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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D1%87%20%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96
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Ніч ополудні
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Ніч ополудні
«Ніч ополудні» — роман англійського письменника угорсько-єврейського походження Артура Кестлера. Книга присвячена опису епохи «Великого терору» в Радянському Союзі, про те, як жорна революції перемелюють і знищують своїх творців, на думку Партії, тих, котрі мали сумнів щодо правильності обраного шляху розвитку держави й руху. У романі держава, де відбуваються події, прямо не називається, а згадується, як країна, де перемогла Революція.
Персонажі
Основний персонаж
Рубашов Микола Залманович — Старий Більшовик, колишній Народний Комісар, бригадний командир під час громадянської війни. Можливо, його образ був створений на основі осіб, засуджених на показових процесах (Каменєва, Зінов'єва або Бухаріна).
Інші персонажі
слідчий Іванов;
слідчий Глеткін;
402-ий — сусід Рубашова і в'язень зі стажем, можливо, колишній поручик царської армії.
Епізодичні персонажі
Заяча губа, син професора Кіфера;
Михайло Богров — «матрос першого революційного броненосця, перший кавалер ордена революції, командувач східно-океанським флотом», особистий друг Рубашова, що зустрівся йому в ув'язненні;
«Ріп ван Вінкль», 406-ий;
Селянин (товариш по прогулянці);
Двірник Василь;
Віра Василівна, дочка двірника.
Персонажі зі спогадів Рубашова
Арлова — колишній секретар і коханка Рубашова, заарештована і розстріляна раніше;
Ріхард;
«Малютка» Леві;
Професор Кіфер;
Барон З.
Персонажі партії
Старий з «татарською усмішкою» — уособлює Леніна;
Перший, великий вождь — Диктатор «країни, де перемогла Революція», «вусань з глумливо цинічними очима», теперішній об'єкт культу особи, що втілює Сталіна;
Бородаті філософи — групове фото Старих Більшовиків, раніше висіло на всіх стінах, а тепер зняте і заборонене.
Інші політики
«Вусань зі скляним поглядом» — Гітлер.
Сюжет
Головний герой книги — Микола Залманович Рубашов, колишній Народний Комісар, чоловік, старше п'ятдесяти років, заарештований за підозрою в ухилянні від лінії Партії і поміщений у в'язницю, де чекає рішення власної долі. Його образ оснований на низці людей, які стали жертвами московських показних судових процесів і які були особисто відомі автору. Рубашов — це уособлення групи старих більшовиків. Кестлер використовує його образ для дослідження дій старих більшовиків на московських показових процесах 1938 року. Перебуваючи у в'язниці, Рубашов згадує й наново оцінює свою роль у Партії та в боротьбі за досягнення її цілей. Він приходить до висновку, що не вчинив жодних контрреволюційних дій, однак, незважаючи на це, він погоджується, не пручаючись, з тим неминучим кінцем, який на його очікує. Він не сперечається, розуміючи, що до власного арешту він сам точно так само, в руслі встановленої Партією лінії, розправлявся з тими побратимами, які «ухилились». Більше того, незважаючи на неминучість розстрілу, на останньому допиті він погоджується визнати звинувачення в ході відкритого процесу, публічно засудивши себе і будь-яких інших побратимів, які «ухилились», тим самим зігравши останню жертовну роль в інтересах Партії.
Передумови до написання
У 1932 році Кестлер відвідав Радянський Союз. Бувши, як і багато письменників його часу, прихильником ідей марксизму, Кестлер з натхненням береться за підготовку написання книги про досягнення радянського уряду в післяреволюційні роки. Але, побачивши на власні очі радянську дійсність, він з розчаруванням залишає країну. Через кілька років Кестлер дізнається про процес щодо Каменєва і Зінов'єва. У цей час він перебуває в Іспанії, де бере участь в антифранкістських виступах, внаслідок чого буде арештований. Опинившись на свободі у 1938 році, письменник дізнається, що в Москві зникли відомі німецькі антифашисти, в тому числі брат його дружини. Остаточно зневірившись у сталінському режимі, Кестлер приймає рішення про вихід з Компартії.
Робота над романом і публікація
Артур Кестлер почав писати роман у 1938 році в Німеччині, а закінчив у Франції 1940 року за місяць до вторгнення німців. 21 вересня 1939 року письменник був заарештований французькою поліцією і направлений у табір для інтернованих осіб у Піренеях. У січні 1940 року Кестлер був звільнений і отримав можливість закінчити роботу над романом. Під час подальших неодноразових обшуків поліції німецький варіант книги був вилучений. Однак зберігся англійський переклад, який був переправлений до Лондону.
Згодом і сам автор перебрався до Великої Британії. Тут Кестлер також на деякий час опинився під арештом як підозрілий іммігрант. Перебуваючи у в'язниці, письменник закінчує роботу над книгою. Роман вийшов ще до звільнення Кестлера.
Оцінки та аналіз
Роман вийшов у Великій Британії 1941 року і став літературною подією. Джордж Орвелл у критичному нарисі про творчість Артура Кестлера говорить про те, що практично всі роботи письменника зосереджені на московських процесах 30-х років. При цьому автор, очевидно розчарований у постреволюційній Росії, приходить до невтішних висновків про неминуче «моральне падіння» суспільства після революції. Орвелл бачить прототипами головного героя Троцького, Бухаріна і Раковського, або когось із інших представників старих більшовиків, які не підтримують сталінського шляху розвитку. Орвелл високо оцінює значення роману, констатуючи, що в 30-40 роки в середовищі британських письменників не знайшлося нікого, хто міг би створити схожу книгу, що виражає розчарування в Радянському Союзі.
Видання українською мовою
Джордж Орвелл, А. Кестлер. Ніч ополудні. Скотоферма / Переклад О. Дроздовського та В. Бендера. — Київ: РВО «Заповіт» МГП «Інформ ОТ сервіс», 1991. — 272 с. ISBN 5-7707-1046-2 (e-book версія з сайту Chtyvo.org.ua)
Визнання
Роман увійшов до списку 100 найкращих романів XX століття англійською мовою за версією видавництва Modern Library.
Примітки
Посилання
Ніч ополудні у бібліотеці Чтиво
Фантастичні романи 1940
Фантастичні романи Великої Британії
Фантастичні романи Угорщини
Німецькомовні фантастичні романи
Антиутопічні романи
Романи, перекладені українською мовою
Романи виховання
Книги видавництва Macmillan Publishers
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662544
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL
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AOL
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AOL Inc. (колишня America Online, Inc.) — американська медіакомпанія, постачальник онлайн сервісів та електронних дощок оголошень. Є дочірнім підприємством Verizon Communications. Компанія володіє вебсайтами The Huffington Post, TechCrunch та Engadget, та покриває цифрове поширення вмісту, продуктів та послуг до користувачів, видавців та рекламщиків.
Історія
1983 заснована Control Video Corporation (CVC), Білом вон Мейстером. Вона давала можливість через онлайн послугу GameLine завантажувати відео ігри за 1 долар.
1985 року компанія майже збанкрутувала й Джин Кімсі створив Quantum Computer Services з залишків CVC. Був забезпечений інтернет зв'язок для комп'ютерів Commodore 64 та Apple II. 1988 до зв'язку було додано IBM-PC сумісні комп'ютери.
1989 року була змінена назва на America Online.
У середині 1990-х років Америка Онлайн була головним брендом американського інтернету, коли вона постачала інтернет мільйонам через телефонні модеми. Америка онлайн мала свій месенджер й згодом інтернет браузер після купівлі Netscape. На піку свого розвитку АОЛ була придбана медіа корпорацією Time Warner й швидко зменшилася зі зменшенням популярності діал-ап.
8 червня 1998 р. компанія AOL придбала Mirabilis, власника ICQ, за 407 млн дол. США.
24 листопада 1998 року придбала Netscape за 4,2 мільярда доларів США.
2001 року Америка онлайн злилася з Time Warner й сформувала нову корпорацію AOL Time Warner, Inc, де 55 % акцій належало акціонерам АОЛ.
2005 року запустили проект AOL Explorer для безкоштовного завантаження.
2006 року AOL припинила використовувати повне ім'я America Online.
2007 року головний офіс компанії переїхав з Даллесу (Вірджинія) до Нью-Йорка.
2009 року АОЛ під керівництвом поточного головного директора Тіма Армстронга відділилася від Тайм Ворнер й сфокусувалася на медіа брендах й рекламних технологіях.
8 липня 2010 року сервіс ICQ (дочірні компанії ICQ LLC та ICQ Ltd.) продано компанії Digital Sky Technologies Limited за $187,5 млн дол. США.
2011 року АОЛ придбало інтернет-газету The Huffington Post за 315 млн доларів.
2012 року придбано Hipster, компанію з мобільного поширення фотографіями.
23 червня 2015 року АОЛ була придбана Verizon Communications за 4,4 млрд доларів. У наступні місяці АОЛ придбала у Microsoft технічні підприємства Millennial Media й Kanvas для збільшення можливостей мобільної реклами.
Примітки
Див. також
Netscape Communications Corporation
Open Directory Project
Посилання
Корпоративний сайт AOL
AOL.com
AOL.ca — International Services
AOL Поиск
AOL
Пошукові системи
Виробники програмного забезпечення США
Інтернет-провайдери США
Підприємства Нью-Йорка
Засновані в США 1983
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2603236
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/K10-C
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K10-C
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K10-C — газове родовище у нідерландському секторі Північного моря.
Опис
Відкрите в 1980 році внаслідок буріння свердловини K10-C-01. Поклади вуглеводнів пов'язані із пісковиками формації Слохтерен, що відносяться до пермського періоду.
Розробку родовища почали у 1983-му з використанням встановленої в попередньому році платформи K10-C. Вона не мала власних потужностей з підготовки, а видобута продукція по газопроводу діаметром 250 мм та довжиною 5,2 км спрямовувалась на родовище K10-B (звідки в свою чергу транспортувалась на одну з процесингових платформ сектору). Крім того, проклали лінію діаметром 50 мм по якій у зворотному напрямку подавали хімікати (метанол).
У 1993 році через K10-С організували видачу продукції нового родовища K10-V. Втім, вже невдовзі, влітку 1997-го, саму платформу K10-C демобілізували в зв'язку з вичерпанням запасів. Ці роботи провів плавучий кран великої вантажопідйомності Stanislav Yudin (можливо відзначити, що це була одна з перших таких операцій у Північному морі — до того тут пройшли демобілізацію лише три платформи).
Примітки
Газові родовища Нідерландів
Офшорні газові родовища Північного моря
Газові родовища виведені з розробки
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4636807
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%20%28%D0%97%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%29
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Ачара (Зестафонський муніципалітет)
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Ачара (Зестафонський муніципалітет)
Ачара — село в Грузії.
За даними перепису населення 2014 року в селі проживає 80 осіб.
Примітки
Села Грузії
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168349
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%20%D0%86%D1%86%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B0
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Битва при Іцукусіма
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Битва при Іцукусіма (іцукусіма но татакаі) — битва, яка відбулася 16 жовтня 1555 року на острові Іцукусіма у провінції Акі (суч. префектура Хіросіма) між військами роду Морі під командуванням Морі Мотонарі і роду Оуті під командуванням Суе Харукати. Вона завершилась перемогою Морі Мотонарі, що відкрило йому шлях до завоювання регіону Тюґоку. З другого боку, розгром сил Оуті спричинив швидкий занепад і знищення цього колись потужного роду. Ця битва є однією з найвизначніших у військовій історії Японії.
Джерела
香川正矩『陰徳太平記』(Каґава Масанорі. Інтоку Тайхейкі) 田修, 下房俊一訳）、教育社、1980
Література
森本 繁『戦史ドキュメント 厳島の戦い』(Морімото Сіґеру. Битва при Іцукусіма у історичних документах) 学研Ｍ文庫、2001年） ISBN 4-05-901034-0
Посилання
Битва при Іцукусіма (японською)
Перебіг битви при Іцукусіма (японською)
Битви самураїв
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18845338
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavor%20Yanakiev
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Yavor Yanakiev
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Yavor Yanakiev
Yavor Dimitrov Yanakiev (born 3 June 1985 in Stara Zagora) is a Bulgarian wrestler who won the bronze medal in the Men's Greco-Roman 74kg at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.
Yanakiev currently competes for Slavia Litex, where his coach is Stoyan Dobrev; his first coach was Petar
References
Bulgarian male sport wrestlers
Wrestlers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for Bulgaria
Olympic wrestlers for Bulgaria
Sportspeople from Stara Zagora
Living people
Olympic medalists in wrestling
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
European Games competitors for Bulgaria
Wrestlers at the 2015 European Games
World Wrestling Championships medalists
1985 births
European Wrestling Championships medalists
20th-century Bulgarian people
21st-century Bulgarian people
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%90%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%20%28%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB-%D1%81%D1%83%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%2082%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%29
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Маній Ацилій Авіола (консул-суффект 82 року)
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Маній Ацилій Авіола (консул-суффект 82 року)
Маній Ацилій Авіола (I століття) — політичний і державний діяч Римської імперії, консул-суффект 82 року.
Біографія
Його ім'я відоме лише з одного напису «Fasti Septempeda». Походив імовірно з патриціанського роду Ациліїв, також імовірно він є сином Манія Ацилія Авіоли, консула 54 року.
Згідно цього напису з березня по квітень 82 року обіймав посаду консула-суффекта ймовірно разом з Гаєм Арінієм Меттієм Модестом. З того часу про подальшу долю Манія Ацилія Авіоли згадок немає.
Родина
Син (ймовірно) Маній Ацилій Авіола, консул 122 року.
Джерела
Fasti Septempeda // L'Année épigraphique. 1998. 419.
Консули Римської імперії
Ацилії
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47578859
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrence%20Loves%20You
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Terrence Loves You
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Terrence Loves You
"Terrence Loves You" is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Lana Del Rey for her album Honeymoon (2015). It was released as the album's first promotional single on August 21, 2015. Written by Del Rey and Rick Nowels, the song has been described as "hypnotic", with Del Rey singing over piano, strings, and a "moaning" saxophone. The song contains an interpolation of the song "Space Oddity" by English singer-songwriter David Bowie from his eponymous second studio album. Del Rey stated that the song is her favorite from Honeymoon, describing it as "jazzy".
Background and release
The song premiered via Del Rey's "Honeymoon Hotline", a hotline set up for fans to receive updates on the album direct from Del Rey herself, as well as have access to other content, such as lectures. On August 21, 2015, the official audio was uploaded to Del Rey's Vevo channel. The same day, "Terrence Loves You" was made available in digital download.
Composition
"Terrence Loves You" is a lounge ballad. It has been described as "hypnotic", with Del Rey singing over piano, strings, and a "moaning" saxophone. The song contains an interpolation of the song "Space Oddity" by English singer-songwriter David Bowie from his eponymous second studio album.
The song opens with isolated guitar notes plucked and dropped, before moving into the distance as piano chords appear, followed by violins, and, Del Rey's vocals. The chorus is delivered in an operatic style and lyrically talks about strength in the face of abandonment. Throughout the chorus, there are brief saxophone sections inserted and Bowie references with lyrics such as "Ground control to Major Tom/ Can you hear me all night long?".
Critical reception
Rolling Stone called the song "hypnotic" and praised Del Rey's vocal performance.
Charts
References
2010s ballads
2015 singles
2015 songs
Interscope Records singles
Lana Del Rey songs
Lounge music
Major Tom
Polydor Records singles
Songs written by Lana Del Rey
Songs written by Rick Nowels
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3327554
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%20%28%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F%29
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Іст-Маккіспорт (Пенсільванія)
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Іст-Маккіспорт (Пенсільванія)
Іст-Маккіспорт — місто в США, в окрузі Аллегені штату Пенсільванія. Населення — 2076 осіб (2020).
Географія
Іст-Маккіспорт розташований за координатами (40.384816, -79.807431). За даними Бюро перепису населення США в 2010 році місто мало площу 1,07 км², уся площа — суходіл.
Демографія
Згідно з переписом 2010 року, у селищі мешкало осіб у домогосподарствах у складі 557 родин. Густота населення становила 1988 осіб/км². Було 1152 помешкання (1077/км²).
Расовий склад населення:
До двох чи більше рас належало 2,6 %. Частка іспаномовних становила 1,8 % від усіх жителів.
За віковим діапазоном населення розподілялося таким чином: 19,5 % — особи молодші 18 років, 63,0 % — особи у віці 18—64 років, 17,5 % — особи у віці 65 років та старші. Медіана віку мешканця становила 43,0 року. На 100 осіб жіночої статі у селищі припадало 93,3 чоловіків; на 100 жінок у віці від 18 років та старших — 89,7 чоловіків також старших 18 років.
Середній дохід на одне домашнє господарство становив долари США , а середній дохід на одну сім'ю — доларів . Медіана доходів становила доларів для чоловіків та доларів для жінок. За межею бідності перебувало 11,6 % осіб, у тому числі 11,4 % дітей у віці до 18 років та 2,7 % осіб у віці 65 років та старших.
Цивільне працевлаштоване населення становило особи. Основні галузі зайнятості: освіта, охорона здоров'я та соціальна допомога — 34,5 %, роздрібна торгівля — 13,8 %, мистецтво, розваги та відпочинок — 10,5 %, транспорт — 8,4 %.
Примітки
Джерела
Містечка Пенсільванії
Населені пункти округу Аллегені (Пенсільванія)
Населені пункти США, засновані 1895
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3093397
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieracium%20murorum
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Hieracium murorum
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Hieracium murorum — вид рослин з родини айстрових (Asteraceae), поширений у Європі, Туреччині, Кавказі.
Опис
Рослини 25–60+ см. Стебла проксимально волосаті (волоски 1–3+ мм), дистально волосаті й залозисті. Листя: базальних 3–6, стеблових (0–)2–3+; пластини (часто пурпурно-плямисті), ±еліптичні, 50–110 × 25–45 мм, довжина у 1.5–3 рази більша від ширини, основи від округлих до урізаних, поля ±зубчасті, верхівки ±тупі, поверхні волосаті. Голів 5–8. Сім'янки 2.5–3 мм.
Поширення
Поширений у Європі, на заході Азії (Туреччині, Вірменії, Грузії); натуралізований у Канаді й США.
Галерея
Джерела
murorum
Флора України
Флора Європи
Флора Азії
Флора Північної Америки
Рослини, описані 1753
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2068369
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%86%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0
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Андренко Ірина Валеріївна
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Андренко Ірина Валеріївна
Ірина Валеріївна Андренко (Сімферополь) — українська шахістка, міжнародний майстер серед жінок (2009).
Віце-чемпіонка України 2011 року.
Її рейтинг на станом на січень 2020 року — 2107 (754-те місце у світі, 31-ше — серед шахісток України).
Закінчила біологічний факультет Харківського національного університету імені В. Н. Каразіна.
Досягнення
2004
Чемпіонат України серед дівчат до 14 років — 3 місце;
2007
Чемпіонат України серед дівчат до 18 років (Донецьк) — 1 місце;
2009
Чемпіонат України серед дівчат до 18 років — 1 місце;
Турнір серед жінок пам'яті В.Савона (швидкі шахи) — 1 місце;
2010
Чемпіонат світу з шахів серед юніорів (до 20 років, Польща) — 6 — 13 місце;
Чемпіонат України серед дівчат до 20 років (швидкі шахи) — 2 місце;
2011
Міжнародний жіночий турнір «Феміда-2011» (Харків) — 1 місце;
2012
Чемпіонат України серед жінок (швидкі шахи) — 3 місце;
2015
Півфінал чемпіонату України серед жінок (Дніпропетровськ) — 3 місце;
Результати виступів у чемпіонатах України
Примітки
Посилання
Особова картка Ірини Андренко сайті ФІДЕ
Партії Ірини Андренко на сайті 365chess
Партії Ірини Андренко в базі ChessGames
Сторінка на facebook.com
Сторінка Ірини Андренко на сайті на Харківської обланої федерації шахів
Українські шахістки
Випускники Харківського університету
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4981136
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0%20%D0%A5%D1%96%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BD
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Саша Хіршзон
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Саша Хіршзон (нар. 14 липня 1972) — колишній хорватський тенісист.
Найвищу одиночну позицію світового рейтингу — 214 місце досяг 20 грудня 1993, парну — 85 місце — 28 липня 1997 року.
Здобув 2 парні титули.
Найвищим досягненням на турнірах Великого шолома було 3 коло в парному розряді.
Фінали ATP за кар'єру
Парний розряд: 2 (2–0)
Титули на челленджерах
Парний розряд: (2)
Примітки
Посилання
Hiršzon 2018 interview
Народились 1972
Хорватські тенісисти
Югославські тенісисти
Тенісисти та тенісистки на літніх Олімпійських іграх 1996
Хорватські олімпійські тенісисти та тенісистки
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5170027
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18-electron%20rule
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18-electron rule
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18-electron rule
The 18-electron rule is a chemical rule of thumb used primarily for predicting and rationalizing formulas for stable transition metal complexes, especially organometallic compounds. The rule is based on the fact that the valence orbitals in the electron configuration of transition metals consist of five (n−1)d orbitals, one ns orbital, and three np orbitals, where n is the principal quantum number. These orbitals can collectively accommodate 18 electrons as either bonding or non-bonding electron pairs. This means that the combination of these nine atomic orbitals with ligand orbitals creates nine molecular orbitals that are either metal-ligand bonding or non-bonding. When a metal complex has 18 valence electrons, it is said to have achieved the same electron configuration as the noble gas in the period, lending stability to the complex. Transition metal complexes that deviate from the rule are often interesting or useful because they tend to be more reactive. The rule is not helpful for complexes of metals that are not transition metals. The rule was first proposed by American chemist Irving Langmuir in 1921.
Applicability
The rule usefully predicts the formulas for low-spin complexes of the Cr, Mn, Fe, and Co triads. Well-known examples include ferrocene, iron pentacarbonyl, chromium carbonyl, and nickel carbonyl.
Ligands in a complex determine the applicability of the 18-electron rule. In general, complexes that obey the rule are composed at least partly of π-acceptor ligands (also known as π-acids). This kind of ligand exerts a very strong ligand field, which lowers the energies of the resultant molecular orbitals so that they are favorably occupied. Typical ligands include olefins, phosphines, and CO. Complexes of π-acids typically feature metal in a low-oxidation state. The relationship between oxidation state and the nature of the ligands is rationalized within the framework of π backbonding.
Consequences for reactivity
Compounds that obey the 18-electron rule are typically "exchange inert". Examples include [Co(NH3)6]Cl3, Mo(CO)6, and [Fe(CN)6]4−. In such cases, in general ligand exchange occurs via dissociative substitution mechanisms, wherein the rate of reaction is determined by the rate of dissociation of a ligand. On the other hand, 18-electron compounds can be highly reactive toward electrophiles such as protons, and such reactions are associative in mechanism, being acid-base reactions.
Complexes with fewer than 18 valence electrons tend to show enhanced reactivity. Thus, the 18-electron rule is often a recipe for non-reactivity in either a stoichiometric or a catalytic sense.
Duodectet rule
Computational findings suggest valence p-orbitals on the metal participate in metal-ligand bonding, albeit weakly. However, Weinhold and Landis within the context of natural bond orbitals do not count the metal p-orbitals in metal-ligand bonding, although these orbitals are still included as polarization functions. This results in a duodectet (12-electron) rule for five d-orbitals and one s-orbital only.
The current consensus in the general chemistry community is that unlike the singular octet rule for main group elements, transition metals do not strictly obey either the 12-electron or 18-electron rule, but that the rules describe the lower bound and upper bound of valence electron count respectively. Thus, while transition metal d-orbital and s-orbital bonding readily occur, the involvement of the higher energy and more spatially diffuse p-orbitals in bonding depends on the central atom and coordination environment.
Exceptions
π-donor or σ-donor ligands with small interactions with the metal orbitals lead to a weak ligand field which increases the energies of t2g orbitals. These molecular orbitals become non-bonding or weakly anti-bonding orbitals (small Δoct). Therefore, addition or removal of electron has little effect on complex stability. In this case, there is no restriction on the number of d-electrons and complexes with 12–22 electrons are possible. Small Δoct makes filling eg* possible (>18 e−) and π-donor ligands can make t2g antibonding (<18 e−). These types of ligand are located in the low-to-medium part of the spectrochemical series. For example: [TiF6]2− (Ti(IV), d0, 12 e−), [Co(NH3)6]3+ (Co(III), d6, 18 e−), [Cu(OH2)6]2+ (Cu(II), d9, 21 e−).
In terms of metal ions, Δoct increases down a group as well as with increasing oxidation number. Strong ligand fields lead to low-spin complexes which cause some exceptions to the 18-electron rule.
16-electron complexes
An important class of complexes that violate the 18e rule are the 16-electron complexes with metal d8 configurations. All high-spin d8 metal ions are octahedral (or tetrahedral), but the low-spin d8 metal ions are all square planar. Important examples of square-planar low-spin d8 metal Ions are Rh(I), Ir(I), Ni(II), Pd(II), and Pt(II). At picture below is shown the splitting of the d subshell in low-spin square-planar complexes. Examples are especially prevalent for derivatives of the cobalt and nickel triads. Such compounds are typically square-planar. The most famous example is Vaska's complex (IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2), [PtCl4]2−, and Zeise's salt [PtCl3(η2-C2H4)]−. In such complexes, the dz2 orbital is doubly occupied and nonbonding.
Many catalytic cycles operate via complexes that alternate between 18-electron and square-planar 16-electron configurations. Examples include Monsanto acetic acid synthesis, hydrogenations, hydroformylations, olefin isomerizations, and some alkene polymerizations.
Other violations can be classified according to the kinds of ligands on the metal center.
Bulky ligands
Bulky ligands can preclude the approach of the full complement of ligands that would allow the metal to achieve the 18 electron configuration.
Examples:
Ti(neopentyl)4 (8 e−)
Cp*2Ti(C2H4) (16 e−)
V(CO)6 (17 e−)
Cp*Cr(CO)3 (17 e−)
Pt(PtBu3)2 (14 e−)
Co(norbornyl)4 (13 e−)
[FeCp2]+ (17 e−)
Sometimes such complexes engage in agostic interactions with the hydrocarbon framework of the bulky ligand. For example:
W(CO)3[P(C6H11)3]2 has 16 e− but has a short bonding contact between one C–H bond and the W center.
Cp(PMe3)V(CHCMe3) (14 e−, diamagnetic) has a short V–H bond with the 'alkylidene-H', so the description of the compound is somewhere between Cp(PMe3)V(CHCMe3) and Cp(PMe3)V(H)(CCMe3).
High-spin complexes
High-spin metal complexes have singly occupied orbitals and may not have any empty orbitals into which ligands could donate electron density. In general, there are few or no π-acidic ligands in the complex. These singly occupied orbitals can combine with the singly occupied orbitals of radical ligands (e.g., oxygen), or addition of a strong field ligand can cause electron-pairing, thus creating a vacant orbital that it can donate into.
Examples:
CrCl3(THF)3 (15 e−)
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ (17 e−)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (21 e−, see comments below)
Complexes containing strongly π-donating ligands often violate the 18-electron rule. These ligands include fluoride (F−), oxide (O2−), nitride (N3−), alkoxides (RO−), and imides (RN2−). Examples:
[CrO4]2− (16 e−)
Mo(=NR)2Cl2 (12 e−)
In the latter case, there is substantial donation of the nitrogen lone pairs to the Mo (so the compound could also be described as a 16 e− compound). This can be seen from the short Mo–N bond length, and from the angle Mo–N–C(R), which is nearly 180°.
Counter-examples:
trans-WO2(Me2PCH2CH2PMe2)2 (18 e−)
Cp*ReO3 (18 e−)
In these cases, the M=O bonds are "pure" double bonds (i.e., no donation of the lone pairs of the oxygen to the metal), as reflected in the relatively long bond distances.
π-donating ligands
Ligands where the coordinating atoms bearing nonbonding lone pairs often stabilize unsaturated complexes. Metal amides and alkoxides often violate the 18e rule.
Combinations of effects
The above factors can sometimes combine. Examples include
Cp*VOCl2 (14 e−)
TiCl4 (8 e−)
Higher electron counts
Some complexes have more than 18 electrons. Examples:
Cobaltocene (19 e−)
Nickelocene (20 e−)
The hexaaquacopper(II) ion [Cu(H2O)6]2+ (21 e−)
TM(CO)8− (TM = Sc, Y) (20 e−)
Often, cases where complexes have more than 18 valence electrons are attributed to electrostatic forces – the metal attracts ligands to itself to try to counterbalance its positive charge, and the number of electrons it ends up with is unimportant. In the case of the metallocenes, the chelating nature of the cyclopentadienyl ligand stabilizes its bonding to the metal. Somewhat satisfying are the two following observations: cobaltocene is a strong electron donor, readily forming the 18-electron cobaltocenium cation; and nickelocene tends to react with substrates to give 18-electron complexes, e.g. CpNiCl(PR3) and free CpH.
In the case of nickelocene, the extra two electrons are in orbitals which are weakly metal-carbon antibonding; this is why it often participates in reactions where the M–C bonds are broken and the electron count of the metal changes to 18.
The 20-electron systems TM(CO)8− (TM = Sc, Y) have a cubic (Oh) equilibrium geometry and a singlet (1A1g) electronic ground state. There is one occupied valence MO with a2u symmetry, which is formed only by ligand orbitals without a contribution from the metal AOs. But the adducts TM(CO)8− (TM=Sc, Y) fulfill the 18-electron rule when one considers only those valence electrons, which occupy metal–ligand bonding orbitals.
See also
References
Further reading
Chemical bonding
Inorganic chemistry
Rules of thumb
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B9%20%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B9%20%28%D0%93%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%29
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Музей мумій (Гуанахуато)
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Музей мумій (Гуанахуато)
Музей мумій — музей у мексиканському місті Гуанахуато, центрі однойменного штату.
У музеї виставлено природно збережені муміфіковані тіла людей, які померли, переважно, в другій половині XIX століття і першій половині XX століття і були поховані на місцевому кладовищі «Пантеон Святої Паули» (Santa Paula Pantheon) міста Гуанахуато.
Історія та експозиція музею
У музеї розміщено 111 мумій (в експозиції виставлено 59 із них), ексгумованих у період від 1865 до 1958 року, коли діяв закон, який зобов'язує родичів платити податок за те, щоб тіла їхніх рідних перебували на цвинтарі. Якщо податок не сплачувався вчасно, то родичі втрачали право на місце поховання, і мертві тіла виймали з кам'яних гробниць. Деякі з них виявилося природно муміфікованими, і їх зберігали в спеціальній будівлі при цвинтарі.
Найстаріші поховання датувалися 1833 роком, коли в місті була епідемія холери. За іншими даними, мумії, виставлені в музеї, належать людям, які померли протягом 1850—1950 років.
Наприкінці XIX — на початку XX століття ці мумії стали приваблювати туристів, і працівники цвинтаря стали брати плату за відвідування приміщення, де вони зберігалися. Офіційно датою створення Музею мумій у Гуанахуато вважають 1969 рік, коли мумії було виставлено в засклених стелажах.
2007 року експозицію музею перерозподілено за різними темами. Згідно з офіційним сайтом, щорічно музей відвідують сотні тисяч туристів. Починаючи від того ж 2007 року, 22 мумії досліджували фахівці у Сан-Маркосі.
Починаючи від 2009 року в США організовано серію виставок, на яких було представлено 36 мумій із музею. Перша з таких виставок відкрилася в жовтні 2009 року в Детройті.
Галерея
Див. також
Примітки
Посилання
Guanajuato Mummies, www.mummytombs.com
The Mummies of Guanajuato, www3.sympatico.ca
The Mummies of Guanajuato, слайд-шоу на www.youtube.com
Мумії
Штат Гуанахуато
Історичні музеї Мексики
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393684
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%20%28%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%29
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База (архітектура)
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База (архітектура)
База (від — основа) — основа, підніжжя колони або пілястра. Складається з таких елементів:
скоція — архітектурний асиметричний злом із профілем двоцентрової дуги або складнішої кривої;
плінт — квадратна масивна плита, що слугує основою для колони.
Література
База //
Архітектурні елементи
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2551570
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%86%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Семенко Анатолій Іларіонович
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Семенко Анатолій Іларіонович
Анатолій Іларіонович Семенко (5 жовтня 1937, м. Краматорськ Донецька область) — український науковець, доктор технічних наук, професор, лауреат Державної премії СРСР в галузі радіозв'язку.
Біографія
Народився у м. Краматорську на Донеччина. Закінчив радіофакультет Київського політехнічного інституту (1960) та стаціонарну аспірантуру НДІ «Квант» (Київ, 1966).
Доктор технічних наук за спеціальністю 05.12.21 (1987), захищав дисертацію в ЦКБ «Алмаз», м. Москва.
Професор кафедри телекомунікаційних систем Державного університету телекомунікацій з 2004 року. Науковий керівник постійно діючої галузевої науково-технічної школи-семінару «Теоретичні та прикладні аспекти новітніх технологій телекомунікацій», щомісячні заняття з 2007 р.
Член спеціалізованої вченої ради ДУТ Д 26.861.01, спеціальність 05.12.13.
Член спеціалізованої вченої ради ОНАЗ iм. О. С. Попова Д 41.816.02, спеціальність 05.12.13.
Коло наукових інтересів — теорія передачі інформації, безпроводові та мобільні телекомунікаційні системи; системи радіорелейного та супутникового зв'язку; телекомунікаційні системи НВЧ; мультисервісні мережі; комп'ютерні системи та мережі.
Публікації
Автор понад 130 наукових публікацій, в тому числі 4 монографії, 5 патентів України на корисну модель.
Нагороди та почесні звання
Лауреат Державної премії СРСР в галузі радіозв'язку як головний конструктор урядового комплексу космічного зв'язку (1989 р.).
Академік академії зв'язку України по відділенню «Наземні та супутникові засоби зв'язку» (1993 р.).
Дійсний член Міжнародної академії інформатизації (1994 р.).
Подяка від Київського міського голови (2009 р.).
Почесна грамота Державної адміністрації зв'язку Міністерства транспорту та зв'язку (2010 р.).
Джерела і посилання
Біографія на сайті Державного університету телекомунікацій
Патенти автора — Семенко Анатолій Іларіонович
Публікації на сайті НБУВ
Українські винахідники
Доктори технічних наук СРСР
Уродженці Краматорська
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Сент-Меріс (острів)
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Сент-Меріс (острів)
Сент-Мерріс — острів в архіпелазі островів Сіллі, Велика Британія. Найбільший і найзаселеніший островів архіпелагу омивається Кельтським морем.
Географія
Сент-Меррі є одним з п'яти населених островів архіпелагу Сіллі, адміністративно належить до церемоніального графства Корнволл.
Площа острова становить 6,29 км².
На острові є десять населених пунктів: Пелісті (Pelistry), Потло (Porthloo), Олд Таун (Old Town), Треновез (Trenoweth), Голі Вейл (Holy Vale), Мейпол (Maypole), Номенди (Normandy), Лонґстон (Longstone), Рокі Гілл (Rocky Hill) і Телеграф (Telegraph).
На острові знаходиться єдиний аеропорт на островах Сіллі — аеропорт Сент-Меррі.
Населення
Станом на 2011 рік населення острова становить 1723 осіб, з яких 1097 мешкає у містеску Г'ю-Таун, адміністративному центрі острова.
Населення острова зайняте, зазвичай, у сфері туризму, вирощуванні квітів.
Світлини
Джерела
Paddy Dillon: «Walking in the Isles of Scilly»: Cumbria: «Cicerone Press», 2015 Weight 110g Pages 96 ISBN 9781852848064
Примітки
Острови Сіллі
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Кондибай
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Кондибай — аул у складі Уаліхановського району Північноказахстанської області Казахстану. Входить до складу Актуєсайського сільського округу, раніше був центром та єдиним населеним пунктом ліквідованої Чернігівської сільської ради.
Населення — 579 осіб (2009; 829 у 1999, 1240 у 1989).
Національний склад станом на 1989 рік:
росіяни — 39 %
казахи — 23 %.
До 2007 року аул називався Чернігівське.
Примітки
Джерела
Посилання
На Вікімапії
Населені пункти Уаліхановського району
Аули Північноказахстанської області
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Arrondissement of Langres
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Arrondissement of Langres
The arrondissement of Langres is an arrondissement of France in the Haute-Marne department in the Grand Est region. It has 157 communes. Its population is 43,943 (2016), and its area is .
Composition
The communes of the arrondissement of Langres are:
Aigremont
Andilly-en-Bassigny
Anrosey
Aprey
Arbigny-sous-Varennes
Arbot
Auberive
Aujeurres
Aulnoy-sur-Aube
Avrecourt
Baissey
Bannes
Bay-sur-Aube
Beauchemin
Belmont
Bize
Bonnecourt
Bourbonne-les-Bains
Bourg
Brennes
Celles-en-Bassigny
Celsoy
Chalancey
Chalindrey
Champigny-lès-Langres
Champigny-sous-Varennes
Champsevraine
Changey
Chanoy
Charmes
Chassigny
Le Châtelet-sur-Meuse
Chatenay-Mâcheron
Chatenay-Vaudin
Chaudenay
Chauffourt
Chézeaux
Choilley-Dardenay
Cohons
Coiffy-le-Bas
Coiffy-le-Haut
Colmier-le-Bas
Colmier-le-Haut
Coublanc
Courcelles-en-Montagne
Culmont
Cusey
Dammartin-sur-Meuse
Dampierre
Damrémont
Dommarien
Enfonvelle
Farincourt
Faverolles
Fayl-Billot
Flagey
Frécourt
Fresnes-sur-Apance
Genevrières
Germaines
Gilley
Grandchamp
Grenant
Guyonvelle
Haute-Amance
Heuilley-le-Grand
Humes-Jorquenay
Isômes
Laferté-sur-Amance
Laneuvelle
Langres
Larivière-Arnoncourt
Lavernoy
Lavilleneuve
Lecey
Leuchey
Les Loges
Longeau-Percey
Maâtz
Maizières-sur-Amance
Marac
Marcilly-en-Bassigny
Mardor
Melay
Montcharvot
Le Montsaugeonnais
Mouilleron
Neuilly-l'Évêque
Neuvelle-lès-Voisey
Noidant-Chatenoy
Noidant-le-Rocheux
Occey
Orbigny-au-Mont
Orbigny-au-Val
Orcevaux
Ormancey
Le Pailly
Palaiseul
Parnoy-en-Bassigny
Peigney
Perrancey-les-Vieux-Moulins
Perrogney-les-Fontaines
Pierremont-sur-Amance
Pisseloup
Plesnoy
Poinsenot
Poinson-lès-Fayl
Poinson-lès-Grancey
Poiseul
Praslay
Pressigny
Rançonnières
Rivière-les-Fosses
Rivières-le-Bois
Rochetaillée
Rolampont
Rouelles
Rougeux
Rouvres-sur-Aube
Saint-Broingt-le-Bois
Saint-Broingt-les-Fosses
Saint-Ciergues
Saint-Loup-sur-Aujon
Saint-Martin-lès-Langres
Saint-Maurice
Saints-Geosmes
Saint-Vallier-sur-Marne
Sarrey
Saulles
Saulxures
Savigny
Serqueux
Soyers
Ternat
Torcenay
Tornay
Vaillant
Val-de-Meuse
Le Val-d'Esnoms
Valleroy
Vals-des-Tilles
Varennes-sur-Amance
Vauxbons
Velles
Verseilles-le-Bas
Verseilles-le-Haut
Vesvres-sous-Chalancey
Vicq
Villars-Santenoge
Villegusien-le-Lac
Villiers-lès-Aprey
Violot
Vitry-en-Montagne
Vivey
Voisey
Voisines
Voncourt
History
The arrondissement of Langres was created in 1800.
As a result of the reorganisation of the cantons of France which came into effect in 2015, the borders of the cantons are no longer related to the borders of the arrondissements. The cantons of the arrondissement of Langres were, as of January 2015:
Auberive
Bourbonne-les-Bains
Fayl-Billot
Laferté-sur-Amance
Langres
Longeau-Percey
Neuilly-l'Évêque
Prauthoy
Terre-Natale
Val-de-Meuse
References
Langres
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Хошутське ханство
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Хошутське ханство (1637—1717 роки) — держава на території Тибету, яку утворило одне з ойратських племен — хошути — після розпаду племенної конфедерації Дербен-Ойрат. Протягом майже століття здійснювала фактичну владу в Тибеті, впливаючи навіть на діяльність інституту Далай-лами. З кінця XVII ст. відбувається послаблення ханство. Внаслідок поразки від Джунгарського ханства припинило своє існування.
