yongsu Research Camp August 31, 2000: Jayapura September 1-7, 2000: Furu River Site in the Mamberamo River Basin September 8-15, 2000: Tiri River Site in the Mamberamo River Basin September 16-18, 2000: Sentani International Team of Scientists and Indonesian Participants Conservation biologists from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the Netherlands, and the United States will teach participants from Indonesian universities, non-government organizations (NGOs), and government organizations. Meet the team >> Objectives of the Biological RAP training in Irian Jaya - To build capacity among Indonesian biologists in methods for rapid biological assessments, in data analysis and in report preparation. - To collect biological data, which is currently severely lacking, and to build an understanding of ecological processes and biodiversity of Irian Jaya and the Mamberamo River basin specifically. - To create a framework for further conservation recommendations about the areas surveyed to decision-makers. - To publish the results and make them available to decision-makers, stakeholders, scientists, and other interested parties. LEARN MORE: Find more information about RAP training and adventures studying biodiversity.
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655
Function Sponsored by Tony O’Lenick explores the difference between germicidal and conditioning quats. Quat is surfactant jargon for a quaternary ammonium compound. This class of compounds includes nitrogen-containing materials in which the nitrogen has four nonhydrogens surrounding them. Quats by virtue of their fatty group and their cationic group are substantive to hair, skin and cell walls of bacteria. These substrates are fatty in nature and generally have a negative charge, the result of oxidation of sulfur-bearing amino acids. The nature of the interaction between hair, skin and bacteria cell walls is critical to the function of the quat at the surface. If the quat coats the hair and skin with minimal penetration, it is mild and conditioning. If the quat is made to maximize the disruption of the bacteria cell wall, it will be antimicrobial.
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180
Jordan Table of Contents Figure 5. Population of the East Bank by Age and Sex, 1987 Source: Based on information from Jordan, Department of Statistics, Statistical Yearbook, 1987, Amman, 1988, 18. Figure 6. United Nations Relief and Works Agency Camps in Jordan, 1989 Source: Based on information from United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Jordan. Official Jordanian statistics gave a 1987 population figure of 2,896,800 for the East Bank. A 1982 population of 2,399,300 thus indicated an annual growth rate of between 3.6 and 4 percent. United Nations statistics projected a peak in the annual growth rate at 4.11 percent in the period from 1990 to 1995, followed by a steady decline to 2.88 percent in 2020. Rapid development in the provision of health care services during the 1970s and 1980s led to a decline in the crude death rate from 17 per 1,000 population in 1965 to 7 per 1,000 population by 1986 (see Health and Welfare , this ch.). During the same period, the infant mortality rate, a major indicator of a country's development and health status, dropped from 115 to 46 per 1,000 live births. In 1986 life expectancy at birth was sixty-five years (sixty-three for males and sixty-seven for females). The lowered death rate, a high birth rate, and lowered infant mortality rate combined to generate a major demographic problem in the late 1980s. At the end of the decade, more than half Jordan's population was below fifteen years of age (see fig. 5). This situation strained the country's already limited resources, and employment for the burgeoning group of young people became increasingly difficult to provide. Accurate demographic figures were difficult to compile because of the substantial number of Jordanians residing and working abroad and the continuous flow of West bank Palestinians with Jordanian passports back and forth between the East and West banks. According to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, about 224,000 people were admitted to UNRWA refugee camps in the East Bank immediately after the June 1967 War. In 1986 UNRWA cited 826,128 registered refugees living on the East Bank, of whom about 205,000 were living in refugee camps. The exact number of Palestinians living on the East Bank was unknown. Estimates usually ranged from 60 to 70 percent of the total population. Official government statistics did not distinguish between East Bank and West Bank Jordanians (see Palestinians , this ch.). The government did not have an officially articulated population policy or birth control program. Rather, in 1979 it adopted a "child spacing program" that was designed to improve the health of mother and child, and not specifically to lower the fertility rate. This noninterventionist approach considered family planning to be one component of an integrated maternal-child health and primary health care program. Government clinics and private medical services delivered family planning services upon request and contraceptives were widely available at low cost. In 1987 there were 116 maternal-child health care centers--up from 93 in 1983-- providing prenatal and postnatal care and a wide range of birth control information. Jordan's high population growth can be attributed primarily to high fertility rates. In 1986 the World Bank (see Glossary) calculated this rate as 6.0 births for each woman over the span of her reproductive years, one of the highest fertility rates in the region. This rate was projected to decline to 4.2 births by the year 2000. The fertility rate varied, however, between women residing in rural and urban areas and according to educational attainment. Educated women tended to marry at a slightly older age than uneducated women, and this delay contributed to a lower fertility rate. Urban women achieved lower fertility rates through modern methods of contraception, particularly the pill. Fertility rates were lowest in Amman, higher in smaller urban areas such as Irbid and Az Zarqa, and highest in rural areas. In rural areas modern contraceptive usage was lower, although breast-feeding, which serves to delay the return of fertility, was extended for a longer period than in the cities. World Bank data indicated that 27 percent of married women of child-bearing age were using contraception in the 1980s. A woman was expected to have to bear five children, including at least two sons, in fairly rapid succession. Women gained status and security in their marital household by bearing children. According to a study conducted in the early 1980s by Jordanian anthropologists Seteney Shami and Lucine Taminian in a poor, squatter area in Amman, reproductive behavior was subject to several factors. If a woman had given birth to two or more sons, she might begin to space her pregnancies or stop bearing children for a while. Household structure--nuclear, extended, or multiple family--also appeared to be a crucial factor in determining fertility. The presence of other women in a household encouraged women to bear more children to improve their relative position in the household. The overall population density for the East Bank in 1987 was established at about thirty persons per square kilometer. There was wide regional variation and the rate of urbanization was high. East of Al Mafraq, in an area encompassing almost two-thirds of the country, no towns had a population of more than 10,000. The bulk of Jordan's population was centered in the governorate of Amman and the smaller urban areas of Irbid, As Salt, and Az Zarqa. The 1987 population totals of the eight governorates ranged from 1,203,000 in Amman to 101,000 in the Maan Governorate. According to World Bank figures, about 70 percent of the population lived in urban areas. The nation's capital, Amman, accounted for more than one- third of the total population. Rapid urbanization appeared to be the result of a high fertility rate and rural-urban migration. If urbanization continued at the high annual rate of 4 to 5 percent, it was estimated that by the year 2000, nearly three-fourths of the population could be living in Amman, Az Zarqa, Irbid, As Salt, and Ar Ramtha. The remainder of the population resided in villages scattered in an uneven pattern throughout Jordan. The nomadic and seminomadic population was very small, at most 2 to 3 percent of the population. The clearest concentrations of villages were in the fertile northwest corner and the Jordan Valley. Village size varied markedly from region to region. At one time, size related to the productive capacity of the surrounding farmland. Larger villages were located in the more fertile, generally irrigated regions where family members could reach their fields with relative ease. While village populations continued to grow, rural-urban migration drained off a steady stream of young men and sometimes whole families. Villages provided little employment for their residents, and agriculture as a way of life had declined precipitously since the 1950s. Camps of nomadic and seminomadic beduins still existed in the late 1980s. Nomadic tribes were found mainly in the desert area east of a line from Al Mafraq to Maan. The area, about 400 kilometers long and 250 kilometers wide, is known as the badiya (pl., bawaadi, meaning desert or semidesert). Seminomadic beduins were located in the Al Ghawr and near Irbid. These seminomads descended to the Jordan Valley in the winter because of its warm climate and grazing ground for their herds. Traditionally, many of these seminomads also farmed plots of land in the valley. In the summer, they moved their herds up into the hills to avoid the intense heat. The native inhabitants of the Jordan Valley are known as Al Ghawarna, or people of Al Ghawr. Prior to the June 1967 War, the valley was home to about 60,000 people engaged in agriculture and pastoralism. In 1971 the population had declined to 5,000 as a result of the June 1967 War and the 1970-71 conflict between the Palestinian guerrillas and the Jordanian armed forces (see The Guerrilla Crisis , ch. 1). By 1979, however, the population had reached 85,000 as a result of government development efforts designed to attract people to settle in this area. Refugee camps emerged in the wake of the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. The original refugee settlements were tent camps, but in most places tents were replaced by rows of galvanized steel, aluminum, and asbestos shelters. There were initially five refugee camps-- Irbid, Az Zarqa, Amman New (Al Wahdat), Al Karamah (later dismantled), and Jabal al Hussein-- but six additional emergency camps were established for refugees from the June 1967 War--Al Hisn, Suf, Jarash, Baqah, Talbiyah, and Marka. Most of the camps were located near major cities in the northwest (see fig. 6). Data as of December 1989 Jordan Table of Contents
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1,845
Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Places Reflecting America's Diverse Cultures Explore their Stories in the National Park System Walnut Canyon National Monument The rugged terrain in the Flagstaff, Arizona area was home to the Ancestral Puebloans from whom the present day Hopi are descended. Known by their descendants as Hisatsinom, meaning people of long ago, the Hopi ancestors lived in this region for more than 800 years. Although they were not the first to inhabit the Flagstaff area, the Hopi ancestors were the first residents to establish permanent dwellings in a 20-miles long, 400-feet deep, and ¼-mile wide canyon. Walnut Canyon National Monument preserves these cliffside homes, which tell the story of the Ancestral Puebloans of Flagstaff and their influence on Hopi culture today. Believed to have lived in the Flagstaff area from 600 until 1400 AD, the Hopi ancestors were an innovative people who managed to sustain their community in an arid region. Archeologists named this group of Ancestral Puebloans the Sinagua, meaning without water, to embody their lifestyle and stand as a testament to the culture’s exemplary agricultural skills. Like many Pueblo communities of the American Southwest, the Sinagua employed dry-farming techniques to harvest corn, squash, and beans in volcanic terrain. Otherwise known as the “three sisters,” these crops were drought-resistant and ideal for dry farming, since corn can tolerate the sun and shade its lower growing sister crops, squash and beans, which do not require direct sunlight in order to thrive. To irrigate these crops in the semi-arid climate, the Sinagua built terraces and small rock check dams that allowed them to conserve rainwater. They also collected water from Walnut Creek, but this source of water was not reliable since the creek did not flow all year. Although the crops grown on the canyon rims provided most of their food, the Sinagua also took advantage of the region’s wild life and natural resources. To add protein to their diet, the Sinagua hunted deer, bighorn sheep, and several smaller animals that lived within and around Walnut Canyon. They also ate wild grapes, berries, yucca, and the Arizona black walnut. Other plants used for food and medicinal purposes grew on the canyon rims, where they cultivated their crops and established the first Sinagua homes. When the Ancestral Puebloans first settled the region in about 600 AD, the Sinagua people around Flagstaff lived in pithouses and freestanding pueblos scattered along the canyon rims. Eventually, as the community expanded, Sinagua pithouse architecture changed. By the 1100s, the Sinagua were living in alcoves below the canyon rim, where the women constructed unique cliff dwellings still visible throughout the canyon today. Using limestone rocks cemented with golden colored clay, the women formed walls around the eroded limestone caves and reinforced their doorways with wooden beams. Traditionally, they located most of their dwellings in the southern and eastern parts of Walnut Canyon to take advantage of the sunlight, but some were also on the north and west sides for use during warmer periods. Although the Sinagua only lived in these alcoves for approximately 125 years, the Walnut Canyon cliff dwellings are the most visible ruins of the National Monument’s 232 prehistoric sites. When the Sinagua moved to nearby villages in 1250, they left behind over 80 dwellings with three to four rooms each. Together, the six meters long by three-meter deep enclosures house up to 300 rooms, but only 25 of these cliff dwellings are visible to tourists traveling along the canyon footpaths, since pothunters in the 1880s dynamited the cliff dwellings in search of Sinagua possessions. This resulted in the loss of some Sinagua artifacts, but the surviving cliff dwellings, pithouses, and finds from archeological excavations throughout Flagstaff offer great insight into the Sinagua farming community’s life in Walnut Canyon. Visitors may begin their tour of Walnut Canyon National Monument at the visitor center, where native artifacts and museum exhibits are on display. The bookstore is also at the visitor center, and in the lobby, visitors can enjoy the panoramic views of the canyon and distant mountains. To tour the canyon, visitors can follow the Island and Rim trails, two paved footpaths that begin at the visitor center. The Island Trail is a mile long loop to the Sinagua cliff dwellings, and the Rim Trail is a self-guided tour that takes visitors on a half hour trip along the canyon’s perimeter and through the Ponderosa forest. On the Rim Trail, visitors will also see two canyon overlooks, a pithouse, and other pueblo ruins.Walnut Canyon National Monument also offers two ranger-guided hikes, which require reservations. The Ledge Hike lasts four hours, and the Ranger Cabin Walk is a two-hour hike. Visitors can also picnic in designated areas, but no camping is available in the park. Information on nearby lodging and campgrounds, including the Bonito Campground at Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument, is available on the Walnut Canyon National Monument website.
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1,101
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- A group of international algae experts say there are no quick or easy solutions to clear algae from Lake Erie and Grand Lake St. Marys in Ohio. In the case of Grand Lake St. Marys, it could even take decades. The Columbus Dispatch (http://bit.ly/WtnmLC ) reports that experts spoke about the algae problem in Ohio's lakes at the EcoSummit 2012 conference this week in Columbus. Harry Gibbons of, Seattle-based Tetra Tech lumped Grand Lake St. Marys in with other lakes around the world that suffer from summertime blooms of toxic blue-green algae. The algae are common in most lakes but grow thick feeding on phosphorus from manure, fertilizers and sewage that rains wash into nearby streams. Information from: The Columbus Dispatch, http://www.dispatch.com
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183
- Enter a word for the dictionary definition. From The Collaborative International Dictionary of English v.0.48: Nectarine \Nec`tar*ine"\ (n[e^]k`t[~e]r*[=e]n"), n. [Cf. F. nectarine. See Nectar.] (Bot.) A smooth-skinned variety of peach. [1913 Webster] Spanish nectarine, the plumlike fruit of the West Indian tree Chrysobalanus Icaco; -- also called cocoa plum. It is made into a sweet conserve which is largely exported from Cuba. [1913 Webster]
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138
Modern programming languages have little support for writing secure software, making it all too easy to write programs with exploitable vulnerabilities. In these lectures, we explore a general technique based on type qualifiers that allows programmers to write down, in their souce code, their intentions with respect to security. We will describe how to mechanically verify that annotated code adheres to the policy. We will discuss the theoretical foundations and practical implementation issues. As a particular example, we show how to use type qualifiers to find format-string vulnerabilities in widely-deployed C programs and to find other security vulnerabilites in the Linux kernel. we will also look at alias analysis, another important program analysis problem, and show how a must-alias analysis system corresponds to a system for statically checking access control. This series of lectures will discuss the requirements, protocols, and components of network security software on the Internet. Topics will include secure tunnels, security for web services, privacy constraints, design features that create or address DoS threats, and the use of programmable security tokens in network protocols. The primary emphasis will be the relationship between models and design, including topics like the quantification of DoS threats, models for code security in programmable tokens, strategies for composition and interoperation, and practical strategies for formal analysis of network protocol designs and software. In these lectures, we will analyze the security infrastructure in current, main-stream programming systems and platforms such as the Java Virtual Machine and Common Language Runtime. We will explain how byte code verification collaborates with the class loader and security manager to provide a secure run-time environment. We will also use theoretical tools to determine what properties current security systems based on stack inspection have and provide concrete proposals for improving the infrastructure for next-generation programming languages and systems.
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397
Cancer patients often eat less food than they did before getting sick as a result of the effects of the disease and the treatments used to fight it. Not surprisingly, though, according to experts at Cancer Treatment Centers of America®(CTCA) cancer-associated malnutrition not only has a negative impact on quality of life, but it also negatively impacts a patients’ response to therapy, increasing the risk of complications and shortening survival time. Many cancer patients – especially those battling lung, pancreatic, gastric, colon, or head and neck cancer – are susceptible to this significant weight loss as a result of tumor burden causing malnutrition. And the consequences can be serious. Known medically as cancer cachexia, this severe form of malnutrition is characterized by progressive, involuntary weight loss depleting lean body mass and muscle tissue. Left untreated, patients will eventually waste away. “Quite simply, the bodies of cancer patients suffering from cachexia are using up calories faster than they are able to take them in,” said Danielle Bach, registered dietician at the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Western Regional Medical Center. Some patients might have fluid building up around the stomach suppressing hunger. Their stomachs feel full sooner, so they stop taking in the amount of food their body really needs. For other patients, taste changes due to medication result in a decreased desire to eat. “The implications of reduced food intake can have a direct impact on the patients’ overall treatment program,” said Bach. According to several research studies, losing as little as five percent of a patients’ weight within a one-month period could be a risk to the patients’ ability to tolerate treatment and, therefore, the treatment program should be delayed. Other studies have shown that losing 10 percent of a patients’ overall weight from the date of diagnosis through treatment can also put the patient at risk. Weight gain isn’t always the goal, however. In hormone sensitive cancers, for instance, like prostate cancer and most types of breast cancer, weight loss helps in the prevention of recurrence. “Weight loss and weight gain goals are specific for each cancer patient’s case, so weight gain isn’t necessarily recommended for everyone with cancer,” said Bach. CTCA has several tips to help patients maintain their weight without stuffing themselves full of sugary cookies or decadent holiday chocolates. • Eating smaller meals more frequently. As long as patients are getting the recommended calories per day, it doesn’t matter how many meals they eat. • Consider smoothies or nutrition supplement drinks to get the recommended daily calories. Most people don’t feel full as quickly when they are drinking calories versus eating them. Nutrition supplement drinks can also be used as the milk base in smoothies to provide more variety for those experiencing taste fatigue. • Add nuts, seeds, and dried fruits to desserts, salads, or breads. • Nut butters or avocado are great to add to smoothies or spread on bread. • Gravies and sauces can add calories, as well as protein powders, granola, olive oil and vegetable oils. • Drink water in between meals so that less volume in the stomach is taken up during mealtime, leaving more room for food to be eaten. “Last but certainly not least, never underestimate the power of exercise,” said Bach. “For any cancer patients that get hungry quickly, I always recommend walking 30 minutes prior to eating a meal as the exercise can help increase their hunger.” Additional healthy eating tips from Bach and CTCA include the following. In addition to providing patients with supportive care that includes nutrition guidance, CTCA also provides state-of-the-art technologies and treatment options, naturopathic consultation, acupuncture, massage, physical therapy, occupational therapy and more.
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794
AMHERST – What was once a sure thing is now not so sure. With a week to go before Christmas, it’s still too early to tell if the area will have a white or green Christmas. “The long-term forecast looks warmer than normal,” Environment Canada senior climatologist David Phillips said. “When it comes down to it it’s going to be touch and go. There’s not anything obvious. “It’s hard to make a call. Flipping a coin is just as accurate as reading the models on this one.” Even if some snow falls this week across the central Maritimes, Phillips said there’s no guarantee it’s going to remain until Christmas morning. He said milder weather and rain is forecast for later in the week. A white Christmas is defined as having two centimetres or more on the ground on Dec. 25. Last year, Phillips said there were two centimetres of snow on the ground on Christmas, while in 2010 there were eight centimetres. Historically, he said, the chances of a white Christmas are becoming less. “There’s something about our winters. They’re not as wintery as they used to be,” he said. “Thirty years ago there was normally about an 80 per cent chance of a white Christmas. Now, it’s more like 65 per cent.” Phillips said snow depth at Christmas has really dropped. Just 20 years ago, he said, the average depth was 20 cm on Christmas morning. Today, the average is 10 cm. “What we’re seeing is less snow and more rain. We’re seeing warmer temperatures and winters are just not like they used to be,” Phillips said. “That means a reduced chance of having a white Christmas.” The loss of a white Christmas, he said, resonates more with Canadians than skinny polar bears and the shrinking ice cap in the north. Climate change is guiding this, he said. “Even people who hate snow sort of like to have some on Christmas morning. That’s why we should appreciate white Christmases more when we get them because the time is going to come when they become fewer than more,” he said. “We should enjoy it when we get one.”
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(BPT) - The start of the school year is a time of great anticipation for parents and kids alike. New teachers. New classes. New and old friends. It's a time for fun and learning. Parents expect schools to be safe havens, but the reality is that children face a host of dangers all day long. Bullying, taunting and teasing are only some of the hazards that kids must deal with it every day at even the best schools in America. About 30 percent of middle and high school students say they've been bullied. Among high school students, one out of nine teens reported they had been pushed, shoved, tripped or spit upon during the last school year, according to a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development research study. FindLaw.com, the nation's leading website for free legal information, offers the following tips on how to keep your children safe at school: * Talk to your kids about school safety. Talk about bullying and make sure your child understands what is and is not acceptable behavior. Also discuss when and how to report bullying. * Go to the bus stop. If your schedule allows, go to the bus stop with your child and get to know the other kids and parents, along with the bus driver. * Get to know your kids' teachers. Send your child's teacher an email to introduce yourself and regularly check in on your child's academic and social progress. Learn how his or her teacher approaches bullying and other issues that may distract from the school's learning environment, such as the use of cell phones and iPods. * Read the school's policy on bullying. Become familiar with school policies about bullying - particularly the protocols for identifying and reporting bullying behavior. Pay careful attention to policies regarding cyberbullying, which can take place outside of school. * Watch and listen for the cues. Many kids don't want to reveal to their parents that they're being bullied, taunted or teased by other kids. If your child is withdrawn, not doing homework, sick more often than normal or demonstrating other out-of-the-ordinary behavior, talk about what seems to be bothering him or her. * Know where your kids are at. Sometimes bullying and other unsafe situations take place outside of school grounds, such as at other students' houses. Telling your kids that you want to know where they are and that they need permission to visit a friend's house shows them you care. It also reassures them that they can contact you if they need help. * Monitor Internet use and texting. Put the home computer in a public place and don't allow your kids to use a computer in their bedroom by themselves. * Talk to other parents. You may learn that their children also have been bullied or have been involved in activities on and off school grounds that you should be concerned about. You stand a much better chance of obtaining changes and creating a safer environment for your student by acting together rather than alone. * Put it in writing. If you suspect your child is being bullied or sexually harassed by another student (or a teacher or staff member), ask for a face-to-face meeting with the school's principal. If the principal does not act, hire an attorney and escalate your complaint to the superintendent and school board. Putting your complaint in writing about the specific types of negative behavior affecting your child is necessary if you need to litigate the complaint in court. * Take appropriate action when bullying becomes assault. If your child is physically assaulted on the bus, in school or on school grounds, contact the local police department, particularly if there is a school liaison officer assigned to the school, about whether a police report or assault charges should be filed. Do not wait to let the school handle the situation. For more information about how to keep your kids safe at school, visit FindLaw.com.
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When the process commenced in 1973, negotiations were conducted between the Department of Indian Affairs and the Council for Yukon Indians. The presence of the Government of Yukon was seen as redundant as they had not yet achieved 'responsible' or representative government and were considered an extension of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs. By 1979, this had changed, and the Territorial Government had joined the process as a third party. Soon after, the Council for Yukon Indians, the Yukon Association of Non-Status Indians and the Yukon Native Brotherhood amalgamated to form the Council for Yukon Indians. The CYI continued to represent Yukon First Nations in the negotiations process as well as taking on the programs and services delivery, and the political representational role of the two parent organizations. The process was to take up much of the next 20 years until the Umbrella Final Agreement was signed in 1993.