Історія
Передумови
Плем'я хошутів становило частину конфедерації Дербен-Ойрат — чотирьох ойратських племен. З 1630-х років почалися тенденції перетворення Дербен-Ойрат на державу. Водночас війни з західними монголами сприяли дезорганізації плем'яної конфедерації. В результаті близько 1634 року відбувся розкол ойратського союзу. Хошути рушили на південний схід.
Водночас у Тибеті точилася боротьба між феодальними державами. Погіршувало ситуацію протистояння різних сект тибетського буддизму. До 1620 року держава Цанґпа (володіла західним і центральним Тибетом), яка протистояла секті Гелуг, уклала союз з Цогто-тайджі з Халхи (центральна Монголія), який підтримував секту Каґ'ю. Водночас Пунцок Намчжал, володар держави Цанґпа, що був прихильником «чорнокапелюшної» секти Кармапа, захопив Лхаси, звідки вигнав секту Гелупа. Проти Пунцок Намчжала виступили південномонгольські загони, прихильники Гелупи. 1621 року було укладено тимчасове перемир'я.
Становлення
1632 року Цогто-тайджі (прихильник «червонокапелюшньої» секти Каґ'ю) захопив області навколо озера Кукнор. В 1637 році Далай-лама V і Панчен-лама IV спорядили послів до тайджі хошутів по допомогу. Військо очолив Гюші-хан, яке того ж року в битві біля озера Кукунор завдало нищівної поразки Цогто-тайджі. В результаті область навколо Куконора стала основним місцем розташування хошутів. За цим були підкорені тангути та область Амдо. У 1638 році Гюші-хан здійснив прощу до Далай-лами V, який надав хошутському тайджі титул «Данзін-Чог'ял» («Володар законів і опора релігії»).
Протягом 1638—1641 років хошутські війська завдали поразки загонам супротивників Далай-лами V — «червонокапелюшній» Каґю і їхніх союзників з числа тибетських феодалів. 1639 року було підкорено область Кхам (Східний Тибет), де був володарем Доньод-Дордже, що переслідував буддистів. 1640 році його було схоплено і страчено. Після цього захоплено усі держави Бері. За цим хошути виступили до Цанґпо (Центральний ТИбет). Спротив тривав до 1642 року, коли було захоплено столицю супротивника — Шигацзе. В результаті потуга школу Каг'ю була знищена.
Після цього Гюші-хан встановив свою владу над усіма районами Тибету і зайняв «високий трон тибетських імператорів». Втім, побоюючись виступу тибетців проти чужоземних правителів, він в 1642 році передав верховну владу над усім Тибетом Далай-ламі V. Натомість володар хошутів і його нащадки були проголошені спадковими правителями Тибету зі збереженням ними свого контролю над землями в Кукунор. Таким чином, Хошутське ханство встановило фактичну владу над Тибетом. Разом з тим відбулося об'єднання Тибету в єдину державу, що сталося після 1370 року.
Розвиток
Невдовзі після встановлення влади в Тибеті до хошутів прибуло посольство від держави Цін, яке на той час захопило Внутрішню Монголію із запрошення Далай-ламі V і Гюші-ханові прибути до своєї столиці Мукден, що фактично означало визнання зверхності Цін. Хошути не відповіли на нього. Після захоплення маньчжурами Північного Китаю у 1645 році Лалай-дама V отримав нове запрошення, на яке відгукнувся. Далай-лама V прибув до Китаю в 1652 році, і навесні 1653 року відбув на батьківщину. Імперія Цин визнала особливі відносини Тибету з Халхою, Джунгарією і Хошутськимм ханством.
Своєю чергою Хошутське ханство було налаштовано проти загарбницької політики Цін, які спрямувала свої зусилля до Халхи. Тому хошути впливали на Далай-ламу V щодо збереження лише дипломатичних контактів Тибету з Китаєм. У 1660 році сини Гюші-хана — Даян Очір-хан і Даші-Батур — розділили батьківські володіння: на Тибет і Кукнорське (Хошутське) ханство відповідно.
У 1673 році хошути підтримали повстання в південному Китаї на чолі з ваном У Саньгуєм. Своєю чергою під тиском хошутського хана Далай-лама V відмовив у військовій допомозі імператору Кансі начебто через поганий клімат, що шкодить тибетцям. Завдяки цьому цінські війська були відволічені на придушення повстання до 1681 року.
Водночас поступово протягом 1670х років відбувається послаблення ханства. Це відобразилося у повстаннях на околицях Тибету, але їх було придушено тибетсько-хошутськими загонами. Натомість посилюється влада далай-лами, який уже сам став призначати вищих чиновників, проводив самостійну зовнішню політику, маючи відносини з Непалом, Бутаном, Китаєм, Джунгарією, Яркендом і Кашгаром. З кінця 1670-х років влада далай-лами майже дорівнювалася владі хана. Ще більше послабило Хошутське ханство занедбаність справами в часи правління Далай-хана і Ванґчук-хана. Разом з тим хошути сприяли далай-ламі у війнах з Ладакхом і Бутаном. 1681 року у Ладакха було захоплено області Гуг'є, Буранг і Рутог.
Нову загрозу стало являти Джунгарське ханство, яке розширило на той час свою владу на Кашгарію і Яркенд. Частина тибетської знаті й ламаїстського духівництва стало шукати підтримки джунгарів, оскільки хошутські хани все більше стали втручатися у справи Далай-лами. Разом з тим хошути втратили реальну владу в Лхасі, яка відійшла до регента.
Занепад
Володар хошутів Лхавзан-хан вирішив відновити потугу. У 1705 році він напав на Лхасу зі схвалення свого союзника — імператора Кансі, щоб змістити Далай-ламу VI. В свою чергу цінський уряд вирішив скористатися цим конфліктом як приводом для втручання у справи Тибету. Водночас зростало невдоволення світським способом життя Далай-лами VI. В результати хошути повалили владу регента, а далай-лама в цей час помер при нез'ясованих обставин. Лхавзан-хан вирішив сам призначити нового далай-ламу — Єше Г'яцо, що викликало невдоволення тибетців.
У 1715 році цінський уряд підтримав Келсангу Г'яцо, який надалі став відомий як Далай-лама VII. Водночас у справи вирішив втрутитися джунгарський хан Цеван Рабдан. У 1717 році хошути зазнали нищівної поразки, а їх хан загинув. Тибет було підкорено джунгарами. У 1720 році цінське вйсько зайняло Тибет, але не відновило владу хошутів. В результаті ті на чолі із Лобсан-Дандзіном повстали, але 1724 року зазнали поразки. 1725 року Хошутське ханство було приєднано до імперії Цін.
Державний устрій
На чолі стояв хан, якому належала політична, військова та судова влада. Водночас існував компроміс з далай-ламами, за яким духовна влада й номінальна зверхність над Тибетом належала саме їм. Разом з тим хан призначав свого представника — десріда (на кшталт прем'єр-міністра або регента).
Господарство
Основу становило скотарство. Також значний зиск мало збирання данини й податків з торгівців й прочан, що рухалися з Тибету й до Тибету.
Володарі
Гюші-хан (1642—1655)
Даян Очір-хан (1655—1668)
Даші-Батур (1668—1671)
Далай-хан (1671—1701)
Ванґчук-хан (1701—1703)
Лхавзан-хан (1703—1717)
Лобсан-Данцзін (1723—1724)
Джерела
Martin, 1997: Martin D. Tibetan Histories: A Bibliography of Tibetan-Language Historical Works. London: Serindia Publications, 1997.
R. Keith Schoppa, Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History, Upper Saddle River, N.J, Prentice Hall, 2002 (ISBN 9780130224071, OCLC 45661629), p. 341
Sneath, 2007: Sneath D. The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
Солощева, 2013: Солощева М. А. Кукунорский мятеж 1723—1724 годов и его значение для истории Тибета // Вестник Санкт-Петербургского ун-та. Сер. 13: Востоковедение. Африканистика. 2013. № 1. С. 58—67.
Хойт С. К. Данные фольклора для изучения путей этногенеза ойратских групп // Международная научная конференция «Сетевое востоковедение: образование, наука, культура», 7-10 декабря 2017 г.: материалы. Элиста: Изд-во Калм. ун-та, 2017. с. 286—289.
Держави і території, засновані 1637
Історія Тибету
Ойрати
зникли 1717
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4364202
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Плащ і Кинджал (персонажі)
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Плащ і Кинджал (персонажі)
Плащ (справжнє ім'я — Тай (Тайрон) Джонсон) і Кинджал (справжнє ім'я — Тенді Боуен) — супергеройський дует з коміксів американського видавництва Marvel Comics.
Історія публікації
Плащ і Кинджал вигадані письменником Біллом Мантло й художником Едвардом Генніґаном і з'явились уперше в коміксі «Peter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man» #64 (березень 1982). У жовтні 1983 року дует отримав власну серію «Cloak and Dagger».
Колекційні видання
Примітки
Посилання
Біографія Тайрона Джонсона на Marvel.com
Біографія Тенді Боуен на Marvel.com
Плащ і Кинджал на Marvel.wikia.com
Плащ і Кинджал на Comicvine.com
Плащ і Кинджал на Comic Book DataBase
Персонажі мультфільмів
Вигадані мутанти
Супергерої Marvel Comics
Телевізійні персонажі Marvel Comics
Вигадані персонажі зі здібностями до маніпулювання енергією
Вигадані метальники ножів
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4453782
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajendra%20II
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Rajendra II
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Rajendra II (997 CE – 1064 CE) often referred to as Rajendradeva Chola was a Chola emperor who reigned from 1052 CE to 1064 CE. Rajendra II succeeded his brother Rajadhiraja I after his death at the Battle of Koppam. Rajendra had served as a Co-regent under his brother from 1044 CE to 1052 CE. When he acceded the throne, the Chola Empire was at its peak stretching from Southern India to Vengai(Bengal) to parts of Southeast Asia. Rajendra has maintained the territories of his predecessor. During his reign, the Chola Empire was prosperous and had a large influence in trade throughout the Indian Ocean.
As a prince Rajendra helped put down revolts in Pandya Nadu and Srivijaya. During his early reign put down several rebellions in Sri Lanka, Rajendra also straightened chola influence and control in Ruhuna in southern Sri Lanka. He established several garrisons and governors to maintain stronger rule and prevent future revolts.
In early 1052, the Cholas were suffering from losses against the Western Chalukyas in the Battle of Koppam after the death of Rajadhiraja I. Rajendra's strong leadership led the Cholas to a strategic victory although the western chalukyas achieved a Tactical victory. The Cholas didn't lose territory during this battle. Conflicts with the Western chalukyas continued throughout his reign. Rajendra's forces were victorious in the Battle of Kudal-Sangamam leading to greater Chola influence in the Krishna river.
Early life and Accession
Rajendra II was born around 997 CE although his exact birthdate is unknown. He was born to Rajendra I and his wife Mukkokilan Adigal. He was the 5th oldest out of 9 children. As a prince, Rajendra helped put down several rebellions Pandya Nadu and Srivijaya. he also helped his father conquer the kingdoms of Polonnaruwa and Ruhuna bringing all of Sri Lanka under Chola rule. After his father's death in 1044, Rajendra served as a Co-regent under his brother Rajadhiraja I who ascended the throne. Rajadhiraja was later killed in the Battle of Koppam in 1052. Rajendra was made king as Rajadhiraja's children were too young and inexperienced. Since he ascended the throne during a time of war, Jayamkondar's Kalingattuparani describes him as "The one who wore the crown on the big battlefield."
Several Prashasti
It is to be noted however the above version of the Koppam battle is found only in the Chola inscriptions. A Chalukyan account of the battle is only found in a later inscription dated c. 1071, which recounts this incident after a gap of almost 15 years and which only mentions the death of Rajadhiraja.
Revolts in Sri Lanka
Under the reign or Rajendra's father Rajendra I, The kingdom of Ruhuna were annexed bringin all of Sri Lanka under Chola occupation. During this time, the Tamil trading guilds Thisaiayiratthu Annuruvar tarded in Anuradhapura further increased their activities in the Island. Under Rajendra II, several garrisons and governors were established to maintain stronger rule. Rajendra also pushed for tighter control over Ruhuna where several revolts took place.
However this period was also met with revolts by the local Sinhalese People. Rajendra put down several early rebellions and further straightened Chola rule in the island. In 1055 Sinhalese prince Vijayabahu I, who later became the king of Polonnaruwa attempted to expel Chola forces. Gradually the wider conflict developed into a prolonged, back and forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with the forces of Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruwa and then falling back to fortresses in Dakkhinadesa and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges. By 1058, Rohana became independent of chola occupation. Vijayabahu established himself in Wakirigala and organized his army for a fresh attempt to capture Polonnaruwa, however this failed and his troops were defeater by Rajendra's son Uttama. During this time, he also had to face rebellions from other Sinhala leaders fighting for the throne.
Rajendra eventually sent forces to Sri Lanka to counter the revolt. Rajendra's son Uttama, the Chola governor of Polonnaruwa expelled Vijayabahu's forces. Chola troops also arrived at Ruhuna which was the center of Vijayabahu's rebels. Several clashes continued between the Sinhalese and Chola forces. Rajendra and Uttama eventually put down the revolt.
Battle of Koppam
The Chola forces were in battle with the Chalukyan army at Koppam (Koppal) located on the Tungabhadra River in 1053–54 AD. Rajadhiraja I was personally leading the Chola army from atop a war elephant to help rally the retreating Cholas. Prince Rajendra, the younger brother of Rajadhiraja, was holding himself in reserve. The Chalukyan army then concentrated on the elephant on which the Chola king was riding and wounded him mortally. Seeing the emperor falling dead, the Chola army retreated in disarray. At that stage Rajendra entered the fray. Once again the Chalukya army concentrated on the leader. Rajendra-II was as valorous as his brave father and was a born leader of men. He immediately sensed that with the death of their King Rajadhiraja-I, the Chola army was in a disarray, he announced his taking over as the next Chola monarch and ordered the capable Chola army to continue fighting without letting up. His unparalleled response and restoration of order by deciding to lead from the front on the battlefield simply re-galvanized his army which had among its ranks, several generals serving the Chola army from the times of Raja Raja I and Rajendra Chola I. He had many nephews and . Needless to add, the Chalukya army was simply unprepared for this kind of a reaction from any army which had lost its original leader and were simply no match. From inscriptions of Rajendra-II, we know that his elder brother Rajadhiraja-I was killed in the battle at Koppam in which Rajendra-II had participated along with his other brothers. Even Rajendra-II had been injured initially and had withdrawn from the battle, but he came back and turned the tables on the Ahavamalla (Someshvara-I) who called himself 'Trailokyamalla' – lord of three worlds). From an inscriptions of his from Manimangalam we understand that at the end of the battle, the Chalukyas were defeated and a number of officers of their army lay dead on the field. In this battle multiple opponents viz. Jaysinghan, the younger brother of the Salukki, Pulikesi, Dasapanman etc., were killed by Rajendra.
An inscription from 1058 CE on the south wall of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur mentions the Battle of Koppam:
Ottakoothar's Vikrama Cholan Ula mentions:
Kollapuram is identified with Kolhapur in present-day Maharashtra. Based upon other inscriptions of Rajendra, historian Hultzsch has proposed that the Kollapuram war was an earlier expedition, in which Rajendra had participated under his elder brother Rajdhiraja. This view is also held by a few other historians who credit the burning of Kalyanapuram, the capital of the Chalukyas and the planting of victory at Kollapuram, again two separate events, to Rajadhiraja Chola I.
Further Chalukyan Battles
Chalukyas, anxious to wipe out the disgrace of Koppam, invaded the Chola country in great force c 1062 C.E. The armies met at the Muddakaru river (at the junction of the Tungabhadra and the Krishna River). The Chalukya commander Dandanayaka Valadeva was killed and the Cholas led by Rajamahendra resisted the invasion. Virarajendra Chola was also present in the battle fighting at the side of Rajamahendra.
The Western Chalukyan expedition to take Vengi was also thwarted by the Cholas at the same battlefield. Subsequently, Someshwara-I also engaged the Chola army under Rajendra-II and Virarajendra at Kudalasangamam, the result was yet another heavy defeat for the Chalukyan king.
Patron of Art
When he was a co-regent of his elder brother, Rajadhiraja Chola I, he shared the latter's workload by taking care of the internal affairs of the state. He was a great patron of dance and theatre and we know of several occasions where he encouraged various artists and poets. For example, he passed a royal order in 1056 CE to provide paddy and other ration to Santi Kuttan Tiruvalan Tirumud Kunran alias Vijaya Rajendra Acharyan(named after Rajadhiraja) for enacting RajaRajeswara Natakam (a musical), in the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur. Accordingly, the dancer was to get 120 Kalam paddy for this purpose and that he and his descendants were to perform the musical regularly during the annual festival.
Ulagalantha Perumal Temple
Ulagalantha Perumal Temple in Tirukoilur was expanded during rajendra's reign. According to an inscription dating to 1058 CE, the central shrine(gopuram) of the temple, which was built partly of brick, had cracked. The local governor Ranakesari Rama insisted that the shrine should be reconstructed which rajendra had agreed. The new shrine was constructed from fine black granite, a stronger and more durable material. This was so the shrine would last longer without constant repair and reconstruction. five stupas were also built enclosing the verandah and a mandapa in front of the temple. The central deity was also decorated with pearls. This straightened the foundation of the temple allowing it to last to this day.
Agastheeswar temple
Rajendra had granted the town of Ulakkaiyur 100 kalanjus of gold to build a stone temple. This temple, known as the Agastheeswar Temple, was dedicated to Shiva. an inscription from 1137 states that the temple was built by the residents of Ulakkaiyur. Initially the temple construction was stopped in the middle. the amount of gold rajendra granted was not entirely used on the construction of the temple. The servants of the temple also complained about mistreatment by the villagers. Rajendra was unhappy about this. He alter convinced the residents of to complete the foundational work of the temple and install an Idol of Somaskandar, a form of shiva.
Other temples and inscriptions
Rajendra expanded the Veetrirundha Perumal Temple in 1059. He briefly renamed it Vinnamangalam after his birth name Vikrama. He also issued 120 kalams of paddy Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur for an reenactment play known as "Rajarajesvara nata-kam" about the conquests of Rajaraja I.
Family
A number of his relatives are known to us from a record of his from the fourth year of his reign. These are a paternal uncle, four younger brothers, six sons and two grandsons. One of these younger brothers was Virarajendra Chola on whom he conferred the title Karikala solan. Other titles conferred on the members of the royal family by the king include Chola-Pandyan, Chola-Gangan, Chola-Ayodhyarajan and Chola-Kanyakubjan. According to historian Nilakanta Sastri, these titles denoted the provinces that were administered by these Chola princes.
Conquests
Rajendra-II like his predecessors already had control of the Pandyan kingdom. After vanquishing the Chalukya Someshvara I, he undertook a further expedition to the Kalinga Kingdom as well as to Ilangai (Sri Lanka) whose king Manabharanan was aided by the Kalinga King Vira Salamegha. He also had under his control other provinces such as Ayodhya, Kanyakubja, Rattapadi, Kadaram.
An inscription in the 10th year of the reign of Rajendra Chola II is found on a Menhir in Meppara near Rajkumari, idukki, Kerala. The inscription is highly damaged. The name of the King is said to be Rajendra and the prasasti of the King mentions Irattappadi ezharai and the battle with Ahavamalla on the banks of "Periyar" ie the river Thungabhadra.
Notes
References
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire By Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti
Ancient Indian History and Civilization By Sailendra Nath Sen
Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1 By Benjamin Lewis Rice, Mysore (India : State). Archaeological Dept, Mysore Archaeological Survey
The early history of the Deccan, Volume 1 By Ghulām Yazdānī
Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture By K.V. Raman
The Chālukyas of Kalyāṇa and the Kalachuris By Balakrishnan Raja Gopal
Epigraphia Indica and record of the Archæological Survey of India, Volume 7 By Archaeological Survey of India
Bharatanatyam, the Tamil heritage By Lakshmi Viswanathan
Middle Chola temples: Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I (A.D. 985–1070) By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
Archaeology and art: Krishna Deva felicitation volume, Part 2 By Krishna Deva, Chitta Ranjan Prasad Sinha, Bipin Kumar Jamuar, Umesh Chandra Dwivedi, Shri Bhagwan Singh
Chola emperors
11th-century Indian monarchs
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Сосновий Бор (Кезький район)
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Сосновий Бор (Кезький район)
Сосновий Бор — присілок в Кезькому районі Удмуртії, Росія.
Населення — 139 осіб (2010; 126 в 2002).
Національний склад станом на 2002 рік:
удмурти — 82 %
Урбаноніми:
вулиці — Аленська, Центральна
Примітки
Посилання
www.panoramio.com
Населені пункти Кезького району
Присілки Удмуртії
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/5438%20%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B5
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5438 Лорре
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5438 Лорре (5438 Lorre) — астероїд головного поясу, відкритий 18 серпня 1990 року.
Тіссеранів параметр щодо Юпітера — 3,144.
Примітки
Див. також
Список астероїдів (5401-5500)
Посилання
Інформація про малі планети на сайті minorplanetcenter.net
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1990
Головний пояс астероїдів
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196407
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justo%20Rufino%20Barrios
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Justo Rufino Barrios
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Justo Rufino Barrios Auyón (19 July 1835 – 2 April 1885) was a Guatemalan politician and military general who served as President of Guatemala from 1873 to his death in 1885. He was known for his liberal reforms and his attempts to reunite Central America.
Early life
Barrios was known from his youth for his intellect and energy, went to Guatemala City to study law, and became a lawyer in 1862.
Rise to power
In 1867, revolt broke out in western Guatemala, which many residents wished to return to its former status of an independent state as Los Altos. Barrios joined with the rebels in Quetzaltenango, and soon proved himself a capable military leader, and in time gained the rank of general in the rebel army.
In July 1871, Barrios, together with other generals and dissidents, issued the "Plan for the Fatherland" proposing to overthrow Guatemala's long entrenched Conservadora (conservative) administration; soon after, they succeeded in doing so, and General García Granados was declared president and Barrios commander of the armed forces. While Barrios was back in Quetzaltenago, García Granados was seen as weak by his own party members and was asked to call for elections, as the general consent was that Barrios would make a better president. Barrios was elected president in 1873.
Government
The Conservative government in Honduras gave military backing to a group of Guatemalan Conservatives wishing to take back the government, so Barrios declared war on the Honduran government. At the same time, Barrios, together with President Luis Bogran of Honduras, declared an intention to reunify the old United Provinces of Central America.
During his time in office, Barrios continued with the liberal reforms initiated by Miguel García Granados, but he was more aggressive in implementing them. A summary of his reforms is:
Definitive separation between church and state: he expelled the regular clergy such as Morazán had done in 1829 and confiscated their properties.
Forbid mandatory tithing to weaken secular clergy members and the archbishop.
Established civil marriage as the only official one in the country
Secular cemeteries
Civil records superseded religious ones
Established secular education across the country
Established free and mandatory elementary schools
Closed the Pontifical University of San Carlos and in its place created the secular National University.
Barrios had a National Congress totally pledged to his will, and therefore was able to enact a new constitution in 1879, which allowed him to be reelected as president for another six-year term.
He also was intolerant with his political opponents, forcing many to flee the country and building the infamous Guatemalan Central penitentiary where he had numerous people incarcerated and tortured.
Guatemalan administrative structure during Barrios’ tenure
Appleton's guide for México and Guatemala from 1884, shows the twenty departments in which Guatemala was divided during Barrios' time in office:
Barrios oversaw substantial cleaning and reconstruction of Guatemala City, and set up a new accountable police force. He brought the first telegraph lines and railroads to the republic. He established a system of public schools in the country.
Economy
During Barrios' tenure, the "Indian land" that the conservative regime of Rafael Carrera had so strongly defended was confiscated and distributed among those officers who had helped him during the Liberal Revolution in 1871. Decree # 170 (a.k.a. Census redemption decree) made it easy to confiscate those lands in favor of the army officers and the German settlers in Verapaz, as it allowed to publicly sell those common Indian lots. Therefore, the fundamental characteristic of the productive system during Barrios' regime was the accumulation of large swaths of land among few owners and a sort of "farmland servitude," based on the exploitation of the native day laborers.
In order to ensure a steady supply of day laborers for the coffee plantations, which required many, Barrios' government decreed the Day Laborer regulations, labor legislation that placed the entire native population at the disposition of the new and traditional Guatemalan landlords, except the regular clergy, who were eventually expelled form the country and saw their properties confiscated. This decree set the following for the native Guatemalans:
forced by law to work on farms when the owners of the farms required them, without regard for where the native towns were located.
under control of local authorities, who were charged with ensuring that day laborers were sent to all the farms that required them.
subject to "habilitation:" a type of forced advanced pay, which buried the day laborer in debt and then made it legal for the landlords to keep them on their land for as long as they wanted.
Created the day laborer booklet: a document that proved that a day laborer had no debts to his employer. Without this document, any day laborer was at the mercy of the local authorities and the landlords.
Second term
In 1879, a constitution was ratified for Guatemala. This was the Republic's first as an independent nation, as the old Conservador regime had ruled by decree. In 1880, Barrios was reelected President for a six-year term. Barrios unsuccessfully attempted to get the United States of America to mediate the disputed boundary between Guatemala and Mexico.
Central American Union
Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras agreed to re-form the Central American Union, but the then Salvadoran President Rafael Zaldivar decided to withdraw, and sent envoys to Mexico to join in an alliance to overthrow Barrios. Mexican President Porfirio Díaz feared Barrios' liberal reforms and the potential of a strong Central America as a neighbor if Barrios' plans bore fruit. Díaz sent Mexican troops to seize the disputed land of Soconusco.
Death
Justo Rufino Barrios died during the Battle of Chalchuapa in El Salvador, as did his son, General Venancio Barrios, on 2 April 1885. The official liberal version is that Barrios was killed in action, alongside officer Adolfo V. Hall. However, some versions insist that a Guatemalan soldier missed a shot and killed president Barrios from behind or that there might have been a murder plot.
Upon learning about his death, the Guatemalan Army panicked; officer José María Reyna Barrios, president Barrios' nephew, picked up the lifeless body of Venancio Barrios and organized the withdrawal of the Guatemalan battalions, while preparing the defense against a possible Salvadorian attack. Reyna Barrios, signing as Rosario Yerjabens, told the story of what he saw, which does not match the official account: "The general in Chief, Justo Rufino Barrios, decided, about 8 a.m., to personally command the attack on the northeast side of "Casa Blanca"; and in order to accomplish that, he sent the Jirón Brigade, whose soldiers were all Jalapas. These soldiers behaved in the most cowardly and disgraceful way. It is believed that they had been indoctrinated by some miserable traitor, one of those men without heart or conscience, one of those ungrateful people that was licking their benefactor's hand and abusing both his good heart and fortune. Unfortunately, a moment after the attack began, an enemy bullet wounded him mortally and he had to be taken off the battlefield. This sad occurrence was enough for some coward Jalapa soldiers who saw general Barrios dead, to leave their post and spread the sad news."
On 4 April the defeated Guatemalan forces arrived in Guatemala City, where Reyna Barrios was promoted to general for his valiant battle services.
Today, his portrait is on the five quetzal bill in Guatemala, and the city and port of Puerto Barrios, capital of Izabal, bears his name.
See also
Avenida Reforma
History of Central America
History of Guatemala
Presidents of Guatemala
Torre del Reformador
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Burgess, Paul Justo Rufino Barrios (1926) Dorrance
External links
[Short biography and picture https://archive.today/20130121135118/http://www.deguate.com/personajes/article_761.shtml]
1835 births
1885 deaths
People from San Marcos Department
Guatemalan people of Spanish descent
Liberal Party (Guatemala) politicians
Presidents of Guatemala
Positivists
19th-century Guatemalan people
Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala alumni
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Корж Павло Діомидович
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Корж Павло Діомидович
Павло Діомидович Корж (1904–1968) — фізик, кандидат технічних наук, професор.
Автор понад 100 наукових праць. Царина наукових інтересів — розробка методів фізичного аналізу та контролю окремих елементів у металах, сплавах, рудах.
Біографія
Народився 14 грудня (27 грудня за новим стилем) 1904 року у місті Ніжині Чернігівської губернії.
Освіта
У 1929 році закінчив Київський фізико-математичний інститут (нині Київський національний університет імені Тараса Шевченка), здобувши спеціальність «викладач фізико-математичних наук». У 1946 році в Московському інституті сталі та сплавів (нині Національний дослідний технологічний університет «МІСіС») захистив кандидатську дисертацію на тему «Поведінка термоелектрорушійної сили деяких сплавів» і в 1947 році отримав ступінь кандидата технічних наук. У 1960 році Петро Корж був затверджений у вченому званні професора кафедри фізики Магнітогорського гірничо-металургійного інституту (МДМІ, нині Магнітогорський державний технічний університет).
Діяльність
1931 року прийшов працювати на кафедру фізики Магнітогорського гірничо-металургійного інституту. Працював викладачем фізики у 1932—1933 роках, став завідувачем кафедри у 1934 році та очолював її до кінця життя. 1935 року був керівником секції науковців вузу, 1937 року — головою місцевого комітету. З 1947 до 1955 року був деканом металургійного факультету. Також працював начальником навчальної частини, проректором з наукової та навчальної роботи цього ЗВО.
В результаті проведених вченим досліджень, ученим були запропоновані принципово нові методи спектрального аналізу: зміни тривалості світіння лінії, а також візуальний метод спектрального аналізу відносної інтенсивності лінії елемента у двох пробах. З ім'ям Павла Діомидовича Коржа пов'язано розвиток нового ефективного методу аналізу — термоелектричного. В останні роки життя він із колегами по кафедрі успішно займався розробкою радіометричних методів аналізу та їх застосуванням для контролю процесів збагачення та агломерації руд. Був членом комісії із спектроскопії Уральської філії Академії наук СРСР. Виховав цілу плеяду вчених, серед яких К. З. Фінкін, Л. М. Велус, О. П. Шадрунова, Ю. П. Кочкін, М. М. Штутман та інші.
Помер у Магнітогорську 19 лютого 1968 року. Був похований на Правобережному цвинтарі міста. Пізніше поряд з ним була похована дружина — Салтун Вероніка Олександрівна (1906—1990), яка теж працювала викладачем у МДМІ.
Був нагороджений орденом Трудового Червоного Прапора та медалями, серед яких «За доблесну працю у Великій Вітчизняній війні 1941—1945 рр.».
У Російському національному архіві економіки є документи, які стосуються Петра Коржа.
Примітки
Посилання
НАУКОВА ЕЛІТА Магнітогорського державного технічного університету імені Г. М. І. Носова
ІСТОРІЯ МАГНІТОГОРСЬКОГО ДЕРЖАВНОГО ТЕХНІЧНОГО УНІВЕРСИТЕТУ ІМ. Г. І. НОСОВА: 1930-ті РОКИ
Кандидати технічних наук
Випускники Київського університету
Нагороджені медаллю «За доблесну працю у Великій Вітчизняній війні 1941—1945 рр.»
Кавалери ордена Трудового Червоного Прапора
Померли в Магнітогорську
Уродженці Ніжина
Уродженці Чернігівської губернії
Українські фізики
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55626318
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteopithecidae
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Proteopithecidae
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Proteopithecidae is an extinct family of primates which lived in the Priabonian (late Eocene) and probably early Oligocene periods. Fossils that have been found are in the Jebel Qatrani Formation in Egypt. Currently two genera are recognised, each with a single species, those being Proteopithecus sylviae and Serapia eocaena.
Proteopithecus sylviae is unusual in having a large degree of sexual dimorphism of the canine teeth, which is unknown in extant primates of a similar (relatively small) size. It was arboreal, probably diurnal, probably with a diet of fruit and insects. It weighed around 250 grams. It was the first Eocene anthropoid for which postcranial remains were found. The hindlimbs are similar to those of platyrrhines and indicates an animal that would do a considerable amount of running and pronograde (four limbed) leaping.
Classification
Seiffert et al. (2010) note that Simons, the discoverer of Serapia originally placed it within the Parapithecidae, but in 2001 transferred Serapia to the Proteopithecidae, a view supported by Gunnell and Miller (2001), Beard (2002), and Seiffert et al. (2004 & 2005a). Kay and Williams (2013, edited by Feagle and Kay) continue to place Serapia in the parapithecidae as part of a proposed sub-family, Qatraniinae, alongside Arsinoea and Qatrania (they note these all share similar dental features to each other, but they are more primitive than other parapithecidae they also note that the similarity may be because of shared lineage rather than being closely related).
References
Prehistoric primates
Primate families
Eocene first appearances
Oligocene extinctions
Prehistoric mammal families
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21560384
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paw%C5%82owo%2C%20Chojnice%20County
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Pawłowo, Chojnice County
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Pawłowo, Chojnice County
Pawłowo is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Chojnice, within Chojnice County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately east of Chojnice and south-west of the regional capital Gdańsk.
For details of the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.
References
Villages in Chojnice County
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1152361
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra%20Madre%20Occidental
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Sierra Madre Occidental
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Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre is part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consist of an almost continuous sequence that form the western "sounds" of North America, Central America, South America, and West Antarctica.
Etymology
The Spanish name sierra madre means "mother mountain range" in English, and occidental means "western", these thus being the "Western mother mountain range". To the east, from the Spanish oriental meaning "eastern" in English, the Sierra Madre Oriental range or "Eastern mother mountain range" runs generally parallel to the Sierra Madre Occidental along eastern Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico.
The range extends from northern Sonora, a state near the Mexico–U.S. border at Arizona, southeast towards to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre del Sur ranges. The high plateau that is formed by the range is cut by deep river valleys. This plateau is formed from volcanic rock overlying a basement of metamorphic rock.
This uplift has caused changes in weather patterns; increased rainfall occurring in the mountains has provided areas where ecosystems can form in wetter areas than surrounding land. This water source forms watersheds that provide the arid surroundings with water that makes it possible to irrigate and farm crops. The wet ecosystems are islands of biodiversity, differing significantly from what would otherwise be a desert landscape. Oak forests are the predominant plant life, and extend into the lowland deserts.
This forest and canyon land provided a place for a variety of indigenous people to live, until Spanish settlers with associated mestizos came into the area to found towns for the silver mines in the area. The major industries in the area now are agriculture and forestry, which have become contentious because of land degradation and the native population's opposition to these practices.
Geography
The range trends from the north to southeast. Canyons cut by the rivers of the wet western slopes exist in addition to those of the northeast slopes, notably the Copper Canyon.
Location
The range runs parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico, from just south of the Arizona-Sonora border southeast through eastern Sonora, western Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Aguascalientes to Guanajuato, where it joins with the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Eje Volcánico Transversal (Transverse Volcanic Axis) of central Mexico after crossing . The mountains range from from the Gulf of California in the north, but begin to approach within of the Pacific in the south. These mountains are generally considered to be part of the much larger American cordillera, the mountains extending from Alaska down to these across western North America.
Regions
Sierra Tarahumara or Tarahumara is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and extending north. This name comes from the Tarahumara natives. This is a dramatic landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons including Copper Canyon, larger and, in places, deeper than the Grand Canyon. This plateau has an average elevation of with most of the more eroded canyons on the western slope, due to the higher moisture content.
The highest elevations occur in the Tarahumara range. The exact elevations of the highest peaks are not known within accurate enough ranges to determine their relative elevation. The highest point is probably Cerro Mohinora, located at . Estimates for the height of the mountain start around and go up to . However, Cerro Barajas, at , may be as high as although other sources give as the elevation. Cerro Gordo, at , may have an elevation between and .
The southern end of the mountains may be referred to as the Sierra Huichola. In this area, the Sierra Madre begins to give way to the Basin and Range Province. Subranges of this area include the Sierra de Alica and the Sierra Pajaritos, both in Nayarit, and the Sierra los Huicholes, Sierra de Morones, Sierra Nochistlán, and Sierra Fría extending eastwards into Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Aguascalientes.
Water
The mountains act as a source of water, in an otherwise arid environment from the increased precipitation from the mountain range. As such, rivers that have headwaters in the mountains provide water for irrigation in the surrounding lands. The need for water to irrigate prompted the construction of dams, which has been the source of several environmental concerns in the area.
The northern end of the range is more arid; hence, the Yaqui River, which drains that area, is an important source of irrigation in the state of Sonora. The Yaqui drains into the Gulf of California, as do the Fuerte River in Sinaloa and the Humaya River further south. The Río Grande de Santiago drains from the southern slopes of the Sierra Madre. Along the more arid eastern slopes of the mountains, the Nazas River and Aguanaval River drain the mountains into a closed basin. These mountains supply 90% of the water used for irrigation within the watershed. North of this system is the Conchos River which drains into the Rio Grande.
Along many rivers the arid conditions have caused courses to be dammed to provide water for irrigation. These dams have caused concerns along with those caused by other activities. The Yaqui has been dammed with three large reservoirs along its course. The Río Grande de Santiago has also been dammed, including the Aguamilpa Dam begun in 1991 and the El Cajón Dam upstream from it. To provide irrigation water for farming the dry basin, the Nazas river was dammed in the 1930s and 1940s. This has led to the former drainage lakes in the area drying up, and soil depletion from the elimination of the river as a source of soil. Due to the continued logging in the area, erosion on the slopes of hillsides has increased.
Human
Numerous small populations live in Copper Canyon, some of them around old missions. Many settlements consist of single families or small family groups near agricultural fields. There are also a few towns of note, including Creel, Chihuahua, with 5,000 inhabitants; it serves as a stop on the train line. South of Copper Canyon is the town of El Salto, Durango, situated along highway 40. To the west is Copala, Sinaloa.
To the south live the indigenous Cora people in the towns of Jesús María and La Mesa del Nayar. In addition, 1,000 people live in the village of Huajimic in Nayarit. The Bolaños River valley of Jalisco is populated with mining communities, such as San Martín de Bolaños, which has a population of around 3,000.
Few paved roads cross the mountains, meaning that travel times can be long, even between cities that are relatively close. In the north, Mexico Federal Highway 16 connects Hermosillo, Sonora and La Junta, Chihuahua. In the mountains, the La Entrada al Pacifico Corridor is an incomplete road intended to connect Los Mochis, Sinaloa and Chihuahua. Durango and Mazatlan are connected by highway 40, around 24 degrees north latitude.
Geology
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a high plateau of volcanic rock that is eroded in areas to reveal a basement composed of plutonic and sedimentary rocks underlying the two groups of extrusive volcanics. The lower of these groups is a series of volcanic rocks formed by lava flows. The surface of the plateau is made up of a second series of volcanic ignimbrites, covered mostly by clay rich organic soils. Some intrusions in the area have deposited ore veins that are commercially viable.
The landscape was shaped after rock placement. Rivers cut valleys into the plateau, following folds in the rocks. Rocks have broken off of the slopes, forming rocky sides. The bedrock is covered by the clay rich soils, except in eroded areas, where water carries away deposits leaving a stony surface.
Geological history
The basement is thought to be Older North American basement, especially in the North, and a number of different accreted terranes, which are mostly covered by Cenozoic volcanism. The northern extent of the Sierra Madre is the Cortés Terrane, although the northern extreme of this contains a small portion of the Carborca Terrane. Some of the northern end may also be underlain by a Precambrian basement placed around the same time as the Grenville Orogeny. Some of this area has a series of Paleozoic sedimentary sequences from a deep marine environment underlying it, considered by some to be part of the Cotes Terrane and by others to be transported. In some areas, distinct sedimentary rocks can be identified by shallow-water Silurian and Mississippian sedimentary rocks underlying deep-water Pennsylvanian and Permian, which are divided by Mississippian rhyolite. The Permian clastics contain some detrital rock that sit alongside low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks with serpentinite.