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181
Invasive species are a natural disaster waiting to happen. In some cases, there is a very real danger to humans, such as the Burmese Python in South Florida. In many cases, the threat to humans is indirect, yet no less important, such as Saltcedar's ability to drain waterways. In all cases, the biggest risk is to wildlife habitats, as invasive species are experts in pushing out native plants and animals. Especially in the last couple of decades, many invasive species have made headlines, warning the public to watch for and help prevent their spread, from the Emerald Ash Borer to the Zebra Mussel to the Asian Carp. All the while, another species has been stealthily avoiding this radar, spreading to all but three of the mainland states, and keeping mostly out of sight until their local populations grow larger than the available food sources. Feral hogs are the cockroach of the wilderness, multiplying quickly, highly destructive, disease-carrying, and resilient to control efforts. Conservation and agricultural experts alike are calling for more attention to this mostly silent invader of the nation's woodlands, including those in parts of South Dakota and Nebraska. "There are only three states that list these things [wild or feral hogs] as game animals," said John Mayer, environmental services manager at the U.S., Department of Energy's Savannah River National Laboratory in Aiken, S.C., and the nation's leading expert in feral hogs. "Typically, these things are listed as an invasive species." When people think of feral hogs, what comes to mind is the wild hog - usually the Eurasian Wild Boar - which is common in the Southern United States, but the feral hogs that are more likely to cause problems here are domesticated pigs that either escaped or were released into the wild and have adapted to living without human influence. Wild boar and feral pigs also readily breed, creating hybrids that grow larger than the typical wild boar but with the same notorious mean streak. In South Dakota, there have been reports of a feral pot-bellied pig population at Big Stone Lake on the Minnesota border. Usually kept as a pet, pot-bellied pigs can grow as large as 300 pounds and the males will grow tusks. There is also an incident of a lone feral pig shot near Madison. In Nebraska, both wild-hybrid and feral hogs have been a problem in various central and southern counties. According to the University of Georgia's National Feral Swine Mapping System, the largest populations of wild or feral hogs are in Texas, California, Florida, Oregon, Arkansas, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, Tennessee, South Carolina, and Kansas. But wild or feral hogs have been spotted in all of the mainland states except Delaware, Rhode Island, and oddly Wyoming. Wyoming is particularly concerned about feral hogs migrating into the state from the Platte River, but Nebraska Game and Parks Commission's control efforts have so far been adequate. Thirty-six states have verified breeding populations. "They are so adaptable to environments, from cold Canada to the hot, humid southern forests to downtown cities like Fort Worth [Texas]," Mayer said. Wild hogs were first introduced to the United States by European settlers, but the rapid spread occurred in the 20th century when zoo stock was sold to wild game ranches in Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Ranches in Michigan imported stock from Canada in the 1980s and 1990s. According to Mayer, wild boar is among the most popular big game species in the United States, second only to whitetail deer. "As we all know, wild boar is hard to hold and these ranches were all leaking wild boar through the fences," Mayer said, adding that by 1990, there were 2 million wild hogs nationwide. "Basically, they're taking over the country." Feral hogs can quickly get out of hand once they become established in an area. They are gregarious, living in small family groups although groups of 100-plus hogs have been reported if there is easy access to food; aggressive, able to inflict injury or even kill animals and humans in their four-square-mile home range; and opportunistic omnivores, meaning that they eat mostly plants but, at times, animals. "Basically, if they can get their mouth around it, they will eat it," Mayer said. "They have been known to kill lambs, rummage through garbage cans, and eat sticks. All kinds of objects have been found in their stomachs." Feral and wild hogs are also prolific breeders, raising two litters of six to 12 piglets a year. They are able to get pregnant as young as three months of age, and to breed again when still nursing a litter. "You hear in the literature that they can double their population in four months and triple it in a year," Mayer said. "Mathematically that may be possible, but there's a lot more mortality in the wild. Piglets are the most vulnerable. Once they reach two years of age, they're good unless they run across a hunter." From an agricultural standpoint, they can greatly damage property, particularly crops, and are a harbor to a number of diseases that affect domestic swine and other livestock as well as humans. According to The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation in Ardmore, Okla., feral hogs have been known to carry and transmit: · Tuberculosis, the same bacteria that infects cattle and humans; · Anthrax, a soil-borne bacteria that is often fatal if contracted by humans; · Tularemia, a bacteria that is often transmitted to humans through tick bites or improperly cooked wild game; and
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1,183
When a major earthquake strikes, seconds count. In the devastating 2011 Japan earthquake, a sensor embedded in the ground detected the first signs of movement and immediately sent out an alert at the speed of light. Within seconds, text messages warning of impending shaking went out to roughly 50 million people. Many people in Tokyo, 200 miles away from the epicenter, knew the quake was coming before they felt the shaking about 30 seconds later. Trains were able to slow down or stop, and not a single car derailed. FOR THE RECORD: Earthquake warning system: An article in the Jan. 29 Section A about a proposal to create an earthquake early warning system in California said that a study published in January was the latest to predict a catastrophic quake on the San Andreas fault. The study did not make that prediction, but it did raise the possibility that a quake along that fault line could be large enough to be felt across the entire state. Join our live video discussion here at 3 p.m. PT On Monday, a group of California's top geophysicists and seismologists announced an $80-million plan to create a similar earthquake early warning system in California. It would be the first such network in the United States and marks an ambitious new safety initiative by some of California's top state and federal earthquake experts. The U.S. is behind Japan as well as Mexico, Taiwan, Turkey and even Romania in creating early alert systems. Last year, residents in Mexico City were warned shortly before the shaking from a 7.4 quake that began near Acapulco arrived. State Sen. Alex Padilla (D-Pacoima) is proposing legislation to create the statewide network. California already has hundreds of ground sensors measuring earth movement, but experts said another $80 million is needed to expand and upgrade the monitors. They said the system could be up and running in two years if funding is found. An early warning system could be particularly beneficial in Southern California, which is at risk of a major temblor on the San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas is located far enough away from metropolitan Los Angeles that officials believe residents would have a one-minute warning of the huge quake. If a temblor erupted near the Salton Sea, for instance, underground sensors along the San Andreas would send off an alert to points north and west, covering population centers in Los Angeles and San Diego. Experts said this would give time to shut off utilities, prepare emergency response personnel and slow trains. A study released in January was the latest of many to predict a catastrophic quake on the San Andreas. This report, for the first time, raised the possibility of a mega quake across the entire fault line that would be felt from San Francisco to San Diego. Padilla said it's time for California to build its own system, adding that $80 million is a bargain compared with the billions of dollars in damage the system could prevent. "Think of the lives we could save. The injuries we can reduce. And the billions upon billions of damage.... If we can just reduce that by a small percentage, or a fraction, the system would more than pay for itself," Padilla said. At a demonstration Monday at Caltech, seismologists showed how the system would work. The simulation recreated the 1933 Long Beach quake off the coast of Huntington Beach. A person in Pasadena, 40 miles away, would have about 18 seconds to prepare if an alert was issued. In the demonstration, scientists showed the earthquake waves moving toward Pasadena from Orange County as an alarm sounded with a computerized voice repeating: "Earthquake! Earthquake! Earthquake!" Officials said the idea would be for people to install a quake warning program on their computers and mobile devices. If a large earthquake occurred, the warning would take over the screen. Alerts would also be tied to automatic systems that could tell elevators to stop, open firehouse doors and flash notifications on freeways. The early warning system would build upon the existing California Integrated Seismic Network that produces online maps after quakes showing their epicenter. Officials said California already has almost 1,000 earthquake sensors across the state, but the network needs an additional 200 machines and upgrades to 400 stations for the system to work.
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871
A study led by researchers at the University of Colorado has determined that the pace of planet warming in the first decade of this century was slowed by volcanic activity, and not by industrial activity in Asia, as was previously believed. Previous research in 2009 had suggested that an increase in stratospheric aerosols tied to a 60 percent increase in sulfur dioxide emissions over China and India had negated about 25 percent of the global warming that scientists attribute to greenhouse gas emissions. That cooling effect occurs when sulfur dioxide emissions rise 12 to 20 miles to the stratospheric aerosol layer of the atmosphere. There, chemical reactions create sulfuric acid and water particles that reflect sunlight back into space. Now, research led by study author Ryan Neely, conducted as part of his doctoral thesis at CU, has shown that global warming from 2000 to 2010 was tamped down by sulfur dioxide from volcanic eruptions, not industrial emissions in China and India, where such activity has greatly increased in recent years. "It's good to know this is coming from volcanoes; its a natural thing, and it's not something we're doing as a planet," said Neely, who is now a post-doctoral fellow in the advanced study program at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The 10-year window addressed by the study did not see massive activity on the scale of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, which erupted in 1991 in the second-largest volcanic event of the 20th century. Still, there was sufficient volcanic activity in the 2000s from the tropics to Alaska that made an impact in the stratosphere. The new research piggybacks on a 2011 study led by Susan Solomon, a former scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration who is now at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which showed that stratospheric aerosols -- without isolating their source -- offset about one-quarter of the greenhouse-effect warming of Earth in the past 10 years. To determine what was contributing to that, Neely said he realized, "You couldn't do it from observations alone. It's all intermingled, and you can't separate the two sources easily. It was going to take a very specialized model that no one has done before." CU's Janus supercomputer was pressed into service to conduct seven computer runs, each of them simulating 10 years of atmospheric activity linked to both coal-burning activities in Asia and to volcanic emissions around the world. Each run required about a week of computer time, utilizing 192 processors, enabling the team to isolate coal-burning pollution in Asia from aerosol contributions tied to volcanic eruptions. Neely said the work would have taken a single computer about 25 years to complete. The fact that the emissions from industrial activity on the other side of the planet is not affecting temperature fluctuations tied to particulates in the stratosphere, Neely said, does not mean that all those human-caused emissions are good for the environment. "A lot of people would take it that way," he said, "but it's bad for other reasons -- for acid rain reasons, and just for putting pollution into the atmosphere, and not to mention all the carbon dioxide they're emitting, when they burn all the coal," he said. In a news release, study co-author and CU professor Brian Toon said, "The biggest implication here is that scientists need to pay more attention to small and moderate volcanic eruptions, when trying to understand changes in Earth's climate. "But overall, these eruptions are not going to counter the greenhouse effect. Emissions of volcanic gases go up and down, helping to cool or heat the planet, while greenhouse gas emissions from human activity just continue to go up." Contact Camera Staff Writer Charlie Brennan at 303-473-1327 or [email protected].
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Landsat, the 40-year-old Earth-observing satellite program jointly managed by the U.S. Geological Survey and NASA, saw its eighth mission launch Monday morning from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. The Landsat Data Continuity Mission was launched atop an Atlas V rocket, built by Centennial-based United Launch Alliance, and includes two scientific instruments, one of which is the Operational Land Imager instrument that was designed and built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies of Boulder. Since 1972, the Landsat missions have provided a continuous picture of Earth and its natural resources using multispectral imagery that can be used for agricultural, water management, disaster response, scientific and national security purposes. The OLI will use visible, near infrared and short wave infrared wavelengths to take images of the Earth every 16 days. Landsat images were recently used by USGS in the Colorado wildfires in the summer of 2012. The previous mission in the program, Landsat 7, was launched in 1999 and is still in orbit. The 2013 mission — scheduled to observe the Earth from about 400 miles above the ground for five years — is the first time Ball has participated in a Landsat mission. Kristen Leigh Painter: 303-954-1638, [email protected] or twitter.com/kristenpainter
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Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month 2013 Our country’s cultural richness stems from the many immigrant and native legacies which bind us as one Nation from many peoples. Our strength as a Nation resides in the hearts and minds and spirit of our people, united in preserving freedom and justice, and in our willingness to work hard to earn our own way. Asian and Pacific Islander Americans have contributed enormously through language, the arts, music, literature, science, and medicine, adding their own hopes and dreams, to the countless threads that give color and resilience to the fabric that is America. Asian and Pacific Islander American Heritage Month commemorates both the arrival of the first immigrant Japanese to the United States on May 7, 1843, and the completion of the transcontinental railroad on May 10, 1869, linking our Nation’s east and west coasts. So many Chinese immigrants were instrumental to this uniting of the continent. And so many Asian and Pacific Islander Americans since have likewise served and sacrificed for our country. More than 292,000 of them have defended this Nation. Over 67,000 men and women of Asian and Pacific Islander descent currently serve on duty in our Armed Forces around the world. America is safer, and our democracy is stronger, because of their service in uniform. These Asian and Pacific Islander Americans, from the first brave immigrants to today’s generation of vibrant Americans, have made positive and lasting contributions to the greater good of our society. Their impact has been truly significant—from operating small businesses to leading multinational corporations; from teaching in our most rural classrooms to lecturing in our greatest universities; from volunteering to care for the sick and homeless to commanding the formations which defend us, preserving peace in a dangerous world. Asian and Pacific Islander Americans are fully interwoven into every aspect of American life, bringing with them the hopes and dreams to build an ever-greater America. On behalf of the Department of Veterans Affairs, it is a privilege to celebrate the rich histories of all Asian and Pacific Islander Americans, including over 22,000 of our co-workers, during this month which honors their heritage. Eric K. Shinseki
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447
What is “Renewable Energy”? Renewable energy comes from sources that are essentially limitless. Some sources of renewable energy include the wind, the sun, flowing water and the heat of the earth. In addition to being plentiful in supply, many forms of renewable energy yield zero greenhouse gasses, and therefore hold promise not only for our energy future but also for preserving the climate. Delmarva Power is committed to increasing the amount of renewable energy sources used to generate electricity for its customers. Today, that percentage is small due to the lack of available renewable resources. However, we are committed to seeing that percentage grow – up to 20 percent by 2020 in some states. We recognize that renewable energy has the potential to provide us with cleaner air, a more diverse energy portfolio, and less dependence on foreign fossil fuels. In the near future, through progressive investment in tested and reliable renewable energy solutions, Delmarva Power aims to reduce its use of fossil fuels as well as the greenhouse gasses that generating energy from them produces, all while keeping energy affordable and dependable for our customers.
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225
Thai National Marine Parks An Overview for Thailand Diving There are presently a total of 26 marine national parks in Thailand, of which 21 are formally legislated, while 5 are in different stages of the process of legislation. The 21 legally-recognised parks cover area about 5,810 km². 4 national parks are proposed for World Heritage status; they are Mu Koh Tarutao, Mu Koh Surin, Mu Koh Similan, all 3 of which are popular Thailand scuba diving destinations, and Phang Nga Bay. All thee parks are located in the Andaman Sea. A part of Mu Koh Phayam has been declared a Biosphere Reserve. Park Management and Legislation The overall responsibility for national marine parks in Thailand lies with the Royal Forest Department (RFD). Previously, the National Park Division administered the terrestrial and marine parks. However, following a reorganisation within the Royal Forestry Department (RFD) in 1993 a separate Marine National Park Division (MNPD) became responsible for protection, management and operation of the marine national parks. The major responsibilities of the MNPD are: - Implementation of the Thai National Park Act (1961), the National Forest Reserve Act (1964), the Wildlife Reservation Act (1992), Forest Act (1941), Fishery Act (1994) and other relevant laws; - Application of the principles of marine management in promotion and development of guidelines for conservation of natural resources and rehabilitation of ecosystems and environment; - Prevention, protection and recommendations regarding natural resources to gain the greatest possible benefits and achieve sustainability according to the principles of national marine park management and government policy; and - Research of natural resources in the marine national parks and information dissemination to the public, especially children to promote understanding and awareness of the need for protection of natural resources. While the Natural Resources Conservation Office develops the general policies for the marine national parks, it is the marine national parks themselves that are directly responsible for the administration of parks. At the local park level, the park superintendent, supported by 2 assistants, administer the parks. Ranger teams composed of 1 ranger and 11 temporary workers carry out the day-to-day work. The superintendent reports directly to the director of the MNPD. In accordance to the National Park Act, national park management is supervised by a committee at national level, called the National Park Committee. The protection and management of the marine national parks requires legislation for implementation and enforcement. The National Park Act is the major legislation regulating the marine national parks. The act covers all land, which has been determined as national parks. It covers areas such as mountains, creeks, swamps, canals, marshes, basins, waterways, lakes, islands and seashore. The law describes the protection of the parks. According to the law, the park flora and fauna is protected, and any trade or transport of species out of the park is not allowed. The act also provides the legislative means to establish a national park. A national park may be declared over any public land where there are natural features or scenic areas that are of interest, to preserve it for the benefit of research, public education and pleasure. The RFD has a set of criteria for the declaration of a national park area in Thailand: - The coverage area of park should be not less than 10 km², which is large enough to preserve the ecological process within the area. However, it is also flexible for areas containing valuable or unique resources; - Those areas that contain high biodiversity or threatened species, scenic areas, geological phenomenon or of historical value; - Those areas that contain educational value which can provide nature educational opportunities for the public; - Those areas that are suitable for recreation and ecotourism development. Normally, the process of establishment of national parks takes at least 2 years and many parks took more than 5 years to establish. The management of conservation areas is crucial and significant for the national environment and ecological systems. The objectives are to preserve existing flora and fauna for research and educational purposes, recreational purposes such a scuba diving, snorkeling and sailing, and for improved living conditions of the people, since natural resources also help people to generate an income. The national park management plan is to: - Be a tool for operation, control and supervision, and be a framework for officials, related agencies such as NGOs, local agencies, and governmental organisations to follow; - Help develop the efficiency and continuity of management and implementation; - Be a standard for decision making in problem solving processes and management processes in the national parks; - Help to develop an educational system, in terms of nature conservation knowledge and awareness for the public; - Be a framework and directional instrument for natural resource research and study. Revenues are generated by the parks through the collection of entrance fees, user fees such as for diving, accommodation, fines, fees on tourist vessels anchoring or staying overnight, concession from any private tourist service activities such as food shops, souvenir shops, canoe services etc. Income is transferred into a fund handled by the Revenue National Park Committee in RFD, chaired by the General Director. The committee disburses funds to terrestrial and marine parks. There is a separate budget for the marine national parks. The funds provided by the committee are disbursed to finance park project proposals. These proposals comprise activities in the fields of nature conservation and protection, technical research, and park service provision. Only legally established parks are able to collect fees from any activities within the parks. In the last decade, the amount of parks revenue has risen to approximately 0.35 million US dollars a year. Benefits of the Marine National Parks The marine national park system provides both direct and indirect benefits to the Thai society. These protected areas contain diverse and important ecosystems and biological resources. Such habitat as mangrove forests, coral reefs, sea grass beds, soft sediment communities and beaches not only provide a home for many important marine species such as turtles and dugongs, but also form the basis for several subsistence benefits to the local people and contribute to the valuable Thailand dive and tourism industries, research and education. Over 50 percent of all coral reefs in Thailand are included in existing marine national parks. According to many studies, notably by Phuket Marine Biological Research Centre, the parks' coral reefs are in better condition than those in other areas, although they are not as healthy as they were 10-15 years ago. Such parks, as Mu Koh Surin (which contains the Surin Islands and Richelieu Rock), Mu Koh Similan (which contains the Similan Islands, Koh Bon Island and Koh Tachai), Mu Koh Lanta (which contains Hin Daeng and Hin Muang) and Mu Koh Chang in the Gulf of Thailand, contain some of the finest coral reefs in the country in term of size, species diversity and condition and these sites are of international significance. Coral reef areas in marine parks play an important role in the economic development of Thai society. Not only do they offer critical habitat to numerous marine species, which support fisheries activities and provide a significant food source for people, they also generate huge incomes for the country in term of tourism activities. About 70% of total incomes from tourism are generated by marine tourism activities. Several coastal and marine parks of Thailand were established in order to protect the mangrove habitat which has been declining at an alarming rate throughout Thailand's coastal zone. Only one-6th of about 160,000 hectares of mangrove forests are included in coastal parks. Similar to coral reefs, mangrove forest offer critical habitat to an abundance and variety of marine life, which in turn support fisheries and other traditional activities. The mangrove forest in Ao Phang-Nga, Tarutao, and newly established parks such as Mu Koh Chumphon and Kraburi, have better habitat conditions than the rest. Mangrove forest is also becoming popular with ecotourism for both domestic and international tourists. Seagrass habitat, another significant coastal habitat for marine life, provides great benefits for people, especially local communities along the coastline. The largest seagrass beds are found in coastal protected areas, particularly along the Andaman Sea coast. Dugong and many other marine species use these areas for feeding. Other Marine Resources Most coastal and marine parks in Thailand are either permanent or seasonal habitats for several important marine flora and fauna. The most common species of flora found in park are algae and phytoplankton. Many species of fish mollusks, sponges, worms, crustaceans and echinoderms can be found abundantly in most parks. Some notable species such as dugongs, dolphins and whale sharks appear frequently in some of the parks where their habitats is less disturbed. At least 4 species of sea turtle come to the parks beaches for their annual egg laying. These are important drawcards for divers, and generate large amounts of income for the economy. Because the coastal area of Thailand is influenced by high intensity monsoon rainfall, most coastal areas and many islands established as marine national parks are carpeted in lush evergreen forest. The forests contain both high diversity and endemic species of flora and fauna. Scenery and Beaches Many of the country's most spectacular coastal scenery and beaches, such as Ang Thong and Mu Koh Phi Phi, occur within the boundaries of the coastal and marine national park system. As such, marine national parks serve as prime destinations for millions of domestic and international tourism visitors annually. Decreasing of Illegal Fishing Fishing within the marine parks is an important issue and the problem is being addressed. The use of illegal fishing equipment and dynamite fishing has been significantly reduced during the last 5 years. Various local NGOs and people have played a significant role in increasing awareness as well as working hand in hand with park staff for habitat protection. Another effective factor for decreasing illegal fishing has been the increasing of tourism activities in park areas. This has been experienced in Mu Koh Similan and Mu Koh Surin, where the Thailand dive operators act as a watchdog on these illegal activities, Mu Koh Chang and Mu Koh Samet. Increasing Public Awareness Thai society realizes that the most valuable natural resources remain only in its protected areas. Coastal communities have learnt that the loss of coastal habitat, such as mangrove and seagrasses, leads to the loss of their income and livelihoods. Local people play an important role in coastal protection and maintenance. Various local NGOs working with local fishery organisations have played a significant role in increasing awareness among local people about their negative environmental impact. Increasing of Opportunities for Environmental Education Most parks, especially the coastal parks encompassed within communities, are required to implement the environmental conservation project as part of their routine work. The target group is Thai school children and local people nearby to the parks. Moreover, Marine National Park Education Centres are also set up specifically for implementing nature education development programmes. Each year at least 300 students and local people will be trained by parks and MNPCs. So far, park areas have played an important role in nature education for school children and students at different levels. Most habitats in parks become an outdoor laboratory for students and teachers. Several areas are frequently used by schools and colleges. Increasing of Research Opportunities The high diversity ecosystem and fertile habitats within park areas provide excellent study areas for researchers. Furthermore, the mechanism of park management also encourages researchers to work in the park areas. The protection of parks will ensure that those study areas remain undisturbed. Increasing of Marine Protected Areas Both the total area and number of marine national parks has expanded markedly during the past decade, with the trend set to continue expansion. Current Issues and Challenges At present, the MNPD faces a number of management challenges. Fishery activities are considered a central problem in many of the marine national parks, especially for the coastal parks. The conflict between parks and people on marine resource utilisation is increasing. Fishing within the park boundaries is prohibited. It is noted that when it comes to enforcement, this aspect is treated in a flexible way, with some marine national parks even allowing fishing. However, local fishermen in general feel that marine parks put unnecessary constraints on local fishing activities. The use of illegal and inappropriate fishing gear has negatively impacted the marine national parks environment. Thailand's coast is especially rich in seagrass species with as many as 12 species found. The use of inappropriate fishing gear, including finely woven fishing nets, is very damaging to the seagrass. In this way the habitat for numerous marine animals is destroyed. Moreover, destructive fishing practices can be very damaging to the coral reefs. It is especially the use of explosives and use of fine nets which have negatively impacted upon the coral reefs. Trawling has also had a very negative impact on marine resources both in the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand. In particular, the use of push nets and explosives along the shallow coast of Thailand has resulted in the severe decline in fish resources. The number of tourists coming to Thailand is rapidly growing and this increases the pressure on the marine national parks. 8 of the existing parks have attendances exceeding 100,000 visitors per year. During visitation in parks, tourists will rely on various services and infrastructure provided at the parks, including overnight accommodation, guided boat tours, and other nature interpretation services. Tourism demand for coastal and marine parks is quite high for both the natural resources being used and the tourism infrastructure of the park. Both physical and environmental carrying capacity is being exceeded at several locations, thereby leading to congestion, the deterioration of the nature-oriented recreational experience and resource degradation. At present, the park management is in a weak position to control the entry of tourists to the marine parks, especially the island parks such as Mu Koh Samet, Mu Koh Chang, and Mu Koh Phi Phi. Consequently, a large number of tourists do not pay entry fees and are unregistered. The tourism problem also relates to the control of tourist activities within the park. The marine national parks base a zoning system mainly on the terrestrial park model and marine areas of park are not properly zoned. The pressure from tourists is therefore localised to certain sites in the parks, especially coral reefs. This has also resulted in the MNPD having to close reefs that were frequently visited by Thai divers in Mu Koh Similan, such as East of Eden. The quality of recreational and educational experiences at the marine national parks is not reaching its potential. Several parks are destination for visitors from around the world such as Mu Koh Surin, Mu Koh Similan, Khao Leam Ya, Mu Koh Samet and Mu Koh Chang. But not many park officials are trained in coastal and marine environmental education. The expansion of coastal and offshore island resorts, the extension of cruise ship services to new locations, improved transportation to former remote locations are all expected to have considerable influence on coastal and marine parks and impact on the environment. Low quality tourist vessels also create an environmental impact on natural habitat, especially coral reefs. Almost all Thai tourist vessels do not have proper storage system for waste water, and sewage is therefore flushed directly into the sea. Oil is commonly released from the tourist boat engines, particularly the boats that are converted from fishing boats. This is polluting the marine environment and thereby threatening the reef. Marine parks also face problems as a result of land encroachment. The parks have in particular faced problems because people involved in shrimp farming have encroached into the marine protected areas and destroyed mangrove forests and occupied the land. Shrimp farming constitutes a serious problem, threatening the Ao Phang-Nga National Park. (However, in this park the current problem mostly relates to pollution from shrimp farms located in areas neighbouring the park). Several parks, including Hat Nopparat Thara - Mu Koh Phi Phi, Khao Leam Ya and Mu Koh Samet, face serious difficulties because of encroachment and land disputes. The conflicts are ever more complicated due to the high benefits gained from the tourism business in the parks. The Thai National Park Act is outdated and the law was not developed specifically for marine parks. A key issue is the unresolved problem concerning the open seas. There are still uncertainties about how sea water can be designated as a part of a park. Attempts have been made to interpret 'land' to include the sea bordering islands and seashore. These unresolved legal issues put severe constraints on the national parks' ability to regulate economical and recreational activities in sea areas. The parks have, for example, been unable to properly zone the aquatic areas of the parks. Moreover, neither the National Park Act nor other relevant acts under RFD, including the National Forest Reserve Act or Wildlife Reserves Act, give the parks any legal authority to create buffer zones surrounding the protected areas. The parks are therefore unable to regulate environmentally unfriendly activities taking place in areas neighbouring the parks, including shrimp farms and resort construction. Management and Capacity Gaps Besides the legal constraints, there are several other factors that significantly constrain the MNPD to effectively operate and manage its marine national parks. Some of these factors relate directly to capacity constraints within RFD and the MNPD. There are certain financial limitations on park management in Thailand which severely constrain the parks in developing pragmatic annual financial proposals. The parks face capacity problems with regards to staff skills. The park superintendents and chief assistants all have forestry backgrounds, and they receive only sporadic training related to marine park management. There is a lack of technical and professional skills in areas such as environmental education and interpretation, social science and marine science. Moreover, most park guards are low paid temporary employees. They have no job security and incentives. The performance of the temporary staff is therefore relatively poor. There are also important challenges concerning data collection and general management of data relating to the natural environments of the parks. Currently the parks lack baseline data and have not developed a uniform system for habitat and biodiversity monitoring. Back to reefs and parks index
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More in Outdoors Careful soil preparation can make the difference between a green, healthy lawn and a poorly grown one. Timing is key — start several weeks before you intend to lay turf or sow seed to give the soil enough time to settle. gardening fork or spade Preparation for laying a lawn or sowing grass seed should begin a few weeks before you plan to sow seed or lay turf. Use a fork or spade to turn over the soil to a depth of 12 inches. Remove any weeds or stones. Leveling is important on small lawn areas, but you may want to leave gentle undulations on large, informal sites because natural contours can look attractive. Once the soil has been leveled, it should be lightly firmed down to knock out large air pockets and prevent the soil level from dropping too much later. Do this by treading on it with your feet or by using a light roller. Simple Steps to Success: Lawns and Groundcover © 2012 Dorling Kindersley Limited All fields are required. Remember me on this computer Please enter your email address and we will send your password Your password has been sent and should arrive in your mailbox very soon. Sign up with DIY Network to share tips with other do-it-yourselfers and comment and ask questions on projects. It's free and easy.