South of the Cortes and Carborca Terranes is the San José de García Terrane, which is a combination of Cretaceous arc volcanics and volcaniclastics, which may be thrusting over the Cortes terrane. The southern part of the range is made up of the Guerrero Composite Terrane, a large body, which is actually a complex of five different subterranes, not all of them within the main body of the Sierra Madre. However, the terrane is mostly covered by volcanics and sedimentary deposits, so it is only visible where erosion has revealed it. The main subterranes of the Guerrero Composite Terrane that are within the Sierra Madre are the Tahue and Zihuatanejo terranes. Dividing the Guerrero Terrane from the rest of the Sierra Madre terranes is a boundary that is thought to represent the Early Cretaceous Arperos Basin, a marine basin which separated the island arc that came to form the Guerrero terrane from the accretions that came to form the Sierra Madre terrane. It contains a lower formation made up of pillow basalts with pillow breccias, tuffs, and shales underlying a group of pelagic limestones, oozes, and turbidites.
Covering the southern basement are sedimentary and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks containing argillite, limestone, volcanic schist, slate, and greywacke which were exposed in the canyon of the Santiago River. Near these sediments late Oligocene to early Miocene granite and granodiorite intrusive bodies occur. A possible cause of this is that these bodies were roof pendants which were uplifted by plutons. Mesozoic limestone also occurs in northern portion of the mountains, mostly from the Cretaceous.
Towards the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide orogeny increased the activity of magmatism in the area, forming the first major igneous series in the area. The igneous series are made up of formations of plutonic and volcanic rock, which would later be exposed. Interbedded with these rocks are sedimentary deposit rocks. In the center of the range, some of these rocks have been deformed by tectonic forcing that occurred at the same time. The southern part of the range contains none of the volcanism that is apparent in the northern range. These formations ended in the Paleocene. Eocene volcanism formed a series of andesitic and rhyolitic formations in the area, with spatial and temporal variations throughout. Most of the gold and silver deposits are also in these rocks.
In the Oligocene, ash flows became the predominant deposit of the area, with interbedded lava flows between. These ash flows began the second series of high magmatism formations. The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up formed a series of ignimbrite formations, layered one atop another, that are sometimes broken by lava flows. The ignimbrite formations in this area cover the largest area of any known series, with ten calderas identified in the province. Three of these calderas are in Copper Canyon. The lava has formed a series of mafic rocks that comprise the Southern Cordilleran Basaltic Andesite Suite. The tuffs are above a thick formation of lava rock. Around five or six units have been identified, mostly around the Copper Canyon area. These tuffs have allowed wide-ranging correlation with formations in other geographical areas, for example Death Valley.
During the Miocene, three periods of volcanism marked separate events in the Sierras. Each period is marked by different volcanic processes. The first was a continuation of the Oligocene flare-up, which lasted through the early Miocene. This may be a distinct second occurrence of the same process, placing silica-rich lava above Oligocene rocks. Also in the early Miocene more intermediate basaltic andesites occur along faults and in grabens. Beginning in the early Miocene and continuing into the middle, an arc of andesite was placed during the spreading of the Gulf of California. The basin and range-style faulting of the middle-late Miocene took place at the same time as the placement of alkali basalts, In the westernmost slopes mafic dikes formed. These events have also been linked to the subduction of the Farallon Plate. Episodes of volcanism continued into the Quaternary.
Structures
The Sierras are believed to be a thick core covered by volcanics and eroded by numerous rivers. Some have suggested that the basement of the mountains have numerous intrusions made by mafic magma. At their surface, the mountains are made up of large-scale ignimbrite sheet that has been incised by rivers flowing from rainfall in the mountains. The surface of the plateau is almost exclusively from the second series of flows causing the rock that is most visible to be ignimbrites with lava flow layers. The region has a general strike from just west of north to just south of east.
Faults in the area tend to be younger than the upper volcanics, excluding those associated with calderas, but do occur in distinct periods. The large faults along the eastern slope have caused the slope to be made up of large escarpments that face into the interior basins. These faults are commonly covered by alluvium and basalt, making them difficult to discern, but can be found in certain fault blocks.
Grabens have formed in the north, and some of these are filled with volcanic and sedimentary floors, and long depressions have formed in the southern Sierra Madre. The faulting decreases in the center of the range where the faults are mostly small normal faults, but increases once again on the western slope. In fact, the major normal faults tend to diverge around the center of the core and join at either end. Some of these faults may have allowed ignimbrites to erupt from the surface, and so there may be some association between the ignimbrite occurrence and faults; this can be used to find out information about different kinds of basement rock present.
There are two faults dividing the Sierra Madre from the central Mexican Plateau. The more southern one is the north–south Aguascalientes fault extending from Altos de Jalisco to near Zacatecas, where it joins the more northern northwest–southeast trending San Luis–Tepehuanes fault extending from Guanajuato to Durango. The southern boundary of the Sierra Madre Occidental with the Jalisco block is a series of folds, thrust, and left lateral faults date from the middle Miocene. This may be evidence for a left transpressional shear zone. The area between this boundary and the Aguascalientes fault is filled with numerous grabens and half-grabens, as well an east–west left shear zone, the El Roble shear zone. At the west end of these grabens and half-grabens are the Pochotitan and the more northerly San Pedro fault systems, which form the western boundary of the faults in the southern mountains. In the north there is an unknown boundary between the Cortes Terrane and the Guerrero Composite Terrane. Some theorize that this is a section of the Mojave–Sonora Megashear, but this theory is not universally accepted; however, the Megashear is important, and, in fact, is necessary for reconstructions of the opening of the Gulf of California, as of 2003.
Mineral deposits
On a smaller scale, mineral deposits are distributed in formations of the Sierra Madre, although the events that placed these deposits vary throughout the mountains. The Guerrero composite terrane contains many of the economic deposits, often found in ore bodies younger than the Cretaceous.
Gold and silver deposits most commonly occur in the altered andesites of the early volcanics, typically these deposits are between 30 and 50 million years old. These are believed to be caused by later intrusions into the early flows. Fissure-vein deposits have been divided into two groups of fissure vein deposits, which are divided geographically into an eastern and western series. In the east, the gold and silver are accompanied by lead and zinc. In the south, the Bolaños mine district is contained with the Bolaños Graben. Some also occur as epithermal deposits. Also, some gold occurs along with copper in Cenozoic iron-oxide skarn and replacement deposits along the Pacific.
In addition to gold and silver and their related deposits, tin, iron, and mercury occur, sometimes in later units, mostly in later volcanics, and Molybdenum occurs in the mountains, often along with older copper deposits or in Oligocene deposits in the east. The belt of tin deposits lies mostly within the eastern slopes from Durango to Guanajuato. In these areas, tin occurs in rhyolitic ignimbrites in many, possibly over 1000, small deposits of cassiterite. Typically these deposits are divided from overlying ignimbrites by breccia, which may also contain ore. Many of these are thought to be hydrothermal deposits To the east of these units is a belt of more mercury deposits, followed by another belt of manganese deposits, although these deposits are mostly limited to Chihuahua and Hidalgo. Iron occurs in three different regions placed by different mechanisms. Along the Pacific there the numerous skarn and replacement deposits mentioned above with relation to gold. Iron occurs in Durango in the form of magnetite lava flows, which are often surrounded by smaller hematite deposits, thought to be ash flows. There is also a belt of iron deposits further east.
Soil
Most soil in the mountains is covered by an organic-rich layer over layers rich in clay. Soils are commonly phaeozems that are up to . Some soils are cambisols that are less than deep and well-drained. Due to the high clay content, which blocks water from being absorbed into the soil, larger rock particles in the soil help reduce runoff and soil losses from erosion. Areas that are covered in stone are known as lithosols, and make up most of the remaining surface in the mountains, especially on upper slopes. The last major soil type are vertisols, which are thin mineral-poor soils. Soils at higher elevations experience more leaching, due to increased rainfall. Acidic soils may have lower calcium content, leading to lower plant soil quality. Soils along the eastern slopes have increased organic content and a clay heavy layer that is developed more than those of the more arid eastern lands. The thickness of soil layers also increases.
Problems with soil degradation have been aggravated by the cultivation of drug crops, leading to deforestation of many areas. Other problems include overgrazing, which has led to terracing from cattle paths and the formation of a soil crust, and soil acidification, which poses a risk to some grasslands as of 2002.
Climate
The climate varies considerably between the northern and southern extents of this long mountain range. Seasonal variations also occur due to the presence of large bodies of warm water delivering warm damp air from each side of the range. This region undergoes a seasonal variety with two wet seasons, including a summer monsoon, and two dry seasons each year.
Temperature, pressure, and wind
Air pressure changes in northwestern Mexico and the southwest United States are the main causes of seasonal variation in the Sierra Madre. A high pressure area that rests over the mountains in the winter begins to move north of the mountains into New Mexico during the month of June. The high pressure begins to break down and move south during September or October; however, the breakdown is usually at a slower pace than the movement north. This high pressure belt is associated with the mechanics that form the Bermuda High.
The climate in the mountains is mild. Summer temperatures maintain a constant level. Maximum temperatures are typically in July at around 31 C with average temperatures of the order of 16 C during this same period. Mean annual temperatures are between above . Below-freezing temperatures can occur in the higher mountains, with precipitation occurring as snowfall certain times of year.
During the summer monsoon, wind patterns undergo large-scale changes. In May there is very little large-scale wind current through the mountains, most circulates around the mountains, although onshore flow is present. As the high pressure moves north, air is pulled off the Gulf of Mexico, bringing easterly winds aloft to the mountains. On the east slope of the mountain, daytime upslope winds flow to the crest, where the flow joins westerly winds. The mountains cause convection during the following monsoon season, during which nocturnal winds at low levels in the atmosphere move moisture overnight. Extensive lightning activity occurs during this season. After the high pressure breaks down, wind patterns return to those prior to the monsoon season.
Precipitation and humidity
Precipitation varies on both annual and seasonal scales in the Sierra Madre. Annual differences in regional climate are associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation with El Niño years leading to a wetter climate. Monsoon rains come to the Sierra Madre in June as the high pressure area moves north, leading to wet summer seasons. This causes east winds bringing moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. On the western side of the mountains, which are affected by the largest change in precipitation between the dry season and monsoon season, in the monsoon season rainfall can exceed in a single month. The southern region receives more of the rainfall than the northern. Much of this precipitation occurs as tropical storms. As the high pressure over New Mexico breaks down, rainfall in the Sierra Madre ends. Because of the monsoon, the summer accounts for the majority of rainfall in the area. The spring and fall dry season separate out a weaker wet season in the winter. In addition to increasing in the southern ranges of the mountains, rainfall increases in the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre Occidental.
Humidity in the mountains varies at wide levels as does rainfall. In the early morning before dawn, the air is almost saturated (often over 90% relative humidity) near the mountain tops with low clouds over the range. Lower in the range, air is not as near saturated in the morning. Seasonal variation in humidity is also present with average May and June relative humidity around 50%, with 25% possible during the day. Also during the day, relative humidity drops and cloud levels rise as temperatures rise. The humidity of the range is also influenced by the same seasonal changes as rainfall. In the dry season dew points are low at high elevations (500 hPa), around in the south of the range, and in the north in May. In June, dew points begin to increase from the May levels up to in the north and in the south. By July these dew points are at throughout the range. The range allows higher dew points throughout these periods than the surrounding low lands. This rise in humidity accompanies the monsoon.
Ecology
The mountains create a diverse setting for plants and animals by creating a different set of conditions from the surroundings. The Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests are found at elevations of throughout the range, but the forests in the mountains vary by elevation and place in the range. This ecoregion is noted for its high biodiversity and large number of endemic species, and for allowing some species to extend their range.
Flora
The dominant plants vary across the range, and the habitat that they present varies from scattered woodland to both deciduous and coniferous forest.
The elevation and latitude in the range are the major determining factors in the dominant plants. Oaks dominate the lower reaches of the mountains, where stands grow down to about . Some oak species even continue into the surrounding ecosystems. In the western slopes of the range, cloud forest also occurs, mostly on mid-elevation slopes with little exposure to wind or sun in the southern end of the range. At higher elevations pines begin to grow alongside the oaks, and pines begin to dominate the oaks at higher elevations. At high elevations and in the north, mixed conifer forests become the dominant ecosystem. These forests are composed primarily of pines and firs, which begin to grow at these elevations. There are also grasslands on some mountain tops, surrounded by the forest that occur in those areas.
Plants in the area typically have large responses to the change in climate with each season. Monsoon season is the largest of these effects, with leaf buds following only a few months after the rains begin. Flowering season occurs in the months preceding the summer monsoon. This is only the peak flowering season, with plants flowering throughout the year. Due to the early flowering, fruit is ripe and seeds are dispersed at the beginning of the rains. There are also areas where plants have little response to the seasons, particularly those areas that experience moist conditions, caused by the elevations. These plants may maintain leaves through times when other areas are in the dry season, during which most deciduous trees have no leaves.
Fauna
The mountains are often a corridor for species allowing more diversity in the area, by combining species from different regions. Animals typically associated with arid and mountainous habitats share the mountains with species associated with habitats further south.
There are many carnivorous and omnivorous mammals native to the area, although several are extirpated or are part of threatened populations. The Mexican wolf's range in the mountains is limited to the foothills of Durango or the animal may have been extirpated; the black bear population is small, and the Mexican grizzly bear that once resided here is confirmed extinct. Jaguars and ocelots are also now rare. On the other hand, mountain lion and bobcat are more common. On the eastern slopes there are American badger, coyote and gray fox that live across the mountains. Native ungulates include the white tailed deer, mule deer, and collared peccary. Rodents and lagomorphs include the eastern cottontail, which lives in the forests of the western slopes, cliff chipmunk, rock squirrel, Mexican fox squirrel, and various species of Cricetidae. Raccoons, hog-nosed skunk, and hooded skunk live in the mountains. The white-nosed coati lives on the western slopes, and the ring-tailed cat lives throughout. Many species of bats live in the mountains also.
A variety of lizards live in the area and surroundings. The Tarahumara frog lives in the oak and pine stands preferring moving water to pools. The southern extent of the Sonoran mountain kingsnake's range is the Chihuahuan desert into the mountains. Other snakes and frogs live in the mountains, and many species live in the western slopes.
Birds frequent the mountains, some as a migratory path and others as native species. The migratory birds often use the area to the west as an overwintering area, and migrate north along the western slopes. In the northern canyons birds may be divided into different habitats, or more specifically, the different types of forest, leading to differences in range by elevation. Some of this difference by elevation may even extend the range of some species, enabling tropical species to use the mountain valleys for migration. Bird species endemic to the Sierra Madre Occidental include tufted jay, the "gray-eared" subspecies of red warbler, eared quetzal, thick-billed parrot, and formerly included the imperial woodpecker, which now may be extinct.
The rivers and streams of the range contain some of the southernmost trout populations in North America. These populations may be native, although this is not universally accepted. Invasive fish compete with the native species which has been a cause of concern among researchers, along with concerns about the effects of logging on these species.
Surroundings
The Sonoran Desert is found in the northwestern foothills at . The Chihuahuan Desert is found to the northeast and east, the Meseta Central matorral and Central Mexican matorral to the southeast, and the Sinaloan dry forests to the west and southwest. These lower elevations are usually graded into by a stand of tropical deciduous forest, which has a large portion of flora made up of flowering plants and legumes. These flowering plants are mostly from the genus Bursera. The ecotone, made up of the tropical deciduous forest, is commonly sparsely populated, sometimes only by small stands of trees. It may be referred to as savanna.
Preservation
Preservation efforts in the modern day include those of Edwin Bustillos. Other groups, including Conservation International, work to protect animal species in the area. Basaseachic Falls National Park is a national park in the mountains containing the highest waterfalls in the country. Cumbres de Majalca National Park was designated in 1939. Additionally, there are reserves such as La Michilía in the southern Sierra Madre, or the Tutuaca reserve in western Chihuahua, which was established in 2000 under a new system of management. Other protected areas in the Sierra include the Bavispe, Campo Verde, Cerro Mohinora, Papigochic, and Sierra de Álamos–Río Cuchujaqui flora and fauna protection areas. The Cuenca Alimentadora del Distrito Nacional de Riego 043 Estado de Nayarit, established in 1949 to protect forests and watersheds, is now a natural resources protection area which conserves much of the southern Sierra.
People and history
The mountains are home to several indigenous nations speaking Uto-Aztecan languages, including the Tarahumara in the central portion of the range, the Huichol in the southern part of the range, and the Tepehuanes in the eastern slopes.
Prehistory
Archaic cultures are known to have inhabited the Sierra Madre along with the rest of the surrounding lands, but little is known of the culture, although it does vary between the northern and southern extremes of the range. The agrarian Chalchihuites Culture began as farming communities around the first century AD and remained small communities until 300 AD when new agricultural techniques caused a large growth in population until around 500 AD. This culture began to decline in the ninth century. The Mogollon culture has been described in the northern foothills. Sites date the emergence of the culture to around 900 AD, and its abandonment to around 1000–1100 AD. During the period estimated for Mogollon abandonment, the Rio Sonora culture began agricultural developments along the Rio Sonora and rivers flowing into it. This culture produced pottery and lived in pit houses, until 1150 to 1200 when they began to construct surface dwellings. Construction of these houses ended around AD1550.
Spanish Sierra Madre
Francisco de Ibarra came to Durango in 1554, and began to settle the area. He would explore the western coast and cross the Sierra Madre in 1564. Early Spanish influence in the area came from the new silver mines, the first of which was established in 1567 at Santa Barbara. As sites opened for mining, missionaries came to the areas and had a strong presence by 1595. The first meeting with the Tarahumara came in 1607, when a missionary went up the valley to meet them. Opposition to the missionaries built up, leading to the Tepehuán Revolt. This revolt began in 1616 in the town of Santa Catarina de Tepehuanes in Durango, and lasted for two years. The discovery of silver at Parral in 1631 led to the northern limit of settlement moving into Tarahumara lands.
The Jesuits renewed missionary activity in the 1630s, with a new program that increased in scope until around 1650. Tarahumara moved further into the mountains in order to escape the conditions. A smallpox epidemic caused a revolt in 1645. A revolt arose in 1648, primarily among the Tarahumara. A drought caused a pair of revolutions in 1650 and 1652. The last major revolt began in March 1690 among the Tarahumara and ended in 1698. Demands from labor drafts increased in the 1720s, placing a new pressure on missions. Criticism of the Jesuits rose in the 1730s with complaints of Jesuit Commerce, which was established by mission stores. In 1767, Jesuits were expelled from New Spain, ending the mission program.
A new colonial official, José de Gálvez, came to New Spain and established new laws that caused a boom in silver mining activity in the 1770s. After the Apache faced heightened resistance to raiding from the Spanish in Chihuahuan, they moved down to the Sierra Madre in 1794. By 1800, raiding had essentially ended.
Mexican Sierra Madre
After leaving San Carlos in the fall of 1881, Geronimo and other Apache moved to the mountains, and became known as the Nednai, sometimes referred to as the "Pinery Apache" or "Bronco Apache". From there they raided Sonora and the surrounding land until General George Crook entered the mountains in 1883 to discuss Geronimo's return. Geronimo eventually surrendered in 1886. Pancho Villa fled to the mountains in 1894, becoming a bandit.
19th century
Railroads came to the area starting in the 1880s and 1890s, which allowed many old mines in the region to reopen at a profit. Since most of the railroads were American, the foreign influence led to unrest among the people living in the mountains, causing the Tomochic rebellion in 1892. In addition to the railroads, canals were constructed in the 1890s in the Yaqui and Mayo river valleys. These canal projects failed, however, owing to the resistance that the natives of the valleys put up against the projects. Loggers began arriving in the mountains in the late 1800s. In response to the new industry, the Tarahumara moved further into the canyons.
20th century
The 1910 revolution began in Chihuahua and spread over the mountains throughout the winter of 1910–1911. Silver mines were forced to make payments to the rebels, but were allowed to continue operating. General John J. Pershing began to follow Pancho Villa in 1916 and entered the mountains; however, he received no information from the local population. The raids subsided by 1919, and Villa returned peacefully to the foothills.
In order to construct irrigation projects in the lowlands below the valleys, irrigation projects were never completed in the Sonoran hills; instead, the Yaqui River was dammed in the 1930s. Dams continued to be constructed in the 1940s and 1950s on the Yaqui River and its tributaries with the largest reservoir, behind the Álvaro Obregón Dam completed in 1952. Dams were also constructed on the Mayo river. Because of the dams, soil condition deteriorated, and more work was required to improve soil quality. The mountain range was crossed by the Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacifico railroad, completed in 1961. The railroad went up for sale in 1996, but no transaction was ever completed.
See also
List of birds of the Sierra Madre Occidental
Sierra Madre
Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests
Sierra Madre Oriental
References
External links
Landforms of Aguascalientes
Landforms of Chihuahua (state)
Landforms of Durango
Landforms of Guanajuato
Landforms of Jalisco
Landforms of Nayarit
Landforms of Sinaloa
Landforms of Zacatecas
Madre Occidental
Mountain ranges of Sonora
Mountain ranges of the Sonoran Desert
North American Cordillera
Pacific Coast of Mexico
Physiographic provinces
Physiographic regions of Mexico
Volcanism of Mexico
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2011621
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F%20%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80
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Марія Мюллер
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Марія Мюллер — німецька борчиня вільного стилю, бронзова призерка чемпіонату світу, бронзова призерка чемпіонату Європи.
Біографія
Боротьбою почала займатися з 1995 року. Двічі, у 2004 і 2005 роках ставала бронзовою призеркою чемпіонатів Європи серед юніорів. Виступала за клуб SV Lok Альтенбург (Тюрингія). Працює поліцейським.
Виступи на Чемпіонатах світу
Виступи на Чемпіонатах Європи
Виступи на Кубках світу
Виступи на інших змаганнях
Посилання
Німецькі борчині вільного стилю
Уродженці Альтенбурга
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2259469
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83
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Перегрів металу
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Перегрів металу — дефект структури металевого матеріалу, зумовлений перевищенням допустимої температури або тривалості його нагріву.
Перегрітий метал після остигання характеризується грубозернистою структурою з різкими прямолінійними границями між структурними складовими, зменшеною пластичністю та низькою ударною в'язкістю. Перегріті сталі схильні більшою мірою до утворення тріщин при наступному гартуванні.
Найчастіше зустрічається при нагріванні металу (для сталі — 1000—1300 °С) перед вальцюванням або куванням, рідше — при відпалі, нормалізації або гартуванні а також, виникає у зоні зварних швів після дугового чи електрозварювання. Схильність сталей до перегріву залежить від їх хімічного складу й істотно знижується у разі присадки невеликих кількостей ванадію, титану, алюмінію, бору.
Перегрів середньовуглецевих сталей усувають повторним нагрівом (звичайно на 20—30°С вище від температури перекристалізації), короткочасним витримуванням і повільним охолодженням, внаслідок чого зерна металу подрібнюються. Перегрів чистих металів і сплавів, що не зазнають фазових перетворень, усувають пластичним деформуванням і подальшим рекристалізувальним відпалом.
Див. також
Кування
Відпалювання сталі
Примітки
Джерела
Хільчевський В. В. Матеріалознавство і технологія конструкційних матеріалів: Навчальний посібник К.: Либідь, 2002.&. — 328 с. ISBN 966-06-0247-2
Седов Ю. Е., Адаскин А. М. Справочник молодого термиста. М.: Высшая школа, 1986. — 239 с. (Профтехобразование).
Термообробка
Оброблення металу тиском
Зварювання
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138712
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eileen%2C%20Wisconsin
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Eileen, Wisconsin
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Eileen, Wisconsin
Eileen is a town in Bayfield County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 681 at the 2010 census. The unincorporated community of Ashland Junction is located in the town.
History
The town was organized in 1904, in large part due to the efforts of state senator A. Pearce Tomkins. The town was named for the senator's daughter, Eileen Tompkins.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town of Eileen has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.21%, is water. Main routes in the town include U.S. Highways 2 and 63, Wisconsin Highways 118 and 137, and County G.
The town of Eileen is bordered to the east by the city of Ashland and also the town of Gingles in Ashland County. It is bordered to the north by the town of Barksdale in Bayfield County.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 640 people, 249 households, and 190 families residing in the town. The population density was 18.2 people per square mile (7.0/km2). There were 275 housing units at an average density of 7.8 per square mile (3.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.81% White, 0.47% Native American, 0.47% Asian, and 1.25% from two or more races.
There were 249 households, out of which 34.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.3% were married couples living together, 4.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.3% were non-families. 18.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.8 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $44,844, and the median income for a family was $52,404. Males had a median income of $38,333 versus $21,964 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,530. About 6.9% of families and 8.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.0% of those under age 18 and 15.0% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
A. Pearce Tomkins, Wisconsin state senator, dairy farmer, and lawyer, lived in the town; Tomkins served as chairman of the Eileen Town Board
References
External links
Town of Eileen official website
Towns in Bayfield County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin
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742416
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81-%D1%81%D1%8E%D1%80-%D0%86%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C
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Бесс-сюр-Іссоль
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Бесс-сюр-Іссоль — муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Прованс — Альпи — Лазурний Берег, департамент Вар. Населення — .
Муніципалітет розташований на відстані близько 680 км на південний схід від Парижа, 70 км на схід від Марселя, 33 км на північний схід від Тулона.
Демографія
Розподіл населення за віком та статтю (2006):
Економіка
У 2010 році у муніципалітеті числилось 1170 оподаткованих домогосподарств, у яких проживали 2942,0 особи, медіана доходів виносила євро на одного особоспоживача.
Сусідні муніципалітети
Посилання
Бесс-сюр-Іссоль на сайті французького Національного інституту географії
Див. також
Список муніципалітетів департаменту Вар
Примітки
Муніципалітети департаменту Вар
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2728053
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%96
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Мучичі
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Мучичі — населений пункт у Хорватії, у Приморсько-Горанській жупанії у складі громади Матулі.
Населення
Населення за даними перепису 2011 року становило 362 осіб.
Динаміка чисельності населення поселення:
Клімат
Середня річна температура становить 10,92 °C, середня максимальна – 23,04 °C, а середня мінімальна – -2,10 °C. Середня річна кількість опадів – 1431 мм.
Примітки
Населені пункти Хорватії
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2792639
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeria%20maderensis
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Armeria maderensis
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Armeria maderensis (рядник мадейрський) — вид рослин з родини кермекові (Plumbaginaceae), ендемік Мадейри.
Опис
Багаторічна трава. Листки лінійні, гострі, гладкі, завдовжки 7–12.5 см. Стебла гладкі чи запушені, довжиною 25–45 см. Квіти у щільних, сферичних голівках, діаметром 2–3 см, віночок рожевий. Квітує у червні — серпні.
Поширення
Ендемік о. Мадейра.
Населяє скелясті райони на найвищих висотах у гірському центральному районі Мадейри.
Джерела
Ендемічна флора Мадейри
maderensis
Рослини, описані 1833
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1755147
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%20%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
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Актобе (Байзацький район)
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Актобе (Байзацький район)
Актобе — село у складі Байзацького району Жамбильської області Казахстану. Входить до складу Сазтерецького сільського округу.
Населення — 363 особи (2021; 359 у 2009, 349 у 1999, 436 у 1989).
Примітки
Джерела
Посилання
На Вікімапії
Населені пункти Байзацького району
Села Жамбильської області
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1854592
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Панов Сергій Васильович
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Панов Сергій Васильович — полковник Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни.
Родина
Дружина Панова Тетяна Вікторівна, вчитель географії
Нагороди
21 жовтня 2014 року — за особисту мужність і героїзм, виявлені у захисті державного суверенітету та територіальної цілісності України, вірність військовій присязі під час російсько-української війни, підполковник Сергій Панов відзначений — нагороджений орденом Богдана Хмельницького III ступеня.
Медаль «За військову службу Україні»
Примітки
Джерела
Указ Президента
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826903
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melastomataceae
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Melastomataceae
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Melastomataceae is a family of dicotyledonous flowering plants found mostly in the tropics (two-thirds of the genera are from the New World tropics) comprising c. 175 genera and c. 5115 known species. Melastomes are annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, or small trees.
Description
The leaves of melastomes are somewhat distinctive, being opposite, decussate, and usually with 3-7 longitudinal veins arising either from the base of the blade, plinerved (inner veins diverging above base of blade), or pinnately nerved with three or more pairs of primary veins diverging from the mid-vein at successive points above the base.
Flowers are perfect, and borne either singly or in terminal or axillary, paniculate cymes.
Ecology
A number of melastomes are regarded as invasive species once naturalized in tropical and subtropical environments outside their normal range. Examples are Koster's curse (Clidemia hirta), Pleroma semidecandrum and Miconia calvescens, but many other species are involved.
Taxonomy
Under the APG III system of classification, the seven genera from Memecylaceae are now included in this family.
Genera
There are some 167 accepted genera in the Melastomataceae family as of October 2023. They are:
Acanthella
Aciotis
Acisanthera
Adelobotrys
Allomaieta
Alloneuron
Almedanthus
Amphiblemma
Amphorocalyx
Anaheterotis
Andesanthus
Anerincleistus
Antherotoma
Appendicularia
Argyrella
Arthrostemma
Aschistanthera
Astrocalyx
Astronia
Astronidium
Axinaea
Bamlera
Barthea
Beccarianthus
Bellucia
Benna
Bertolonia
Bisglaziovia
Blakea
Blastus
Boerlagea
Bourdaria
Boyania
Brachyotum
Brasilianthus
Bredia
Bucquetia
Cailliella
Calvoa
Cambessedesia
Castratella
Catanthera
Centradenia
Centradeniastrum
Centronia
Chaetogastra
Chaetolepis
Chalybea
Cincinnobotrys
Comolia
Comoliopsis
Creochiton
Cyphotheca
Dalenia
Derosiphia
Desmoscelis
Dicellandra
Dichaetanthera
Dinophora
Dionycha
Dionychastrum
Dissochaeta
Dissotidendron
Dissotis
Driessenia
Dupineta
Eleotis
Eriocnema
Ernestia
Feliciadamia
Feliciotis
Fordiophyton
Fritzschia
Graffenrieda
Gravesia
Guyonia
Henriettea
Heteroblemma
Heterocentron
Heterotis
Huberia
Kendrickia
Kerriothyrsus
Kirkbridea
Lijndenia
Lithobium
Loricalepis
Macairea
Macrocentrum
Macrolenes
Maguireanthus
Mallophyton
Marcetia
Medinilla
Melastoma
†Melastomites
Melastomastrum
Memecylon
Meriania
Merianthera
Miconia
Microlicia
Monochaetum
Monolena
Mouriri
Neblinanthera
Neodriessenia
Nepsera
Nerophila
Noterophila Mart.
Nothodissotis
Ochthephilus
Ochthocharis
Opisthocentra
Osbeckia
Ossaea
Oxyspora
Pachycentria
Pachyloma
Phainantha
Phyllagathis
Physeterostemon
Pilocosta
Plagiopetalum
Pleroma
Plethiandra
Poikilogyne
Poilannammia
Poteranthera
Preussiella
Pseudodissochaeta
Pseudoernestia
Pternandra
Pterogastra
Pterolepis
Pyrotis
Quipuanthus
Rhexia
Rhynchanthera
Rosettea
Rostranthera
Rousseauxia
Salpinga
Sandemania
Sarcopyramis
Schwackaea
Scorpiothyrsus
Siphanthera
Sonerila
Spathandra
Sporoxeia
Stanmarkia
Stussenia
Styrophyton
Tashiroea
Tateanthus
Tessmannianthus
Tibouchina
Tigridiopalma
Triolena
Tristemma
Tryssophyton
Vietsenia
Votomita
Warneckea
Wurdastom
Foraging
Melastomataceae is foraged by many stingless bees, especially by the species Melipona bicolor which gather pollen from this taxon of flowering plant.
References
External links
PlantSystematics.org: Images of species, list of genera
Myrtales families
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1503750
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%86%D0%B5%20%28%D0%84%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B5%29
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Липце (Єсеніце)
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Липце (Єсеніце)
Липце — поселення в общині Єсеніце, Горенський регіон, Словенія. Висота над рівнем моря: 554 м.
Посилання
Статистичне бюро Республіки Словенія, населення, 2002
Населені пункти Словенії
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4464353
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE
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Федеріко Бікоро
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Федеріко Бікоро
'Федеріко Бікоро Ак'єме Нчама (17 березня 1996, Дуала, Камерун) — гвінейський футболіст камерунського походження, півзахисник норвезького клубу «Саннефіорд» та національної збірної Екваторіальної Гвінеї.
Ранні роки
Федеріко народився в камерунському місті Дуала, батько — з Екваторіальної Гвінеї, мати — з Камеруну. Коли Бікоро виповнилося 15 років його батьки загинули в дорожньо-транспортній пригоді. Щоб допомогти своїй родині економічно, вирішив кинути навчання та відмовитися від планів стати юристом. Працював каменярем і столяром, перш ніж остаточно став футболістом.
Клубна кар'єра
Футбольну кар'єру розпочав в «Аконангуї», де отримав прізвисько Сісіньо. У 2015 році перейшов до «Соні Ела Нгуема», у складі якого грав у Лізі чемпіонів КАФ. Також захищав кольори «Кано Спорт».
У вересні 2016 року, після успішного перегляду, Бікоро погодив 2-річний контракт з командою іспанського Сегунда Дивізіону Б «Рекреатіво де Уельва». Проте через проблеми з документами його перехід так і не вдалося юридично оформити, тому вже в лютому він підписав контракт з «Алькалою» з Терсера Дивізіону.
18 серпня 2017 року приєднався до «СС Реєс» з третього дивізіону. Відзначився своїм першим голом за клуб 7 січня наступного року, зрівнявши рахунок у переможному (3:1) виїзному поєдинку проти «Понферрадіни».
31 січня 2018 року підписав контракт з клубом Сегунда Дивізіону «Лорка». На професіональному рівні деютував 11 березня в програному (1:3) поєдинку проти «Реал Сарагоси», Федеріко вийшов на поле в стартовому складі, але до кінця поєдинку не дограв, оскільки був вилучений.
24 липня 2018 року приєднався до клубу третього дивізіону «Теруель». 11 червня наступного року погодив 4-річний контракт із представником другого дивізіону Сарагосою, а вже 16 січня 2020 року був відданий в оренду «Бадахосу».
4 вересня 2020 року погодився на річну оренду в «Нумансію», яка нещодавно вилетіла до третього дивізіону. Через відсутність ігрової практики, 26 січня наступного року відправився в оренду до іншого клубу третього дивізіону, «Бадалони». У липні 2021 року перейшов в оренду до «Еркулеса».
Кар'єра в збірній
У футболці національної збірної Екваторіальної Гвінеї дебютував 4 вересня 2013 року в неофіційному нічийному (1:1) матчі проти Лівії. В офіційних матчах дебютував за збірну 6 червня 2015 року в переможному (1:0) виїзному поєдинку проти Андорри.
Першим голом за збірну Екваторіальної Гвінеї відзначився 9 жовтня 2017 року в переможному (3:1) поєдинку проти Маврикію.
Статистикав виступів
У збірній
По матчах
Забиті м'ячі
Рахунок та результат збірної Екваторіальної Гвінеї в таблиці подано на першому місці.
Особисте життя
Бікоро — набожний християнин.
Примітки
Посилання
Профіль гравця на сайті soccerpunter.com
Профіль гравця на сайті footballdatabase.eu
Профіль гравця на сайті worldfootball.net
Профіль гравця на сайті bdfutbol.com
Профіль гравця на сайті fbref.com
Профіль гравця на сайті soccerbase.com
Уродженці Дуали
Футболісти Екваторіальної Гвінеї
Гравці збірної Екваторіальної Гвінеї з футболу
Камерунські футболісти
Футболісти «Сан-Себастьян-де-лос-Реєса»
Футболісти «Алькали»
Футболісти «Лорки»
Футболісти «Теруела»
Футболісти «Реала» (Сарагоса)
Футболісти «Бадахоса»
Футболісти «Бадалони»
Футболісти «Еркулеса» (Аліканте)
Футболісти «Саннефіорда»
Камерунські футбольні легіонери
Футбольні легіонери Екваторіальної Гвінеї
Футбольні легіонери в Іспанії
Футбольні легіонери в Норвегії
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8024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20the%20Democratic%20Republic%20of%20the%20Congo
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Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Demographic features of the population of the Democratic Republic of the Congo include ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the Luba, Mongo, and Kongo.
Although 700 local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French, and the intermediary languages Kikongo ya leta, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala.
Population
The CIA World Factbook estimated the population to be over 105 million as of 2022 (the exact number being 108,407,721), now exceeding that of Vietnam (with 98,721,275 inhabitants as of 2020) and ascending the country to the rank of 14th most populous in the world. The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 46.38%, 51.15% of the population was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.47% was 65 years or older.
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Post-censal estimates.) (Provisional.):
Census
The first and so far only census conducted in DR Congo dates from 1984. A census is supposed to be conducted decennially, but this has been obstructed by periods of instability such as the political reorganization in 1991 and the civil war in 1996.
In January 2015, the parliament passed a law requiring that a census be completed before the next election. Opponents said this was intended to keep Joseph Kabila in power by delaying the next election, leading to protests that caused several deaths. The parliament repealed the law and the census did not take place.
The second general census of population and housing is underway as of 2024. President Félix Tshisekedi called for a census to improve demographic policies and to enable the creation of national identity cards. The National Office for Population Identification (ONIP), founded in 2011, was tasked with leading the census, settling a dispute between bids by the Ministries of Interior, Planning, and Digital Technology. Preliminary mapping was conducted in 2018 under Minister of State Modeste Bahati Lukwebo. Data collection began on 2 March 2020 and was scheduled to end on 10 June, but implementation was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Data collection was arranged by the Ministries of Planning, Budget, and Finance, and the electoral commission sent materials to the ONIP and the . In 2022, Prime Minister Sama Lukonde issued a decree about the operations of the census. The government allocated the census 250 million dollars of its 2022 budget. The census is planned to be completed in 2025 with an expected budget of US$153,700,453.
Vital statistics
Registration of vital events in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
Fertility and Births
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR) for urban and rural areas:
The Wanted Fertility Rate is an estimate of what the fertility rate would be if all unwanted births were avoided.
Fertility data per province, as of 2014:
Life expectancy
Ethnic groups
Over 250 ethnic groups and 450 tribes (ethnic subgroups) populate the Democratic Republic of Congo. These ethnic groups are from the Bantu, Sudanic, Nilotic, Ubangian and Pygmy linguistic groups. There is no dominant ethnic group in Congo; the following ethnic groups account for 51.5% of the population:
Luba-Kasaï
Kongo
Mongo
Lubakat
Lulua
Tetela
Nande
Ngbandi
Ngombe
Yaka
Ngbaka
Ethnic groups include:
Bantu peoples: Ambala, Ambuun, Angba, Babindi, Baboma, Baholo, Bangala, Bango, Bapindi, Batsamba, Bazombe, Bemba, Bembe, Bira, Bowa, Dikidiki, Dzing, Fuliru, Havu, Hema, Hima, Hunde, Iboko, Kanioka, Kaonde, Kongo, Kuba, Kumu, Kwango, Lengola, Lokele, Luba, Lunda, Lupu, Lwalwa, Mbala, Mbole, Mbuza (Budja), Mongo, Nande, Ngoli, Bangoli, Ngombe, Nkumu, Nyanga, Pende, Popoi, Poto, Sango, Shi, Nyindu, Songo, Sukus, Tabwa, Chokwe, Téké, Tembo, Tetela, Topoke, Ungana, Vira, Wakuti, Yaka, Yakoma, Yanzi, Yéké, Yela, etc.
Central Sudanic: Manvu, Mbunja, Moru-Mangbetu, Lugbara
Nilotic peoples: Alur, Bari, Kakwa, Logo
Ubangian: Azande, Banda, Ngbandi, Ngbaka
Pygmy peoples: Mbuti, Twa, Baka, Babinga
Languages
The four major languages in the DRC are French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca, or trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Swahili), Kikongo ya leta, and Tshiluba. In total, there are over 200 ethnic languages.
French is generally the language of instruction in schools. English is taught as a compulsory foreign language in Secondary and High Schools around the country. It is a required subject in the Faculty of Economics at major universities around the country and there are numerous language schools in the country that teach it. Former President Kabila himself is fluent in both English and French, as was his father.
Religions
A survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Surveys program in 2013–2014 indicated that Christians constituted 93.7% of the population (Catholics 29.7%, Protestants 26.8%, and other Christians 37.2%). An indigenous religion, Kimbanguism, was practiced by 2.8% of the population, while Muslims make up 1.2%.
Another estimate (by the Pew Research Center in 2010) found Christianity was followed by 95.8% of the population.
The CIA The World Factbook gives the following percentages: Roman Catholic 29.9%, Protestant 26.7%, Kimbanguist 2.8%, Other Christian 36.5%, Islam 1.3%, Other (includes Syncretic Sects and Indigenous beliefs) 2.7%.
The Joshua Project, a Christian missionary organisation, gives the following percentages: Roman Catholic 43.9%, Protestant 24.8%, Other Christian 23.7%, Muslim 1.6%, Non-religious 0.6%, Hindu 0.1% other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs 5.3%.
Other demographic statistics
These are some other demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.
One birth every 9 seconds
One death every 38 seconds
One net migrant every 111 minutes
Net gain of one person every 11 seconds
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.
Population
108,407,721 (2022 est.)
85,281,024 (July 2018 est.)
Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and gender than would otherwise be expected (July 2017 est.)
Religions
Roman Catholic 29.9%, Protestant 26.7%, other Christian 36.5%, Kimbanguist 2.8%, Muslim 1.3%, other (includes syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs) 1.2%, none 1.3%, unspecified 0.2% (2014 est.)
Age structure
0-14 years: 46.38% (male 23,757,297/female 23,449,057)
15-24 years: 19.42% (male 9,908,686/female 9,856,841)
25-54 years: 28.38% (male 14,459,453/female 14,422,912)
55-64 years: 3.36% (male 1,647,267/female 1,769,429)
65 years and over: 2.47% (male 1,085,539/female 1,423,782) (2020 est.)
0-14 years: 41.25% (male 17,735,697 /female 17,446,866)
15-24 years: 21.46% (male 9,184,871 /female 9,117,462)
25-54 years: 30.96% (male 13,176,714 /female 13,225,429)
55-64 years: 3.63% (male 1,472,758 /female 1,625,637)
65 years and over: 2.69% (male 974,293 /female 1,321,297) (2018 est.)
Median age
total: 16.7 years. Country comparison to the world: 222nd
male: 16.5 years
female: 16.8 years (2020 est.)
total: 18.8 years. Country comparison to the world: 206th
male: 18.6 years
female: 19 years (2018 est.)
Birth rate
40.08 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 7th
40.1 births/1,000 population (2020 est.)
Death rate
7.94 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 95th
9.1 deaths/1,000 population (2020 est.)
Total fertility rate
5.56 children born/woman (2023 est.) Country comparison to the world: 3rd
5.63 children born/woman (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 3rd
5.7 children born/woman (2020 est.)
Population growth rate
3.14% (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 9th
2.33% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 31st
2.42% (2016)
Mother's mean age at first birth
19.9 years (2013/14 est.)
note: median age at first birth among women 25-29
Contraceptive prevalence rate
28.1% (2017/18)
20.4% (2013/14)
Net migration rate
-0.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) Country comparison to the world: 131st
-0.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 105th
-0.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population
note: fighting between the Congolese Government and Uganda- and Rwanda-backed Congolese rebels spawned a regional war in DRC in August 1998, which left 2.33 million Congolese internally displaced and caused 412,000 Congolese refugees to flee to surrounding countries (2011 est.)
Given the situation in the country and the condition of state structures, it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable data however evidence suggests that DRC continues to be a destination country for immigrants in spite of recent declines. Immigration is seen to be very diverse in nature, with refugees and asylum-seekers - products of the numerous and violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region - constituting an important subset of the population in the country.
Additionally, the country's large mine operations attract migrant workers from Africa and beyond and there is considerable migration for commercial activities from other African countries and the rest of the world, but these movements are not well studied. Transit migration towards South Africa and Europe also plays a role. Immigration in the DRC has decreased steadily over the past two decades, most likely as a result of the armed violence that the country has experienced.
According to the International Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants in the DRC has declined from just over 1 million in 1960, to 754,000 in 1990, to 480,000 in 2005, to an estimated 445,000 in 2010. Valid figures are not available on migrant workers in particular, partly due to the predominance of the informal economy in the DRC. Data are also lacking on irregular immigrants, however given neighbouring country ethnic links to nationals of the DRC, irregular migration is assumed to be a significant phenomenon in the country.
Figures on the number of Congolese nationals abroad vary greatly depending on the source, from 3 to 6 million. This discrepancy is due to a lack of official, reliable data. Emigrants from the DRC are above all long-term emigrants, the majority of which live within Africa and to a lesser extent in Europe; 79.7% and 15.3% respectively, according to estimates on 2000 data. Most Congolese emigrants however, remain in Africa, with new destination countries including South Africa and various points en route to Europe.
In addition to being a host country, the DRC has also produced a considerable number of refugees and asylum-seekers located in the region and beyond. These numbers peaked in 2004 when, according to UNHCR, there were more than 460,000 refugees from the DRC; in 2008, Congolese refugees numbered 367,995 in total, 68% of which were living in other African countries.
Religions
Roman Catholic (55.8%), Other Christian (39.1%), Folk religion (2.5%), Islam (2.1%), None (0.5%)
Dependency ratios
total dependency ratio: 97.5 (2015 est.)
youth dependency ratio: 91.5 (2015 est.)
elderly dependency ratio: 6 (2015 est.)
potential support ratio: 16.8 (2015 est.)
Gender ratio
At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female
Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2011 est.)
Life expectancy at birth
total population: 61.83 years. Country comparison to the world: 216th
male: 60.03 years
female: 63.69 years (2022 est.)
total population: 58.1 years (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 213rd
male: 56.5 years (2018 est.)
female: 59.7 years (2018 est.)
total population: 56.93 years
male: 55.39 years
female: 58.51 years (2015 est.)
Urbanization
urban population: 46.8% of total population (2022)
rate of urbanization: 4.33% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
urban population: 44.5% of total population (2018)
rate of urbanization: 4.53% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)
HIV/AIDS
Adult prevalence rate: 0.7% (2017 est.)
People living with HIV/AIDS: 390,000 (2017 est.)
Deaths: 17,000 (2017 est.)
Major infectious diseases
Degree of risk: very high
Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever and ebola.
Vectorborne diseases: malaria, plague, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high risks in some locations
Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2005)
Nationality
Noun: Congolese (singular and plural)
Adjective: Congolese or Congo
Literacy
Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba
Total population: 77%
Male: 88.5%
Female: 66.5% (2016 est.)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)
total: 10 years (2013)
male: 11 years (2013)
female: 9 years (2013)
Unemployment, youth ages 15-24
total: 8.7% (2012 est.) Country comparison to the world: 134th
male: 11.3% (2012 est.)
female: 6.8% (2012 est.)
Congolese diaspora
The table below shows DRC born people who have emigrated abroad in selected Western countries (although it excludes their descendants).
These are only estimates and do not account for Congolese migrants residing illegally in these and other countries.
See also
Congolese ethnic groups:
Alur
Azande
Chokwe
Hema
Kakwa
Lendu
Luba
Mangbetu
Twa
Yaka
Lunda
Other articles
Health in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
References
External links
, International Rescue Committee, January 2008 (estimates 5.4 million excess deaths above sub-Saharan average from 1998 to 2007)
Society of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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111685
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyworth%2C%20Illinois
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Heyworth, Illinois
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Heyworth, Illinois
Heyworth is a village in McLean County, Illinois, United States. It was founded in 1859. As of the 2020 census, Heyworth had a population of 2,791. It is part of the Bloomington–Normal Metropolitan Statistical Area.
History
Heyworth was laid out by Campbell Wakefield on September 11, 1859. Before settlement, the locality now known as Heyworth was covered by a heavy growth of timber and underbrush which was inhabited by the Kickapoo Native Americans, and supported a great number of deer, wild turkeys, and packs of large gray wolves.
As settlers began to move West, families such as the Rutledges, Funks, Passwaters, Bishops, Nobles, Wakefields, and Martens settled in the immediate vicinity of the present village of Heyworth as early as 1824. Campbell Wakefield was the primary founder of Heyworth. In the course of his achievements, Wakefield became the owner of a vast tract of land including what is now Heyworth. He continually added to his original tract until he obtained about in one plot.
As the population of the region increased and industries began to spring up, railroads were becoming a great advantage. In 1852 and 1853, the Illinois Central Railroad was constructed through the Wakefield land. When the line became operational in 1855, the residents hoped to put a train station in the vicinity. Many property owners vied for the station, but Wakefield immediately donated a large tract of land for the station. Additionally he set aside adjacent land for the foundation of a town, a Presbyterian church, and a district school.
The first post office was built in the municipality in 1856, when the new station was opened. The station was named "Elmwood", but it was soon discovered that this name was already taken by a locality in Peoria County. The president of the Illinois Central Railroad proposed calling the new station "Heyworth", after Lawrence Heyworth, an English director of the railroad.
After the establishment of the station, Campbell Wakefield made several donations to encourage trade and induce businessmen to locate in the new town. He became the proprietor of the new town, and the village of Heyworth was incorporated on March 31, 1869.
Geography
Heyworth is in southern McLean County and is served by two U.S. highways. U.S. Route 51 passes through the west side of Heyworth as a four-lane divided highway, leading north to Bloomington, the county seat, and south the same distance to Clinton. U.S. Route 136 passes through the village center, leading east to Rantoul and west to McLean.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Heyworth has a total area of , of which are land and , or 1.86%, are water. Kickapoo Creek passes through the western part of the village, flowing southwest to Salt Creek and then the Sangamon River, a tributary of the Illinois River.
Demographics
As of the census of 2007, there were 2,547 people,(+3.1% from 2000), 898 households, and 687 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 956 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 97.82% White, 0.16% African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.37% Asian, 0.62% from other races, and 0.95% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.82% of the population.
There were 898 households, out of which 42.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.0% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.4% were non-families. 19.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.12.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 31.0% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $53,043, and the median income for a family was $60,648. Males had a median income of $40,944 versus $26,708 for females. The per capita income for the village was $20,655. About 2.9% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.8% of those under age 18 and 2.0% of those age 65 or over.
Economy and services
While railroads brought growth during the 19th century, growth today is driven by recession-resistant business expansion occurring primarily in Bloomington–Normal, located north of Heyworth on U.S. Route 51.
Community services include local police protection, a volunteer fire department, local 24-hour ambulance service which will soon have paid paramedics on staff, local schools from kindergarten through grade 12, and several churches of various denominations. The annual Hey Days celebration in May features a carnival, food and live entertainment. Christmas is celebrated with the "Holidays Heyworth Style" parade and craft show.
OSF Primary Care, a medical clinic operated by the OSF Healthcare System under the auspices of OSF St. Joseph's Medical Center in Bloomington, opened in January 2010. The facility provides in-town healthcare access to Heyworth residents for the first time since 1989.
Schools
Heyworth Elementary School services grades Pre K - 6. The school is located at 100 S. Joselyn St.
Heyworth Jr/Sr High School services grades 7 - 12. The school is located at 308 W. Cleveland St. The Junior High offers the following sports for students: Basketball, Baseball, Softball, Volleyball, Track and Wrestling. The Senior High offers the following sports and activities for students: Basketball, Football, Golf, Soccer, Volleyball, Baseball, Softball, Track, Cheerleading, Marching Band, Speech, Wrestling, and FFA.
References
Marker, Charles A., (1926) A History of Heyworth, The Heyworth Star. Read the complete text here
External links
Heyworth School District #4
Villages in McLean County, Illinois
Villages in Illinois
Populated places established in 1859
1858 establishments in Illinois
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61895
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%20XMPP-%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%94%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B2
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Список XMPP-клієнтів
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Список XMPP-клієнтів
Наступні програми миттєвого обміну повідомленнями підтримують протокол XMPP.
XMPP-клієнти
Вільні
Action Messenger (Ruby) http://trypticon.org/software/actionmessenger/
Bombus (J2ME/MIDP2.0) http://bombus.jrudevels.org/
Bombusmod (J2ME/MIDP2.0) https://web.archive.org/web/20100310193222/http://bombusmod.net.ru/
BuddySpace (Java) https://web.archive.org/web/20061004021023/http://buddyspace.org/
cabber (Cross-platform) http://cabber.sourceforge.net/ (Застарів)
Conversations (Android) https://github.com/siacs/Conversations
Coccinella (Cross-platform) http://coccinella.im/
Exodus (Windows) http://code.google.com/p/exodus/
FireFloo (Windows) http://firefloo.sf.net/
Freetalk (Linux/Unix) http://www.gnu.org/software/freetalk/
Gabber (Linux/Unix) https://web.archive.org/web/20080515112245/http://gabber.jabberstudio.org/
Gajim (Cross-platform) http://www.gajim.org/
GOIM (Cross-platform) http://goim.sphene.net/
Gossip (Linux/Unix) https://web.archive.org/web/20060715123515/http://developer.imendio.com/wiki/Gossip
GreenThumb (Java) https://web.archive.org/web/20080220055230/http://greenthumb.jabberstudio.org/
IMCom (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20080226203221/http://nafai.dyndns.org/
Importal (Cross-platform) http://importal.org/
Iruka (Cross-platform) http://www.nongnu.org/iruka/ (Застарів)
jabber.el (Emacs-Lisp) http://emacs-jabber.sourceforge.net/
JabberApplet (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20060314181811/http://jabberapplet.jabberstudio.org/
JabberFoX (Mac OS X) http://jabberfox.sourceforge.net/ (Застарів, останній реліз 2002 року)
Jabberzilla (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20080509074237/http://jabberzilla.jabberstudio.org/
Jabber WindowGram Client (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20090303133721/http://jwgc.blathersource.org/
Jabbin (Cross-platform) http://www.jabbin.com/
JBother (Java) https://web.archive.org/web/20051103014856/http://www.jbother.org/
Jeti (Java) http://jeti.sourceforge.net/
Jeti/2 (Java/eComStation/OS/2) https://web.archive.org/web/20081205094845/http://www.ehlertronic.de/jeti2.htm
JWChat (JavaScript) https://web.archive.org/web/20051028041112/http://jwchat.sourceforge.net/
mcabber (Cross-platform) http://www.lilotux.net/~mikael/mcabber/ (cabber fork)
MGTalk (MIDlet) http://mgtalk.sourceforge.net/
moJab (J2ME/MIDP) http://mojab.sf.net/
Psi (Cross-platform) http://psi-im.org/
sjabber (Cross-platform) (Застарів)
Spark (Cross-platform) http://www.jivesoftware.org/spark/
Tapioca https://web.archive.org/web/20100823061250/http://tapioca-voip.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Tapioca
Tkabber (Cross-platform) http://tkabber.jabber.ru/
Whisper IM (Java) https://web.archive.org/web/20070617235052/https://whisperim.dev.java.net/
wija (Java) https://web.archive.org/web/20051124142612/http://www.media-art-online.org/wija/
Безкоштовні
Colibry IM (J2ME/MIDP) https://web.archive.org/web/20061104013639/http://violonix.jabber.ru/
Google Talk (Windows) http://www.google.com/talk/
Gush (Cross-platform) більше не підтримується
JAJC (Windows) http://jajc.jrudevels.org/
Neos (Windows) http://www.neosmt.com/
Pandion (Windows) https://web.archive.org/web/20060615213817/http://www.pandion.be/
SkyMessager (Windows)
Spik (Windows) http://spik.wp.pl
TipicIM (Windows) http://www.tipic.com/
Комерційні
Akeni Jabber Client (Cross-platform) http://www.akeni.com/
BellSouth Messenger (Windows) (безкоштовний для споживачів інтернет-послуг BellSouth) https://web.archive.org/web/20080820070634/http://messenger.bellsouth.net/
Chatopus (Palm OS) http://www.chatopus.com/
Chatterbox (Web-JavaScript та Windows) https://web.archive.org/web/20101014100455/http://www.clientside.co.uk/
Global Relay Messenger (Windows) http://www.globalrelay.com/jabber.aspx
imov, у минулому JabberCE (Windows CE/Windows Mobile) https://web.archive.org/web/20070112104643/http://www.movsoftware.com/products/imov/imov.htm
Jabber Messenger (Windows) https://web.archive.org/web/20100420031337/http://www.jabber.com/
TipicME (J2ME-PersonalJava) http://www.tipic.com/
TipicWeb (JavaApplet) http://www.tipic.com/
TSIM (Windows) http://triplesoftware.nl/
Vayusphere — XMPP-клієнт для Blackberry (Blackberry/RIM) http://www.vayusphere.com/vayuxmpp.htm http://www.vayusphere.com
Wippien — створює VPN між вами та вашими контактами http://wippien.com
Багатопротокольні клієнти
Вільні
Adium (Mac OS X) http://www.adium.im/
AYTTM (Cross-platform) http://ayttm.sourceforge.net/
BitlBee (Cross-platform) http://www.bitlbee.org/
Centericq (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20051027021942/http://konst.org.ua/en/centericq/
Everybuddy (Linux/Unix) https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124956/http://marko.marko.net/eb/ (Застарів)
Fire (Mac OS X) http://fire.sourceforge.net/
Kopete (Linux/Unix) https://web.archive.org/web/20080526021942/http://kopete.kde.org/
Miranda IM (Windows) https://web.archive.org/web/20081109022642/http://www.miranda-im.org/
OpenWengo (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20070811205801/http://www.openwengo.org/
Pidgin (Cross-platform) http://pidgin.im/
SIM (Cross-platform) http://sim-im.org/
Безкоштовні
Gizmo5 (Cross-platform) https://web.archive.org/web/20080517071617/http://gizmo5.com/
Комерційні
iChat (тільки Mac OS X v10.4 та 10.5) http://www.apple.com/macosx/features/ichat/
neosmt (Windows) http://www.neosmt.com/
Proteus (Mac OS X) http://www.defaultware.com/proteus/
Trillian Pro (Windows) (за допомогою плагіна) http://www.ceruleanstudios.com/
Див. також
Миттєві повідомлення
Протокол XMPP
Посилання
Інші клієнти
Опис популярних jabber-клієнтів
Клієнти служб миттєвих повідомлень
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6001469
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo%20Ibarra
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Oswaldo Ibarra
|
Oswaldo Ibarra
Oswaldo Johvani Ibarra Carabali (born 8 September 1969) is a former Ecuadorian footballer who played as a goalkeeper.
Club career
Ibarra has spent the majority of his club career playing for El Nacional in Quito.
International career
He also played for the Ecuador national football team and was a participant at the 2002 FIFA World Cup.
Honours
Clubs
El Nacional
Ecuadorian Serie A: 1992, 1996, 2005 (Clausura), 2006
Deportivo Quito
Ecuadorian Serie A: 2008, 2009
Nation
Canada Cup: 1999
External links
1969 births
Living people
People from Ibarra Canton
Men's association football goalkeepers
Ecuadorian men's footballers
C.D. El Nacional footballers
C.D. Olmedo footballers
S.D. Quito footballers
Ecuador men's international footballers
1997 Copa América players
1999 Copa América players
2001 Copa América players
2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2004 Copa América players
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1083936
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/3984%20%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE
|
3984 Шако
|
3984 Шако (3984 Chacos) — астероїд головного поясу, відкритий 21 вересня 1984 року.
Тіссеранів параметр щодо Юпітера — 3,479.
Примітки
Див. також
Список астероїдів (3901-4000)
Посилання
http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/NumberedMPs
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1984
Головний пояс астероїдів
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392305
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapuche
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Mapuche
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Mapuche
The Mapuche (Mapuche and Spanish: ) are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who share a common social, religious, and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers. Their homelands once extended from Choapa Valley to the Chiloé Archipelago and later spread eastward to Puelmapu, a land comprising part of the Argentine pampa and Patagonia. Today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile and about 9% of the total Chilean population. The Mapuche are concentrated in the Araucanía region. Many have migrated from rural areas to the cities of Santiago and Buenos Aires for economic opportunities, more than 92% of the Mapuches are from Chile.
The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organization consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, the Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe" or "axe-bearer") to lead them. Mapuche material culture is known for its textiles and silverwork.
At the time of Spanish arrival, the Picunche inhabited the valleys between the Choapa and Itata, Araucanian Mapuche inhabited the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, south of there, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and Pampas, conquering, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the same time, ethnic groups of the Pampa regions, the Puelche, Ranquel, and northern Aonikenk, made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture, in what came to be called Araucanization, during which Patagonia came under effective Mapuche suzerainty.
Mapuche in the Spanish-ruled areas, especially the Picunche, mingled with the Spanish during the colonial period, forming a mestizo population that lost its indigenous identity. But Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the late nineteenth century, when Chile occupied Araucanía and Argentina conquered Puelmapu. Since then the Mapuche have become subjects, and later nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Chilean communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and Chile.
Etymology
Historically, the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians (araucanos). This term is now considered pejorative by some people. For others, the importance of the term Araucanian lies in the universality of the epic work La Araucana, written by Alonso de Ercilla, and the feats of that people in their long and interminable war against the Spanish Empire. The name is probably derived from the placename rag ko (Spanish Arauco), meaning "clayey water". The Quechua word awqa, meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of araucano.
Scholars believe that the various Mapuche groups (Moluche, Huilliche, Picunche, etc.) called themselves Reche during the early Spanish colonial period, due to what they referred to as their pure native blood, derived from Re meaning pure and Che meaning people.
The name "Mapuche" is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche, and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, at other times, exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía. However, Mapuche is a relatively recent endonym meaning "People of the Earth" or "Children of the Earth", "mapu" means earth, and "che" means person. It is preferred as a term when referring to the "Mapuche" people after the Arauco War.
The Mapuche identify by the geography of their territories, such as:
Pwelche or Puelche: "people of the east" occupied Pwel mapu or Puel mapu, the eastern lands (Pampa and Patagonia of Argentina).
Pikunche or Picunche: "people of the north" occupied Pikun-mapu, the "northern lands".
Williche or Huilliche: "people of the south" occupied Willi mapu, the "southern lands".
Pewenche or Pehuenche: "people of the pewen/pehuen" occupied Pewen mapu, "the land of the pewen (Araucaria araucana) tree".
Lafkenche: "people of the sea" occupied Lafken mapu, "the land of the sea"; also known as Coastal Mapuche.
Nagche: "people of the plains" occupied Nag mapu, "the land of the plains" (located in sectors of the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta and the low zones bordering it). Its epic and literary name is Araucanians and its old autochthonous name is Reche. The ancient Mapuche Toqui ("axe-bearer") like Lef-Traru ("swift hawk", better known as Lautaro), Kallfülikan ("blue quartz stone", better known as Caupolicán – "polished flint") or Pelontraru ("Shining Caracara", better known as Pelantaro) were Nagche.
Wenteche: "people of the valleys" occupied Wente mapu, "the land of the valleys".
History
Pre-Columbian period
Archaeological finds have shown that Mapuche culture existed in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically the Mapuche differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia. This suggests a "different origin or long-lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations".
Troops of the Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuche between the Maule and the Itata Rivers there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and the Maipo River, or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River. Thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for the first time met people with state organizations. Their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization.
At the time of the arrival of the first Spaniards to Chile, the largest indigenous population concentration was in the area spanning from the Itata River to Chiloé Islandthat is the Mapuche heartland. The Mapuche population between Itata River and Reloncaví Sound has been estimated at 705,000–900,000 in the mid-sixteenth century by historian José Bengoa.
Arauco War
The Spanish expansion into Mapuche territory was an offshoot of the conquest of Peru. In 1536, Diego de Almagro set out to conquer Chile, after crossing the Itata River they were intercepted by a numerous contingent of Araucanian Mapuche armed with many bows and pikes in the Battle of Reynogüelén. Discouraged by the ferocity of the Mapuches, and the apparent lack of gold and silver in these lands, Almagro decided its full retreat the following year to Peru. In 1541, Pedro de Valdivia reached Chile from Cuzco and founded Santiago. The northern Mapuche tribes, known as Promaucaes and Picunches, fought commanded by Michimalonco against Spanish conquest. His most famous stain is the Destruction of Santiago. Little more is known about their resistance.
In 1550, Pedro de Valdivia, who aimed to control all of Chile to the Straits of Magellan, campaigned in south-central Chile to conquer more Mapuche territory. Between 1550 and 1553, the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche lands including Concepción, Valdivia, Imperial, Villarrica, and Angol. The Spanish also established the forts of Arauco, Purén, and Tucapel. Further efforts by the Spanish to gain more territory engaged them in the Arauco War against the Mapuche, a sporadic conflict that lasted nearly 350 years. Hostility towards the conquerors was compounded by the lack of a tradition of forced labor akin to the Inca mit'a among the Mapuche, who largely refused to serve the Spanish.
From their establishment in 1550 to 1598, the Mapuche frequently laid siege to Spanish settlements in Araucanía. In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which they resolved to make war. They chose as their "toqui" (wartime chief) an strong man called Caupolicán and as his vice toqui Lautaro, because he had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry; he created the first Mapuche cavalry corps. With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked the fort at Tucapel. The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized and burned the fort and prepared his army certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake Tucapel. Valdivia mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded. He and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the Battle of Tucapel. In 1554 Lautaro went to destroy Concepción where in the Battle of Marihueñu he defeated Governor Villagra and devastated the city. In 1555 Lautaro went to the city of Angol and destroyed it, he also returned to Concepción, rebuilt by the Spanish and destroyed it again. In 1557 Lautaro headed with his army to destroy Santiago, fighting numerous battles with the Spanish along the way, but he and his army were devastated in the Battle of Mataquito.
From 1558 to 1598 war was mostly a low-intensity conflict. Mapuche numbers decreased significantly following contact with the Spanish invaders; wars and epidemics decimated the population. Others died in Spanish-owned gold mines.
In 1598 a party of warriors from Purén led by Pelantaro, who were returning south from a raid in the Chillán area, ambushed Governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola and his troops while they rested without taking any precautions against attack. Almost all the Spaniards died, save a cleric named Bartolomé Pérez, who was taken prisoner, and a soldier named Bernardo de Pereda. The Mapuche then initiated a general uprising that destroyed all the cities in their homeland south of the Biobío River.
In the years following the Battle of Curalaba, a general uprising developed among the Mapuches and Huilliches led to the Destruction of the Seven Cities. The Spanish cities of Angol, Imperial, Osorno, Santa Cruz de Oñez, Valdivia, and Villarrica were either destroyed or abandoned. The city of Castro was taken by a Dutch-Mapuche alliance in 1599, but reconquered by the Spanish in 1600. Only Chillán and Concepción resisted Mapuche sieges and raids. Except for the Chiloé Archipelago, all Chilean territory south of the Bíobío River was freed from Spanish rule. In this period the Mapuche Nation crossed the Andes to conquer the present Argentine provinces of Chubut, Neuquen, La Pampa, and Río Negro.
Incorporation into Chile and Argentina
In the nineteenth century, Argentina and Chile experienced a fast territorial expansion. Argentina established a colony at the Falkland Islands in 1820, settled Chubut with Welsh immigrants in 1865 and conquered Formosa, Misiones and Chaco from Paraguay in 1870. Later Argentina would also annex the Puna de Atacama in 1898. Chile on the other hand, established a colony at the Strait of Magellan in 1843, settled Valdivia, Osorno, and Llanquihue with German immigrants, and conquered land from Peru and Bolivia. Later Chile would also annex Easter Island. In this context, Wallmapu began to be conquered by Argentina and Chile due to two reasons. First, the Argentinean and Chilean states aimed for territorial continuity, and second it remained the sole place for Argentinean livestock to expand and Chilean agriculture to expand.
Between 1861 and 1879 Argentina and Chile incorporated several Mapuche territories in Wallmapu. In January 1881, having Chile decisively defeated Peru in the battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores, Chile and Argentina resumed the conquest of Wallmapu.
Historian Ward Churchill has claimed that the Mapuche population dropped from a total of half a million to 25,000 within a generation as a result of the occupation and its associated famine and disease. The conquest of Wallmapu caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food. Scholar Pablo Miramán claims the introduction of state education during the Occupation of Wallmapu had detrimental effects on traditional Mapuche education.
In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on agriculture and wood extraction. About 70% of the Mapuche Territory (Wallmapu) left in the hands of Argentina, the loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severe erosion since Mapuches continued to practice a massive livestock herding in limited areas.
Modern conflict
Land disputes and violent confrontations continue in some Mapuche areas, particularly in the northern sections of the Araucanía region between and around Traiguén and Lumaco. In 2003, the Commission for Historical Truth and New Treatments issued a report to defuse tensions calling for drastic changes in Chile's treatment of its indigenous people, more than 80% of whom are Mapuche. The recommendations included the formal recognition of political and "territorial" rights for indigenous peoples, as well as efforts to promote their cultural identities.
Though Japanese and Swiss interests are active in the economy of Araucanía, the two chief forestry companies are Chilean-owned. In the past, the firms have planted hundreds of thousands of hectares with non-native species such as Monterey pine, Douglas firs, and eucalyptus trees, sometimes replacing native Valdivian forests, although such substitution and replacement is now forgotten.
Chile exports wood to the United States, almost all of which comes from this southern region, with an annual value of around $600 million. Stand.earth, a conservation group, has led an international campaign for preservation, resulting in the Home Depot chain and other leading wood importers agreeing to revise their purchasing policies to "provide for the protection of native forests in Chile". Some Mapuche leaders want stronger protections for the forests.
In recent years, the crimes committed by Mapuche armed insurgents have been prosecuted under counter-terrorism legislation, originally introduced by the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet to control political dissidents. The law allows prosecutors to withhold evidence from the defense for up to six months and to conceal the identity of witnesses, who may give evidence in court behind screens. Insurgent groups, such as the Coordinadora Arauco Malleco, use multiple tactics with the more extreme occurrences such as the burning of homes, churches, vehicles, structures, and pastures, which at times included causing deaths and threats to specific targets. As of 2005, protesters from Mapuche communities have used these tactics against properties of both multinational forestry corporations and private individuals. In 2010 the Mapuche launched many hunger strikes in attempts to effect change in the anti-terrorism legislation.
As of 2019, the Chilean government committed human rights abuses against the Mapuche based on Israeli military techniques and surveillance according to the French website Orin21.
Oil exploitation and fracking in the Vaca Muerta site in Neuquen, one of the biggest shale-oil and shale-gas deposits in the world, has produced waste dumps of sludge waste, polluting the environment close to the town of Añelo, which is about 1,200km south of Buenos Aires. In 2018, the Mapuche were suing Exxon, French company TotalEnergies and Pan American Energy.
Culture
At the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Mapuche organized and constructed a network of forts and defensive buildings. Ancient Mapuche also built ceremonial constructions such as some earthwork mounds discovered near Purén. Mapuche quickly adopted iron metal-working (Picunches already worked copper) Mapuche learned horse riding and the use of cavalry in war from the Spaniards, along with the cultivation of wheat and sheep.
In the 300-year co-existence between the Spanish colonies and the relatively well-delineated autonomous Mapuche regions, the Mapuche also developed a strong tradition of trading with Spaniards, Argentines, and Chileans. Such trade lies at the heart of the Mapuche silver-working tradition, for Mapuche wrought their jewelry from the large and widely dispersed quantity of Spanish, Argentine, and Chilean silver coins. Mapuche also made headdresses with coins, which were called trarilonko, etc.
Mapuche languages
Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are Huilliche and Mapudungun. Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua. Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full-fluency speakers remain in Chile. The language receives only token support in the educational system. In recent years, it has started to be taught in rural schools of Bío-Bío, Araucanía, and Los Lagos Regions.
Mapuche speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish.
Cosmology and beliefs
Central to Mapuche cosmology is the idea of a creator called , who is embodied in four components: an older man, an older woman, a young man, and a young woman. They believe in worlds known as the and . Also, Mapuche cosmology is informed by complex notions of spirits that coexist with humans and animals in the natural world, and daily circumstances can dictate spiritual practices.
The most well-known Mapuche ritual ceremony is the , which loosely translates as "to pray" or "general prayer". These ceremonies are often major communal events that are of extreme spiritual and social importance. Many other ceremonies are practiced, and not all are for public or communal participation but are sometimes limited to family.
The main groups of deities and/or spirits in Mapuche mythology are the and (ancestral spirits), the (spirits in nature), and the (evil spirits).
Central to Mapuche belief is the role of the (shaman). It is usually filled by a woman, following an apprenticeship with an older machi, and has many of the characteristics typical of shamans. The machi performs ceremonies for curing diseases, warding off evil, influencing weather, harvests, social interactions, and dreamwork. Machis often have extensive knowledge of regional medicinal herbs. As biodiversity in the Chilean countryside has declined due to commercial agriculture and forestry, the dissemination of such knowledge has also declined, but the Mapuche people are reviving it in their communities. Machis have an extensive knowledge of sacred stones and sacred animals.
Like many cultures, the Mapuche have a deluge myth of a major flood in which the world is destroyed and recreated. The myth involves two opposing forces: (water, which brings death through floods) and (dry earth, which brings sunshine). In the deluge almost all humanity is drowned; the few not drowned survive through cannibalism. At last, only one couple is left. A machi tells them that they must give their only child to the waters, which they do, and this restores order to the world.
Part of the Mapuche ritual is prayer and animal sacrifice, required to maintain the cosmic balance. This belief has continued to current times. In 1960, for example, a machi sacrificed a young boy, throwing him into the water after an earthquake and a tsunami.
The Mapuche have incorporated the remembered history of their long independence and resistance from 1540 (Spanish and then Chileans and Argentines) and of the treaty with the Chilean and Argentine governments in the 1870s. Memories, stories, and beliefs, often very local and particularized, are a significant part of the Mapuche traditional culture. To varying degrees, this history of resistance continues to this day amongst the Mapuche. At the same time, a large majority of Mapuche in Chile identify with the state as Chilean, similar to a large majority in Argentina identifying as Argentines.
Ethnobotany
Ceremonies and traditions
is the Mapuche New Year celebration.
Textiles
One of the best-known arts of the Mapuche is their textiles. The oldest data on textiles in the southernmost areas of the American continent (southern Chile and Argentina today) are found in some archaeological excavations, such as those of Pitrén Cemetery near the city of Temuco, and the Alboyanco site in the Biobío Region, both of Chile; and the Rebolledo Arriba Cemetery in Neuquén Province (Argentina). researchers have found evidence of fabrics made with complex techniques and designs, dated between AD 1300–1350.
The Mapuche women were responsible for spinning and weaving. Knowledge of both weaving techniques and textile patterns particular to the locality was usually transmitted within the family, with mothers, grandmothers, and aunts teaching a girl the skills they had learned from their elders. Women who excelled in the textile arts were highly honored for their accomplishments and contributed economically and culturally to their kinship group. A measure of the importance of weaving is evident in the expectation that a man gives a larger dowry for a bride who was an accomplished weaver.
In addition, the Mapuche used their textiles as an important surplus and an exchange trading good. Numerous sixteenth-century accounts describe their bartering the textiles with other indigenous peoples, and with colonists in newly developed settlements. Such trading enabled the Mapuche to obtain those goods that they did not produce or held in high esteem, such as horses. Tissue volumes made by Aboriginal women and marketed in the Araucanía and the north of Patagonia Argentina were considerable and constituted a vital economic resource for indigenous families. The production of fabrics in the time before European settlement was intended for uses beyond domestic consumption.
At present, the fabrics woven by the Mapuche continue to be used for domestic purposes, as well as for gift, sale, or barter. Most Mapuche women and their families now wear garments with foreign designs and tailored with materials of industrial origin, but they continue to weave ponchos, blankets, bands, and belts for regular use. Many of the fabrics are woven for trade, and in many cases, are an important source of income for families. Glazed pots are used to dye the wool. Many Mapuche women continue to weave fabrics according to the customs of their ancestors and transmit their knowledge in the same way: within domestic life, from mother to daughter, and from grandmothers to granddaughters. This form of learning is based on gestural imitation, and only rarely, and when strictly necessary, the apprentice receives explicit instructions or help from their instructors. Knowledge is transmitted as the fabric is woven, the weaving and transmission of knowledge go together.
Clava hand-club
There is a traditional stone hand club used by the Mapuche which has been called a (Spanish for club). It has a long flat body. Another name is ; in Spanish, it may also be called a . It has some ritual importance as a special sign of distinction carried by tribal chiefs. Many kinds of clubs are known.
This is an object associated with masculine power. It consists of a disk with an attached handle; the edge of the disc usually has a semicircular recess. In many cases, the face portrayed on the disc carries incised designs. The handle is cylindrical, generally with a larger diameter at its connection to the disk.
Silverwork
In the later half of the eighteenth century, Mapuche silversmiths began to produce large amounts of silver finery. The surge of silversmithing activity may be related to the 1726 parliament of Negrete that decreased hostilities between Spaniards and Mapuches and allowed trade to increase between colonial Chile and the free Mapuches. In this context of increasing trade Mapuches began in the late eighteenth century to accept payments in silver coins for their products, usually cattle or horses. These coins and silver coins obtained in political negotiations served as raw material for Mapuche metalsmiths. Old Mapuche silver pendants often included unmelted silver coins, something that has helped modern researchers to date the objects. The bulk of the Spanish silver coins originated from mining in Potosí in Upper Peru.
The great diversity in silver finery designs is because designs were made to be identified with different (families), (lands) as well as specific and . Mapuche silver finery was also subject to changes in fashion albeit designs associated with philosophical and spiritual concepts have not undergone major changes.
In the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, Mapuche silversmithing activity and artistic diversity reached its climax. All important Mapuche chiefs of the nineteenth century are supposed to have had at least one silversmith. By 1984 Mapuche scholar Carlos Aldunate noted that there were no silversmiths alive among contemporary Mapuches.
Literature
The Mapuche culture of the sixteenth century had an oral tradition and lacked a writing system. Since that time, a writing system for Mapudungun was developed, and Mapuche writings in both Spanish and Mapudungun have flourished. Contemporary Mapuche literature can be said to be composed of an oral tradition and Spanish-Mapudungun bilingual writings. Notable Mapuche poets include Sebastián Queupul, Pedro Alonzo, Elicura Chihuailaf, and Leonel Lienlaf.
Cogender views
Among the Mapuche in La Araucanía, in addition to heterosexual female shamanesses, there are homosexual male shamans, who wear female clothing. These were first described in Spanish in a chronicle of 1673. Among the Mapuche, "the spirits are interested in machi's gendered discourses and performances, not in the sex under the machi's clothes". In attracting the (possessing spirit), "Both male and female become spiritual brides who seduce and call their – at once husband and master – to possess their heads ... The ritual transvestism of male ... draws attention to the relational gender categories of spirit husband and wife as a couple." As concerning "co-gendered identities" of " as co-gender specialists", it has been speculated that "female berdaches" may have formerly existed among the Mapuche.
Mapuche, Chileans and the Chilean state
Following the independence of Chile in the 1810s, the Mapuche began to be perceived as Chilean by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as a separate people or nation. However, not everybody agreed; 19th-century Argentine writer and president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento presented his view of the Mapuche-Chile relation by stating:
Civilizing mission discourses and scientific racism
The events surrounding the wreck of Joven Daniel at the coast of Araucanía in 1849 are considered an "inflection point" or "point of no return" in the relations between Mapuches and the Chilean state. It cemented views of Mapuches as brutal barbarians and showed in the view of many that Chilean authorities' earlier goodwill was naive.
There are various recorded instances in the nineteenth century when Mapuches were the subject of civilizing mission discourses by elements of the Chilean government and military. For example, Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez called in 1861 for Mapuches to submit to Chilean state authority and "enter into reduction and civilization". When the Mapuches were finally defeated in 1883 President Domingo Santa María declared:
After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883) there was a rise of racial and national superiority ideas among the Chilean ruling class. It was in this context that Chilean physician Nicolás Palacios hailed the Mapuche "race" arguing from a scientific racist and nationalist point of view. He considered the Mapuche superior to other tribes and the Chilean mestizo a blend of Mapuches and Visigothic elements from Spain. The writings of Palacios became later influential among Chilean Nazis.
As a result of the Occupation of Araucanía (1861–1883) and the War of the Pacific, Chile had incorporated territories with new indigenous populations. Mapuches obtained relatively favourable views as "primordial" Chileans contrasting with other indigenous peoples like the Aymara who were perceived as "foreign elements".