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- Blood Sugar - Clinical Studies - Complementary Medicine - Diabetes and Men - Erectile Dysfunction - Food and Nutrition - Insulin Pumps - Meters and Test Strips - Product Recalls - Type 1 - Type 2 - Weight Loss Surgery Archive - 12 - 2009 December 30, 2009 (Newswise) - Need a little extra incentive to kick the habit? Just in time for New Years resolutions, a UCLA study finds that even after age 80, smoking continues to increase ones risk for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of blindness in Americans over 65.The American Journal of Ophthalmology publishes the findings in its January edition.The take-home message is that its never too late to quit smoking, said lead author Dr. Anne Coleman, professor of ophthalmology at the Jules Stein Eye Institute at UCLA. We found that even older peoples eyes will benefit from kicking the habit.AMD causes progressive damage to the macula, the center of the retina that allows us to see fine details. When the macula degenerates, people experience darkness or blurring in their central vision, preventing them from being able to read, drive and recognize faces.After age, smoking is the second most common risk factor for AMD. This study sought to determine whether age influences the effects of smoking on AMD risk.Coleman and her colleagues followed a group of 1,958 women who underwent retinal photographs at five-year intervals, starting with a baseline exam at age 78. Four percent, or 75 of the women, smoked. The researchers compared the retinal images at ages 78 and 83 to check for the appearance of AMD, and evaluate whether smoking affected the womens likelihood of developing the disease.Age is the strongest predictor for AMD, yet most of the research in this field has been conducted in people younger than 75, explained Coleman. Our population was considerably older than those previously studied. This research provides the first accurate snapshot of how smoking affects AMD risk later in life.Overall, women who smoked had 11 percent higher rates of AMD than other women their same age. In women over 80, however, those who smoked were 5.5 times more likely to develop AMD than women their age who did not smoke.We saw a slightly higher rate of AMD in women after age 80, but the rate was dramatically higher in older women who smoked, said Coleman. The bottom line is that AMD risk increases with age. And if you smoke, your risk of developing the disease rises even more.Cigarette smoking has been hypothesized to increase AMD risk by reducing serum antioxidant levels, altering blood flow to the eyes and decreasing retinal pigments.This study provides yet another compelling reason to stop smoking and suggests that it is never too late to quit, said Dr. Paul Sieving, director of the National Eye Institute.The National Eye Institute and National Institute on Aging funded the research. About 1.75 million U.S. residents suffer from advanced AMD with vision loss; the number is expected to grow to almost 3 million by 2020.Colemans coauthors included Carol Mangione, Robin Seitzman and Fei Yu of UCLA; Steven Cummings and Katie Stone of the California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute; Jane Cauley from the University of Pittsburgh; Kristine Ensrud from the University of Minnesota; Marc Hochberg from the University of Maryland; Kathryn Pedula from the Kaiser Permanente Center for Health Research; and Edgar Thomas from the Retina Vitreous Associates Medical Group. December 29, 2009 (UB) - The role of pharmacists hasn't received much attention in the debate on the cost of health care. But national and regional studies show that when pharmacists directly participate in patient care, they significantly reduce treatment costs and improve outcomes. A study on diabetic patients by the University at Buffalo School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences identified cost savings with improvements in a key indicator of glucose control in diabetes patients, the hemoglobin A1C measurement. The A1C provides a three-month average of the amount of excess glucose in the blood. Higher A1Cs indicate that a patient is at higher risk for developing long-term complications associated with diabetes, such as kidney disease or vision problems. Published last spring in the Journal of the American Pharmacists Association, the UB study of 50 patients with Type 2 diabetes demonstrated that in just six months clinical pharmacists, in collaboration with primary care providers, were able to significantly reduce patients' A1C levels. In the UB study, patients' A1C levels were reduced by an average of 1.1 percent, from an average of 8.5 percent to 7.4 percent, one year after being enrolled in the program, while also improving the overall metabolic profile. "Our results show that enhancing the patient's access to care through collaborative physician-pharmacist relationships can yield lower blood glucose levels, improve the overall metabolic profile and reduce costs to the payer," says Erin Slazak, PharmD, UB clinical assistant professor of pharmacy practice and board certified pharmacotherapy specialist. These clinical improvements occurred while monthly costs per patient went down by approximately $212, around $2,500 per year, even though there were nominal increases in the cost of medications prescribed. The key to success? "Patients had unlimited access to pharmacists throughout the year," says Slazak. Patients referred to the UB program had been identified by their primary care providers as having difficulty controlling their blood sugar. Slazak notes that it was not uncommon to see patients with glucose levels as high as 400 mg/dl (normal levels are below 100 mg/dl). The UB pharmacists spent an initial one-hour appointment with each patient, where they worked up detailed health records covering dietary information and all medications and disease conditions, and then reviewed them with each patient. After that, patients could call or make appointments with pharmacists at will. "We did extensive education with patients about how to manage their conditions," says Slazak. "In many cases, we were instrumental in getting them to start insulin. There is a lot of resistance to that, and not just because it's an injection." For patients in the initial stages of administering insulin, she says it was common to be contacted once every few days. The pharmacists then made suggestions to physicians about changes in medications, dosages or lifestyle that might be beneficial to their patients. That kind of individualized attention is far from the norm for diabetic patients. "Nationwide, the standard of care is that the primary care provider manages diabetes alone," says Slazak. "Pharmacists typically do not have direct involvement." That is partly because some states, including New York, have not yet approved collaborative practice agreements between physicians and pharmacists. In the Buffalo study, for example, physicians were required to review pharmacists' recommendations and approve all interventions first. Completion of the review process and approval occurred in only half of the cases, potentially limiting the overall benefit to the patient. "We know there's a long-term clinical and economic benefit to pharmacists working directly with patients and we think that can continue to grow," says Scott V. Monte, PharmD, UB clinical assistant professor of pharmacy practice and director of Diabetes and Cardiovascular Research, CPL Associates, LLC, in Buffalo. "Pharmacists can help achieve better outcomes if given the chance." The study was conducted through MedSense, part of the Pharmacotherapy Research Initiative, a collaborative effort between Lifetime Health Medical Group and UB, to study how pharmacists impact patient care. MedSense is one of many program sites that are part of the UB Pharmacotherapy Research Initiative in the School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, which was established to study how pharmacy medication management can improve the health of patients while cutting costs through patient-centered pharmacotherapy. In addition to Slazak and Monte, other co-authors on the paper include Nicole Paolini Albanese, PharmD, UB clinical assistant professor; Martin Adelman, PhD, chief information officer at CPL Associates, LLC; Gauri Rao, a student in the UB School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Joseph A. Paladino, PharmD, UB professor of pharmacy and director of outcomes research at CPL Associates, LLC. The program is jointly funded by Lifetime Health Medical Group and the UB School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. The University at Buffalo is a premier research-intensive public university, a flagship institution in the State University of New York system and its largest and most comprehensive campus. UB's more than 28,000 students pursue their academic interests through more than 300 undergraduate, graduate and professional degree programs. Founded in 1846, the University at Buffalo is a member of the Association of American Universities.
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1 image with subject Virginia. Virginia. ONE OF THE ORIGINAL THIRTEEN POPULATION IN 1860, 1,097,373 WHITES. POPULATION IN 1860, 495,826 SLAVES. NUMBER OF SQUARE MILES, 61,362. From Original Acrostics on All the States and Presidents of the United States, and Various Other Subjects, Religious, Political, and Personal. Illustrated with Portraits of All the Presidents, and Engravings of Various Other Kinds.
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108
Microsoft Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012, the latest operating system and Windows makeover, were released in fall 2012. For programmers, many new APIs were included in the features added. Several of the new features focus on the venerable sockets interface, the basic network paradigm first introduced in Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) UNIX in the early 1980s. Sockets still form the basis for networking on all of the major platforms including Windows, Mac OS, Linux, iOS, and Android. You might want to consider these new Windows socket APIs for your next project when writing new apps or refactoring older applications for Windows. New Windows 8 features for sockets programming are found at both ends of the network spectrum: - Window Runtime (WinRT) sockets: Used for low-level networking in Windows Store apps. - High-performance sockets: Used in writing network servers for desktop apps that need low network latency and the highest performance. - WebSockets: The other new networking APIs are socket-related, at least in name; these are extensions to the HTTP protocols for the creation of a special Web socket that is fully bidirectional once the connection is established, either endpoint can initiate or send packets. Herein I provide a brief introduction to these new networking socket features available on Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012. The focus will be more on WinRT sockets, since these will appeal to a larger set of developers. Sockets and Windows The original Berkeley socket implementation developed in 1983 was very simple, based on the design of UNIX file I/O. A network socket became a special type of file handle. BSD networking functions were basic: socket (open or create), connect (for TCP), close. Several types of sockets were supported including TCP (stream), UDP (datagram), and later UNIX domain sockets. For TCP servers and applications receiving UDP packets, the listen functions would bind to a network address and listen for incoming packets. For use with UDP, there were the recvfrom functions. A few other functions were provided for getting and setting socket options, getting a host by name or address; and there were the poll functions to check on the state of a socket. With the adoption of Windows Sockets (Winsock) in 1993, Microsoft added support for sockets to Windows. The initial Winsock 1.1 API was relatively modest with calls similar to BSD UNIX plus a number of Windows-specific extension functions. Over time, the Winsock API has grown larger and larger. The current reference documentation for Windows Sockets for desktop apps lists more than 140 functions and 80 structures along with several hundred IOCTLS and socket options. This doesn't include functions used by the Winsock Service Provider Interface (SPI). The existing Winsock API has become very large, complex, and challenging for new users. The new socket APIs introduced with Windows 8/Windows Server 2012 provide much simpler, stripped-down APIs for sockets programming closer to the spirit of the original BSD sockets. Windows 8: Two for the Money Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduce a new graphical user interface (GUI) that represents a major redesign of the Windows user experience. The changes are targeted primarily for touch-enabled devices, with tiles used to represent apps and new system navigation features (charms, settings, etc.). On traditional Intel/AMD x86/x64 hardware, Windows 8 can be thought of as an operating system for two different types of apps: - Windows Store apps: New apps that run on Windows 8 only. These apps are limited to using the WinRT APIs and a few other APIs (some classes from the .NET framework along with a few desktop functions) that are exposed for use by Windows Store apps. - Windows desktop apps: Traditional Windows apps that provide developers access to all of the Windows APIs except the WinRT APIs (unless the WinRT class has a special DualApiPartitionAttribute). These represent the traditional applications that ran on Windows 7 and older versions of the OS. If you use new Windows 8 desktop APIs, then the app will only be able to run on Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 or later versions. On ARM-based hardware (in the original Microsoft Surface tablet, for example), Windows 8 has been stripped down so only Windows Store apps can be installed and used. Windows 8 apps using WinRT are installed by purchasing and downloading them from the Microsoft App Store (many apps are free). Windows and app upgrades are also downloaded and installed from the Microsoft Store. Sideloading apps on these WinRT-based devices is mostly restricted, except when Visual Studio 2012 is installed. Sideloading allows developers to test apps they write before submitting them for publication on the Windows App Store. (Note: The Windows App Store is not the Microsoft.com online store that sells versions of Windows, Office, other Microsoft software, and some hardware. There is also a separate Windows Phone App Store for purchasing and downloading apps for Windows phones.) Windows Runtime and Sockets The WinRT APIs used by Windows Store apps provide a set of managed APIs that are designed for several different languages and presentation schemes: - C#/VB.NET with XAML: Designed for existing C#/VB.NET developers and others using managed code (Java developers). - C++ with XAML: Designed for core C++ desktop and COM developers as well as others using similar languages (Objective-C developers). Developers are free to choose whatever language and presentation they prefer. In fact, the same app can be written in any of these languages. Microsoft provides downloadable samples for Windows Store apps, many of which are implemented in multiple languages for illustration. For example, the downloadable StreamSocket sample and the DatagramSocket sample are implemented in all three language combinations.