Contemporary attitudes
Contemporary attitudes towards Mapuches on the part of non-indigenous people in Chile are highly individual and heterogeneous. Nevertheless, a considerable part of the non-indigenous people in Chile have a prejudiced and discriminatory attitude towards Mapuche. In a 2003 study, it was found that among the sample, 41% of people over 60 years old, 35% of people of low socioeconomic standing, 35% of the supporters of right-wing parties, 36% of Protestants, and 26% of Catholics were prejudiced against indigenous peoples in Chile. In contrast, only 8% of those who attended university, 16% of supporters of left-wing parties, and 19% of people aged 18–29 were prejudiced. Specific prejudices about the Mapuche are that the Mapuches are lazy and alcoholic; to some lesser degree, Mapuche are sometimes judged antiquated and dirty.
In the 20th century, many Mapuche women migrated to large cities to work as domestic workers. In Santiago, many of these women settled in Cerro Navia and La Pintana. Sociologist Éric Fassin has called the occurrence of Mapuche domestic workers a continuation of colonial relations of servitude.
Historian Gonzalo Vial claimed that the Republic of Chile owes a "historical debt" to the Mapuche. The Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco claims to have the goal of a "national liberation" of Mapuche, with their regaining sovereignty over their lands. Reportedly there is a tendency among female Mapuche activists to reject feminism as they consider their struggle to go beyond gender.
Mapuches and the Argentine state
19th-century Argentine authorities aiming to incorporate the Pampas and Patagonia into national territory recognized the Puelmapu Mapuche's strong connections with Chile. This gave Chile a certain influence over the Pampas. Argentine authorities feared that in an eventual war with Chile over Patagonia, Mapuches would align themselves with Chile. In this context, Estanislao Zeballos published the work (The Fifteen Thousand League Conquest) in 1878, which had been commissioned by the Argentine Ministry of War. In Mapuches were presented as Chileans who were bound to return to Chile. Mapuches were thus indirectly considered foreign enemies. Such a notion fitted well with the expansionist designs of Nicolás Avellaneda and Julio Argentino Roca for Puelmapu. The notion of Mapuches as Chileans is however an anachronism as Mapuches precede the formation of the modern state of Chile. By 1920 Argentine revived the idea of Mapuches being Chileans, in strong contrast with 20th-century scholars based in Chile such as Ricardo E. Latcham and Francisco Antonio Encina who advanced a theory that Mapuches originated east of the Andes before penetrating what came to be Chile.
As late as 2017 Argentine historian Roberto E. Porcel wrote in a communiqué to the National Academy of History that those who often claim to be Mapuches in Argentina would be rather Mestizos, emboldened by European-descent supporters, who "lack any right for their claims and violence, not only for NOT being most of them Araucanians [sic], but also because they [the Araucanians] do not rank among our indigenous peoples".
Modern politics
In the 2017 Chilean general election, the first two Mapuche women were elected to the Chilean Congress; Aracely Leuquén Uribe from National Renewal and Emilia Nuyado from the Socialist Party.
In popular culture
In 2012, renowned Mapuche weaver Anita Paillamil collaborated with Chilean artist Guillermo Bert to create "Encoded Textiles," an exhibit that combined traditional mapuche textile weaving with QR Code designs.
The 2020 Chilean-Brazilian animated film Nahuel and the Magic Book features major characters, Fresia and Huenchur who represent her clothing attire and her tribe.
The 4X video game Civilization VI features the Mapuche as a playable civilization (added in the Rise and Fall expansion). Their leader is Lautaro, a young Mapuche toqui known for leading the indigenous resistance against Spanish conquest in Chile and developing the tactics that would continue to be employed by the Mapuche during the long-running ArauIsab.
The novel "Inés of My Soul" by Isabel Allende features the conquest of Chile by Pedro Valdivia, and a large part of the book deals with the Mapuche Conflict.
The plot of the 2021 Chilean thriller film "Immersion" is a power struggle between a vacationing family and three Mapuche men.
The 2023 film "Sayen" depicts Mapuche villagers resisting an international mining company seeking to exploit cobalt.
In 2024 expansion pack Trial of Allegiance for grand-strategy video game Hearts of Iron IV the player may play as Chile and with respective focus trees, either restore the kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia, with recognized Mapuche minority or have Mapuche coup and liberate the Native Americans from both North and South American continents.
See also
Guaraní people
Flag of the Mapuches
Guñelve
Wekufe
Pillan
Notes
References
Bibliography
Alvarado, Margarita (2002) "El esplendor del adorno: El poncho y el chanuntuku” En: Hijos del Viento, Arte de los Pueblos del Sur, Siglo XIX. Buenos Aires: Fundación PROA.
Brugnoli, Paulina y Hoces de la Guardia, Soledad (1995). "Estudio de fragmentos del sitio Alboyanco". En: Hombre y Desierto, una perspectiva cultural, 9: 375–381.
Corcuera, Ruth (1987). Herencia textil andina. Buenos Aires: Impresores SCA.
Corcuera, Ruth (1998). Ponchos de las Tierras del Plata. Buenos Aires: Fondo Nacional de las Artes.
Chertudi, Susana y Nardi, Ricardo (1961). "Tejidos Araucanos de la Argentina". En: Cuadernos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Folklóricas, 2: 97–182.
Garavaglia, Juan Carlos (1986). “Los textiles de la tierra en el contexto colonial rioplatense: ¿una revolución industrial fallida?”. En: Anuario IEHS, 1:45–87.
Joseph, Claude (1931). Los tejidos Araucanos. Santiago de Chile: Imprenta San Francisco, Padre Las Casas.
Kradolfer, Sabine, Quand la parenté impose, le don dispose. Organisation sociale, don et identité dans les communautés mapuche de la province de Neuquén (Argentine) (Bern etc., Peter Lang, 2011) (Publications Universitaires Européennes. Série 19 B: Ethnologie-générale, 71).
Mendez, Patricia (2009a). “Herencia textil, identidad indígena y recursos económicos en la Patagonia Argentina”. En: Revista de la Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, 4, 1:11–53.
Méndez, Patricia (2009b). “Los tejidos indígenas en la Patagonia Argentina: cuatro siglos de comercio textilI”. En: Anuario INDIANA, 26: 233–265.
Millán de Palavecino, María Delia (1960). “Vestimenta Argentina”. En: Cuadernos del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Folklóricas, 1: 95–127.
Murra, John (1975). Formaciones económicas y políticas del mundo andino. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Nardi, Ricardo y Rolandi, Diana (1978). 1000 años de tejido en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Cultura y Educación, Secretaría de Estado de Cultura, Instituto Nacional de Antropología.
Palermo, Miguel Angel (1994). "Economía y mujer en el sur argentino". En: Memoria Americana 3: 63–90.
Wilson, Angélica (1992). Arte de Mujeres. Santiago de Chile: Ed. CEDEM, Colección Artes y Oficios Nº 3.
Further reading
'Nicholas Jose Reviews Speaking the Earth’s Languages: A Theory for Australian-Chilean Postcolonial Poetics': Cordite Poetry Review, 2014
'Fogarty & Garrido: A Bilingual Conversation between Four Poems': Cordite Poetry Review, 2012
'Trilingual Visibility in Our Transpacific: Three Mapuche Poets': Cordite Poetry Review, 2012
Language of the Land : The Mapuche in Argentina and Chile: IWGIA - IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2007,
When a flower is reborn : The Life and Times of a Mapuche Feminist, 2002,
Courage Tastes of Blood : The Mapuche Community of Nicolás Ailío and the Chilean State, 1906–2001, 2005,
Neoliberal Economics, Democratic Transition, and Mapuche Demands for Rights in Chile, 2006,
Shamans of the Foye Tree : Gender, Power, and Healing among Chilean Mapuche, 2007,
A Grammar of Mapuche, 2007,
Eim, Stefan (2010). The Conceptualisation of Mapuche Religion in Colonial Chile (1545–1787): http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/2010/10717/pdf/Eim_Conceptualisation_of_Mapuche_Religion.pdf.
Faron, Louis (1961). Mapuche Social Structure, Illinois Studies in Anthropology (Urbana: University of Illinois Press).
External links
Mapuche International Link official website
Mapuche-nation.org
Rehue Foundation in Netherland
Mapulink website
Mapuche Health
Website of the Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia
Indigenous culture of the Americas
Indigenous peoples of the Southern Cone
Society of Chile
Indigenous peoples in Argentina
Indigenous peoples in Chile
Pre-Columbian cultures
Ethnic groups in Chile
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-portable%20air-defense%20system
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Man-portable air-defense system
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Man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS or MPADS) are portable surface-to-air missiles. They are guided weapons and are a threat to low-flying aircraft, especially helicopters.
Overview
MANPADS were developed in the 1950s to provide military ground forces with protection from jet aircraft. They have received a great deal of attention, partly because armed terrorist groups have used them against commercial airliners. These missiles, affordable and widely available through a variety of sources, have been used successfully over the past three decades both in military conflicts and by terrorist organizations.
Twenty-five countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Poland, Sweden, Russia, and Iran produce man-portable air defense systems. Possession, export, and trafficking of such weapons is tightly controlled, due to the threat they pose to civil aviation, although such efforts have not always been successful.
The missiles are about in length and weigh about , depending on the model. MANPADS generally have a target detection range of about and an engagement range of about , so aircraft flying at or higher are relatively safe.
Missile types
Infrared
Infrared homing missiles are designed to home-in on a heat source on an aircraft, typically the engine exhaust plume, and detonate a warhead in or near the heat source to disable the aircraft or to simply burst it into flames. These missiles use passive guidance, meaning that they do not emit heat signatures, making them difficult to detect by aircraft employing countermeasure systems.
First generation
The first missiles deployed in the 1960s were infrared missiles. First generation MANPADS, such as the US Redeye, early versions of the Soviet 9K32 Strela-2, and the Chinese HN-5 (A copy of the Soviet Strela-2), are considered "tail-chase weapons" as their uncooled spin-scan seekers can only discern the superheated interior of the target's jet engine from background noise. This means they are only capable of accurately tracking the aircraft from the rear when the engines are fully exposed to the missile's seeker and provide a sufficient thermal signature for engagement. First generation IR missiles are also highly susceptible to interfering thermal signatures from background sources, including the sun, which many experts feel makes them somewhat unreliable, and they are prone to erratic behaviour in the terminal phase of engagement. While less effective than more modern weapons, they remain common in irregular forces as they are not limited by the short shelf-life of gas coolant cartridges used by later systems.
Second generation
Second generation infrared missiles, such as early versions of the U.S. Stinger, the Soviet Strela-3, and the Chinese FN-6, use gas-cooled seeker heads and a conical scanning technique, which enables the seeker to filter out most interfering background IR sources as well as permitting head-on and side engagement profiles. Later versions of the FIM-43 Redeye are regarded as straddling the first and second generations as they are gas-cooled but still use a spin-scan seeker.
Third generation
Third generation infrared MANPADS, such as the French Mistral, the Soviet 9K38 Igla, and the US Stinger B, use rosette scanning detectors to produce a quasi-image of the target. Their seeker compares input from multiple detections bands, either two widely separated IR bands or IR and UV, giving them much greater ability to discern and reject countermeasures deployed by the target aircraft.
Fourth generation
Fourth generation missiles, such as the canceled American FIM-92 Stinger Block 2, Russian Verba, Chinese QW-4, Indian VSHORAD and Japanese Type 91 surface-to-air missile use imaging infrared focal plane array guidance systems and other advanced sensor systems, which permit engagement at greater ranges.
Command line-of-sight
Command guidance (CLOS) missiles do not home in on a particular aspect (heat source or radio or radar transmissions) of the targeted aircraft. Instead, the missile operator or gunner visually acquires the target using a magnified optical sight and then uses radio controls to "fly" the missile into the aircraft. One of the benefits of such a missile is that it is virtually immune to flares and other basic countermeasure systems that are designed primarily to defeat IR missiles. The major drawback of CLOS missiles is that they require highly trained and skilled operators. Numerous reports from the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s cite Afghan mujahedin as being disappointed with the British-supplied Blowpipe CLOS missile because it was too difficult to learn to use and highly inaccurate, particularly when employed against fast-moving jet aircraft. Given these considerations, many experts believe that CLOS missiles are not as ideally suited for untrained personnel use as IR missiles, which sometimes are referred to as "fire and forget" missiles.
Later versions of CLOS missiles, such as the British Javelin, use a solid-state television camera in lieu of the optical tracker to make the gunner's task easier. The Javelin's manufacturer, Thales Air Defence, claims that their missile is virtually impervious to countermeasures.
Laser guided
Laser guided MANPADS use beam-riding guidance where a sensor in the missile's tail detects the emissions from a laser on the launcher and attempts to steer the missile to fly at the exact middle of the beam, or between two beams. Missiles such as Sweden's RBS-70 and Britain's Starstreak can engage aircraft from all angles and only require the operator to continuously track the target using a joystick to keep the laser aim point on the target: the latest version of RBS 70 features a tracking engagement mode where fine aim adjustments of the laser emitter are handled by the launcher itself, with the user only having to make coarse aim corrections. Because there are no radio data links from the ground to the missile, the missile cannot be effectively jammed after it is launched. Even though beam-riding missiles require relatively extensive training and skill to operate, many experts consider these missiles particularly menacing due to the missiles' resistance to most conventional countermeasures in use today.
Notable uses
Against military aircraft
List of Soviet aircraft losses in Afghanistan
Argentine air forces in the Falklands War
British air services in the Falklands War.
On 27 February 1991, during Operation Desert Storm, an USAF F-16 was shot down by an Igla-1.
On 16 April 1994, during Operation Deny Flight a Sea Harrier of the 801 Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy, operating from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, was brought down by an Igla-1.
On 30 August 1995, during Operation Deliberate Force, a French Air Force Mirage 2000D was shot down over Bosnia by a heat-seeking 9K38 Igla missile fired by air defense units of Army of Republika Srpska, prompting efforts to obtain improved defensive systems.
On 27 May 1999, the Anza Mk-II was used to attack Indian aircraft during the Kargil conflict with India. A MiG-27 of the Indian Air Force was shot down by Pakistan Army Air Defence forces.
List of Russian aircraft losses in the Second Chechen War
List of Coalition aircraft crashes in Afghanistan
List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iraq War
2002 Khankala Mi-26 crash: On 19 August 2002, a Russian-made Igla shoulder-fired surface-to-air missile hit an overloaded Mil Mi-26 helicopter, causing it to crash into a minefield at the main military base at Khankala near the capital city of Grozny, Chechnya. 127 Russian troops and crew were killed.
In the 2008 South Ossetia War, Polish made Grom MANPADS were used by Georgia
Syrian Civil War
On 3 February 2018, a Russian Sukhoi Su-25 piloted by Major Roman Filipov was shot down by a MANPADS over rebel-held territory while conducting airstrikes over Syria's northwestern city of Saraqib.
War in Donbas
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Against cruise missiles
On 10 October 2022, during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukrainian forces were recorded allegedly shooting down a Russian cruise missile using MANPADS. Since then, other instances have been videoed and shared on social media platforms.
Against civilian aircraft
The 1978 Air Rhodesia Viscount shootdown is the first example of a civilian airliner shot down by a man-portable surface-to-air missile. The pilot of the aircraft managed to make a controlled crash landing.
Air Rhodesia Flight 827 was also shot down in February 1979 by the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army armed with a Strela 2 missile. All 59 passengers and crew were killed.
The 1993 Sukhumi airliner attacks involved 5 civilian aircraft shot down within a total of 4 days in Sukhumi, Abkhazia, Georgia, killing 108 people.
On 6 April 1994, a surface-to-air missile struck one of the wings of the Dassault Falcon 50 carrying three French crew and nine passengers, including Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian president Cyprien Ntaryamira, as it prepared to land in Kigali, Rwanda, before a second missile hit its tail. The plane erupted into flames in mid-air before crashing into the garden of the presidential palace, exploding on impact. This incident was the ignition spark of the Rwandan genocide.
1998 Lionair Flight LN 602 shootdown: On 7 October 1998, the Tamil Tigers shot down an aircraft off the coast of Sri Lanka.
2002 Mombasa airliner attack: On 28 November 2002, two shoulder-launched Strela 2 (SA-7) surface-to-air missiles were fired at a chartered Boeing 757 airliner as it took off from Moi International Airport. The missiles missed the aircraft which continued safely to Tel Aviv, carrying 271 vacationers from Mombasa back to Israel. In the photos, the missile systems were painted in light blue, the color used in the Soviet military for training material (a training SA-7 round would not have the guidance system).
2003 Baghdad DHL attempted shootdown incident: On 22 November 2003, an Airbus A300B4-203F cargo plane, operating on behalf of DHL was hit by an SA-14 missile, which resulted in the loss of its hydraulic systems. The crew later landed the crippled aircraft safely by using only differential engine thrust by adjusting the individual throttle controls of each engine.
2007 Mogadishu TransAVIAexport Airlines Il-76 crash: On 23 March 2007, a TransAVIAexport Airlines Ilyushin Il-76 airplane crashed in outskirts of Mogadishu, Somalia, during the 2007 Battle of Mogadishu. Witnesses claim that a surface-to-air missile was fired immediately prior to the accident. However, Somali officials deny that the aircraft was shot down.
Countermeasures
Man-portable air defense systems are a popular black market item for insurgent forces. Their proliferation became the subject of the Wassenaar Arrangement's (WA)22 Elements for Export Controls of MANPADS, the G8 Action Plan of 2 June 2003, the October 2003 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Summit, Bangkok Declaration on Partnership for the Future and in July 2003 the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Forum for Security Co-operation, Decision No. 7/03: Man-portable Air Defense Systems.
Understanding the problem in 2003, Colin Powell remarked that there was "no threat more serious to aviation" than the missiles, which can be used to shoot down helicopters and commercial airliners, and are sold illegally for as little as a few hundred dollars. The U.S. has led a global effort to dismantle these weapons, with over 30,000 voluntarily destroyed since 2003, but probably thousands are still in the hands of insurgents, especially in Iraq, where they were looted from the military arsenals of the former dictator Saddam Hussein, and in Afghanistan as well. In August 2010, a report by the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) confirmed that "only a handful" of illicit MANPADS were recovered from national resistance caches in Iraq in 2009, according to media reports and interviews with military sources.
Military
With the growing number of MANPADS attacks on civilian airliners, a number of different countermeasure systems have been developed specifically to protect aircraft against the missiles.
AN/ALQ-144, AN/ALQ-147 and AN/ALQ-157 are U.S.-produced systems, developed by Sanders Associates in the 1970s.
AN/ALQ-212 ATIRCM, AN/AAQ-24 Nemesis are NATO systems developed by BAE Systems and Northrop Grumman respectively.
Civilian
Civil Aircraft Missile Protection System (CAMPS)—Developed by Saab Avitronics, Chemring Countermeasures and Naturelink Aviation, using non-pyrotechnic infrared decoy
Weapons by country
China
HN-5
HN-6
QW-1
QW-11
QW-11G
QW-1A
QW-1M
QW-2
QW-3
FN-6
QW-1 Vanguard
TB-1
France
Mistral 1
Mistral 2
Mistral 3
United Kingdom
Blowpipe
Javelin
Starburst
Starstreak
India
MPDMS
VSHORAD
Iran
Misagh-1
Misagh-2
Misagh-3
Qaem
Italy
New VSHORAD
Japan
Type 91 (SAM-2, SAM-2B)
Pakistan
Anza
Poland
Grom
Piorun
Romania
CA-94:
CA-94M
Soviet Union/Russian Federation
9K32M 'Strela-2' (SA-7)
9K36 'Strela-3' (SA-14)
9K310 'Igla-M' (SA-16)
9K38 'Igla' (SA-18)
9K338 ' Igla-S' (SA-24)
9K333 'Verba' (SA-25)
Sweden
RBS 70
RBS 70 NG
United States
FIM-43 'Redeye'
FIM-92 'Stinger'
South Korea
Chiron
North Korea
HT-16PGJ
Turkey
Sungur MANPAD
PorSav
Black market
Although most MANPADS are owned and accounted for by governments, political upheavals and corruption have allowed thousands of them to enter the black market. In the years 1998–2018, at least 72 non-state groups have fielded MANPADS. Civilians in the United States cannot legally own MANPADS.
See also
Anti-aircraft warfare
Infrared countermeasure
Aerial countermeasures
Civil Aircraft Missile Protection System
Flight Guard
Northrop Grumman Guardian
Man-portable anti-tank systems
References
Portions of this article were taken from Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles , CRS Report for Congress RL31741, February 16, 2006 by the Congressional Research Service, division of The Library of Congress which as a work of the Federal Government exists in the public domain.
External links
MANPADS Proliferation —links to hundreds of documents on MANPADS, their proliferation, and control efforts
Man-Portable Air Defence Systems (MANPADS) Small Arms Survey Research Note
Man Portable Missiles vs Airliners
Are Helicopters Vulnerable?—Analysis of MANPADS effectiveness.
MANPADS: Combating the Threat to Global Aviation from Man-Portable Air Defense Systems
Surface-to-air missiles
Infantry weapons
Portable tools
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antechinomys%20laniger
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Antechinomys laniger
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Antechinomys laniger — вид родини сумчастих хижаків, який раніше був поширений в посушливих і напівпосушливих малі-скребах (чагарникові, головним чином евкаліптові, зарості жорстколистої дерев'янистої рослинності напівпосушливих районів південної Австралії), чагарниках, заплавах, пагорбовових луках, кам'янистих районах з рідкісним трав'яним покривом Західної Австралії, Північної Території, західного Квінсленду, Нового Південного Уельсу, можливо, Вікторії (без доказів) і Південній Австралії. Зараз відбувається помітне зменшення чисельності виду і його ареалу.
Морфологія
Морфометрія. Довжина голови й тіла: 80—110 мм, довжина хвоста: 100—145 мм.
Опис. Самці за звичай більші за самиці. Верхня частина тіла сірувата, нижня — білувата з сірим при основі волоссям. Навколо очей є темні кільця і темний клапоть по центру лоба. Вуха відносно великі. Хутро довге, м'яке з невеликою кількістю покривного волосся за винятком спини й крижів. Більше ніж половина базальної частини дуже довгого хвоста жовтувато-брунатного кольору. Довжина волосся зростає до кінця хвоста, набуваючи коричневого чи чорного кольору на прикінцевій третині хвоста. Верхя третина кінцівок забарвлена як і тіло; решта 2/3 вкриті коротким тонким білим хутром. На обличчі добре помітні вібриси. Під час сезону розмноження сумка стає досить добре розвиненою у самиць. Вона складається зі складок шкіри, збільшених з боків, щоб частково покрити соски.
Поведінка, розмноження
Мабуть власної нори не копає, натомість гніздиться в колодах, пнях, серед рослинності. Можливо, також використовує нори інших тварин або гніздиться в глибоких тріщинах в землі. Здається, веде суворо наземний і нічний спосіб життя. Природною їжею є комахи та інші дрібні безхребетні. Заціпеніння було експериментально індуковане через утримання від їжі і може бути адаптивним механізмом для вирішення погіршення умов навколишнього середовища в природних умовах. Польові та лабораторні дослідження показують, що існує довгий сезон розмноження. Тварини в південно-західному Квінсленді знаходяться в репродуктивному стані з середини зими до середини літа (липень-січень). Вагітність триває 12 діб чи менше. Самиця може народити до 6 малюків за раз. Відлучення від молока відбувається приблизно через 3 місяці а статева зрілість настає в 11,5 місяців. Тривалість життя в неволі три роки.
Генетика
Каріотип: 2n=14.
Загрози та охорона
Деградація середовища проживання вівцями і великою рогатою худобою, хижацтво з боку котів і лисиць є головними загрозами для цього виду. Крім того, місця існування змінюються в зв'язку зі зміною режимів пожеж через поселення європейців.
Примітки
Хижі сумчасті
Ссавці Австралії
Роди ссавців
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21146065
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninek%2C%20Szamotu%C5%82y%20County
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Koninek, Szamotuły County
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Koninek, Szamotuły County
Koninek is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Pniewy, within Szamotuły County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland. It lies approximately north-east of Pniewy, west of Szamotuły, and west of the regional capital Poznań.
References
Villages in Szamotuły County
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2297639
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B0%D0%BF%20%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4
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Яап Мансфельд
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Яап Мансфельд (12 серпня 1936) — відомий голландський дослідник Греко-римської філософії.
Він був професором Утрехтського університету. Його увага зосереджена на доксографії, його найвідоміша робота являє собою нове видання з фрагментів досократиків в двох томах на основі видання Дильса-Кранца-Аусгабе.
Мансфельд почав свої дослідження у 1954 році в Університеті Утрехта, які він закінчив у 1964 році, захистивши дисертацію по Парменіду. З 1973 року аж до своєї відставки в 2001 році він був професором університету античної філософії на факультеті гуманітарних наук Університету Утрехта.
Антикознавці
Нідерландські історики
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2227492
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%20%D0%A8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%83%20%28%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0%29
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Пам'ятник Тарасові Шевченку (Лозівка)
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Пам'ятник Тарасові Шевченку (Лозівка)
Пам'ятник Тарасові Шевченку в Лозівці — погруддя українського поета Тараса Григоровича Шевченка в селі Лозівці Підволочиського району на Тернопільщині.
Пам'ятка монументального мистецтва місцевого значення, охоронний номер 516.
Опис
Погруддя виготовлене з бетону, висота — 1,4 м, постамент — із каменю, висота — 2,9 м.
Скульптори — Яків Чайка та Еммануїл Мисько.
На постаменті викарбуваний напис:
З історії пам'ятника
Пам'ятник двічі нищили: вперше підірвали гранатами під час Першої світової війни військовики польського генерала Галлера, а відновлений 1926 року пам'ятник улани Пілсудського вдруге знищили в 1930-му.
17 липня 1960 року пам'ятник відновлено втретє. На відкритті було багато людей, зокрема, серед гостей були і його автори — митці Яків Чайка та Еммануїл Мисько, поет Дмитро Павличко, який про цю подію написав вірш «На відкритті пам'ятника Т. Г. Шевченкові в с. Лозівці».
Примітки
Джерела
Пам'ятники Підволочиського району
Пам'ятки монументального мистецтва Тернопільської області
Пам'ятники, встановлені 1960
Погруддя України
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15577624
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alojz%20Gradnik
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Alojz Gradnik
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Alojz Gradnik (August 3, 1882 – July 14, 1967) was a Slovenian poet and translator.
Life
Gradnik was born in the village of Medana in the Gorizia Hills region, in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire and is today in the Municipality of Brda of Slovenia. His father was a Slovene from Trieste who came from a poor working-class background, but created considerable wealth by winemaking. His mother was an ethnic Friulian from the County of Gorizia and Gradisca. His younger brother Jožef later served as mayor of the village.
Gradnik attended the multilingual State Gymnasium in Gorizia. He lived in a student home run by the Catholic Church. Among his friends from this period were Avgust Žigon, who later became a renowned literary scholar, the Slovene writer Ivan Pregelj and the Friulian prelate Luigi Fogar, who later served as bishop of Trieste. After finishing high school, he went to study law in Vienna. After graduation in 1907, he served as a district judge in the Istrian city of Pula, in Gorizia and in other smaller towns throughout the Austrian Littoral. During this period, he was active in Slovene and Croat cultural and political associations. Between 1913 and 1915, he frequented the intellectual circles of young Slovene national-liberals in Gorizia. Among his friends from the period were Andrej Gabršček, the leader of the National Progressive Party in Gorizia and Gradisca, the young historian and jurist Bogumil Vošnjak and the lawyers Dinko Puc and Drago Marušič, who all later became prominent liberal politicians in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
In 1924, he married Mira Potokar, with whom he had a son, Sergij.
In 1920, after the Italian annexation of the Julian March, he emigrated to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, where he continued his career as a judge. In the late 1920s, he worked as an expert consultant at the Ministry of Justice in Belgrade. He was later appointed member of the High Court for the Security of the State, in which political trials were conducted. From 1936 and 1941 he served as a member of the "Bank of the Seven" (Stol sedmorice), the court of cassation which had jurisdiction on all former Austro-Hungarian parts of Yugoslavia. The court was located in Zagreb and during his stay in the Croatian capital, Gradnik enjoyed the company of Croat intellectuals like the writer Vladimir Nazor, historian Antun Barac, and poet Ivan Goran Kovačić.
After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, he was expelled by the new Fascist authorities of the Independent State of Croatia. He moved back to Ljubljana. Between 1942 and 1943, he was interned in the Gonars concentration camp by the Italian Fascist occupation authorities. The concentration camp experience would strongly influence his later poetry. After the end of World War II, he returned to Ljubljana, where he spent the rest of his life as a pensioner. After September 1947, when the Slovenian Littoral was annexed to Yugoslavia, he regularly visited his native village, spending most of the summer season writing poetry.
Gradnik was a polyglot: besides Slovene, he was fluent in Italian, Friulian, German, Serbo-Croatian, English, and French. He also spoke Russian, Hungarian, and Spanish, and knew Latin and Ancient Greek. He studied several oriental languages, such as Sanskrit, Persian, Bengali and Mandarin.
He died in Ljubljana.
Work
Gradnik was a prolific author. During his lifetime, between 1916 and 1944, he published nine collections of poems and left a large number of unpublished works. Together with Izidor Cankar and Ivan Pregelj, Gradnik belonged to the second generation of modernist authors in Slovenian literature (the first was composed by Ivan Cankar, Oton Župančič, Dragotin Kette, and others). Gradnik was most influenced by the work of the poet Josip Murn Aleksandrov, and was probably among the first to acknowledge Murn's poetic genius. Like Murn, Gradnik incorporated impressionist visions of the countryside and peasant life into his poetry. Gradnik's style and vocabulary were simple, but his motifs and contents complex.
Gradnik's early poetry was strongly inspired by both the older generations of Slovenian poets (the modernists, but also Simon Gregorčič and France Prešeren) and the European decadent movement. One of the specific traits of Gradnik's early period was his intense focus on the relationship between Eros and Thanatos: that is, between erotic passion and the motive of death. He later moved away from decadentism, rediscovering his Roman Catholic faith and turning to more mystical themes, maintaining a simple and plain language. He also wrote patriotic songs, in which he conveyed intimate sentiments of pain, hope and frustration for the tragedies in the contemporary Slovenian history.
Gradnik was also very influenced by the visual arts, especially painting and sculpture. He wrote a book on the Slovene impressionist painter Rihard Jakopič and maintained a close friendship with the painter Ivan Grohar, the illustrators Riko Debenjak and Miha Maleš, and the sculptor Jakob Savinšek. Several painters strongly influenced his work, especially Eugène Carrière, Božidar Jakac, and the Brueghels.
Gradnik was also an important translator. Among other works, he translated the first two parts of Dante's Divine Comedy into Slovene. He also translated works of other important authors, including Francesco Petrarca, Giacomo Leopardi, Rabindranath Tagore, Giosuè Carducci, Romain Rolland, Omar Khayyam, Jovan Jovanović Zmaj, Vuk Karadžić, Ivan Mažuranić, Petar Petrović Njegoš, Ugo Foscolo, Anton Chekhov, Juan Ramón Jiménez, John Erskine, Federico García Lorca, Sándor Petőfi, Endre Ady. He also wrote children's literature.
Influence and legacy
Today, Gradnik is considered the most important Slovenian poet in the interwar period, next to Oton Župančič, and one of the most important Slovene poets of the 20th century. In his lifetime, however, he was mostly disregarded by critics. With his traditional style and conservative worldview, he remained outside the contemporary literary mainstream. However, he influenced the work of some highly talented non-conventional authors such as Lili Novy and France Balantič.
After the establishment of the Communist regime in Yugoslavia after 1945, his position deteriorated. Gradnik was an anti-Fascist, he sympathised with the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People, and even wrote several poems about the Yugoslav People's Liberation War in Slovenia. Nevertheless, his deep Christian religious sentiment and his magical realistic style were seen as reactionary by the Communists. His membership in the High Tribunal for the Security of the State, which condemned several Communist activists, was a further reason for his fall into disgrace during Josip Broz Tito's regime. He did not suffer any persecution, but he was pushed away from public life. Between 1945 and 1967, he published mostly translations and none of his new poetry was published. There was no public commemoration upon his death and he was not included in the canon taught in schools. In Yugoslavia, no street or institution was named after him until 1990. Nevertheless, many of his poems gained much popularity in his home region and a local school in the Italian commune of San Floriano del Collio was named after him in the late 1970s.
Gradnik was rediscovered in the late 1980s, when he was elevated to a truly national poet for the first time. He became a major source of influence for the younger generations of postmodern authors, such as Brane Senegačnik, Nevin Birsa, Aleš Šteger, and others.
Since mid-1996, an annual festival has been held in August in his home village of Medana, called Days of Poetry and Wine (Dnevi poezije in vina), to which young international poets are invited.
Bibliography
Padajoče zvezde - (Falling Stars, 1916)
Pot bolesti - (The Path of Sorrow, 1922)
De Profundis - (1926)
Svetle samote - (Bright Solitudes, 1932)
Večni studenci - (Eternal Wells, 1938)
Zlate lestve - (Golden Ladders, 1940)
Bog in umetnik - (God and the Artist, 1943)
Pojoča kri - (Singing Blood, 1944)
Pesmi o Maji - (Poems about Maja, 1944)
Grozdja Girlande - (Garlands of Grapes)
Tolmin - (Tolmin)
Sources
Taras Kermauner, Gradnikova pot k Bogu (Nova Gorica: Zveza kulturnih organizacij, 1997).
Fedora Ferluga Petronio, "Alojz Gradnik - Pesnik goriških Brd: mednarodni simpozij ob 125. obletnici pesnikovega rojstva", Primorski dnevnik, yr. 69, n. 113 (May 13, 2007).
Danila Zuljan Kumar, "Z referati osvetlili njegovo poezijo: Gradnikov simpozij na Univerzi v Vidmu, Briški časnik, y. 11, n. 47 (2007).
1882 births
1967 deaths
Slovenian male poets
Slovenian translators
Italian–Slovene translators
Serbian–Slovene translators
Croatian–Slovene translators
Hungarian–Slovene translators
20th-century Slovenian judges
University of Vienna alumni
Members of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Slovenian people of Friulian descent
Slovenian Roman Catholics
Slovenian Catholic poets
Presidents of the Slovene Writers' Association
20th-century Slovenian poets
20th-century translators
People from the Municipality of Brda
Yugoslav judges
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618157
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%BB%D0%B5-%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5
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Пуенсон-ле-Грансе
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Пуенсон-ле-Грансе, Пуенсон-ле-Ґрансе — муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Гранд-Ест, департамент Верхня Марна. Населення — .
Муніципалітет розташований на відстані близько 240 км на південний схід від Парижа, 150 км на південь від Шалон-ан-Шампань, 50 км на південь від Шомона.
Історія
До 2015 року муніципалітет перебував у складі регіону Шампань-Арденни. Від 1 січня 2016 року належить до нового об'єднаного регіону Гранд-Ест.
Демографія
Розподіл населення за віком та статтю (2006):
Економіка
Сусідні муніципалітети
Посилання
Пуенсон-ле-Грансе на сайті французького Національного інституту географії
Див. також
Список муніципалітетів департаменту Верхня Марна
Примітки
Муніципалітети департаменту Верхня Марна
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582530
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B0-%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0
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Падма-Пурана
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Падма-Пурана — одна з найважливіших і найбільших за об'ємом Маха-Пуран, стародавніх текстів, що вважаються індусами священними. Час створення цієї пурани — між 8 і 11 століттями. Кілька джайнських текстів, написаних у 15-17 століттях, також відомі як Падма-Пурана, вони пов'язані розповідями про життя Рами.
Зміст
«Падма-пурана» розділена на п'ять частин. У першій частині мудрець Пуластья розповідає Бхішмі про дхарму і її основну суть. У другій частині детально описується Прітхві (Земля). У третій частині докладно описується космос і його створення. Там же міститься опис Індії того часу. У четвертій частині розповідається про життя і діяння Рами. У п'ятій частині міститься бесіда між Шивою і його дружиною Парваті, в якій обговорюється основна суть дхарми.
Детальніший зміст частин цієї пурани:
Шрішті-Кханда складається з бесіди між Бхішмою і ріші Пуластьєю. Тут міститься докладний опис знаменитого місця паломництва Пушкара.
Бхуми-Кханда тут міститься опис Прітхві і розповідається історія Прітху і Яяті, а також історії деяких інших ріші. Деякі дослідники вважають, що події, описані в цій Пурані, містять в собі факти з історії та географії того часу.
Сварґа-Кханда містить в собі докладний опис створення матеріального космосу. У ній також описується слава і значущість святих місць паломництва, а також і її географічне положення. Там також розповідається про населення Індії в стародавні часи.
Патала-Кханда — тут Уґрасрава Сауті розповідає історію життя Рами зібранню ріші. Частина цієї кханди присвячена життєпису Крішни. 16 розділів Патала-Кханди відомі як «Шива-Ґіта».
Уттара-Кханда — тут міститься бесіда між Шивою і Парваті про метафізичні аспекти релігії. До складу «Уттара-Кханди» також входять «Вішну-Сахасранама» і «Рама-Сахасранама». Назвою цієї кханди Падма-Пурани назван регіон та індійський штат Уттаракханд, де, згідно з віруваннямм індусів, Шива і Парваті мешкають біля витоків Ямуни і Гангу і де також знаходяться оселі Вішну — Бадрінатх, і Шиви — Кедарнатх.
Література
Посилання
Шри Дамодараштака Вайшнавский религиозный портал
Гита-Махатмья трактат из Падма-Пураны
Библиотека ведической литературы
Пурани
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643577
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selva
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Selva
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Selva is a coastal comarca (county) in the Girona region of Catalonia (Spain), located between the mountain range known as the Serralada Transversal or Puigsacalm and the Costa Brava (part of the Mediterranean coast). Following the Spanish province system, it is divided between the provinces of Girona and Barcelona, with Fogars de la Selva being part of Barcelona province and all other municipalities falling inside the Girona province.
Its capital, Santa Coloma de Farners, is no longer among its larger municipalities, with the coastal towns of Blanes and Lloret de Mar having far surpassed it in size. Selva borders the comarques of Maresme, Vallès Oriental, Osona, Garrotxa, Gironès, and Baix Empordà.
Municipalities
References
External links
Official tourism website
Official comarcal web site (in Catalan)
Comarques of the Province of Girona
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1947407
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%81
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Аліобрикс
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Аліобрикс — римська фортеця, яка була розташована неподалік від нинішнього села Орлівка Одеської області.
Історія
Особливе значення для успішних походів мали опорні пункти, особливо у таких важливих місцях, як переправи через значні річки. Кельтське укріплення Аліобрикс (з кельт. «фортеця на пагорбі») згадує у своїх роботах Клавдій Птолемей.
Фортеця Аліобрикс була аванпостом Римської імперії на лівому березі Дунаю, задачею якого була охорона переправи та дороги, яка вела до Тіри та інших міст Північного Причорномор'я.
На правому березі Дунаю переправу прикривав каструм , який також був базою Мезійського флоту Римської імперії. Частина флоту перебувала у Аліобриксі.
Кельтське походження назв Новіодун та Аліобрикс у історичній науці вважається одним із свідчень присутності кельтських племен у Південно-Східній Європі.
Аліобрикс, як і Новіодун, входив до складу провінцій Нижня Мезія (Moesia Inferior) та Мала Скіфія (Scythia Minor).
Новіодун був розташований в межах сучасного румунського міста Ісакча, Аліобрикс знаходився на захід від села Орлівка, на Кам'яній горі, відомій також як Картальський камінь.
Проводяться розкопки Аліобрикса та римської дороги, що проходила біля нього.
Карти
Фото
Див. також
Траянові вали
Давньоримський флот
Лімес
Віа Іструм
Примітки
Посилання
Noviodunum project
Аліобрикс на Вікімапії
Джерела
Gostar, N. (1967). Aliobrix. Latomus, 26(4), 987—995.
Barnea, A. (2013). Sur les Celtes au Bas-Danube, Studii de Preistorie, 10, 221—225.
Rummel, C. (2008) The Fleets on the Northern Frontier of the Roman Empire from the 1st to 3rd century. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Nottingham.