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Drunk drivers kill. They kill themselves, but more often than not, they kill innocent people, sometimes family, friends, other drivers and their passengers, pedestrians and two-wheeled riders as well. The death toll across Canada each year is slightly more than 1,000 persons killed by drinking drivers. This is a terrible tragedy, but a significant reduction from the much higher numbers recorded in the preceding decades. Groups such as MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving) have had an enormous impact on both the public- and private-sector attitudes toward impaired driving. Employers, licensed establishments, clubs, neighbours, friends and even family have a duty to make accommodations to prevent the incidence of impaired driving. Governments have increased penalties and administrative prohibitions to deter drunk driving in most every jurisdiction in our country. Insurance companies, schools, and many other groups have targeted programs to reduce the occurrence of drunk driving. Individuals planning a social event now must, by law, make arrangements to get people home safely. But though there have been some reductions in drinking driver crash rates, the problem persists. Enforcement and punishment are tools used to combat the carnage on our roads caused by drunk drivers. Ninety per cent of the people convicted of driving while intoxicated in the U.S. are repeat offenders. Ten per cent of the population who consume alcohol in the U.S. consume 50 per cent of the alcohol. The same stats likely apply to Canada. It is time to target repeat offenders with the strength of purpose demonstrated by MADD. When society deems certain bad behaviour to be socially unacceptable, bad behaviour is usually discontinued. A good example of this socially undesirable behaviour, which came to an abrupt end, is the use of the spittoon. Today, no one I know would look for a spittoon to use while at the dinner table -- not because there is a law which forbids the use of a spittoon, but rather since the use of the spittoon has long since become socially unacceptable. Socially, there have been gains made in the last few decades to make drinking and driving unacceptable. Almost everyone understands the problem and wants to be part of the solution. One social circumstance that I witnessed a few years ago had a profound effect on four families. Four fathers had agreed to take turns taking their hockey-playing offspring, all of elementary school age, to practice very early each Saturday morning. All went well until one of the parents was convicted of impaired driving and given a three-month licence suspension. The convicted driver offered to make up for his absence once the suspension was finished. The offer was declined -- the other parents no longer trusted their friend to drive their kids. The social stigma of an impaired driving conviction had a lasting effect on the relationship of the four men and their families. Many convicted drivers do not abstain from drinking and driving because of the law. They change their behaviour because of social pressure. Bad behaviour can go the way of the spittoon. Peer pressure is an extremely powerful weapon against drinking drivers. It is the kind of pressure we should all be willing to exert in order to end the senseless slaughter on our roads. Steve Wallace is a longtime teacher and owner of the Wallace Driving Scool in Victoria. There I am, in my garage, standing face to fascia with the 2011 Porsche Carrera GTS. I'm gazing intently into its sultry Bi-Xenon headlights. It keenly... Oh come on, Santa. Surprise the big boy with a big toy this Christmas. How about a Porsche Boxster?Fun to drive takes on new meaning when you slide behind... Porsche used last week's opening of the Los Angeles Auto Show to take the wraps off its second-generation Boxster roadster and its coupe sibling, the ...
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775
The Best Advice on Children's Products Brain Blasters Vocabulary Practice Cards Brain Blasters cards make vocabulary practice easy and accessible. Real-life questions promote research-based practice. Promotes parent involvement. Double-sided cards add value. Self-checking cards allow individual practice. Fun format engages learners. Set of 40 cards offers plenty of practice and learning skills for over 400 vocabulary words.
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80
There is another reason for men to quit smoking — it can increase risk of death due to prostate cancer by 61%. In a study made at the Harvard University, data showed that men who smoke up their chances of dying of prostate cancer and recurrence of prostate cancer. In a feature from the Voice of America, researcher Stacy Kenfield said “We looked at the amounts that current smokers were smoking, and we did see an increase in prostate cancer mortality if you smoked more cigarettes.” Every year, there are 900,000 prostate cancer cases all over the world, and about a quarter of this figure eventually die of the disease. The study also relates prostate cancer and former smokers. Those who quit for at least ten years before they were diagnosed to have the illness were performing as people who never smoked did. Kenfield suggests the probable reasons why smokers are more likely to die of this type of cancer. She says the cancer-causing chemicals in cigarettes are to blame as well as hormones that are disrupted by smoking. “Studies have found an association between current smoking and increased testosterone, which is known to stimulate prostate cancer growth. And other studies have shown that nicotine induces angiogenesis, or the formation of new blood vessels.” It was also observed that smokers have a more dangerous form of prostate cancer than those who do not smoke.Tags: prostate cancer, smoking cancer, smoking prostate cancer, smoking risks
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290
Technological Development in Teaching and Learning 23 Feb 2012 10:49 The second day of the NGL Conference opened with a presentation by Charles Crook, Professor at the University of Nottingham, and Docent in Information and Communications Technology. Professor Charles Crook, University of Nottingham. He spoke about how the latest technology creates new situations, which in turn lead to new experiences in terms of student learning. The interpersonal dynamic in teaching and learning has changed. In his presentations, Charles Crook talked about his work examining what actually happens with learning when people use technology and learn alongside others instead of individually. He makes comparisons with earlier ideas within pedagogy, referring to Piaget and Vygotsky. "There exists an undeniable tension between teaching and learning and technology," he states. Charles Crook mentions two symptoms of e-learning at institutes of education. One is the many students per teacher and the other is a changed pedagogy. What does it mean to be educated? He has looked at quality in communication and interaction between students in their work. He has also examined the significance of place and students' study environment. The presentation provided an interesting insight into the research that requires a position alongside the technological developments within the world of teaching. It is important to establish in what ways social situations create new grounds for teaching and learning. Translation based on the original text by Annette Skogsjö. Photo by Annette Skogsjö. NGL på Högskolan Dalarna Next Generation Learning Conference
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318
The winter months have been highly variable in terms of precipitation and temperature. One week would bring a winter thaw; the next, a cold spell. Minimum daily temperatures were -45 C or lower in northern Ontario. Meanwhile, southern Ontario had maximum temperatures above 15 C, and new record highs were set January 11-13, and again on January 29 and 30. Winter precipitation can be summed up as below-average snowpack conditions coupled with above-average rainfall events. Large rainfall totals were observed across southwest and central areas. In fact, for a number of locations throughout south central Ontario, this was the second-wettest January on record. Snowfall amounts for locations in the typical snowbelts off Georgian Bay were well below average in January and below average in February. Habitat conditions are rated as fair in south central and southwest areas due to poor frost seal and moderate snowpack conditions. Northern Ontario has variable snowpack conditions but wetland levels appear to be good. Inland wetlands are still covered in ice and snow, while some Great Lakes coastal zones have a combination of shallow ice cover or open water. Of greatest concern, water levels are very low throughout the Great Lakes. Levels on lakes Huron and Michigan are the lowest they’ve been since record keeping began in 1918. The lakes are about 1 meter below their long-term average, which is drying out emergent coastal wetlands and revealing extended mudflats. Lakes Superior, Erie and Ontario are not as low but are still well below average for this time of year. The chief cause of these water level declines is a combination of reduced precipitation throughout their watersheds, as well as increased evaporation due to higher ambient temperatures over the last two decades. The short-term result could be poor migratory habitat for waterfowl using the Great Lakes for resting and feeding during their migration northward. Continue Reading >> Due to relatively poor ice development throughout the nearshore areas of the Great Lakes, more waterfowl than normal overwintered in the area.
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417
The roboter MARS ROVERor also called Bridget should explore the mars planet in 2011. It is 3m x 1,8m large. EADS Astrium is developing the first European Mars rover and it will demonstrate flight and in-situ qualification of key exploration enabling technologies to support the European ambitions for future robotic and human exploration missions. The main technology demonstration objectives are: - Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) of a large payload on the surface of Mars, - surface mobility using a rover with a mobility range of several kilometres, - access to sub-surface using a drill to acquire samples at depths of down to two metres, - autonomous navigation using stereo cameras to map a 3D image of the surrounding terrain, - automatic sample preparation and distribution for analyses of scientific experiments. In parallel, important scientific objectives will be accomplished through a state-of-the art scientific payload. © EADS 2010
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188
Unprecedented sea-level rise over 20th century pins down future of rising oceans Sea-level rises from global warming remain one of the big unknowns in the jostling crowd of climate threats. We know that warming water expands - and so coastal communities will be threatened, as the sea swells in response to rising temperatures. But what about the melting of the land-based ice-sheets of Greenland and Antarctica? And the disappearing mountain glaciers of the Rockies and the Andes? How will a warming world spill these frozen waters into the sea, and so back onto our low-lying cities? Those questions are something that climate scientists try to model, but which they still find difficult to predict. One way to help knock down that uncertainty is to turn to past records of sea-level fluctuations, to see if they can point to the future. Tie these records tightly enough to detailed temperature records, and scientists may get a better grasp on what their models should be showing. That's what a research team, including Penn State's Michael Mann, have done - looking to North Carolina's salt marshes for a fresh insight into the sea-level conundrum. The results are published online in today's Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The international team of scientists turned to North Carolina, in part because this area of the world has been geologically quiet for many millennium. Previous sea-level reconstructions are in those parts of the world still on the move - due to tectonic shifts, or where the land is rebounding from the burden of the last Ice Age. That makes deciphering which sea-level changes are down to temperature fluctuations more difficult. But the marshes off of the US east coast have had a much simpler history - so taking account of the slow resettling of the earth's foundations is much easier here. In order to work out the level of the sea over the last two-thousand years, the team looked at thick slices of muddy sediment in the sheltered waters of the Pamlico Sound. These contain foramnifera, microscopic fossils which can tell scientists the depth of the overlying waters. They were dated accurately using a combination of radiocarbon and pollen sequences. The results tallied well with other reconstructions, and with local and global tidal gauge records. 'The temperature and sea level reconstructions were determined independently from each other, and yet each shows what we would expect based on the other," said Mann. "Higher temperatures correspond with higher rates of sea level change and vice versa." The story of sea level changes fitted a reasonably well-known narrative - and emphasized the suddenness of the most recent changes ascribed to man's tinkering with the climate. From 100 years BC until 950 AD, sea levels held fairly constant, but with the regional warming of the northern hemisphere, known as the Medieval Warming period, sea levels rose by 2 inches per century. That rise halted with the onset of the 'Little Ice Age' when sea-levels fell slightly. But once the industrialization of the 19th century was well underway, the tide turned firmly back to rising sea levels - and dramatically so. Over the last century, sea-levels rose at the equivalent of 8-inches per century - a rate unprecedented in the 2000 year-old record. The paper concludes "..in North Carolina the mean rate of rise was 2.1 mm/y in response to 20th century warming. This historical rate of rise was greater than any other persistent, century-scale trend during the past 2,100 years,' the researchers report. That can be seen as an ominous pointer to the future for low-lying communities. Top Image Credit: © Wollwerth Imagery
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|The Salmon-Challis National Forest covers over 4.3 million acres in east-central Idaho. Included within the boundaries of the Forest is 1.3 million acres of the Frank Church-- River of No Return Wilderness Area, the largest wilderness area in the Continental United States. Rugged and remote, this country offers adventure, solitude and breathtaking scenery. Panoramic vistas highlight travel atop the Continental Divide; northwest-southeast trending mountain ranges culminate in the jagged heights of Mount Borah, Idaho's tallest peak. The sagebrush slopes of the forest are covered with a colorful display of wildflowers in the spring.For over 8,000 years, ancestors of the Shoshone-Bannock people have lived in this region. White settlement began shortly after the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled through the territory in 1805. Initially, fur trappers then miners worked this area. The development of Salmon, Challis, and their surrounding communities followed and by the 1880's were flourishing. Traces of the past can be found throughout the Salmon-Challis National Forest.Most roads within the Salmon-Challis National Forest branch off main highways and turn to gravel or dirt surfaces, with many being suitable for sedans, while others require 4-wheel drive vehicles. Recommended travel precautions are to have a full tank of gas and a good spare tire.Three popular road tours: the Custer Motorway Loop, the Lewis and Clark Backcountry Byway, and the Salmon River Road, take visitors through the Salmon River Mountains, to the crest of the Continental Divide, and along the scenic Salmon River. Visitors will discover historic mining towns and share their history of mining life. Steps can be traced back to the 1805 expedition that changed the West.There is abundant wildlife in The Salmon-Challis National Forest. Species include Rocky Mountain sheep, mountain goat, bald eagles, and river otter, among other wildlife who call the forest home.Known as the "white water capital of the world," the Salmon and Middle Fork Rivers offer adventures to provide a lifetime of memories. Permit applications for the wild section of the Main Salmon River and for the Middle Fork River are available at the North Fork and Middle Fork Range Districts.Nearly 3,292 miles of trails transverse the Salmon-Challis National Forest, almost half of which are located in the Wilderness. Hiking season is generally between April and October, with elevations above 7,500 feet usually clear of snow by July 4. Trails range from moderate to difficult. Many non-wilderness trails are designated for motorized use.Hunting opportunities for deer, elk, bighorn sheep, moose, mountain goat, black bear, and mountain lion exist on much of the Salmon-Challis National Forest. Opportunities for hunting chukar, grouse, and goose are also available.Most streams and lakes on the Salmon-Challis National Forest are home to trout. Steelhead average 4-6 pounds, with and occasional one weighing in at 15-20 pounds. Mackay Reservoir, situated on neighboring Bureau of Land Management land, offers good angling for kokanee salmon. Winter anglers may try their skills at Jimmy Smith and Williams Lake, a 30-minute drive from Salmon.There are a wide variety of opportunities for beginners to advanced downhill skiers and snow boarders within the Salmon-Challis National Forest. Williams Creek Summit offers 22 miles of moderate to difficult cross-country ski trails. Copper Mountain allows visitors to practice their backcountry ski skills. Gentler, groomed trails at Chief Joseph Pass on the Idaho-Montana border provide fun for the whole family. Local snowmobile clubs maintain a number of groomed routes on the Ridge Road to the Stanley-Landmark Snowmobile Trail system.There are over 40 campgrounds within the Salmon-Challis National Forest, ranging from primitive to developed. Most campgrounds have at least one wheelchair accessible campsite.| |Facilities: Salmon-Challis National Forest provides over 40 campgrounds. Most of the campgrounds have restrooms.| Best Time To Visit: Salmon-Challis National Forest is open year round for a variety of recreational opportunities. Hiking season is generally between April and October, with elevations above 7,500 feet usually clear of snow by July 4. Cross-country skiing and snowmobiling is available during the winter months. Fees: Parking, camping, and/or entrance fees may be charged at some of the recreation sites within Salmon-Challis National Forest. Accessibility: Most campgrounds have at least one wheelchair accessible campsite. Williams Lake provides wheelchair accessible spots for both fishing and picnicking. Rules: Recommended travel precautions are to have a full tank of gas and a good spare tire. Check the local fishing, hunting, and fire regulations. Do not leave campfires unattended. Fireworks and explosives are prohibited in the forests. Pets must always be restrained or on a leash while in developed recreation sites. Obey all traffic signs. State traffic laws apply to the Salmon-Challis National Forest unless otherwise specified. Directions: Salmon-Challis National Forest covers over 4.3 million acres in east-central Idaho. It can be accessed from Arco, Hailey, Challis, and Salmon. Map: Click here for a map to Salmon-Challis National Forest Reservations: Reservations are not needed or accepted to visit Salmon-Challis National Forest. Reservations may be accepted or required for campgrounds and other recreation sites within the forest. |Salmon-Challis National Forest Supervisor's Office| |50 Hwy 93 South| |Salmon, Idaho 83467| |General: (208) 756-5100|
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1,177
Critical Analysis of Eve Merriam's Onomatopoeia Critical Analysis of Eve Merriam's “Onomatopoeia” “Onomatopoeia” by Eve Merriam allows the reader to enter a world of reality by expressing sounds with the use of vivid words along with graphic imagery. The poem makes the reader envision an old, leaky faucet, dripping droplets of water. It continues to drip one after another, smacking the bottom of a metal sink. Suddenly, after anxiously waiting, the water begins to pour out in full force and flows freely. “Onomatopoeia” contains several different themes. First, “A healthy dose of reality is needed for fun” (Ruby 136). Absurdity is a very important concept in this poem. It helps brighten up the reading instead of it being dull. The poem is absurd because it goes into full detail to just describe a leaky faucet. For example, it is like writing five pages of instructions for someone just to teach them how to throw a ball. But nevertheless, it is fun without being boring or confusing at all. Another theme in this poem is language and meaning. Poets often use words that extend beyond their apparent meaning in order to connect to people through as many words as possible. Poetry can become challenging for the poet and the reader when they realize that a word can have more than one connotation. These connotations came about because various cultures use the word differently throughout the years. To a poet with acute hearing, every word sounds like something it represents (Ruby 135). The sounds and the words we use are “intrinsically related” to what they are trying to say (135). This poem lacks structure and is not very complex at all. But it is still an extremely powerful and interesting poem. As the reader looks at the poem, “the words drip one by one down the page, occasionally becoming a sputter of smattering drops” (Ruby 136). There is no real rhyme scheme either but many of the words do rhyme such as utter, sputter, and splutter. Out of the twenty-nine words in this poem, twenty-four of them are related by one or more rhyming elements. Merriam uses many literary devices also. The main device she uses...