Campbell, J. B. (2012) Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Виктор Зубарев. Историческая география Северного Причерноморья по данным античной письменной традиции.
Геннадій Казакевич. Кельтська спадщина Південно-Східної Європи: Погляд лінгвіста
Андрей Потылико. Древняя дунайская переправа может стать памятником под эгидой ЮНЕСКО
Іванченко А. В., Р. Д. Бондар як дослідниця Орловки — Libra: збірка наукових праць кафедри історії стародавнього світу та середніх віків, Вип. 2 — С.85-92.
Археологічні пам'ятки Одеської області
Історія Ізмаїльського району
Давньоримські пам'ятки України
Міста Стародавнього Риму
Ренійська міська громада
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15578519
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Maurice-Colombier
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Saint-Maurice-Colombier
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Saint-Maurice-Colombier is a commune in the Doubs department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in eastern France.
Geography
The commune lies north of L'Isle-sur-le-Doubs.
History
The commune was formed by merging the former communes of Saint-Maurice-Échelotte and Colombier-Châtelot in 1972.
Population
See also
Colombier-Fontaine
Communes of the Doubs department
References
External links
Saint-Maurice-Colombier on the regional Web site
Communes of Doubs
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3156325
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%81%20%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80
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Андреас Купфер
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Андреас Купфер (7 травня 1914, Швайнфурт — 30 квітня 2001, там само) — німецький футболіст, що грав на позиції півзахисника, зокрема, за клуб «Швайнфурт 05», а також національну збірну Німеччини.
Клубна кар'єра
У футболі дебютував 1930 року виступами за команду «Швайнфурт 07».
У 1933 році перейшов до «Швайнфурт 05», кольори якого і захищав протягом усієї своєї подальшої кар'єри гравця, що тривала чотирнадцять років.
Виступи за збірну
1935 року дебютував в офіційних матчах у складі національної збірної Німеччини. Протягом кар'єри у національній команді, яка тривала 8 років, провів у її формі 44 матчі, забивши 1 гол.
У складі збірної був учасником чемпіонату світу 1938 року у Франції, де зіграв в першому матчі проти Швейцарії (1-1) і в переграванні (2-4).
Помер 30 квітня 2001 року на 87-му році життя у місті Швайнфурт.
Примітки
Посилання
німецькі футболісти
Гравці збірної Німеччини з футболу
Гравці чемпіонату світу з футболу 1938
Футболісти ФК «Швайнфурт 05»
Уродженці Швайнфурта
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ГЕС Сан-Хосе I
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ГЕС Сан-Хосе I
ГЕС San Jose I – гідроелектростанція в Болівії, за чотири десятки кілометрів на північний схід від Кочабамби. Знаходячись між ГЕС Santa Isabel та ГЕС Сан-Хосе II, становить третій ступінь дериваційного каскаду у сточищі річки Еспіриту-Санту, лівого витоку Чапаре (впадає ліворуч до Маморе, правого витоку Мадейри, котра в свою чергу є правою притокою Амазонки).
Відпрацьована на ГЕС Santa Isabel вода потрапляє у балансуючий резервуар Агуас Кларас, розташований на мису неподалік злиття Santa Isabel та Малаги – лівого та правого витоків Паракті, правої притоки Еспіриту-Санту. Сюди ж надходить додатковий ресурс із водозаборів, створених на:
- Santa Isabel;
- Малазі;
- Антарі (невелика ліва притока Малаги);
- п’яти правих притоках Паракті – Ronco, Ronquito, Cañón (Miguelito), Roque Mayu, Solitario (San Jacinto) – для чого прокладено водозбірний тунель довжиною 4,25 км з діаметром 2,7 метра, який на завершальному етапі перетинає Малагу.
Від Агуас Кларас починається головний дериваційний тунель довжиною 4,9 км з діаметром 3,1 метра, котрий перетинає Santa Isabel та далі прямує через лівобережний гірський масив Паракті. На завершальному етапі він переходить у напірний водовід довжиною 0,5 км, який подає ресурс до машинного залу.
Основне обладнання станції становлять дві турбіни типу Пелтон потужністю по 27,5 МВт, що працюють при напорі у 313 метрів. Відпрацьована вода відводиться у нижній балансуючий резервуар Мігелето, звідки спрямовуватиметься на ГЕС San Jose II.
Для видачі продукції її напруга піднімається до 230 кВ.
Станцію ввели в експлуатацію на початку 2018 року.
Примітки
Сан-Хосе
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15882381
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%20Bourgneuf-la-For%C3%AAt
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Le Bourgneuf-la-Forêt
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Le Bourgneuf-la-Forêt is a commune in the Mayenne department in northwestern France.
Population
See also
Communes of Mayenne
References
Communes of Mayenne
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1184202
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D1%8C%20%28%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%29
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Могошешть (Долж)
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Могошешть (Долж)
Могошешть, Могошешті — село у повіті Долж в Румунії. Входить до складу комуни Гоєшть.
Село розташоване на відстані 184 км на захід від Бухареста, 16 км на північ від Крайови.
Населення
За даними перепису населення 2002 року у селі проживали особи, усі — румуни. Усі жителі села рідною мовою назвали румунську.
Примітки
Села повіту Долж
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62006910
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozhnovo%2C%20Vladimir%20Oblast
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Rozhnovo, Vladimir Oblast
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Rozhnovo, Vladimir Oblast
Rozhnovo is a rural locality (a village) in Borisoglebskoye Rural Settlement, Muromsky District, Vladimir Oblast, Russia. The population was 50 as of 2010. There are 3 streets.
Geography
Rozhnovo is located 27 km northwest of Murom (the district's administrative centre) by road. Talyzino is the nearest rural locality.
References
Rural localities in Muromsky District
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Балканський кубок
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Балканський кубок — ряд спортивних турнірів, що проводяться на Балканському півострові
Балканський кубок (збірні) — футбольний турнір для національних збірних, що проводився у 1929 — 1980 роках;
Балканський кубок (клуби) — футбольний турнір для клубних команд, що проводився у 1950 — 1994 роках;
Балканський чемпіонат (молодіжні збірні) — футбольний турнір для молодіжних збірних, що проводився у 1968 — 1975 роках для гравців віком до 23 років (U-23), а у 1976 — 1981 роках для гравців віком до 21 року (U-21);
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20Turkestan
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Russian Turkestan
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Russian Turkestan was the western part of Turkestan within the Russian Empire’s Central Asian territories, and was administered as a Krai or Governor-Generalship. It comprised the oasis region to the south of the Kazakh Steppe, but not the protectorates of the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva. It was populated by speakers of Russian, Uzbek, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Tajik.
History
Establishment
Although Russia had been pushing south into the steppes from Astrakhan and Orenburg since the failed Khivan expedition of Peter the Great in 1717, the beginning of the Russian conquest of Turkestan is normally dated to 1865. That year the Russian forces took the city of Tashkent under the leadership of General Mikhail Chernyayev expanding the territories of Turkestan Oblast (part of Orenburg Governorate-General). Chernyayev had exceeded his orders (he only had 3,000 men under his command at the time) but Saint Petersburg recognized the annexation in any case. This was swiftly followed by the conquest of Khodzhent, Dzhizak and Ura-Tyube, culminating in the annexation of Samarkand and the surrounding region on the Zeravshan River from the Emirate of Bukhara in 1868 forming the Zeravsh Special Okrug of Turkestan.
An account of the Russian conquest of Tashkent was written in "Urus leshkerining Türkistanda tarikh 1262–1269 senelarda qilghan futuhlari" by Mullah Khalibay Mambetov.
Expansion
In 1867 Turkestan was made a separate Governor-Generalship, under its first Governor-General, Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman. Its capital was Tashkent and it consisted initially of three oblasts (provinces): Syr Darya, Semirechye Oblast and the Zeravshan Okrug (later Samarkand Oblast). To these were added in 1873 the Amu Darya Division, annexed from the Khanate of Khiva, and in 1876 the Fergana Oblast, formed from the remaining rump of the Kokand Khanate that was dissolved after an uprising in 1875. In 1894, the Transcaspian Region (which had been conquered in 1881–1885 by military generals Mikhail Skobelev and Mikhail Annenkov) was added to the Governor-Generalship.
Colonization
The administration of the region had an almost purely military character throughout. Von Kaufman died in 1882, and a committee under Fedor Karlovich Giers (or Girs, brother of the Russian Foreign Minister Nikolay Karlovich Giers) toured the Krai and drew up proposals for reform, which were implemented after 1886. In 1888 the new Trans-Caspian railway, begun at Uzun-Ada on the shores of the Caspian Sea in 1877, reached Samarkand. Nevertheless, Turkestan remained an isolated colonial outpost, with an administration that preserved many distinctive features from the previous Islamic regimes, including Qadis' courts and a 'native' administration that devolved much power to local 'Aksakals' (Elders or Headmen). It was quite unlike European Russia. In 1908 Count Konstantin Konstantinovich Pahlen led another reform commission to Turkestan, which produced in 1909–1910 a monumental report documenting administrative corruption and inefficiency. The Jadid educational reform movement which originated among Tatars spread among Muslims of Central Asia under Russian rule.
A policy of deliberately enforcing anti-modern, traditional, ancient conservative Islamic education in schools and Islamic ideology was enforced by the Russians in order to deliberately hamper and destroy opposition to their rule by keeping them in a state of torpor to and prevent foreign ideologies from penetrating in.
The Russians implemented Turkification upon the Ferghana and Samarkand Tajiks, replacing their language with Uzbek, resulting in a dominantly Uzbek-speaking Samarkand, whereas decades before Tajik Persian was the dominant language in Samarkand.
Basmachi
In 1897 the railway reached Tashkent, and finally in 1906 a direct rail link with European Russia was opened across the steppe from Orenburg to Tashkent. This led to much larger numbers of ethnic Russian settlers flowing into Turkestan than had hitherto been the case, and their settlement was overseen by a specially created Migration Department in Saint Petersburg (Переселенческое Управление). This caused considerable discontent amongst the local population as these settlers took scarce land and water resources away from them. In 1916 discontent boiled over in the Basmachi Revolt, sparked by a decree conscripting the natives into labour battalions (they had previously been exempt from military service). Thousands of settlers were killed, and this was matched by Russian reprisals, particularly against the nomadic population. To escape Russians slaughtering them in 1916, Uzbeks, Kazakhs and Kyrgyz escaped to China. Xinjiang became a sanctuary for fleeing Kazakhs escaping the Russians after the Muslims faced conscription by the Russian government. The Turkmen, Kyrgyz, and Kazakhs were all impacted by the 1916 insurrection caused by the conscription decreed by the Russian government. The corvée conscription issued on June 25, 1916. Order had not really been restored by the time the February Revolution took place in 1917. This would usher in a still bloodier chapter in Turkestan's history, as the Bolsheviks of the Tashkent Soviet launched an attack on the autonomous Jadid government in Kokand early in 1918, which left 14,000 dead. Resistance to the Bolsheviks by the local population (dismissed as 'Basmachi' or 'Banditry' by Soviet historians) continued well into the beginning of the 1930s.
Governors of Turkestan
Turkestan had 21 Governor-generals.
1865–1867 Mikhail Grigoryevich Chernyaev (Military Governor)
1866–1867 Dmitri Ilyich Romanovskiy (Civil Governor)
1867–1881 Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman
1881–1882 Gerasim Alexeevich Kolpakovsky
1882‒4 Mikhail Chernyayev
1884‒9 Nikolai Rozenbakh
1889–1898 Alexander Borisovich Vrevsky
1898–1901 Sergei Mikhailovich Dukhovskoi
1901–1904 Nikolay Alexandrovich Ivanov
1904–1905 Nikolay Nikolayevich Tevyashev
1905–1906 Vsevolod Victorovich Zaharov
1906 Dean Ivanovich Subotich
1906 Yevgeny Osipovich Matsievsky
1906–1908 Nikolai Ivanovich Grodekov
1908–1909 Pavel Ivanovich Mischenko
1909–1910 Alexander Vasilyevich Samsonov
1910–1911 Vasiliy Ivanovich Pokotilo
1911–1914 Alexander Vasilyevich Samsonov (restored)
1914–1916 Fedor Vladimirovich Martson
1916 Mikhail Romanovich Yerofeyev
1916–17 Aleksey Kuropatkin
Administrative division
Turkestan was divided into five oblasts.
Fergana Oblast (New Margelan (Skobelev)) (part of Kokand Khanate until 1876)
Samarkand Oblast (Samarkand) (until 1886 Zeravshan Okrug, the occupied east territories of Khanate of Bukhara)
Semirechye Oblast (Verny) (1882–1899 part of the Governor-Generalship of the Steppes)
Syr-Darya Oblast (Tashkent)
Transcaspian Oblast (Askhabat) (until 1898 part of Caucasus Governorate-General)
Soviet rule
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkestan ASSR) within the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic was created in Soviet Central Asia (excluding modern-day Kazakhstan). After the foundation of the Soviet Union it was split into the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmenistan) and Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbekistan) in 1924. The Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajikistan) was formed out of part of the Uzbek SSR in 1929, and in 1936 the Kyrgyz SSR (Kyrgyzstan) was separated from Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, these republics gained their independence.
See also
National delimitation in Soviet Central Asia
Orenburg Cossacks
Semirechye Cossacks
Turkestan Military District
History of Uzbekistan
History of Kyrgyzstan
History of Turkmenistan
History of Kazakhstan
History of Tajikistan
Chinese Turkestan
References
Further reading
Pierce, Richard A. Russian Central Asia, 1867–1917 : a study in colonial rule (1960) online free to borrow
Daniel Brower Turkestan and the Fate of the Russian Empire (London) 2003
Wheeler, Geoffrey. The modern history of Soviet Central Asia (1964). online free to borrow
Eugene Schuyler Turkistan (London) 1876 2 Vols. online free
G.N. Curzon Russia in Central Asia (London) 1889 online free
Count K.K. Pahlen Mission to Turkestan (Oxford) 1964
Seymour Becker Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia, Bukhara and Khiva 1865–1924 (Cambridge, Massachusetts) 1968
Adeeb Khalid The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley) 1997
T.K. Beisembiev The Life of Alimqul (London) 2003
Hisao Komatsu, The Andijan Uprising Reconsidered a: Symbiosis and Conflict in Muslim Societies: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ed. by Tsugitaka Sato, Londres, 2004.
Aftandil Erkinov. Praying For and Against the Tsar: Prayers and Sermons in Russian-Dominated Khiva and Tsarist Turkestan.Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2004 (=ANOR 16), 112 p.
Aftandil S.Erkinov. The Andijan Uprising of 1898 and its leader Dukchi-ishan described by contemporary Poets'' TIAS Central Eurasian Research Series No.3. Tokyo, 2009, 118 p.
Malikov, Azim. Russian policy toward Islamic “sacred lineages” of Samarkand province of Turkestan Governor-Generalship in 1868-1917 in Acta Slavica Iaponica no 40. 2020, p.193-216
External links
Subdivisions of the Russian Empire
Former Russian colonies
Russian Turkestan
1860s establishments in the Russian Empire
Governorates-General of the Russian Empire
Russian
1867 establishments in the Russian Empire
1918 disestablishments in Russia
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Бомбейська фондова біржа
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Бомбейська фондова біржа — найстаріша біржа в Індії та Азії.
Історія
Біржа заснована в 1875, коли Індія була володінням Британської імперії. У 1850-ті група з 22 брокерів почала торгувати цінними паперами під баньяном, який ріс навпроти будівлі міської ратуші. Цей баньян досі росте в центрі Мумбаї. З часом група брокерів оформила свої відносини, створивши асоціацію, на основі якої в 1875 і створена перша біржа в Азії.
Бомбейська біржа часто переїзджала з місця на місце і тільки в 1930 зайняла будівлю, де вона розташовується зараз.
У той час провідним брокером на біржі вважався Премчанда Ройчанд, який був не лише талановитим фінансистом, але й гарним організатором — він поклав початок багатьом процедурам, правилам і традиціям фондової біржі Бомбея, деякі з яких зберігаються і до цього дня (з поправкою на технологічний прогрес).
Нові технології приходили на біржу поступово і не поспішаючи. Так, аж до 1995 року торги здійснювалися тим способом, який знайомий нам по старим фільмам про фінансистів, — на майданчику стояла безліч людей, які намагалися докричатися до своїх контрагентів з пропозиціями про купівлю або продаж акцій. У середині 1990-х років крики змінилися звуками телефонів і клавіатур — торговельний майданчик перейшов на електронну систему.
Поява конкурента
Бомбейська біржа до недавнього часу залишалася асоціацією приватних осіб — брокерів. Лише у 2005 році вона поміняла форму власності, ставши корпорацією.
Поштовхом до розвитку біржі стала поява в Індії у 1992 Національної фондової біржі. А вірніше, не сам цей факт (в перший час індійський «слон» Бомбейської біржі міг і не помічати індійської ж «Моськи» конкуруючого майданчику), а поступове завоювання Національної біржею значної частки ринку. Це стало першим сильним ударом по Бомбейській біржі. Другий був ударом у прямому розумінні — в 1993, в результаті атаки терористів (вибуху бомби у будівлі біржі), загинуло понад 200 осіб.
Вже в 1994 Національна біржа відвоювала звання провідного торгового майданчика Індії у свого конкурента завдяки застосовуваним на ній технологічним розробкам. Спочатку за обсягом торгівлі, що не дивно, — поки в ході голосових торгів брокери Бомбейської біржі намагалися щось розчути серед криків множини собі подібних, учасники Національної біржі щосили проводили операції через комп'ютер. А потім і по капіталізації.
За підсумками 2007 капіталізація Бомбейської біржі все ж перевищила даний показник у конкурентів, склавши 1,82 трлн. доларів. Це дозволило їй увійти в десятку найбільших бірж світу за даним показником. Та й за кількістю компаній, чиї цінні папери торгуються на цьому майданчику, Бомбейську біржу здолати непросто — щодня брокери можуть вибирати об'єкти купівлі-продажу серед акцій і облігацій 4888 компаній.
Фондові індекси
Основний індекс: BSE — 100 — загальнонаціональний індекс, що складається із 100 найбільших компаній, які представлені на всіх індійських біржах.
Діяльність
Об'єм торгів: $158, 982 млрд (2005 р.)
Лістинг: 4937 емітентів, 7745 паперів (липень 2009 р.)
Капіталізація: $1,06 трлн (липень 2009 р.)
Прибуток: $15 632 млн (2004–2005 р.)
Див. також
Національна фондова біржа Індії
Список фондових бірж
:Категорія:Компанії, що мають лістинг акцій на Бомбейській фондовій біржі
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт біржі
Економіка Індії
Мумбаї
Фондові біржі
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64781
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%202573
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NGC 2573
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NGC 2573
Об'єкти NGC
Октант (сузір'я)
Галактики
Астрономічні об'єкти, відкриті 1837
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390937
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera%2016
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Venera 16
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Venera 16 (meaning Venus 16) was a spacecraft sent to Venus by the Soviet Union. This uncrewed orbiter was to map the surface of Venus using high resolution imaging systems. The spacecraft was identical to Venera 15 and based on modifications to the earlier Venera space probes. The latest data from the spacecraft were received on June 13, 1985, when it responded to the signal sent from Earth for Vega 1.
Mission profile
Venera 16 was launched on June 7, 1983, at 02:32:00 UTC and reached Venus' orbit on October 11, 1983.
The spacecraft was inserted into Venus orbit a day apart from Venera 15, with its orbital plane shifted by an angle of approximately 4° relative to one another probe. This made it possible to reimage an area if necessary. The spacecraft was in a nearly polar orbit with a periapsis ~, at 62°N latitude, and apoapsis ~, with an inclination ~90°, the orbital period being ~24 hours.
Together with Venera 15, the spacecraft imaged the area from the north pole down to about 30°N latitude (i.e. approx. 25% of Venus surface) over the 8 months of mapping operations.
Spacecraft structure
The Venera 15 and 16 spacecraft were identical and were based on modifications to the orbiter portions of the Venera 9 and Venera 14 probes. Each spacecraft consisted of a long cylinder with a diameter, tall parabolic dish antenna for the synthetic aperture radar at one end. A diameter parabolic dish antenna for the radio altimeter was also located at this end. The electrical axis of the radio altimeter antenna was lined up with the axis of the cylinder. The electrical axis of the SAR deviated from the spacecraft axis by 10 degrees. During imaging, the radio altimeter would be lined up with the center of the planet (local vertical) and the SAR would be looking off to the side at 10 degrees. A bulge at the opposite end of the cylinder held fuel tanks and propulsion units. Two square solar arrays extended like wings from the sides of the cylinder. A radio dish antenna for communications was also attached to the side of the cylinder. The spacecraft each weighed .
Both Venera 15 and 16 were equipped with a synthetic aperture radar. A radar was necessary in this mission because nothing else would be able to penetrate the dense clouds of Venus. The probes were equipped with on board computers that saved the images until the entire image was complete.
List of spacecraft instruments and experiments:
Polyus-V Synthetic Aperture Radar
Omega Radar Altimeter
Infrared Fourier Spectrometer
Cosmic-Ray Detectors (6 sensors)
Solar-Plasma Detectors
To get to Venus, Venera 16 was placed in a heliocentric orbit with perihelion of 0.71 astronomical units, aphelion of 1.01 astronomical units, eccentricity of 0.17, orbital inclination of 2.3 degrees and orbital period of 293 days.
See also
List of missions to Venus
References
External links
The Soviet Exploration of Venus
Catalog of Soviet Venus images
Venera 16
Venera 15/16 Radar Mosaic Browser
Venera program
1983 in the Soviet Union
Space synthetic aperture radar
Non Earth orbiting satellites of the Soviet Union
Spacecraft launched by Proton rockets
Spacecraft launched in 1983
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501251
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%20Navigator
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Lincoln Navigator
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Lincoln Navigator — повнорозмірні люксові рамні позашляховики, що виробляються компанією Lincoln з 1997 року.
Перше покоління (1997—2002)
Перший Navigator модельного 1998 року був представлений в серпні 1997 року, як перший SUV від Лінкольна місткістю до 8 чоловік. Незважаючи на загальну базу з Ford Expedition Лінкольн являє собою більш комфортну і технологічну версію, ніж звичайний Ford. Головні відмінності це передні і задні ліхтарі, ґрати радіатора хромовані на відміну від фордівських. Різні дверні ручки, стійки даху, капот, колісні арки та ін. У салоні на перший погляд Навігатор не сильно відрізняється від свого брата близнюка «Експедішн». Проте в Лінкольні була поліпшена шумоізоляція, використовувалися більш дорогі матеріали в салоні. Приміром шкіряні сидіння йшли в стандартній комплектації.
Перше покоління оснащувалося антиблокувальними дисковими гальмами, бічними подушками безпеки, чотирма динаміками преміум аудіо-системою з AM/FM, автоматичним клімат-контролем та іншими функціями.
Розгін до 100 км/год становив близько 10.3 секунд.
Lincoln Blackwood
На основі Лінкольн Навігатор з 2001 по 2002 роки випускався люксовий пікап Lincoln Blackwood.
Двигуни
Друге покоління (2003—2006)
У 2003 році представлено друге покоління Lincoln Navigator, що являє собою глибоку модернізацію першого покоління. Автомобіль отримав двигун 5.4 л V8 InTech потужністю 300 к.с. Рульове управління, гальмівна система і електронні системи були переглянуті.
У 2005 році модель модернізували і почали встановлювати двигун 5.4 л V8 Triton потужністю 300 к.с.
Двигуни
Третє покоління (2007—2017)
У 2007 році представлено третє покоління Lincoln Navigator, що являє собою глибоку модернізацію другого покоління. Крім звичайної версії була й подовжена версія L. L версія довша, вона має довжину 5672 мм, 2024 мм в ширину, а висота така ж.
Автомобілі отримали двигун 5.4 л V8 Triton потужністю 300 к.с.
У 2009 році потужність двигуна зросла до 310 к.с.
Фейсліфтинг 2014
6 лютого 2014 року на автошоу в Чикаго представили оновлений Lincoln Navigator, а серійний випуск на заводі в Лоулсвіллі (Кентуккі) стартувало влітку 2014 року.
Автомобіль отримав новий бензиновий двигун EcoBoost V6 3.5 л з безпосереднім уприскуванням палива і двома турбокомпресорами потужністю 375 к.с. і крутним моментом 583 Нм. У парі з ним працює 6-ст. АКПП SelectShift з можливістю ручного перемикання. Привід — задній або повний.
Фейсліфтинг 2015
В ході останніх оновлень 2015 року даний автомобіль зазнав зміни внутрішніх і зовнішніх елементів, а також отримав новий турбований двигун, який забезпечує більшу продуктивність з меншими витратами. Лінкольн Навігатор представлений у двох варіантах — зі стандартною і збільшеною колісною базою. У стандартну комплектацію Lincoln Navigator входить: 4-зонний клімат-контроль, система MyLincoln Touch, остання версія інформаційно-розважальної системи Sync 3 з 8-дюймовим сенсорним екраном, навігацією, голосовим управлінням і вдосконаленою аудіосистемою з 14-ма динаміками. Також, всі моделі оснащені світлодіодною підсвіткою датчиків приладової панелі. Повнопривідні моделі додатково включають систему допомоги при підйомі і спуску зі схилу. Як опції для Лінкольн Навігатор доступні: шкіряне оздоблення всіх сидінь, 22-дюймові диски, покращене покриття для підлоги, бічні сходинки з електроприводом, люк на даху і DVD-програвач з екранами, вмонтованими в підголовники.
Двигуни
Четверте покоління (з 2018)
В 2016 році на автосалоні в Лос-Анджелес дебютував Lincoln Navigator Concept, що є предвісником четвертого покоління серійної моделі, виробництво якої почалося 25 вересня 2017 році. Автомобіль з завдоським індексом (U554) збудовано на новій платформі T3 з бензиновим двигуном 3,5 л EcoBoost V6, що працює в парі з 10-ст. АКПП 10R80 SelectShift. Двигун і коробка передач від Ford F-150 SVT Raptor. Автомобіль отримав алюмінієвий кузов та раму з надміцної сталі і незалежну підвіску всіх коліс. На вибір пропонується задній або повний привод.
На ринок автомобіль пропонується в двох варіантах козова, звичайний і подовжений L.
Оснащення: адаптивні (з ростом швидкості) фари, оптитронная 12-дюймова TFT-панель приладів, шість подушок безпеки, системи динамічної стабілізації Advance Trac і запобігання перекиданню RSC, адаптивний круїз-контроль з функцією стоп-старт, маневрування з причепом, мультимедійна система Sync 3 (екран 7 дюймів, аудіосистема Revel c MP3, USB, SD, HDMI, Bluetooth, Sync AppLink, 14 динаміків, голосовий ассістер Alexa, WiFi інтернет для 10 пристроїв, підтримка Apple Car і Android Auto, навігація, супутникове радіо Sirius), оздоблення керма і центральної консолі деревом, роздільний клімат-контроль, розділені задні сидіння (другий ряд — 20:40:20, третій — 40:60), бездротова підзарядка для смартфона, електроприводи стекол, дзеркал і дверки багажника, 6 USB-портів, чотири розетки на 12V і одна на 110V, панорамний люк. За доплату: проєкційний HUD-дисплей, передні сидіння з 15 електрорегулюванням, оброблені натуральною шкірою, з електроприводом, підігрівом, вентиляцією і масажем, пам'ять налаштувань сидіння, кліматичної установки і розважальної системи з ДУ, електропривод складання другого і третього рядів сидінь, аудіосистема Revel Ultima з 20-у динаміками, розважальна DVD/TV система з двома 10-дюймовими планшетами для пасажирів другого ряду з трансляцією через приставку Slingbox і трьома режимами «кінотеатру», система кругового огляду, світлова проєкція фірмової емблеми перед входом, електроприводи бічних підніжок. Найкраще оснащена комплектація називається Black Label.
Lincoln Navigator має великий, навіть за стандартнами класу, багажник. Модель зі стандартною колісною базою пропонує максимум 2915 л, версія L — 3400 л.
Двигунb
Продажі в США
Див. також
Lincoln Aviator
Примітки
Посилання
Позашляховики
Автомобілі Lincoln
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1192841
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B5
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Садова-Ноуе
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Садова-Ноуе — село у повіті Караш-Северін в Румунії. Входить до складу комуни Слатіна-Тіміш.
Село розташоване на відстані 309 км на захід від Бухареста, 35 км на схід від Решиці, 103 км на південний схід від Тімішоари.
Населення
За даними перепису населення 2002 року у селі проживали осіб, з них 283 особи (99,0%) румунів. Рідною мовою 283 особи (99,0%) назвали румунську.
Примітки
Села повіту Караш-Северін
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2122915
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%20%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83%20%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%82
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Список видів роду евкаліпт
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Список видів роду евкаліпт
Евкаліпт (Eucalyptus, від — «добре вкритий») — рід дерев і деяких кущів родини миртові, представники якого домінують у деревній флорі Австралії.
Існує 739 види та 3 гібриди евкаліптів, більшість походять з Австралії, деякі — з островів Нової Гвінеї та Індонезії, а один вид — з Філіппінських островів. Багато видів були інтродуковані в посушливих районах інших частин світу, зокрема в Каліфорнії, Африці, Південній Європі, Індії і Китаї.
Види
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I-J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q-R
S
T
U-W
X-Z
[[Файл:Eucalyptus youngiana KP gnangarra-10.jpg|thumb|Eucalyptus youngiana]]
Галерея
Примітки
Посилання
Brooker, I., Kleinig, D.(1996) Eucalyptus, An illustrated guide to identification, Reed Books, Port Melbourne
Cronin, L.(2000) Key Guide to Australian Trees, Envirobook
Holliday, I.(2002) A field guide to Australian trees (3rd edition)'', Reed New Holland
EUCLID Sample, CSIRO
Threatened Species Information, NSW National Park & Wildlife Service
Eucalyptus Nurseries
Currency Creek Arboretum Eucalypt Research at Currency Creek Arboretum
Australian National Botanic Gardens: Australian plant common name database
Е
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1183391
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%8E%20%28%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C%20%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%83%29
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Путінею (комуна, Джурджу)
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Путінею (комуна, Джурджу)
Путінею — комуна у повіті Джурджу в Румунії. До складу комуни входять такі села (дані про населення за 2002 рік):
Вієру (908 осіб)
Путінею (1482 особи)
Ходівоая (510 осіб)
Комуна розташована на відстані 65 км на південний захід від Бухареста, 18 км на захід від Джурджу.
Населення
За даними перепису населення 2002 року у комуні проживали осіб.
Національний склад населення комуни:
Рідною мовою назвали:
Склад населення комуни за віросповіданням:
Зовнішні посилання
Дані про комуну Путінею на сайті Ghidul Primăriilor
Примітки
Комуни повіту Джурджу
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40610
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%28%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F%29
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Тканина (біологія)
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Тканина (біологія)
Тканина — сукупність клітин, не обов'язково ідентичних, але є спільного походження, що разом виконують спільну функцію. Тканинний рівень — це рівень клітинної організації, проміжний відносно клітин та усього організму. Органи утворюються функціональним об'єднанням тканин одного чи кількох видів.
Вивченням тканин займається наука гістологія, або ж, у зв'язку із захворюваннями, гістопатологія. До набору класичних матеріалів та інструментів для дослідження тканин входять парафіновий блок, у який вводиться тканина для фіксації і зручності одержання зрізу, гістологічний барвник та оптичний мікроскоп. За останні десятиліття розвиток електронної мікроскопії, імунофлюоресценції та використання заморожених зрізів тканин уможливив детальніше візуальне дослідження тканин. Ці інструменти дозволяють спостерігати звичайний вигляд здорових і уражених тканин, цим самим суттєво покращуючи клінічне діагностування та прогнозування.
Ці досягнення використовує сучасна медицина, зокрема у хірургії — гістологічне дослідження є базовим для тканинної діагностики пухлин, інших патологічних станів.
Тваринні тканини
В організмі тварин та людини розрізняють 4 типи тканин:
сполучна тканина
м'язова тканина
нервова тканина
епітеліальна тканина.
Сполучна тканина
Сполучні тканини мають волокнисту структуру. Вони складаються з клітин, відокремлених одна від одної позаклітинною матрицею. Сполучна тканина служить для сполучення інших видів тканин, наприклад, для утворення органів, і здатна пасивно розтягуватись і стискатися.
Сполучна тканина — тканина живого організму, яка виконує опорну, захисну і трофічну функції. Складається з декількох видів клітин; переважно з фібробластів, волокон і основної тканинної речовини. Міжклітинна речовина добре виражена.
Функції: Сполучна тканина виконує опорну, захисну і трофічну функції.
Трофічна — бере участь в обміні речовин (кров, лімфа, жирова), тому в таких видах сполучної тканини багато міжклітинної речовини.
Захисна — клітини здатні до фагоцитозу і беруть участь в процесах імунітету та зсідання крові.
Опорна — утворює зв'язки, сухожилля, хрящі, [кістки] (в таких видах сполучної тканини мало міжклітинної речовини, або вона щільна, наприклад кісткова, за рахунок наявності в ній солей, також в ній є волокна).
Бере участь у загоюванні ран, бо має найвищу здатність до регенерації.
Види: Кількість і вигляд клітин та волокон, а також кількість і склад основної речовини у різних видів сполучної тканини відрізняються залежно від їхніх функцій. Розрізняють декілька видів сполучної тканини: кісткову, хрящову, жирову та інші. До сполучної тканини відносяться також кров та лімфа. Сполучна тканина утворює строму практично всіх органів.
Власне сполучна тканина складається з клітин (фібробластів) і міжклітинної речовини (волокна з білків колагену й еластину); її поділяють на пухку та щільну. Пухка сполучна тканина з'єднує шкіру зі структурами, які лежать під нею, вкриває кровоносні судини та нерви. Щільна сполучна тканина утворює дерму, сухожилки, зв'язки.
Сполучна тканина зі спеціальними функціями представлена жировою тканиною і пігментними клітинами. Жирова тканина складається з клітин (ліпоцитів) і утворює жирові депо організму — підшкірну жирову клітковину, сальники. Пігментні клітини розсіяні в шкірі; вони містять пігмент меланін, який захищає організм від ультрафіолетового випромінювання.
Тверда сполучна тканина представлена кістковою і хрящовою тканинами, а рідка — кров'ю та лімфою
Нервова тканина
Клітини, що утворюють центральну та периферичну нервову систему, класифікуються як нервова тканина. З нервової тканини складається головний і спинний мозок, що утворюють центральну нервову систему, й черепно-мозкові та спинномозкові нерви, що утворюють периферичну нервову систему, а також мотонейрони. Нервова тканина забезпечує обмін сигналами між різними структурами організму, а також зв'язок організму з навколишнім середовищем. Клітини, з яких складається нервова тканина, — нейрони забезпечують важливу властивість організмів — подразливість. Нейрони мають відростки. Вони здатні сприймати подразнення та проводити їх до різних тканин та органів. Нервова тканина забезпечує досконалу регуляцію життєвих функцій організму тварин.
М'язова тканина
Здійснюють скорочення серцевого і скелетних м'язів, внутрішніх органів, зміну діаметра кровоносних судин. Залежно від особливостей розташування і виконуваних функцій буває:
поперечно-посмугована скелетна м'язова тканина;
поперечно-посмугована серцева м'язова тканина;
гладенька м'язова тканина кровоносних судин і внутрішніх органів (шлунка, сечового міхура, тощо).
М'язові тканини поділяють на непосмуговані (гладенькі) та посмуговані (поперечносмугасті). М'язові клітини містять пучечки міофібрили, утворені білками, здатними до скорочення.
Клітини непосмугованої м'язової тканини мають переважно веретеноподібну форму і одне ядро. Скорочення таких м'язів досить повільні. Непосмуговані м'язи входять до складу оболонок внутрішніх органів хребетних тварин.
Посмугована м'язова тканина складається з великих видовжених багатоядерних клітин. Свою назву — посмугована — ця тканина дістала тому, що в її міофібрилах поперемінно чергуються світлі та темні ділянки. Посмуговані м'язи здатні скорочуватись значно швидше, ніж непосмуговані.
Епітеліальна тканина
Епітеліальні тканини утворені шарами клітин, що вистилають поверхні органів (наприклад, поверхню шкіри, дихальних шляхів, репродуктивної системи, внутрішню поверхню травної системи). Клітини епітелію щільно прилягають одна до одної, забезпечуючи таким чином наявність бар'єру між зовнішнім середовищем та органом. Крім захисної функції, епітеліальна тканина може виконувати також видільну та поглинальну. Через ці тканини може відбуватися газообмін, надходження одних сполук в організм та виведення з нього інших. Клітини епітелію можуть вистилати зсередини різні органи або порожнину тіла.
Особливий різновид епітелію — залозистий. Його клітини входять до складу покривного епітелію або епітелію, який вистилає внутрішні органи, чи є у складі спеціалізованих залоз. Наприклад, залозистий епітелій входить до складу травних залоз (слинних, підшлункової залози, печінки). Вони виробляють речовини, які забезпечують перетравлення їжі.
Спільними рисами будови різних видів епітеліальних тканин є те, що їхні клітини дуже щільно прилягають одна до одної, міжклітинна речовина розвинена слабо.
Епітеліальна тканина служить для захисту організму від мікроорганізмів, механічних пошкоджень, втрати рідини тощо.Види епітелію: плоский, кубічний, війчастий, залозистий.
Рослинні тканини
Тканини рослин є об'єктом вивчення гістології рослин. Перша класифікація тканин була розроблена Н.Грю ще у XVIII столітті.
Здебільшого рослинні тканини поділяють на шість груп.
Меристематичні (твірні).
Покривні.
Основні (паренхіматичні).
Механічні.
Провідні.
Видільні.
Серед тканин рослин виділяють малодиференційовані — твірні та високодиференційовані — постійні. Твірні тканини (меристема) забезпечують ріст, розвиток внутрішньої структури, формують постійні тканини, що становлять у рослинах системи: покривних тканин рослин, провідних тканин рослин, провітрювальних тканин і основних тканин. До системи основних тканин відносять механічні тканини рослин, асиміляційні (хлоренхіма), запасаючі тканини, секреторні, або видільні (Залозисті тканини рослин), та всисні тканини. Тканини рослин вивчає анатомія рослин, гістологія рослин. Провідні тканини — це тканини, по яких здійснюється переміщення розчинених речовин по рослині (видовжені трубки-судини в деревині стебла тощо). Основні тканини — це тканини, які є переважаючими в тілі рослини. У них запасаються речовини, відбувається фотосинтез тощо (наприклад м'якуш кавуна, у клітинах якого накопичуються солодкі речовини та вода). Вищі рослини побудовані з різних тканин. Ця різноманітність є наслідком пристосування рослин до різних умов наземного середовища, у яких вони формувалися, та різних функцій, які вони виконують протягом життя. Найбільша різноманітність тканин притаманна покритонасінним, які мають найвищий рівень організації в рослинному світі. З тканин у рослин утворюються органи. Наприклад, листок на своїй поверхні має покривну тканину, всередині — основну тканину, у якій здійснюється фотосинтез, і провідну тканину, яка забезпечує транспорт речовин. Отже, тканинну будову мають наземні рослини. Різноманітність рослинних тканин, особливості їхньої будови й функціонування зумовлені пристосуванням рослин до життя на суходолі
Меристематична тканина
Меристема — твірна рослинна тканина, з якої можуть утворюватися всі інші тканини, меристематичні клітини тривалий час зберігають здатність до поділу з утворенням нових неспеціалізованих клітин.
Клітини меристеми сплющені, дрібні, щільно розташовані одна біля одної, без міжклітинників, в центрі клітин розташоване ядро, вакуолі дрібні, численні, клітинна оболонка первинна, наявні лише попередники пластид.
Меристеми класифікують за положенням їх в рослині:
Верхівкові (апікальні).
Бічні (латеральні).
Вставні (інтеркалярні).
Та за походженням:
первинні
вторинні.
Основна тканина
Основні тканини (паренхіми) — тканини рослин, що складаються із живих клітин різної форми і виконують різні функції: виповняючу, асиміляційну, газообміну, запасаючу, видільну та інші. Характеризується великими міжклітинниками (особливо в аеренхімі), тонкими целюлозними оболонками. Паренхіма, по суті є недиференційованою тканиною, але існують певні модифікації, а саме: епідерміс, аеренхіма, хлоренхіма (фотосинтезуюча стовпчаста або губчаста) запасаюча. Основні тканини заповнюють органи рослини, тому складаються переважно з живих клітин і добре розвинених міжклітинників, тобто повітряних порожнин. Залежно від того, де знаходиться основна тканина, вона може виконувати різні функції: у клітинах листків і молодих стебел відбувається фотосинтез (хлорофілоносна тканина); у клітинах серцевини стебла накопичуються поживні речовини (запасаюча тканина), у клітинах стебла кактусів накопичується вода (водоносна тканина). Основну тканину, що надає рослині міцності, тобто є для неї опорою, називають механічною тканиною.
Механічна тканина
Механічні тканини виконують опорні функції: надають рослині пружності та міцності, підтримують її частини в певному положенні. Складаються з живих або відмерлих клітин.
Живі клітини механічної тканини мають нерівномірно потовщені стінки і розташовані під покривною тканиною і входять здебільшого до складу кори молодих пагонів(переважно дводольних рослин).
Епідерміс одношарова, безбарвна паренхіма, що покриває органи рослини і перешкоджає випаровуванню води та проникненню патогенних організмів.
Особливості:
у дводольних клітини неправильної форми, з вигинами.
у однодольних правильної форми.
не містить хлорофілу
має продихи, що мають хлоропласти(функція транспірації та газообоміну), на нижній поверхні листка продихів більше (крім півників, у яких продихи з обох боків і елодеї, у якої продихів немає)
може мати залозисті волоски на своїй поверхні або трихоми для захисту та додаткового зменшення випаровування води особливо у ксерофітів.
на поверхню епідермісу може виділятись кутин або кутикула (тобто восковий шар)
Стовпчаста фотосинтезуюча паренхіма розташована під верхнім епідермісом листка, має багато хлоропластів.
Губчаста фотосинтезуюча паренхіма виконує в основному функцію газообміну та аерації.
Запасаюча містить лейкопласти (тип пластид), де може запасатись крохмаль
Джерела
(С.?)
(Т.?, С.?)
Raven, Peter H., Evert, Ray F., & Eichhorn, Susan E. (1986). Biology of Plants (4th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. .
Посилання
ТКАНИНИ
ТКАНИНИ РОСЛИННІ
ТКАНИНИ ТВАРИННІ
Гістологія
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69828038
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khvostovo%2C%20Kursk%20Oblast
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Khvostovo, Kursk Oblast
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Khvostovo, Kursk Oblast
Khvostovo is a rural locality in Polevskoy Selsoviet Rural Settlement, Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia. Population:
Geography
The village is located on the Seym River (a left tributary of the Desna), 99 km from the Russia–Ukraine border, 20 km south-east of the district center – the town Kursk, 3 km from the selsoviet center – Polevaya.
Climate
Khvostovo has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).
Transport
Khvostovo is located 7.5 km from the federal route (Kursk – Voronezh – "Kaspy" Highway; a part of the European route ), 2 km from the road of regional importance (R-298 – Polevaya), on the road of intermunicipal significance (38K-014 – Khvostovo), 3 km from the nearest railway station Polevaya (railway line Klyukva — Belgorod).
The rural locality is situated 20 km from Kursk Vostochny Airport, 109 km from Belgorod International Airport and 190 km from Voronezh Peter the Great Airport.
References
Notes
Sources
Rural localities in Kursky District, Kursk Oblast
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3483027
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%20%D0%A7%D1%96%D1%87%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5
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Лела Чічінадзе
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Лела Чічінадзе (22 грудня 1988) — грузинська футболістка, нападниця.
Клубна кар'єра
Футбольну кар'єру розпочала в Грузії. У складі «Іверії» (Хашурі), «Норчі Дінамоелі» та «Байя» (Зугдіді) виступала в жіночій Лізі чемпіонів.
У 2014 році переїхала до України, де уклала договір з «Житлобудом-1». На 3-й зимовій першості України відзначилася 5-а голами в 4-х матчах (у воротах столичного «Атекса»). Дебютувала в офіційних змаганнях у футболці харківського 19 квітня 2014 року в переможному (4:0) домашньому поєдинку 1-о туру Вищої ліги проти київського «Атекса». Чічінадзе вийшла на поле в стартовому складі, а на 46-й хвилині її замінила Ганна Мозольська. У футболці «Житлобуду-1» зіграла 4 матчі у Вищій лізі.
Наприкінці січня стало відомо, що Лелеа перейде до складу турецького клубу «Адана Ідманюрдуспор». 30 січня 2015 року офіційно приєдналася до «Адани». У своєму дебюному поєдинку в новій команді відзначилася двома голами. 5 лютого 2016 року перейшла до стамбульського «Аташехір Беледієспор».
У 2018 році повернулася до України, де підсилила колектив з Чернігівської області «Єдність-ШВСМ». У складі нової команди дебютувала 12 серпня 2018 року в переможному (1:0) виїзному поєдинку 2-о туру Вищої ліги проти Ятраня. Чічінадзе вийшла на поле на 46-й хвилині, замінивши Надію Вегерич. Дебютним голом за колектив зі Плисків 25 серпня 2018 року в переможному (1:0) виїзному поєдинку 4-о туру Вищої ліги проти «Восхода». Лейла вийшла на поле в стартовому складі та відіграла увесь матч, а на 26-й хвилині, після передачі Віталіни Мазуровою, відзначилася ще й дебютним голом за команду з Чернігівщини. У складі «Єдності» в чемпіонаті України зіграла 10 матчів (3 голи), ще 1 поєдинок провела в кубку України.
Кар'єра у збірній
У футболці національної збірної Грузії дебютувала 2009 року.
Статистика виступів
Клубна
.
Досягнення
«Аташехір Беледієспор»
Перша ліга Туреччини
Срібний призер (1): 2015/16
Бронзовий призер (1): 2016/17
Примітки
Посилання
Профіль гравчині на офіційному сайті УЄФА
Профіль гравчині на сайті soccerdonna.de
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Футболістки «Норчі Дінамоелі»
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Футболістки «Єдності»
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2586594
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD
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Безенбрунн
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Безенбрунн — громада в Німеччині, розташована в землі Саксонія. Входить до складу району Фогтланд. Складова частина об'єднання громад Ельсніц/Фогтль..
Площа — 34,26 км2. Населення становить ос. (станом на ).
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт
Громади Саксонії
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2930763
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B8
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Воркейми
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Воркейми — село в Польщі, у гміні Лідзбарк-Вармінський Лідзбарського повіту Вармінсько-Мазурського воєводства.
Населення — (2011).
У 1975-1998 роках село належало до Ольштинського воєводства.
Демографія
Демографічна структура станом на 31 березня 2011 року:
Примітки
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Села Лідзбарського повіту
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21913863
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Flew%20Over%20the%20Cuckoo%27s%20Nest%20%28film%29
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One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)
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One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a 1975 American psychological drama film directed by Miloš Forman, based on the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest by Ken Kesey. The film stars Jack Nicholson as a new patient at a mental institution, alongside Louise Fletcher as a sadistic nurse. The supporting cast is Will Sampson, Danny DeVito, Sydney Lassick, William Redfield, and the film debuts of Christopher Lloyd and Brad Dourif.
Originally announced in 1962 with Kirk Douglas starring, the film took 13 years to develop. Filming finally began in January 1975 and lasted three months, on location in Salem, Oregon and the surrounding area, and in Depoe Bay on the north Oregon coast. The producers shot the film in the Oregon State Hospital, an actual psychiatric hospital, which is also the setting of the novel. The hospital is in operation, though the original buildings in the film have been demolished. The film was released on November 19, 1975. Considered by many to be one of the greatest films ever made, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is No. 33 on the American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.
The film is the second to win all five major Academy Awards (Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Actress, Director, and Screenplay) following It Happened One Night in 1934, an accomplishment not repeated until 1991 with The Silence of the Lambs. It won numerous Golden Globe and BAFTA Awards. In 1993, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress, and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.
Plot
In late 1963, 38-year old Randle McMurphy is on an Oregon work farm for the statutory rape of a 15-year-old girl, with a record of several previous arrests for assault. He pretends to be insane to get himself transferred to a mental institution and avoid hard labor. The ward is dominated by Head Nurse Ratched, a cold, passive-aggressive tyrant who intimidates her patients.
The other patients include young, anxious, stuttering Billy Bibbit; Charlie Cheswick, who is prone to temper tantrums; delusional, child-like Martini; the articulate and repressed Dale Harding; belligerent and profane Max Taber; epileptics Jim Sefelt and Bruce Fredrickson; quiet but violent-minded Scanlon; tall, deaf-mute Native American Chief Bromden; and several others with chronic conditions.
Ratched sees McMurphy's lively, rebellious presence as a threat to her authority, to which she responds by confiscating and rationing the patients' cigarettes and suspending their card-playing privileges. McMurphy finds himself in a battle of wills against Ratched. He steals a school bus, picks up his girlfriend Candy and escapes with several patients to go fishing on the Pacific Coast. He exposes them to the outside world and encourages them to discover their own abilities and find self-confidence.
After an orderly tells him that his prison sentence can become indefinite, McMurphy makes plans to escape with Chief. He also learns that he, Chief, and Taber are the only non-chronic patients who have been involuntarily committed; the others have committed themselves and may leave at any time, but are too afraid to do so. After Cheswick bursts into a fit and demands his cigarettes from Ratched, McMurphy starts a fight with the orderlies and Chief intervenes to help him.
McMurphy, Chief, and Cheswick are sent to the disturbed ward after the fight, and Chief reveals to McMurphy that he can speak and hear normally. He has feigned deaf-muteness to avoid engaging with anyone. After being subjected to electroconvulsive therapy, McMurphy returns to the ward pretending to be brain-damaged, but then reveals that the treatment has made him even more determined to defeat Ratched. McMurphy and Chief make plans to escape, but decide to throw a secret Christmas party for their friends after Ratched and the orderlies leave for the night.
McMurphy sneaks Candy and her friend Rose into the ward, each bringing bottles of alcohol for the party.
He bribes the night orderly Turkle to allow the party. McMurphy and Chief prepare to escape, inviting Billy to come with them. Billy refuses, but asks for a "date" with Candy; McMurphy arranges for him to have sex with her. McMurphy and the others get drunk, and McMurphy falls asleep instead of making his escape with Chief.
Ratched arrives in the morning to find the ward in disarray and most of the patients passed out. She discovers Billy and Candy together, and aims to embarrass Billy in front of everyone. Billy manages to overcome his stutter and stands up to Ratched. When she threatens to tell his mother, Billy cracks under the pressure and reverts to stuttering. McMurphy punches an orderly when trying to escape out of a window with the Chief, causing the other orderlies to intervene. Billy suddenly commits suicide by slitting his throat with broken glass. Ratched tries to control the situation by calling for the day's routine to continue as usual, but her nonchalant reaction enrages McMurphy and he tries to strangle her. The orderlies subdue McMurphy, saving Ratched's life.
Some time later, Ratched is wearing a neck brace and speaking with a weak voice, and Harding leads the now-unsuspended card-playing. McMurphy is nowhere to be found, leading to rumors that he has escaped. Later that night, Chief sees McMurphy being returned to his bed. Chief greets him, elated that McMurphy had kept his promise not to escape without him, but discovers that McMurphy has been lobotomized. After tearfully hugging McMurphy, Chief smothers him to death with a pillow. He then tears a hydrotherapy console free of its floor mountings, just like when McMurphy attempted to do so earlier, and throws it through a window, and escapes as Taber and the other inmates awaken and cheer for him.
Cast
Production
The title comes from a nursery rhyme read to Chief Bromden as a child by his grandmother, mentioned in the book:
Vintery, mintery, cutery, corn,
Apple seed and apple thorn,
Wire, briar, limber lock
Three geese in a flock
One flew East
One flew West
And one flew over the cuckoo's nest.
Development
In 1962, Kirk Douglas's company Joel Productions announced that it had acquired the rights to make Broadway stage and film adaptations of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest with Douglas starring as McMurphy in both the play and the film, Dale Wasserman writing the stageplay, and George Roy Hill directing the film based on Wasserman's play. Jack Nicholson had also tried to buy the film rights to the novel but was outbid by Douglas. Wasserman's 1963–1964 Broadway stage adaptation successfully opened, but Douglas was unable to find a studio willing to make it with him.
Kirk Douglas hired Miloš Forman to direct after meeting him in Prague during a tour of the Eastern Bloc. Avco-Embassy Pictures optioned the film in 1969, but Forman was prevented from directing the film by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and the beginning of the "normalization" period in which the Soviet Union forced Czechoslovakia to reverse most of its Prague Spring liberalization reforms. Forman and Douglas fell completely out of contact after the Czechoslovak StB put Forman under strict surveillance. It also intercepted a copy of the novel Douglas sent to his home in Prague, which meant he was unable to read the book.
Wasserman subsequently sold his film rights to Douglas in 1970, but then delayed the film for several more years with lawsuits. In 1971, Kirk Douglas's son Michael Douglas convinced his father to allow him to produce the film, as he was drawn to the novel's "one man against the system" plot due to his involvement with student activism at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Douglas optioned the film to director Richard Rush, but he was unable to secure financing from major studios. In March 1973, Douglas announced a new deal in which he would co-produce the film with Saul Zaentz as the first project of Fantasy Records' new film division.
Zaentz, a voracious reader, felt an affinity with Kesey, and so after Hauben's first attempt he asked Kesey to write the screenplay. Kesey participated in the early stages of script development, but withdrew after creative differences with the producers over casting and narrative point of view; ultimately he filed suit against the production and won a settlement. Although Kesey was paid for his work, his screenplay from the first-person point of view of Chief Bromden was not used. Instead, Lawrence Hauben and Bo Goldman wrote a new screenplay from a third-person perspective.
Hal Ashby was hired to replace Rush as director in 1973, but he was also replaced by Forman after he successfully fled to the United States. Although Douglas and Zaentz were unaware that he had been his father's first choice to direct, they began considering him after Hauben showed them Forman's 1967 Czechoslovak film The Firemen's Ball. Douglas later said the film "had the sort of qualities we were looking for: it took place in one enclosed situation, with a plethora of unique characters he had the ability to juggle."
Although Forman was suffering from a mental health crisis and refused to leave his Hotel Chelsea room in New York City for months, Douglas and Zaentz sent him a copy of the novel. Although Forman was not aware that the novel was the one which Douglas's father had hired him to direct in the 1960s, he quickly decided that it was "the best material I’d come across in America" and flew to California to discuss the film with Douglas and Zaentz further. They quickly hired Forman because, in Douglas's words, "Unlike the other directors we saw, who kept their cards close to their chest, he went through the script page by page and told us what he would do." Forman wrote in 2012: "To me, [the story] was not just literature, but real life, the life I lived in Czechoslovakia from my birth in 1932 until 1968. The Communist Party was my Nurse Ratched, telling me what I could and could not do; what I was or was not allowed to say; where I was and was not allowed to go; even who I was and was not".
Casting
Although Kirk Douglas allowed his son to produce the film, he remained interested in playing McMurphy. However, Ashby and Forman felt Kirk Douglas was too old for the role and decided to recast him. This decision would strain relations between Kirk and Michael Douglas for many years, although Michael Douglas claimed it had not been his decision to recast him. Gene Hackman, James Caan, Marlon Brando, and Burt Reynolds were all considered for the role of McMurphy. Ashby wanted 37-year-old Jack Nicholson to play McMurphy, but Douglas was unsure if he was right for the role and Forman’s first choice was Reynolds. All four turned down the role, which ultimately went to Nicholson. Nicholson had never played this type of role before. Production was delayed for about six months because of Nicholson's schedule. Douglas later stated in an interview that "that turned out to be a great blessing: it gave us the chance to get the ensemble right". Nicholson did extensive research for the role and even met patients in a psychiatric ward to watch electroconvulsive shock therapy to prepare for the role.
Danny DeVito was the first to be cast, reprising his role as the patient Martini from the 1971 off-Broadway production. Chief Bromden (who turns out to be the title character), played by Will Sampson, was referred by Mel Lambert (who portrayed the harbormaster in the fishing scene), a used car dealer Douglas met on an airplane flight when Douglas told him they wanted a "big guy" to play the part. Lambert's father often sold cars to Native American customers and six months later called Douglas to say: "the biggest sonofabitch Indian came in the other day!"
Jeanne Moreau, Angela Lansbury, Colleen Dewhurst, Geraldine Page, Ellen Burstyn, Anne Bancroft, and Jane Fonda all were considered to portray Nurse Ratched before Lily Tomlin was ultimately cast in the role. However, Forman became interested in recasting Tomlin with Louise Fletcher, who had a supporting role in the film, after viewing her film Thieves Like Us (1974). A mutual acquaintance, the casting director Fred Roos, had already mentioned Fletcher's name as a possibility. Even so, it took four or five meetings, across one year, for Fletcher to secure the role of Nurse Ratched. Her final audition was late in 1974, with Forman, Zaentz, and Douglas. The day after Christmas, her agent called to say she was expected at the Oregon State Hospital in Salem on January 4 to begin rehearsals. Tomlin subsequently left the film to replace Fletcher in Nashville (1975). In 2016, Fletcher recalled that Nicholson's salary was "enormous", while the rest of the cast worked at or close to scale. She put in 11 weeks, grossing .
Forman also considered Shelley Duvall for the role of Candy; coincidentally, she, Nicholson, and Scatman Crothers (who portrays Turkle) all later appeared as part of the main cast of The Shining. Bud Cort was considered for the role of Billy Bibbit before Brad Dourif was cast.
Rehearsals
Prior to commencement of filming, a week of rehearsals started on January 4, 1975, in Oregon shortly after Nicholson concluded his previous film The Fortune (1975). The cast watched the patients in their daily routine and at group therapy. Jack Nicholson and Louise Fletcher also witnessed electroconvulsive therapy being performed on a patient.
Filming
Principal photography began on January 13, 1975, and concluded approximately three months later. The film was shot on location in Salem, Oregon, the surrounding area, and the coastal town of Depoe Bay, Oregon.
The producers decided to shoot the film in the Oregon State Hospital, an actual mental hospital, as this is also the setting of the novel. The hospital's director, Dean Brooks, was supportive of the filming and eventually ended up playing the character of Dr. John Spivey in the film. Brooks identified a patient for each of the actors to shadow, and some of the cast even slept on the wards at night. He also wanted to incorporate his patients into the crew, to which the producers agreed. Douglas recalls that it was not until later that he found out that many of them were criminally insane.
For the group therapy scenes, Forman and his cinematographer Haskell Wexler used three cameras to record all shots for the scene simultaneously. Although this was unusual for the time and more expensive, it allowed Forman and Wexler to capture the actors' authentic reactions to each other.
As Forman did not allow the actors to see the day's filming, this led to the cast losing confidence in him, while Nicholson also began to wonder about his performance. Douglas convinced Forman to show Nicholson something, which he did, and restored the actor's confidence.
Haskell Wexler was fired as cinematographer and replaced by Bill Butler. Wexler believed his dismissal was due to his concurrent work on the documentary Underground, in which the radical militant group the Weather Underground were being interviewed while hiding from the law. However, Forman said he had terminated Wexler's services over artistic differences. Douglas also claimed Wexler wanted to get Forman fired in order to direct the film himself, and was fueling the cast's distrust of Forman and lack of confidence in their own performances. Both Wexler and Butler received Academy Award nominations for Best Cinematography for One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, though Wexler said there was "only about a minute or two minutes in that film I didn't shoot".
According to Butler, Nicholson refused to speak to Forman: "...[Jack] never talked to Miloš at all, he only talked to me".
The production went over the initial budget of $2 million and over-schedule, but Zaentz, who was personally financing the movie, was able to come up with the difference by borrowing against his company, Fantasy Records. The total production budget came to $4.4 million.
Release
The film premiered at the Sutton and Paramount Theatres in New York City on November 19, 1975. It was the second-highest-grossing film released in 1975 in the United States and Canada at $109 million, one of the seventh-highest-grossing films of all time at the time. As it was released toward the end of the year, most of its gross was in 1976 and was the highest-grosser for calendar year 1976 with rentals of $56.5 million.
Worldwide, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest grossed $163,250,000. It was the highest-grossing film released by UA up to that time.
Reception
Critics praised the film, sometimes with reservations. Roger Ebert said: "Miloš Forman's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a film so good in so many of its parts that there's a temptation to forgive it when it goes wrong. But it does go wrong, insisting on making larger points than its story really should carry, so that at the end, the human qualities of the characters get lost in the significance of it all. And yet, there are those moments of brilliance." Ebert later put the film on his "Great Movies" list. A.D. Murphy of Variety wrote a mixed review as well, as did Vincent Canby in The New York Times: "A comedy that can't quite support its tragic conclusion, which is too schematic to be honestly moving, but it is acted with such a sense of life that one responds to its demonstration of humanity if not to its programmed metaphors."
The film opens and closes with original music by composer Jack Nitzsche, featuring an eerie bowed saw (performed by Robert Armstrong) and wine glasses. On the score, reviewer Steven McDonald: "The edgy nature of the film extends into the score, giving it a profoundly disturbing feel at timeseven when it appears to be relatively normal. The music has a tendency to always be a little off-kilter, and from time to time, it tilts completely over into a strange little world of its own"
The film won the "Big Five" Academy Awards at the 48th Oscar ceremony. These include the Best Actor for Jack Nicholson, Best Actress for Louise Fletcher, Best Direction for Forman, Best Picture, and Best Adapted Screenplay for Lawrence Hauben and Bo Goldman. The film has a 93% rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews from 115 critics, with an average rating of 9.1/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Jack Nicholson and Louise Fletcher are worthy adversaries in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, with Miloš Forman's more grounded and morally ambiguous approach to Ken Kesey's surrealistic novel yielding a film of outsized power." The film has an 84 rating on Metacritic.
Kesey claimed never to have seen the movie, but said he disliked what he knew of it, which was confirmed by Chuck Palahniuk, who wrote: "The first time I heard this story, it was through the movie starring Jack Nicholson. A movie that Kesey once told me he disliked."
In 1993, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in its National Film Registry.
The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited this as one of his 100 favorite films.
In popular culture
Pantera singer Phil Anselmo released a music video called "Choosing Mental Illness" with his band Philip H. Anselmo & The Illegals. It pays tribute to One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest. The music video shows scenes recreated from the film with Anselmo playing McMurphy and the rest of the band playing other characters from the film, and Nurse Ratched played by actor Michael St. Michaels.
The film has been referenced several times on The Simpsons, including an episode where Homer is committed to an insane asylum and meets a man who believes himself to be Michael Jackson. In an episode from the fourth season of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, titled "Sweet Dee Has a Heart Attack," Danny DeVito's character Frank Reynolds is part of subplot that directly parodies the film.
Danny DeVito's role in the parody is significant since he was cast in the original film as the character "Martini". In the episode of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, a reference is made to DeVito's original role with a character in the parody named "Martini". Additionally, the 1975 film featured Will Sampson as Chief Bromden. In the parody, Tim Sampson, son of Will Sampson, plays "Chief" in mirroring his father's role in the film.
Awards and nominations
In 2015, the film ranked 59th on BBC's "100 Greatest American Films" list, voted on by film critics from around the world.
American Film Institute
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies – #20
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains:
Nurse Ratched – #5 Villain
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers – #17
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #33
See also
List of Academy Award records
List of Big Five Academy Award winners and nominees
Mental illness in film
Ratched
Notes
References
External links
1975 films
1975 drama films
1970s American films
American drama films
American independent films
Best Film BAFTA Award winners
Best Picture Academy Award winners
Best Drama Picture Golden Globe winners
Bryna Productions films
Films about nurses
Films about psychiatry
Films scored by Jack Nitzsche
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Miloš Forman
Films featuring a Best Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Drama Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films produced by Kirk Douglas
Films produced by Michael Douglas
Films produced by Saul Zaentz
Films set in 1963
Films set in Oregon
Films set in psychiatric hospitals
Films shot in Oregon
Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award
Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award
Films whose director won the Best Director Golden Globe
Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award
Films with screenplays by Bo Goldman
United Artists films
United States National Film Registry films
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
Psychiatry in the United States in fiction
Films about disability in the United States
Fiction about psychosurgery
1970s English-language films
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ТЕС Айка (газотурбінна)
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ТЕС Айка (газотурбінна) — теплова електростанція в Угорщині у медьє Веспрем (захід країни).
У 2011 році для покриття пікових навантажень у енергосистемі спорудили газотурбінну електростанцію в місті Айка. Тут ввели в експлуатацію дві встановлені на роботу у відкритому циклі газові турбіни виробництва Rolls-Royce потужністю по 58 МВт.
Як паливо турбіни можуть використовувати природний газ (подається до Айки по трубопроводу Адоні – Nagylengyel) та дизельне пальне.
Проект реалізувала державна електроенергетична компанія MVM.
Примітки
Айка
Айка
2011 в Угорщині
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Лютеранська вулиця (Херсон)
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Лютеранська вулиця (Херсон)
Вулиця Лютеранська (колишні назви — вул. Кірова, вул. Катерини Гандзюк) — вулиця у Суворовському районі міста Херсона.
Історія
Вперше вулиця з'явилася на плані міста у 1885 році.
Сполучає проспект Ушакова та вулицю Дружби, з якою формує єдину лінію з вулицями: Гімназична, що спочатку проходить паралельно Лютеранській, а наприкінці під кутом — Порт-Елеватор. Західна частина вулиці сформувалася у другій половині XIX століття під назвою Лютеранська, оскільки на місці сучасного житлового будинку з ресторанами та кафе на першому поверсі (раніше фірмовим кондитерським магазином «Тавричанка») перебувала євангелічно-лютеранська кірха, від якої і пішла назва вулиці. Вулицю Лютеранську прикрашають будинки кінця XIX — початку ХХ століть (старий корпус Управління Національної поліції Херсона, церква святителя Петра Могили, музична школа (колишній будинок Блажкова). Вулиця межує з Шевченківським парком та є одним із найпрестижніших місць Херсона.
З 1930-х по 2016 роки мала назву вулиця Кірова. Її східна частина сформувалася після Другої світової війни.
Галерея
Джерела
Пиворович В. Улицами старого Херсона / Виктор Пиворович, Сергей Дяченко. — Херсон, 2002. — 196 с.: ил.
Посилання
Вулиця Лютеранська на сайті «Моє місто — Херсон»
Вулиці Херсона
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Корисні копалини Суринаму
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Корисні копалини Суринаму.
Загальна характеристика
Суринам диспонує родов. бокситів, нафти, руд заліза, міді, марганцю, золота, хрому, нікелю, рідкісних металів (берилію, ніобію, танталу), платини, алмазів, кварцових пісків, каоліну (табл.).
Таблиця. — Основні корисні копалини Суринаму станом на 1998-1999 рр.
Окремі види корисних копалин
Нафта. Родовища нафти виявлені (1981) на Прибережній рівнині і на шельфі. Поклади нафти приурочені до пісковиків, що залягають на глибині 180-300 м в основі відкладів палеоцену. Нафти важкі (959,3 кг/м³), малосірчисті. Особливо перспективною вважається шельфова зона. Попередні дослідження US Geological Survey дозволяють оцінити запаси нафти в цій зоні на рівні 15 млр. барелів [Mining Annual Review 2002].
Залізні руди. Родовища залізняку пов'язані з протерозойськими залізистими кварцитами (в горах Бакхьойс і на родовищі Бломместейн).
Марганцеві руди приурочені до латеритної кори вивітрювання, розвиненої по гондитам ранньопротерозойської світи Парамака (родовища Маріпа, Поєкети, Плет-Рідж і інш.). Найбільше родовище Маріпа, запаси якого становлять 1,2 млн т руди, вміст марганцю 25-30 %.
Боксити. За загальними запасами бокситів Суринам займає 3-є місце в Латинській Америці (600 млн т у 2001). У Суринамі родовища гібситових і беміт-гібситових бокситів полігенного і латеритного типу розташовані в межах Ґвіанської берегової рівнини і в горах Бакхус на південному заході країни. Підтверджені запаси цих родовищ становлять 575 млн т. Родовища осадових бокситів (Мунго, Онвервахт, Паранам), що залягають на глинистих породах палеоцену-еоцену, розташовані на півночі країни в межах Прибережної рівнини. Боксити гібситові, вміст Al2O3 45-62 %. Сумарні запаси родов. Мунго і Паранам 250 млн т. Родовища латеритних бокситів Бакхьойс (запаси 200 млн т), Нассау, Лейлдорп і інш. виявлені у східній і центральній частинах країни. Латеритизація розвивалася по метаморфічним породам протерозою. Руди містять 45-60 % Al2O3 і 15-20 % Fe.
Золото. У Суринамі виявлені розсипні і корінні родовища руд золота. Основний золоторудний район — басейн р. Лава.
Нікель. З латеризацією ультраосновних порід протерозою пов'язані дрібні родовища нікелевих руд (Адампада, Велью-Крік) і хромітів (Сарамакка).
Рідкісні метали. Пегматитові родовища руд рідкісних металів (Федра, Маровейне і інш.) приурочені до гранітоїдів і метаморфічних гірських порід докембрію.
Алмази. Розсипні родовища алмазів розташовані в басейнах pp. Суринам і Сарамакка, які дренують породи формації Розебел. Максимальний вміст алмазів 26 мг/м³. На Прибережній рівнині поширені родовища високоякісних кварцових пісків.
Див. також
Історія освоєння мінеральних ресурсів Суринаму,
Гірнича промисловість Суринаму,
Природа Суринаму,
Геологія Суринаму,
Економіка Суринаму.
Джерела
U.S. Geological Survey, 2021, Mineral commodity summaries 2021: U.S. Geological Survey, 200 p. , https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2020.
Гайко Г. І., Білецький В. С. Історія гірництва: Підручник. — Київ-Алчевськ: Видавничий дім «Києво-Могилянська академія», видавництво «ЛАДО» ДонДТУ, 2013. — 542 с.
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43349992
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical%20determinism
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Historical determinism
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Historical determinism is the belief that events in history are entirely determined or constrained by various prior forces and, therefore, in a certain sense, inevitable. It is philosophical view of determinism applied to the process or direction by which history unfolds. Historical determinism places the cause of the event behind it.
The concept of Determinism appeared in the 19th century. The main idea is that certain factors determine the existence of humans and therefore limit the scope of their free will. In history, this is an approach that holds that history is intrinsically meaningful. Used as a pejorative, it is normally meant to designate a rigid finalist or mechanist conception of historical unfolding that makes the future appear as an inevitable and predetermined result of the past.
See also
Determinism
Dialectical materialism
Economic determinism
Environmental determinism
Free will
Geographic determinism
Hegelianism
Historical Materialism
Marxism
Myth of progress
Technological determinism
Bibliography
External links
Determinism
Marxism
Political theories
Theories of history
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1585413
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%20%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97%20%D0%B7%20%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%83%201898
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Чемпіонат Франції з тенісу 1898
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Чемпіонат Франції з тенісу 1898 — 8-й розіграш Відкритого чемпіонату Франції. Перемогу в чоловічому парному розряді здобув Поль Еме, а в парному - франко-англійська пара Марсель Вашеро/Зенофон Касдалі. Чемпіонкою жіночого одиночного турніру знову стала Адін Массон, оскільки переможниця основного турніру відмовилася від гри у Челендж-раунді.
Дорослі
Чоловіки, одиночний розряд
Поль Еме переміг у фіналі Пола Лебертона 5–7, 6–1, 6–2
Жінки, одиночний розряд
Адін Массон
Чоловіки, парний розряд
Марсель Вашеро / Зенофон Касдалі
Примітки
Відкритий чемпіонат Франції з тенісу
Липень 1898
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33066295
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksana%20Krechunyak
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Oksana Krechunyak
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Oksana Krechunyak (born 25 April 1981) is a Paralympian athlete from Ukraine competing mainly in category T37 sprint events.
Oksana has twice competed in the Paralympics, in 2004 and 2008, on both occasions competing in the 100m and 200m. She won the 100m gold medal in 2004.
References
Paralympic athletes for Ukraine
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Paralympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Paralympics
Paralympic gold medalists for Ukraine
Living people
1981 births
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Paralympic medalists in athletics (track and field)
Ukrainian female sprinters
Recipients of the Honorary Diploma of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine
21st-century Ukrainian sportswomen
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57598521
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keygubad%20Mosque
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Keygubad Mosque
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Keygubad Mosque is a historical mosque of the 14th century located on Gala turn in the Old City of Baku in Azerbaijan. The mosque is on the south side of the mausoleum of Seyid Yahya Bakuvi.
History
The precise history and function of the building is controversial. Historically, Keygubad mosque was a building of mosque-madrasa which was adjacent to Darvish tomb. Abbasgulu Bakikhanov wrote about Bakuvi on his teaching and worshipping in the mosque: Shirvanshah Keyqubad I was in power in 1317–48. According to prominent researcher, S. Ashurbeyli, Keyqubad was grandfather of Sheikh Ibrahim.
During 1918 events the mosque was burnt by Armenian troops.
In the southern part of the lower courtyard of the Shirvanshahs Palace, only the remains of the foundation and a few arches of Keygubad mosque are left.
Architectural features
The mosque consists of a rectangle worshipping hall and a corridor in front of it. Originally on the center of the hall, there used to be 4 columns to hold the dome. A portal was adjacent to the hall along with vestibule. On the southern wall of the hall there used to be a mihrab.
Together with the mausoleum and the Keygubad Mosque, the middle courtyard occupies a neutral position in the Shirvanshahs' palace complex due to its location.
Gallery
See also
Sheikh Ibrahim Mosque
Juma Mosque
References
Literature
Fərhadoğlu, Kamil (2006). İçərişəhər. Bakı: Şərq-Qərb nəşriyyatı, AMEA Arxeologiya və Etnoqrafiya İnstitutu, 256.
S. Dadaşov, M. Useynov (1955). Bakının memarlıq abidələri. Bakı: Azərbaycan SSR Elmlər Akademiyası Nəşriyyatı, 42.
Monuments and memorials in Azerbaijan
Tourist attractions in Baku
Palace of the Shirvanshahs
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2792438
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharanpur%20district
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Saharanpur district
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Saharanpur district is the northernmost of the districts of Uttar Pradesh state, India. Bordering the states of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and close to the foothills of Shivalik range, it lies in the northern part of the Doab region.
The district headquarters are in Saharanpur, which is also the headquarters of Saharanpur Division. Other principal towns are Sarsawa, Behat, Deoband, Gangoh and Rampur Maniharan.
Geography
Saharanpur is located at , about south-southeast from Chandigarh and north-northeast from Delhi and 61 Km. South of Dehradun and about 70 Km. South East from the town of Paonta Sahib, Himachal Pradesh. It has an average elevation of . It is bordered by Yamunanagar and Karnal districts of Haryana to the west, Sirmaur district of Himachal Pradesh to the northwest, Dehradun district of Uttarakhand to the north, Haridwar district of Uttarakhand to the east and Muzaffarnagar and Shamli districts to the south.
It is the northernmost district of Uttar Pradesh, bounded by the Yamuna to the west. The northern border of the district is formed by the southern slopes of the Sivallik Hills. Below the Sivallik is the Bhabhar, and south of that, the Terai. The west of the district is khadir land next to the Yamuna, generally composed of clayish soil, and produces two small tributaries of the Yamuna: the Budhi and Saindh.
Historical
Medieval period
During the reign of Shamsu’d-Din Iltutmish (r 1211–1236), the region became a part of the Delhi Sultanate. At that time, most of the area remained covered with forests and marshlands, through which the Paondhoi, Dhamola, and Ganda Nala rivers flowed. The climate was humid and malaria outbreaks were common. Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultan of Delhi (1325–1351), undertook a campaign in the northern doab to crush the rebellion of the Shivalik kings in 1340, when according to local tradition he learned of the presence of a sufi saint on the banks of the Paondhoi River. After visiting the sage, he ordered that henceforth this region would be known as 'Shah-Haroonpur', after the Sufi Saint Shah Haroon Chishti. The simple but well-preserved tomb of this saint is situated in the oldest quarter of Saharanpur city, between the Mali Gate/Bazar Dinanath and Halwai Hatta. By the end of the 14th century, the power of the Sultanate had declined and it was attacked by Emperor Timur (1336–1405) of Central Asia. Timur had marched through the Saharanpur region in 1399 to sack Delhi and people of the region fought his army unsuccessfully. A weakened Sultanate was later conquered by the Central Asian Mogul king Babur (1483–1531).
Mughal period
In the 16th century, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan), invaded across the Khyber Pass and founded the Mughal Empire, covering India, along with modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh The Mughals were descended from Persianised Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture).
During the Mughal period, Akbar (1542–1605), Saharanpur became an administrative unit under the Province of Delhi. Akbar bestowed the feudal jagir of Saharanpur to the Mughal treasurer, Sah Ranveer Singh, a Hindu Rohilla who laid the foundations of the present-day city on the site of an army cantonment. The nearest settlements at that time were Shekhpura and Malhipur. Saharanpur was a walled city, with four gates: the Sarai Gate, the Mali Gate, the Buria Gate, and the Lakhi Gate. The city was divided into the neighbourhoods named Nakhasa Bazar, Shah Behlol, Rani Bazar and Lakhi Gate. The ruins of Shah Ran Veer Singh's old fort can still be seen in the Chaudharian locality of Saharanpur, not far from the better known 'Bada-Imam-bada'. He also built a large Jain temple in Muhallah/Toli Chaundhariyan, it is now known as the 'Digamber-Jain Panchayati Mandir'.
The Sayyids and Rohillas
Mughal emperors Akbar and later Shah Jehan (1592–1666) bestowed the administrative pargana of Sarwat on Muslim Sayyid families. In 1633 one of them founded a city and named it and the surrounding region Muzaffarnagar, in honour of his father, Sayyid Muzaffar Ali Khan. The Sayyids ruled the area until the 1739 invasion by Nadir Shah. After his departure, anarchy prevailed across the entire doab with the region ruled or ravaged in succession by Jats. Taking advantage of this anarchy, the Rohillas took control of the entire trans-Gangetic region.
Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Afghan ruler who invaded Northwestern and Northern India in the 1750s, conferred the territory of Saharanpur as Jagir on Rohilla chief Najaf Khan, who assumed the title of Nawab Najeeb-ud-Daula and took up residence in Saharanpur in 1754,. He made Gaunsgarh his capital and tried to strengthen his position against Maratha Empire attacks by entering an alliance with the Hindu Gurjar chieftain Manohar Singh. In 1759, Najeeb-ud-Daula issued a Deed of Agreement handing over 550 villages to Manohar Singh, who became the Raja of Landaura.
Maratha period
In 1757, the Maratha army captured the Saharanpur region, which resulted in Najeeb-ud-Daula losing control of Saharanpur to the Maratha rulers Raghunath Rao and Malharao Holkar. The conflict between Rohillas and Marathas came to an end on 18December 1788 with the arrest of Ghulam Qadir, the grandson of Najeeb-ud-Daula, who was defeated by the Maratha general Mahadaji Shinde. The most significant contribution of Nawab Ghulam Qadir to Saharanpur city is the Nawab Ganj area and the Ahmedabadi fortress therein, which still stands. The death of Ghulam Qadir put an end to the Rohilla administration in Saharanpur and it became the northernmost district of the Maratha Empire. Ghani Bahadur Banda was appointed its first Maratha governor. The Maratha Regime saw the construction of the Bhuteshwar Temple and Bagheshwar Temple in Saharanpur city. In 1803, following the Second Anglo-Maratha War, when the British East India Company defeated the Maratha Empire, Saharanpur came under British suzerainty.