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497
We consider a simple pure substance under hydrostatic conditions described by the following fundamental equation: where the extensive variables U, V and N are the internal energy, the volume, and the number of particles respectively, and the intensive variables T, p and are the temperature, the pressure and the chemical potential respectively. Equation () corresponds to the choice of the variables U, V and N as independent variables of the entropy S(U,V,N). These variables are precisely those which are fixed and determine the macrostate of the members of the Microcanonical Ensemble and consequently S is the relevant potential in this statistical ensemble. It is useful to define the following quantities: , and so that Eq. () can then be written in the dimensionless form: In general, for other thermodynamic systems with degrees of freedom, one will have: where are extensive variables, and the corresponding entropic conjugate variables. Massieu-Planck functions are entropic thermodynamic potentials defined as Legendre transformations of the entropy. In the case of a pure substance, the following (dimensionless) potentials can be formally defined: The function was first introduced by Massieu , and it is called Massieu's potential. The function was introduced by Planck and is called Planck's. potential. Given the extensivity of , and using Euler's theorem for homogeneous functions, it is easy to see that . Therefore the Legendre transformation of all variables redefines the entropy, Substituting Eq. () into the differentials of the potentials defined above one gets: From Eq. () one obtains: The above equations allow a re-derivation of all the standard thermodynamic equations in terms of , and . For instance, Maxwell relations can be deduced, by imposing that the equations ()-() are exact differentials (equality of crossed derivatives). Moreover, Eq. () is the Gibbs-Duhem equation which states that the complete set of intensive variables of the system are not all independent. On the other hand, the extremal condition of leads us to deduce that , and are homogeneous at equilibrium .
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452
With solar and wind energies maturing as recognized alternative-power sources, there are other alternatives providing clean power on scales both large and small. These power generators are distinctive in how they create electricity and are a growing business for electrical contractors (ECs) that take note of them. Biomass is the most commercially established “other” alternative energy. Popularly used to create biofuels, such energy sources are being used for on-site power cogeneration or distributed generation. Biofuel is sustainable, offering carbon-neutral emissions output. A nonfossil-fuel source, its most popular “feedstocks,” as they are called, include wood waste, agricultural residues (straw, manure, grasses) and municipal solid waste. When used to create energy, feedstocks become the fuel for biopower. Biofuel is certainly not a new idea. Wood was North America’s primary heating source until coal. By the 1950s, electricity and natural gas displaced wood heat. The energy crisis of the 1970s brought new attention, research and new ideas to biomass as an alternative-energy source. By the 1980s, biomass power plants were being built in North America. Today, the Biomass Power Association (BPA) in Portland, Maine, represents 80 biomass power plants in 20 states across the country. Biopower systems are typically direct-fired, co-fired, gasification or modular (transportable). A growing sector Industrial Info Resources (IIR) in Texas, a provider of global market intelligence for industrial, heavy manufacturing and energy markets, reports more than $3 billion in U.S. biomass power-generation projects are scheduled to begin construction this year. Research by Biomass Power and Thermal magazine reveals a 20 percent increase in proposed biomass projects going into this year. The top 10 states with the most operating plants and proposed projects are California (22), Florida (16), New York (14), New Hampshire (14), Maine (11), Michigan (11), Massachusetts (10), Minnesota (9), Pennsylvania (9) and Connecticut (8). In addition, the California Energy Commission has set an ambitious goal to add as much as 2,200 megawatts (MW) of biomass power by 2020, part of that state’s goal to achieve 33 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by that year. Though biomass currently plays a relatively small role in the U.S. electric power-generation market-—it represents about 10 gigawatts (GW) of electricity generation, according to the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy—the BPA reports biomass supplies more than half of the United States’ renewable electricity. This niche will continue to grow along with other alternative energies, at a pace partially dictated by the price of natural gas. In its Annual Energy Outlook 2011, the U.S. Energy Information Administration projects renewables will constitute 14 percent of all electric-power generation, just behind nuclear (17 percent) by 2035. In the U.S. consumption of liquid fuels, biofuels are projected to make up 3 percent. Success in landfill gas Though a niche market, ECs are finding competitive work in alternative-power generation. Some contractors have been involved in such work for years. O’Connell Electric Co. Inc., Victor, N.Y., entered the world of landfill gas-to-energy some 20 years ago when it was approached by representatives from a county landfill. “In New York, landfills are required to flare off the gas they produce or do something with it,” said Tim Ehmann, senior manager for O’Connell Electric. “Some choose to generate electricity, capturing and reprocessing the gas from the landfill.” Producing wholesale power for utilities is a major application. But there are others, too. Interface, a carpet tile manufacturer based in LaGrange, Ga., uses the city’s landfill gas to supplant its facility’s natural gas usage by 20 percent. Landfill gas is about 40–60 percent methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide (CO2). Typical landfill-to-gas projects use compressors, blowers, switchgear, engine controls, gas compression controls, power distribution, lighting and a utility substation. Such operations offer many opportunities for the savvy electrical contractor. “The gas has to be conditioned before it goes into a generator,” Ehmann said. “There are mechanical concerns and specialty engineering that goes into the gas preparation. Essentially, you collect, pressurize and regulate the gas flow. We needed to partner with specialty engineers to design the mechanics.” Ehmann said today’s major landfill gas-to-energy customers are larger waste generators, such as Waste Management Inc. That company asserts that its landfill gas projects create enough energy to power 400,000 homes every day and offsets almost 2 million tons of coal per year. Waste Management currently has 110 landfill gas facilities. “In the last six years, we’ve seen an increase in alternative- energy developers (private or co-op, biomass people) working to install power generators for landfill gas and utilize the carbon credits,” Ehmann said. “They are calling us.” O’Connell Electric also is performing other biopower work involving large dairy farms. Central Vermont Public Service calls it “cow power.” It has six Vermont farms providing power to the grid that are estimated to produce between 0.78 and 3.5 megawatt--hours of electricity per year. The process is simple. An anaerobic digester creates biogas from dry, processed manure. The biogas fuels a modified natural gas engine-powered generator that, in turn, creates electricity that is fed into the grid. O’Connell Electric is involved in two such projects providing the wiring for the biofuel process and power generators and the interconnections and relay work to the grid. A farm might generate more power than it can use and would then sell the power back to the utility. “Our work in biogas and landfill gas is really side work for us,” Ehmann said. “It falls in between two existing divisions: line and alternative-energy work. Relay work and power protection and testing are services we provide to pull this project work together. We’ve seen a rebirth in this work, in part due to rates going up and its rediscovery as an alternative-energy green power.” Ehmann said his company has to compete. “The electrical interconnection business competition is maybe one in 10 instead of one in 100 for us,” he said. “We have the history, which helps us win the work. We also have our technicians earn their certification in the commissioning of the electrical interconnection (relays and utility’s relay testing). This has helped open the doors for new and repeat business. Ultimately, our customers turn to us to help maintain their systems.” In New York, landfill gas operations need to be certified through the New York Independent System Operator (NYISO), in part, so the operations can properly avoid faults and be able to properly disconnect from the grid at the utility’s request. Newkirk Electric Associates Inc., based in Muskegon, Mich., also has more than a 20-year history with biomass projects. It also works with dairy farms helping design, power and “interconnect” digester sites for electric power generation and for producing pipeline-grade biogas. It, too, is involved in a number of landfill gas-to-energy projects—55 to date. The company has its own power and controls specialists that allow it to offer project design. “Biopower represents a very broad customer base, ranging from major utilities and municipal utilities, to paper mills using its industrial paper waste for energy, to farmers using livestock manure,” said Mary Carter, vice president of business development for Newkirk. “There seems to be endless creativity in biomass projects. We just finished a project that used human solid waste, a digester and ethanol to create power for a wastewater treatment plant. We did the electrical work and construction. This technology is evolving.” A family business now 50 years old, Newkirk Electric started out assisting utilities in their power generation and distribution. It developed a favored reputation. Like O’Connell Electric, their first biomass project was a landfill gas project in the 1980s. “The majority of our work in biomass is landfill gas, but in the early ’90s, we were the primary EC for two large biomass utility projects,” Carter said. “The 36.2-MW Grayling station burns wood waste from local sawmills and the foresting industry. The 35-MW Genesee Power Station burns up to 700 tons of wood waste each day. The power is tied into the grid to produce energy. Both power stations are owned by the utility.” Ever the mother of invention, Newkirk Electric is working with Hilarides Dairy in Lindsay, Calif., to design and construct a biogas-upgrading skid that takes a manure digester’s raw biogas and cleans and compresses it for use in natural gas burning vehicles. The dairy’s semi trucks are the first cow-powered trucks in the United States. “Biopower holds some advantages over solar and wind. It doesn’t have the intermittent power dips and has no need for energy storage,” Carter said. “It is also available 24/7.” While biopower is a small market for Newkirk Electric, like O’Connell Electric, it is still a key sector for the company and has grown significantly in the past 5 years. The firm does business across the country and has completed projects in 34 states from California to Florida, where Newkirk Electric has an office. The company is currently involved in 10 projects outside Michigan. “For interested ECs, it depends on what role they want to play in this green-energy work,” Carter said. “If it’s just electrical install, power is power. At the very least, develop partnerships with mechanical contractors. If you want to be an added resource to your customer, you have to develop specialized skills. For us, its electrical controls, switchgear, facility interface, line work, substation design and build, and helping fill out paperwork for the cogeneration connection with the utility. Knowing the behind-the-scenes required to successfully running biomass and landfill gas projects puts you ahead of the pack as go after this work.” GAVIN is the owner of Gavo Communications, a marketing services firm serving the construction, landscaping and related design industries. He can be reached at [email protected].
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The West Nile virus Infectious diseases are creeping in from abroad IN 1999 crows in New York started dying in unusual numbers. But it took weeks of further clues, including the deaths of two flamingos and a cormorant at the Bronx Zoo, for officials to find the culprit. The West Nile virus had invaded New York. It was the first time the virus had been recorded in the Western hemisphere. Since then, West Nile has reappeared each summer. As of August 29th cases were up 40% from a week earlier, reaching 1,590, with 66 deaths. Mosquitoes contract the virus when they bite infected birds. Then, with their typical generosity, they give the virus to humans. Eighty per cent show no symptoms. The rest may get a fever, nausea or a rash. About one in 150, however, will develop a serious illness, such as inflammation of the brain. This year’s outbreak is notable mainly for its scale, and the apprehension that future years will unleash equal havoc. Nearly half of the cases have been in Texas, no stranger to vaguely biblical events. The winter was mild, the spring and summer hot. Throughout the year, it has rained intermittently—in short, ideal conditions for mosquitoes. The centre of the outbreak is Dallas. By August 15th county leaders had reported some 200 West Nile infections and ten deaths. The mayor declared a state of emergency and authorised aerial spraying—the first time Dallas has done so since 1969, according to the Dallas Morning News. Health officials started fogging, distributing larvicide and bug repellent, and scouting for standing water. Complicating matters, Dallas County also includes 30 or so smaller towns; some were wary of aerial spraying. West Nile is not the only developing-country disease that has seeped into America. Since 2001 three states have seen outbreaks of dengue fever. The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that 300,000 people in the United States, overwhelmingly immigrants, are infected with Chagas disease, caught from parasites that feed on the face and are usually found in Central and South America. A CDC survey found that 14% of Americans have been exposed to toxocara, roundworms that often cause no symptoms, but which can damage inner organs and the eye. Worryingly, the CDC found higher rates among those who are poor and black. A study of Houston observed that West Nile was more common among the homeless. In general, mosquitoes find the poor inviting hosts, explains Peter Hotez of the Baylor College of Medicine. They often live near potholed roads, with standing water, and are less likely to have insect spray and window screens. By August 29th the number of documented West Nile infections in Dallas had reached 309, and the deaths had crept to 13. In better news, the Dallas city council announced that it had set out five mosquito traps, and that none of the insects it caught carried the virus. If the outbreak is abating, though, it is too soon to be complacent. It will not be the last.
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637
EDEN Mekabu is the ruffled, flowering sprout located at the base of the sea vegetable, wakame Undaria pinnatifida just above the root. Mekabu is also known as the sporophyll of the wakame plant. EDEN Wakame grows wild in the environmentally protected Ise (ee-say) Bay, located in the central eastern area of the main island, Honshu. Mekabu has a pleasant, mellow sweet flavor and is highly regarded in Japan and other parts of Asia. The wakame is hand harvested by fishermen in boats using long bamboo poles with a sickle attached that cuts the wakame loose. As the wakame floats to the surface, the fishermen pull the plants into the boats. After bringing the wakame to shore, the upper wavy fronds are removed and used to make whole dried wakame, like EDEN Wakame, or instant dried flakes, like EDEN Wakame Flakes. The root is removed and the remaining section, mekabu is washed before undergoing a two step drying process using both sun and slow oven drying techniques for several more hours. After sun drying thoroughly, the mekabu is misted with pure water, very finely shredded and then oven dried. After soaking mekabu is usually seasoned and eaten as is or added to salads, without further cooking or simply added toward the end of cooking for soups. A sticky substance in mekabu, called fucoidan, is believed to be more beneficial to health in raw mekabu. Modern science affirms that fucoidan, a natural complex contained in the viscous and sticky sporophyll of mekabu, is a beneficial polysaccharide that breaks down when the seaweed is cooked. This was determined when studies were performed on the Japanese island of Okinawa, known for it's highest degree of health in Japan. Fucoidan is believed to be of benefit to the immune system as well as digestive and thyroid health. For those using sea salt, sea vegetables are a source of iodine. The FDA says, "Diets low in sodium may reduce the risk of hypertension or high blood pressure, a disease associated with many factors." EDEN Mekabu is very low in sodium, fat free, and cholesterol free. Mekabu is usually eaten in small amounts, like a condiment, rather than a side dish. One teaspoon (about 1 gram) is sufficient for a serving. To prepare EDEN Mekabu, first soak in hot water to cover for 10 minutes. Drain off the water and cover with cold water for 2 minutes. Then drain off the cold water. The mekabu is now ready to eat as is, with a drop or so of brown rice vinegar and shoyu soy sauce, on top of traditional noodles and broth, cooked rice or nori maki sushi rolls, and in making Japanese style vegetable pickles. When adding to soups, add the soaked mekabu at the very end of cooking, just before serving so as not to cook it. Try it in our Udon and Mekabu Salad in the recipe section.
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659
There are certain types of people that are just naturally caregivers. These people are generally compassionate, motivating and kindhearted. Nursing is a popular career option for these types of people. For those thinking of becoming a nurse the research process can be quite overwhelming. Bachelors and Associates Nursing Education The first step to starting a nursing career starts with the preliminary research. Becoming a nurse requires an advanced education. Although you do not need a college degree to become a nurse, those who have a nursing degree will make more money and have more career options in the future. There are many options to obtaining a nursing degree. The most common is a Bachelor of Science Nursing which is a 4 year degree at a traditional university. Usually a Bachelor of Science Nursing degree is required for admission to a Masters of Nursing program. By completing a college degree individuals will become a Registered Nurse and will have many career paths they could take. Individuals choosing not to become RN’s can also obtain an Associates Degree from a community college and work taking care of the sick, injured or elderly in special needs programs. Make sure the nursing program is accredited with The National League for Nursing Accrediting Commission and Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education before enrolling. Advanced Nursing Education Licensed Practical Nurses care for the sick, injured and disabled under the direct supervision of physicians and registered nurses. An LPN is responsible for taking basic care, taking vital signs, monitoring equipment and changing dressings. Getting an LPN degree usually takes 1 year and can be found at vocational schools. Some universities offer accelerated programs for students who already have some other degree but wish to pursue nursing. These programs usually last 1.5-2 years in length. There are many advanced degrees as well such as Degree Completion Programs for RNs, Master, Doctoral and Post-Doctoral Programs. Getting a degree is the first step in a meaningful nursing career. Once you have a degree in nursing there are many different certification programs available to further ones career. Some Registered Nurses are required to complete certification classes on a regular basis to show competence of their job skills. There are no set standards for every hospital or clinic but rather each employer can choose to participate in ongoing training/certification. Online programs do exist and our gaining in popularity due to their reduced cost and time. It Pays to be a Nurse A nursing career is one of the most popular and most needed jobs in America. Currently there are more than 100,000 RN openings in the United States. By 2020 there will be a need for 800,000 RNs. The increased need is due to the world living longer and an increase in the geriatric population. Registered Nurses earn an average of $49,840 a year according to the U.S. Department of Labor. With such a need for nurses many hospitals are giving out huge signing bonuses up to $30,000 in some cases. If you enjoy taking care of people it definitely pays to look into nursing.
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608
Description from Flora of China Shrubs, shrublets, perennial herbs, or rarely annual herbs or small trees; trichomes typically medifixed (T-shaped), equally to very unequally 2-branched and sometimes crisped, or rarely simple multicellular hairs present with glandular tips. Stipules persistent or caducous. Leaves usually imparipinnate but for some species simple or reduced to 1 leaflet; stipels present or absent; leaflet blades usually opposite but sometimes subopposite or alternate, rarely with glands, margin entire. Racemes axillary; bracts usually caducous. Calyx campanulate or cup-shaped; teeth 5, subequal or abaxial one longer. Corolla usually reddish, sometimes white or yellow; standard usually covered outside with appressed trichomes but occasionally glabrous, base shortly clawed, apex usually obtuse to emarginate and mucronate; wings narrow, base auricled; keel falcate or spatulate, with spur adnate to wings. Stamens 10, diadelphous, only vexillary one free; anthers uniform, basifixed or subbasifixed, sometimes both ends hairy, apex apiculate; pollen 3-colporate. Ovary sessile, with 1 to many ovules; style linear, usually glabrous; stigma capitate. Legume linear, oblong, or ovoid, cylindric or 4-sided in cross section, 2-valved, septate, dehiscent; endocarp often spotted with tannin deposits. Seeds globose to rectangular; hilum small; cotyledons unequal; radicle oblique. A single collection has been seen from Yunnan of what appears to be an additional species closely related to Indigofera laxiflora Craib (Kew Bull. 1912: 148. 1912), otherwise only known from Thailand. About 750 species: tropics and subtropics worldwide; 79 species (45 endemic, two introduced) in China. (Authors: Gao Xinfen (高信芬); Brian D. Schrire)
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466
Skip to main content More Search Options A member of our team will call you back within one business day. Blood or body fluids may contain pathogens (germs) that can cause disease. If there is an accident at work involving blood or body fluids, these germs can be spread. The most common and serious bloodborne pathogens are the hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Other bloodborne germs include syphilis and malaria. Once these germs infect you, they can spread to your loved ones. The three bloodborne germs described below are the most common causes of infections in the workplace. Hepatitis B can cause severe damage to the liver and can even lead to death. A vaccine is available to help prevent hepatitis B infection. This vaccine is given as several injections over a period of time. Like hepatitis B, hepatitis C can cause severe damage to the liver and can lead to death. There is no known vaccine for HCV. HIV makes it harder for the body to fight infection. HIV causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is a serious illness that can lead to death. There is no known vaccine for HIV. How You Could Get Infected at Work Bloodborne diseases can infect you when: You help an injured person without using a protective barrier between you and the infected person's blood or body fluids. An object or surface with infected blood or body fluids on it touches your broken skin. You smoke, eat, or touch your eyes, nose, or mouth after getting someone else's infected blood or body fluids on your hands. You are pricked or scratched by a sharp object (such as broken glass) that has infected blood or body fluids on it.
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Open Discovery Space - 0 Komentāri - 2016 Apmeklējumu skaits ODS is the result of collaboration between 51 organisations from 23 countries. The aim is to create a socially-powered, multilingual open learning infrastructure to boost the adaptation of eLearning Resources in Europe. - To empower stakeholders through a single, integrated access point for eLearning resources from dispersed educational repositories - To engage stakeholders in the production of meaningful educational activities by using a social-network style multilingual portal, offering eLearning resources as well as services for the production of educational activities; - To assess the impact of the new educational activities, which could serve as a prototype to be adopted by stakeholders in school education Upon the completion of this project, Open Discovery Space will have contributed to the modernisation of school education, supported stakeholders in acquiring digital competences, stimulated demand for innovative eLearning resources and engaged teachers and pupils in the development of innovative educational practices. Crucially, this project will strengthen European integration by increasing cooperation across state borders, bringing together different cultures and supporting multi-lingual practices. More information about the innovative aspects of this project is available on the ODS home page.
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The vas deferens is a narrow, muscular tube that connects the testicles (where sperm is produced) to the urethra. During ejaculation, the sperm flows out of the testicles, through the vas deferens, and into the tube (urethra) that leads outside the body through the penis. Several glands, such as the prostate gland, add fluid to the sperm along the way. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. Find out what women really need. Most Popular Topics Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies
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Recently, I had a family member consult me regarding the prescription of medication for her son who has been diagnosed with a "mild form of ADD". The physcian recommended that he be given a low dose of medication to treat his symptoms. Immediately her mother's intuition sparked and she felt that this may not be the best course of action, however, she didn't know what her options were. Interestingly enough, many physicians may not tell you, but diet plays a huge role in symptomology produced by ADD or ADHD. Many times it is not considered in treatment, but The British Medical Journal stated recently that properly supervised trial eliminating colors and preservatives from the diet of hyperactive children should be considered a part of the STANDARD treatment. If your child is experiencing symptoms consistent with ADD or ADHD consider the following dietary changes: 1. Eliminate artificial colors and flavors from their diet. 2. Make sure that the child is eating some protein with every meal and snack. Helps to regulate blood sugar. 3. Eliminate sodas and juices....even natural sugars can cause blood sugar spikes if the whole fruit is not eaten (the fiber of the fruit is the important part!). 4. Consider eliminating wheat and gluten from their diet. There are several links to gluten sensitivity and/or allergy in ADD/ADHD 5. A good quality multivitamin and Omega 3 supplement is a MUST! All user-generated information on this site is the opinion of its author only and is not a substitute for medical advice or treatment for any medical conditions. Members and guests are responsible for their own posts and the potential consequences of those posts detailed in our Terms of Service.
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Jun 24, 2011 / ENERGY GLOBE Award Project presentation - "Learning from and with nature" The rural community of La Soledad in the province of Salsa in northwest Argentina is battling poverty and malnutrition. It is not easy to learn with an empty stomach. Teachers at the school La Soledad know this as well. Therefore they want to provide food for their pupils. However, the school and its dormitory are quite remote and everything has to be delivered on horseback. The solution is farming as part of the curriculum. Under the title “Learning from Nature” the school became nutritionally self-sufficient. The school’s own farm now grows fruits, spices and vegetables, raises seedlings and keeps honeybees and livestock (pigs, poultry, rabbits, …). The students also handle processing of the foods together with their teachers and project initiator Ana Trabucco. Other elements of the project include recycling of biowaste as fertilizer and solar energy production. Thus the children learn by experience how biological systems work and simultaneously create the basis for successful graduation: Regular, balanced school meals have profoundly improved school performance. More information: www.ciudadaniasolidaria.org
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