British colonial period (1803–1947 AD)
When India rebelled in 1857 against the foreign Company's occupation, now referred to as the First War of Indian Independence, the Saharanpur and the present-day Muzaffarnagar Districts were part of that uprising. The centre of freedom fighters' operations was Shamli, a small town in the Muzaffarnagar region which was liberated for some time. After the uprising failed, British retribution was severe. Death and destruction was particularly directed against the Muslims of the region, whom the British considered as the main instigators of the rebellion; Muslim society was devastated beyond recognition. When social reconstruction started, the cultural and political history of Muslims began to revolve around Deoband and Aligarh. Muhammad Qasim Nanautawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, both proponents of the reformer Shah Waliullah's ideology for social and political rejuvenation, established a school in Deoband in 1867. It found popularity and global recognition as the Darul Uloom Deoband. Its founders' mission was twofold: to raise and spread a team of scholars able to awaken the religious and social consciousness of Muslims through peaceful methods and to make efforts, through them, to educate Muslims in their faith and culture; and to bring about a feeling of nationalism and national unity by promoting the concept of Hindu-Muslim unity and a united India. Muslim scholars in the city of Saharanpur were active supporters of this ideology and went on to establish the Mazahir Uloom theological seminary six months later.
Royal Family
In 1845 Nawab Rao Wazir-ud-din khan became the member and voter of mughal darbar at Red fort Delhi due to his corridal relation with Mugal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. He was the richest person of district Saharanpur with 52 thousand bega land and lord of 57 village's like shaikhpura, landohra, tapri, piragpur, yousfpur, badshapur, harhati, nazirpura, santgarh, lakhnor, subri, pathri etc., of district Saharanpur. British governor's had good relation with Rao Wazir-ud-din and title Badsha-e-waqt (the king of his Period ) was bestowed to him. He died in 1895 at Sheikpura Qudeem (Saharanpur). He had two son's Nawab Rao Mashooq Ali khan and Nawab Rao Ghafoor Muhammad ali khan. Rao Ghafoor Muhammad ali khan had only seven children out of seven his elder son Nawab Rao Maqsood Ali khan was a great person. He was highly educated. He got his education from Aligarh Muslim University and University of Oxford. He was an intellectual and a spiritual man . Due to his kindness and amiable nature he's was popular among people's. He proved his resourcefulness and abilities by saving poor from famine and loss of crops. He became the disciple of Sufi Hazart Sheik Bahauddin a descendant of Tipu Sultan. He spread Sufism across the Saharanpur region. He was a great scholar and Many books in English and Persian were written by him but all his work lost after his death. He was a great Nawab of Saharanpur. He was the lord of a large property in Saharanpur region and in Dehradun. He worked for the welfare and upliftment of people and donated to poor farmers and land for Madarsa's and Darga's. Due to his Phalinthrophist work Nawab Maqsood Ali khan was awarded by the Viceroy of India Lord Irwin at Dehradun. Brother's of him migrated to Pakistan and England. He died in 1973 at sheikpura qudeem and left behind his sons Nawab Rao Ghulam muhi-ud-din khan, Nawab Rao Zamir haider khan, Nawab Rao yaqoob khan. Nawab Rao Gulam Hafiz khan. Nawab Rao Zamir Haider Son Prince Shameem Haider Rao is a Fashion Model and a Poet.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census the Saharanpur district had a population of 3,466,382, roughly equal to the nation of Panama or the US state of Connecticut. This gives it a ranking of 92nd in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 19.59%. Saharanpur has a sex ratio of 887 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 72.03%. 30.77% of the population lived in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 22.05% and 0.03% of the population respectively.
Religion
Hinduism is followed by over 56% of people. Islam is the second-largest religion in the district with over 41.95% adherents. Sikhism is followed by 0.54% people. Hindus generally dominate rural areas while Muslims are majority in urban areas.
Languages
At the time of the 2011 Census of India, 80.90% of the population of the district spoke Hindi and 18.57% Urdu as their first language.
Education
Medical College
Sheikh-Ul-Hind Mahmood Mahmood Hasan Medical College, a government medical college which provides healthcare for all citizens of the state and to train students. The present medical college is planned to have a 500-bed hospital with road access to the Saharanpur-Ambala National Highway. The proposed annual intake of MBBS Students is expected to be 100 from 2014 to 2015.
Villages
Agwanhera
References
Districts of Uttar Pradesh
Minority Concentrated Districts in India
1804 establishments in the British Empire
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%20%28%D0%A8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%29
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Ольдендорф (Штаде)
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Ольдендорф (Штаде)
Ольдендорф — громада в Німеччині, розташована в землі Нижня Саксонія. Входить до складу району Штаде. Складова частина об'єднання громад Ольдендорф-Гіммельпфортен.
Площа — 23,88 км2. Населення становить ос. (станом на ).
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт
Громади Нижньої Саксонії
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562826
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8E%20%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%20%28%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F%29
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Пам'ятник Григорію Сковороді (Лохвиця)
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Пам'ятник Григорію Сковороді (Лохвиця)
Пам'ятник Григорію Сковороді в Лохвиці — пам'ятник українському мандрівному філософу та поетові Григорію Савичу Сковороді в місті Лохвиці Полтавської області.
Загальна інформація
Встановлений в парку біля будівлі Лохвицького медичного училища за адресою: вулиця Шевченка, № 27, Лохвиця (Полтавська область), Україна. Вперше відкритий 1922 року. Автор пам'ятника — український скульптор Іван Кавалерідзе.
Опис
Пам'ятник Григорію Сковороді являє собою скульптуру філософа на повний зріст, встановлену на гранітному постаменті.
Загальна висота пам'ятника — 4,17 метрів.
Григорій Сковорода зображений з саквами і ціпком, під час тимчасового перепочинку на його шляху.
Історія
Урочисте відкриття одного з яскравих творів відомого українського скульптора І. П. Кавалерідзе — пам'ятника Григорію Сковороді в Лохвиці відбулося 22 грудня 1922 року. Приурочено воно було до 200-ліття від дня народження мислителя, уродженця цієї частини Полтавщини. Кавалерідзе працював з цементом — йому вдалося створити повну ілюзію каменю. На той час постамент добре ув'язувався з оточуючими спорудами — музеєм, бібліотекою та міським театром.
Під час ІІ Світової війни будинки театру та бібліотеки згоріли, а сам пам'ятник було значною мірою пошкоджено.
До 250-ліття від дня народження Григорія Сковороди (1972) пам'ятник в Лохвиці, тепер уже в бронзі, було відновлено й урочисто відкрито 29 листопада. Автора в Лохвиці не було, адже саме в цей час він працював над київським пам'ятником Григорію Сковороді на Контрактовій площі.
Галерея
Див. також
Список пам'ятників Григорію Сковороді
Примітки
Джерела
Сковороді Г. С. Пам'ятники // Полтавщина:Енциклопедичний довідник (За ред. А. В. Кудрицького)., К.: УЕ, 1992 ISBN 5-88500-033-6, стор. 873
Степовик Д. Іван Кавалерідзе. Пам'ятник Г.Сковороді у Лохвиці // Скарби України: Наук.-худож. кн., К., 1991, стор. 173—178
От Лохвицы до Пирятина. Путешествие третье // Гладыш К. В. Архитектура и памятники Полтавщины. Путеводитель., Харків: «Прапор», 1982, стор. 61
Пам'ятники Лохвиці
Пам'ятники Григорію Сковороді
Скульптури за алфавітом
Пам'ятники, встановлені 1922
Засновані у Полтавській області 1922
Пам'ятники, встановлені 1972
Пам'ятники роботи Івана Кавалерідзе
Пам'ятки культурної спадщини України національного значення в Полтавській області
Пам'ятки монументального мистецтва України національного значення
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42869178
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea%20Diaconu
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Mircea Diaconu
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Mircea Diaconu (born 24 December 1949) is a Romanian actor, writer, and politician. First appearing on stage in 1970, and on screen two years later, Diaconu pursued a lengthy career in both formats, working with a series of prominent directors. He acted in some sixty films through the 2000s, and continued to act in theatre during the ensuing decade. He took part in the Romanian Revolution of 1989. In 2008, he entered electoral politics, becoming a senator, and subsequently serving a term as a Member of the European Parliament. In 2019, he ran for president, placing fourth.
Biography
Acting, writing, Revolution
Born in Vlădești, Argeș County, he graduated high school in Câmpulung in 1967 and Bucharest's I.L. Caragiale Institute of Theatre and Film Arts in 1971. He was obliged to join the Romanian Communist Party during his second year of university, due to the high grades he had achieved. In 1980 he married , herself an actress; the couple have two children.
Diaconu made his theatrical debut a year before finishing university, at the Bulandra Theater, in Truman Capote's The Grass Harp. His screen debut came in Dan Pița's (1972); he would later appear in the same director's (1975). Other directors with whom he has worked include (Red Apples, 1975; , 1982; and , 1988), Virgil Calotescu (1982; and , 1985), Nae Caranfil (Asfalt Tango, 1996; and Filantropica, 2002) and Cătălin Mitulescu (The Way I Spent the End of the World, 2006). In all, he has appeared in more than sixty films.
Diaconu worked with Lucian Pintilie both in film (the 1981 De ce trag clopotele, Mitică?) and in theater: Gogol's The Government Inspector at Bulandra, and Shakespeare's As You Like It at the . Liviu Ciulei hired him at Bulandra in 1972, and he remained there for a decade, before moving on to Nottara. At Bulandra, he appeared in Twelfth Night and The Tempest, both under Ciulei's direction; and in Marin Sorescu's Răceala, directed by Dan Micu. At Nottara, he appeared in Alexander Ostrovsky's The Forest; Ultimul bal, after Liviu Rebreanu's Forest of the Hanged; and Mihai Ispirescu's Într-o dimineață. He became the director of Nottara Theater in 2004, working as such until his resignation in 2011.
A participant in the Romanian Revolution, he was rehearsing a play at Nottara when Nicolae Ceaușescu's final speech began on 21 December 1989. During the day, he and his colleagues organized students to go to area factories and urge workers to declare an immediate strike. He spent the night outdoors with students, believing that, although the uprising lacked familiar leaders who could be trusted, the crowd at least recognized popular actors' faces. During the night, Securitate secret police fired through apartment windows, while the next morning, Diaconu saw that agents had quietly killed people with brass knuckles. However, he soon noticed that a revolution was in full swing, the boulevards leading to the city center packed with advancing workers who had trapped two tanks, one of which he rode to the Central Committee building from which Ceaușescu had spoken the previous day. Later, he was among several figures to appear before a microphone in Palace Square. Addressing a throng chanting anti-Ceaușescu slogans, he repeated an appeal for calm. The following year, he was a founding member of the Civic Alliance Foundation.
In 1990 he became the country's first actor to resign his contract with a theater and become a freelancer. Other theaters with which he has appeared include Theatrum Mundi and the National Theatre Bucharest. He taught acting at his alma mater between 1977 and 1978, and again from 1991 to 1998. He wrote three books that appeared under the Communist regime. The first, Șugubina (1977), is a volume of short stories. The second, La noi, când vine iarna, was initially published as a children's book in 1980 and was republished as a novel for adults in 2013. The third, Scaunul de pânză al actorului (1985), includes sketches about the theatrical world. In 2000, then-President Emil Constantinescu awarded him the National Order of Merit, Officer rank.
Politics
Diaconu began his political career in 2008, when he was elected to the Senate for Argeș County as a member of the National Liberal Party (PNL). While there, he served on the culture committee; his term expired at the following election. In May 2012, he was named Culture Minister in the new Victor Ponta cabinet, but was forced out of office the following month when the High Court of Cassation and Justice ruled there was a conflict of interest between his ministerial position and his managerial role at the theater. The same year, he was the subject of an investigation by prosecutors for having helped hire his wife as a director at Nottara Theatre in 2007, despite the fact that she did not meet the necessary qualifications.
In March 2014, when the PNL failed to include him on its list of candidates for that year's European Parliament election, Diaconu decided to run as an independent. Although his candidacy was initially rejected by the electoral authorities because the 2012 court decision had found him ineligible for political office, an appeals court placed him on the ballot, finding that he could in fact run for other offices than the one involved in the older case (that is, Senator). During the campaign, he built up the image of an independent persecuted by bureaucratic institutions determined to keep him out of office, benefiting from favorable media coverage. He won some 380,000 votes or 6.8% of the national total (ahead of two political parties that won seats), assuring him a term as an MEP. As an independent, he was only required to win 3.1% of the vote in order to secure a seat; he obtained double digits in the counties of Constanța (13.3%) and Botoșani (10.4%). He is thought to have significantly eroded the PNL vote, with one party member, Nicolae Robu, claiming Diaconu cut its performance by nearly half. In the 2014–2019 legislature of the European Parliament, he sat with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Group, and was vice president of the Culture Committee.
In August 2019, Diaconu entered the presidential race as an independent. Subsequently, ALDE and PRO Romania formed an electoral alliance in support of Diaconu, called "Un Om" ("one man" or "a human being"). His proposals included expanding the Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant and salvaging the Rovinari Power Station; building and revitalizing Danube River ports and bridges, using European Union funds; unifying small landholdings into larger, more profitable farms; and a stricter approach to school discipline, such as banning mobile phones and reintroducing uniforms. On foreign policy, he called for Romania to play a stronger role within the EU and NATO, while reaffirming the country's alliance with the United States. His policies seemingly courted a rural electorate and recalled those of the 1990s and early 2000s, when Ion Iliescu was president. Diaconu finished in fourth place, with nearly 9% of the vote.
Electoral history
European elections
Presidential elections
Filmography
Books
Șugubina (1977), Editura Albatros
La noi, când vine iarna (1980), Editura Ion Creangă; 2013, Editura Polirom
Scaunul de pânză al actorului (1985), Editura Meridiane
Notes
References
External links
European Parliament profile
1949 births
Living people
People from Argeș County
20th-century Romanian male actors
Candidates for President of Romania
Caragiale National University of Theatre and Film alumni
Romanian male film actors
Romanian male stage actors
Romanian theatre directors
Romanian male short story writers
Romanian short story writers
Romanian novelists
People of the Romanian revolution
Members of the Senate of Romania
Romanian Ministers of Culture
National Liberal Party (Romania) politicians
MEPs for Romania 2014–2019
Romanian actor-politicians
Romanian male novelists
Recipients of the National Order of Merit (Romania)
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75509081
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DFB-Supercup%20Frauen
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DFB-Supercup Frauen
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DFB-Supercup Frauen
The Frauen DFB-Supercup is a one-off football match in Germany that features the winners of the Frauen-Bundesliga championship and the DFB-Pokal Frauen. It was contested between 1992 and 1997 and in December 2023, it was announced that it would return, starting from the 2024–25 season.
Matches
Below is a list of the Super Cup winners. Before 2023, if a team won both titles, the loser of the cup final was invited.
Performance by team
Performance by qualification
Notes
References
W
Germany
Recurring sporting events established in 1992
1992 establishments in Germany
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1549989
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA
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Коробковий графік
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Коробковий графік
Діаграма розмаху, коробковий графік або графік «ящик з вусами» — засіб візуалізації в описовій статистиці груп числових даних через їх квантилі. Коробковий графік може також мати лінії, які виходять вертикально з коробки (вони називаються вусами), вони вказують величину мінливості поза верхньою та нижньою межами квантиля. Викиди може бути нанесено у вигляді точок.
Коробкові графіки — : вони відображають мінливість у вибірці статистичної сукупності, не роблячи ніяких припущень про базовий статистичний розподіл. Віддаль між різними частинами коробки вказують на ступінь дисперсії (розкиданості), асиметрію в даних і відображають викиди. Крім самих точок, вони дозволяють візуально різні статистичні оцінки даних. Коробковий графік може бути як вертикальним так і горизонтальним.
Типи
Коробка та вуса відображають квартилі: нижня та верхня сторони ящика завжди - це перший (25-й процентиль) і третій квартилі (75-й процентиль), а смужка всередині коробки - другий квартиль (медіана). Але кінці вусів можуть представляти кілька можливих альтернативних значень, серед яких:
мінімум та максимум даних як на рисунку 2.
найнижче значення даних, який знаходиться ще в межах 1,5 IQR (міжквартильного інтервалу) нижнього квартиля, а найвище значення в межах 1,5 IQR верхнього квартиля (як показано на рисунку 3)
одне стандартне відхилення вище і нижче середніх даних
9-й процентиль і 91-й процентиль
2-й процентиль і 98-й процентиль.
Будь-які дані, що не включено між вусами, повинно бути нанесено на графік ізольованими точки, малим колом або зірочками, але інколи цього не роблять.
Деякі «ящики з вусами» включають додаткові символи, щоб показати середнє значення даних. На деяких ділянках коробкового графіку вуса зображено штрихованою лінією.
Інколи, коробковий графік може бути представлений взагалі без вусів.
Незвичні процентилі 2%, 9%, 91%, 98% іноді використовуються на заштрихованих ділянках вусів та кінцях вусів, щоб показати семи-чисельну описову статистику. Якщо дані мають нормальний розподіл, місця розташування позначень семи статистичних параметрів на графіку будуть рівновіддалено розподілені.
Варіації
Дві з найбільш поширених варіацій графіку — це зміна ширини ящика та зубчастий механізм. Зміна ширина ящика ілюструє розмір кожної групи даних. Поширений варіант розширення ящика — змінити ширину таким чином, щоб вона була пропорційна квадратному кореню розміру групи.
Вуса корисні для грубого припущення щодо суттєвої відмінності медіан; якщо вуса двох ящиків не перекриваються, то це можна сприймати як доказ статистично суттєвої різниці між медіанами. Ширина вус пропорційна міжквантильному діапазону (IQR) і обернено пропорційна квадратному кореню розміру вибірки. Тим не менш, існує невизначеність щодо найбільш відповідного множника (оскільки він може змінюватись в залежності від подібності дисперсій вибірок). Одна з домовленостей полягає у використанні .
Візуалізація
«Ящик з вусами» — це швидкий спосіб вивчення одного або декількох наборів даних у графічному вигляді. «Ящик з вусами» може здатися примітивнішим за оцінку гістограми або ядерну оцінку густини розподілу, але цей метод має деякі переваги. Коробковий графік займає менше місця і тому особливо корисний для порівняння розподілу між кількома групами або наборами даних.
Для кращого розуміння коробкового графіку корисно глянути коробковий графік в порівнянні із функцією густини ймовірності нормального розподілу (теоретично гістограмою) (див. рисунок 5).
Див. також
Розвідувальний аналіз
Джерела
Статистичні графіки та діаграми
Статистичні викиди
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4658364
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B8%20%28%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F%29
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Ушкатти (Росія)
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Ушкатти (Росія)
Ушкатти — село у складі Домбаровського району Оренбурзької області, Росія.
Стара назва — Ушкота.
Населення
Населення — 96 осіб (2010; 271 у 2002).
Національний склад (станом на 2002 рік):
казахи — 68 %
Джерела
Примітки
Населені пункти Домбаровського району
Села Оренбурзької області
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4764740
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F%20%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F
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Костриця Порція
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Костриця Порція, костриця Порціуса (Festuca porcii) — вид однодольних квіткових рослин з родини злакових (Poaceae).
Опис
Це багаторічна рослина 60–100 см. Стебла внизу вкриті коричнево-червоними піхвами. Язичок дуже короткий, по краю війчастий. Листки нещільно вздовж складені, стеблові 3–4 мм завширшки, на вегетативних пагонах до 2.5 мм завширшки. Суцвіття 12–16 см завдовжки, багатоколоскові. Колоски 8–12 мм завдовжки. Нижні квіткові луски 4–6 мм завдовжки, з остюком до 2 мм завдовжки. Цвітіння: липень і серпень.
Поширення
Вид росте в Україні й Румунії.
В Україні росте на кам'янистих оголеннях (на більш зволожених місцях), на берегах струмків, гірських озер і боліт у захищених від вітрів лощинах, по краю улоговин (сніжників), розташованих на схилах, переважно північних експозицій — у субальпійському та альпійському поясах Карпат, досить рідко.
Джерела
Порція
Флора України
Флора Румунії
Рослини, описані 1882
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29421234
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unterwarnow
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Unterwarnow
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Unterwarnow is the estuary of the Warnow River in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, northern Germany. Connected with the Baltic Sea in Warnemünde. On the coasts of the estuary, the city of Rostock is located.
Rivers of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Bays of the Baltic Sea
Bays of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Rostock
Warnow (river)
Unterwarnow
Federal waterways in Germany
Rivers of Germany
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35941439
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chan%20Pine%20Ridge
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Chan Pine Ridge
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Chan Pine Ridge is a village in the Orange Walk District of the nation of Belize. It is a predominantly Maya Mestizo village with Spanish being the preferred language of communication. English is taught at the Chan Pine Ridge Government School which is the only Primary School serving the community. Kriol is also spoken among the villagers. The Name Chan Pine Ridge is a combination of the Yucatec Maya word Chan meaning "small" in English and Pine Ridge which is English.
Demographics
At the time of the 2010 census, Chan Pine Ridge had a population of 445. Of these, 94.8% were Mestizo, 3.1% Mixed, 0.9% Mopan Maya, 0.4% Creole, 0.2% Caucasian, 0.2% East Indian and 0.2% Yucatec Maya.
References
Populated places in Orange Walk District
Orange Walk East
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20338498
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial%20reconnaissance
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Aerial reconnaissance
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Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance aircraft. The role of reconnaissance can fulfil a variety of requirements including artillery spotting, the collection of imagery intelligence, and the observation of enemy maneuvers.
History
Early developments
After the French Revolution, the new rulers became interested in using the balloon to observe enemy manoeuvres and appointed scientist Charles Coutelle to conduct studies using the balloon L'Entreprenant, the first military reconnaissance aircraft. The balloon found its first use in the 1794 conflict with Austria, where in the Battle of Fleurus they gathered information. Moreover, the presence of the balloon had a demoralizing effect on the Austrian troops, which improved the likelihood of victory for the French troops. To operate such balloons, a new unit of the French military, the French Aerostatic Corps, was established; this organisation has been recognised as being the world's first air force.
After the invention of photography, primitive aerial photographs were made of the ground from manned and unmanned balloons, starting in the 1860s, and from tethered kites from the 1880s onwards. An example was Arthur Batut's kite-borne camera photographs of Labruguière starting from 1889.
In the early 20th century, Julius Neubronner experimented with pigeon photography. These pigeons carried small cameras that incorporated timers.
Ludwig Rahrmann in 1891 patented a means of attaching a camera to a large calibre artillery projectile or rocket, and this inspired Alfred Maul to develop his Maul Camera Rockets starting in 1903. Alfred Nobel in 1896 had already built the first rocket carrying a camera, which took photographs of the Swedish landscape during its flights. Maul improved his camera rockets and the Austrian Army even tested them in the Turkish-Bulgarian War in 1912 and 1913, but by then and from that time on camera-carrying aircraft were found to be superior.
The first use of airplanes in combat missions was by the Italian Air Force during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912. On 23 October 1911, an Italian pilot, Capt. Carlo Piazza, flew over the Turkish lines in Libya to conduct an aerial reconnaissance mission; Another aviation first occurred on November 1 with the first ever dropping of an aerial bomb, performed by Sottotenente Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops from an early model of Etrich Taube aircraft.
The first reconnaissance flight in Europe took place in Greece, over Thessaly, on 18 October 1912 (5 October by the Julian calendar) over the Ottoman army. The pilot also dropped some hand-grenades over the Turkish Army barracks, although without success. This was the first day of the Balkan wars, and during the same day a similar mission was flown by German mercenaries in Ottoman service in the Thrace front against the Bulgarians. The Greek and the Ottoman mission flown during the same day are the first military aviation combat missions in a conventional war. A few days later, on 16 October 1912, a Bulgarian Albatros aircraft performed one of Europe's first reconnaissance flight in combat conditions, against the Turkish lines on the Balkan peninsula, during the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913.
Maturation during the First World War
The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the First World War, as aircraft used for reconnaissance purposes were outfitted with cameras to record enemy movements and defences. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, with reconnaissance being accomplished with map sketching from the air.
Frederick Charles Victor Laws started experiments in aerial photography in 1912 with No. 1 Squadron RAF using the British dirigible Beta. He discovered that vertical photos taken with 60% overlap could be used to create a stereoscopic effect when viewed in a stereoscope, thus creating a perception of depth that could aid in cartography and in intelligence derived from aerial images. The dirigibles were eventually allocated to the Royal Navy, so Laws formed the first aerial reconnaissance unit of fixed-wing aircraft; this became No. 3 Squadron RAF.
Germany was one of the first countries to adopt the use of a camera for aerial reconnaissance, opting for a Görz, in 1913. French Military Aviation began the war with several squadrons of Bleriot observation planes, equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time.
The Royal Flying Corps recon pilots began to use cameras for recording their observations in 1914 and by the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915 the entire system of German trenches was being photographed. The first purpose-built and practical aerial camera was invented by Captain John Moore-Brabazon in 1915 with the help of the Thornton-Pickard company, greatly enhancing the efficiency of aerial photography. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals.
Moore-Brabazon also pioneered the incorporation of stereoscopic techniques into aerial photography, allowing the height of objects on the landscape to be discerned by comparing photographs taken at different angles. In 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Empire made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making.
By the end of the war, aerial cameras had dramatically increased in size and focal power and were used increasingly frequently as they proved their pivotal military worth; by 1918 both sides were photographing the entire front twice a day and had taken over half a million photos since the beginning of the conflict.
In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No. 1 Squadron AFC to photograph a area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front. This was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Lieutenants Leonard Taplin, Allan Runciman Brown, H. L. Fraser, Edward Patrick Kenny, and L. W. Rogers photographed a block of land stretching from the Turkish front lines deep into their rear areas. Beginning 5 January, they flew with a fighter escort to ward off enemy fighters. Using Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12 and Martinsyde airplanes, they not only overcame enemy air attacks, but also bucked 65 mile-per-hour winds, anti-aircraft fire, and malfunctioning equipment to complete their task circa 19 January 1918.
Second World War
High-speed reconnaissance aircraft
During 1928, the Royal Air Force (RAF) developed an electric heating system for the aerial camera; this innovation allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without the camera parts freezing. In 1939, Sidney Cotton and Flying Officer Maurice Longbottom of the RAF suggested that airborne reconnaissance may be a task better suited to fast, small aircraft which would use their speed and high service ceiling to avoid detection and interception. Although this may perhaps seem obvious today with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking.
Cotton and Longbottom proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and cameras. This concept led to the development of the Spitfire PR variants. With their armaments removed, these planes could attain a maximum speed of 396 mph while flying at an altitude of 30,000 feet, and were used for photo-reconnaissance missions. The Spitfire PR was fitted with five cameras, which were heated to ensure good results (while the cockpit was not). In the reconnaissance role, the Spitfire proved to be extremely successful, resulting in numerous Spitfire variants being built specifically for that purpose. These served initially with what later became No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU).
Other fighters were also adapted for photo-reconnaissance, including the British Mosquito and the American P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang. Such aircraft were painted in PRU Blue or Pink camouflage colours to make them difficult to spot in the air, and often were stripped of weapons or had engines modified for better performance at high altitudes (over ).
The American F-4, a factory modification of the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, replaced the nose-mounted four machine guns and cannon with four high-quality K-17 cameras. Approximately 120 F-4 and F-4As were hurriedly made available by March 1942, reaching the 8th Photographic Squadron in Australia by April (the first P-38s to see action). The F-4 had an early advantage of long range and high speed combined with ability to fly at high altitude; a potent combination for reconnaissance. In the last half of 1942 Lockheed would produce 96 F-5As, based on the P-38G with all later P-38 photo-reconnaissance variants designated F-5. In its reconnaissance role, the Lightning was so effective that over 1,200 F-4 and F-5 variants were delivered by Lockheed, and it was the United States Army Air Forces's (USAAF) primary photo-reconnaissance type used throughout the war in all combat theatres. The Mustang F-6 arrived later in the conflict and, by spring 1945, became the dominant reconnaissance type flown by the USAAF in the European theatre. American photo-reconnaissance operations in Europe were centred at RAF Mount Farm, with the resulting photographs transferred to Medmenham for interpretation. Approximately 15,000 Fairchild K-20 aerial cameras were manufactured for use in Allied reconnaissance aircraft between 1941 and 1945.
The British de Havilland Mosquito excelled in the photo-reconnaissance role; the converted bomber was fitted with three cameras installed in what had been the bomb bay. It had a cruising speed of 255 mph, maximum speed of 362 mph and a maximum altitude of 35,000 feet. The first converted PRU (Photo-Reconnaissance Unit) Mosquito was delivered to RAF Benson in July 1941 by Geoffrey de Havilland himself. The PR Mk XVI and later variants had pressurized cockpits and also pressurized central and inner wing tanks to reduce fuel vaporization at high altitude. The Mosquito was faster than most enemy fighters at 35,000 ft, and could roam almost anywhere. Colonel Roy M. Stanley II of United States Air Force (USAF) stated of the aircraft: "I consider the Mosquito the best photo-reconnaissance aircraft of the war". The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) designation for the photo-reconnaissance Mosquito was F-8.
Apart from (for example) the Mosquito, most World War II bombers were not as fast as fighters, although they were effective for aerial reconnaissance due to their long range, inherent stability in flight and capacity to carry large camera payloads. American bombers with top speeds of less than 300 mph used for reconnaissance include the B-24 Liberator (photo-reconnaissance variant designated F-7), B-25 Mitchell (F-10) and B-17 Flying Fortress (F-9). The revolutionary B-29 Superfortress was the world's largest combat-operational bomber when it appeared in 1944, with a top speed of over 350 mph which at that time was outstanding for such a large and heavy aircraft; the B-29 also had a pressurized cabin for high altitude flight. The photographic reconnaissance version of the B-29 was designated F-13 and carried a camera suite of three K-17B, two K-22 and one K-18 with provisions for others; it also retained the standard B-29 defensive armament of a dozen .50 caliber machine guns. In November 1944 an F-13 conducted the first flight by an Allied aircraft over Tokyo since the Doolittle Raid of April 1942. The Consolidated B-32 Dominator was also used for reconnaissance over Japan in August 1945.
The Japanese Army Mitsubishi Ki-46, a twin-engined aircraft designed expressly for the reconnaissance role with defensive armament of 1 light machine gun, entered service in 1941. Codenamed "Dinah" this aircraft was fast, elusive and proved difficult for Allied fighters to destroy. More than 1,500 Ki-46s were built and its performance was upgraded later in the war with the Ki-46-III variant. Another purpose-designed reconnaissance aircraft for the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was the carrier-based, single-engine Nakajima C6N Saiun ("Iridescent Cloud"). Codenamed "Myrt" by the Allies, the Nakajima C6N first flew in 1943 and was also highly elusive to American aircraft due to its excellent performance and speed of almost 400 mph. As fate would have it on 15 August 1945, a C6N1 was the last aircraft to be shot down in World War II. Japan also developed the high-altitude Tachikawa Ki-74 reconnaissance bomber, which was in a similar class of performance as the Mosquito, but only 16 were built and did not see operational service.
The Luftwaffe began deploying jet aircraft in combat in 1944, and the twin-jet Arado Ar 234 Blitz ("Lightning") reconnaissance bomber was the world's first operational jet-powered bomber. The Ar 234B-1 was equipped with two Rb 50/30 or Rb 75/30 cameras, and its top speed of 460 mph allowed it to outrun the fastest non-jet Allied fighters of the time. The twin piston-engined Junkers Ju 388 high-altitude bomber was an ultimate evolution of the Ju 88 by way of the Ju 188. The photographic reconnaissance Ju 388L variant had a pressurized cockpit from the Ju 388's original multi-role conception as not only a bomber but also a night fighter and bomber destroyer, due to RLM's perceived threat of the U.S.'s high-altitude B-29 (which ended up not being deployed in Europe). Approximately 50 Ju 388Ls were produced under rapidly deteriorating conditions at the end of the war. As with other high performance weapons introduced by Nazi Germany, too many circumstances in the war's logistics had changed by late 1944 for such aircraft to have any impact.
The DFS 228 was a rocket-powered high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft under development in the latter part of World War II. It was designed by Felix Kracht at the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (German Institute for Sailplane Flight) and in concept is an interesting precursor to the post-war American U-2, being essentially a powered long-wingspan glider intended solely for the high-altitude aerial reconnaissance role. Advanced features of the DFS 228 design included a pressurized escape capsule for the pilot. The aircraft never flew under rocket power with only unpowered glider prototypes flown prior to May 1945.
Imagery analysis
The collection and interpretation of aerial reconnaissance intelligence became a considerable enterprise during the war. Beginning in 1941, RAF Medmenham was the main interpretation centre for photographic reconnaissance operations in the European and Mediterranean theatres. The Central Interpretation Unit (CIU) was later amalgamated with the Bomber Command Damage Assessment Section and the Night Photographic Interpretation Section of No 3 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit, RAF Oakington, in 1942.
During 1942 and 1943, the CIU gradually expanded and was involved in the planning stages of practically every operation of the war, and in every aspect of intelligence. In 1945, daily intake of material averaged 25,000 negatives and 60,000 prints. Thirty-six million prints were made during the war. By VE-day, the print library, which documented and stored worldwide cover, held 5,000,000 prints from which 40,000 reports had been produced.
American personnel had for some time formed an increasing part of the CIU and on 1 May 1944 this was finally recognised by changing the title of the unit to the Allied Central Interpretation Unit (ACIU). There were then over 1,700 personnel on the unit's strength. A large number of photographic interpreters were recruited from the Hollywood Film Studios including Xavier Atencio. Two renowned archaeologists also worked there as interpreters: Dorothy Garrod, the first woman to hold an Oxbridge Chair, and Glyn Daniel, who went on to gain popular acclaim as the host of the television game show Animal, Vegetable or Mineral?.
Sidney Cotton's aerial photographs were far ahead of their time. Together with other members of his reconnaissance squadron, he pioneered the technique of high-altitude, high-speed photography that was instrumental in revealing the locations of many crucial military and intelligence targets. Cotton also worked on ideas such as a prototype specialist reconnaissance aircraft and further refinements of photographic equipment. At its peak, British reconnaissance flights yielded 50,000 images per day to interpret.
Of particular significance in the success of the work of Medmenham was the use of stereoscopic images, using a between plate overlap of exactly 60%. Despite initial scepticism about the possibility of German rocket development, stereoscopic analysis proved its existence and major operations, including the 1943 offensives against the V-2 rocket development plant at Peenemünde, were made possible by work carried out at Medmenham. Later offensives were also made against potential launch sites at Wizernes and 96 other launch sites in northern France.
Particularly important sites were measured, from the images, using Swiss stereoautograph machines made by Wild (Heerbrugg) and physical models made to facilitate understanding of what was there or what it was for.
It is claimed that Medmanham's greatest operational success was Operation Crossbow which, from 23 December 1943, destroyed the V-1 infrastructure in northern France. According to R.V. Jones, photographs were used to establish the size and the characteristic launching mechanisms for both the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket.
Cold War
Immediately after the Second World War, the long range aerial reconnaissance role was quickly taken up by adapted jet bombers, such as the English Electric Canberra and its American development the Martin B-57, that were capable of flying higher or faster than enemy aircraft or defenses. Shortly after the Korean War, the United States begun to use RB-47 aircraft; these were at first were converted B-47 bombers, but later purposely built as RB-47 reconnaissance aircraft that had no bombing capability. Large cameras were mounted in the plane's belly and a truncated bomb bay was used for carrying photoflash bombs. Later versions of the RB-47, such as the RB-47H, were extensively modified for signals intelligence (ELINT), with additional equipment operator crew stations in the bomb bay; unarmed weather reconnaissance WB-47s with cameras and meteorological instruments also served the United States Air Force (USAF) during the 1960s.
The onset of the Cold War led to development of several highly specialized and clandestine strategic reconnaissance aircraft, or spy planes, such as the Lockheed U-2 and its successor the SR-71 Blackbird (both from the United States). Flying these aircraft became an exceptionally demanding task, with crews specially selected and trained due to the aircraft's extreme performance characteristics in addition to risk of being captured as spies. The American U-2 shot down in Soviet airspace and capture of its pilot caused political turmoil at the height of the Cold War.
Beginning in the early 1960s, United States aerial and satellite reconnaissance was coordinated by the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). Risks such as loss or capture of reconnaissance aircraft crewmembers also contributed to U.S. development of the Ryan Model 147 RPV (Remotely Piloted Vehicle) unmanned drone aircraft which were partly funded by the NRO during the 1960s.
During the 1960s, the United States Navy opted to convert many of its supersonic carrier-based nuclear bomber, the North American A-5 Vigilante, into the capable RA-5C Vigilante reconnaissance aircraft. Beginning in the early 1980s, the U.S. Navy outfitted and deployed Grumman F-14 Tomcat aircraft in one squadron aboard an aircraft carrier with a system called Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS), which provided naval aerial reconnaissance capability until the Tomcat's retirement in 2006.
Post Cold War
Since the 1980s, there has been an increasing tendency for militaries to rely upon assets other than manned aircraft to perform aerial reconnaissance. Alternative platforms include the use of surveillance satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), such as the armed MQ-9 Reaper. By 2005, such UAVs could reportedly be equipped with compact cameras capable of identifying an object the size of a milk carton from altitudes of 60,000 feet.
The U-2 has repeatedly been considered for retirement in favour of drones. In 2011, the USAF revealed plans to replace the U-2 with the RQ-4 Global Hawk, a UAV, within four years; however, in January 2012, it was instead decided to extend the U-2's service life. Critics have pointed out that the RQ-4's cameras and sensors are less capable and lack all-weather operating capability; however, some of the U-2's sensors could be installed on the RQ-4. In late 2014, Lockheed Martin proposed converting the manned U-2 fleet into UAVs, which would substantially bolster its payload capability; however, the USAF declined to provide funding for such an extensive conversion.
During the 2010s, American defense conglomerate Lockheed Martin promoted its proposal to develop a hypersonic UAV, which it referred to the SR-72 in allusion to its function as a spiritual successor to the retired SR-71 Blackbird. The company has also developed several other reconnaissance UAVs, such as the Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel.
Technologies
Miniature UAVs
Due to the low cost of miniature UAVs, this technology brings aerial reconnaissance into the hands of soldiers on the ground. The soldier on the ground can both control the UAV and see its output, yielding great benefit over a disconnected approach. With small systems being man packable, operators are now able to deploy air assets quickly and directly. The low cost and ease of operation of these miniature UAVs has enabled forces such as the Libyan Rebels to use miniature UAVs.
AeroVironment Wasp III (airplane – electric propulsion)
Aeryon Scout/Aeryon SkyRanger (VTOL Rotorcraft) – Some UAVs are small enough to carry in a backpack with similar functionality to larger ones
EMT Aladin (aircraft – electric – Made in Germany)
Bramor C4EYE (aircraft – electric – Made in Slovenia)
Bayraktar Mini UAV (aircraft – electric – Made in Turkey)
RQ-84Z Areohawk (aircraft – electric – Made in New Zealand)
Low cost miniature UAVs demand increasingly miniature imaging payloads. Developments in miniature electronics have fueled the development of increasingly capable surveillance payloads, allowing miniature UAVs to provide high levels of capability in never before seen packages.
Reconnaissance pods
Reconnaissance pods can be carried by fighter-bomber aircraft. Examples include the British Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod (DJRP); Chinese KZ900; UK RAPTOR; and the US Navy's F-14 Tomcat Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS). Some aircraft made for non-military applications also have reconnaissance pods, i.e. the Qinetiq Mercator.
See also
Aerial photography
Aerorozvidka
Air observation post
Forward air control
Imagery intelligence
National Collection of Aerial Photography
Surveillance aircraft
Spatial reconnaissance
United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union
List of United States Air Force reconnaissance aircraft
References
Citations
Bibliography
Bowman, Martin. de Havilland Mosquito (Crowood Aviation series). Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005. .
Lewis, Peter. British Racing and Record Breaking Aircraft. London: Putnam, 1970. .
Natola, Mark. "Boeing B-47 Stratojet." Schiffer Publishing Ltd, 2002. .
Pedlow, Gregory W. & Donald E Welzenbach. The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and Oxcart Programs, 1954–1974. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 1992. .
Polmar, Norman. Spyplane: The U-2 History Declassified. London: Zenith Imprint, 2001. .
Stanley, Colonel Roy M. II, USAF (Ret). V-Weapons Hunt: Defeating German Secret Weapons. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword, 2010. .
External links
National Collection of Aerial Photography The official archive of British Government declassified aerial photography.
Reconnaissance
Espionage
Military cartography
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3506420
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB
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Пасифіл
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Пасифіл — давньогрецький полководець, відомий своєю участю у війнах сиракузького тирана Агафокла з Карфагеном та сиракузькими ж вигнанцями.
Захоплення влади Агафоклом у 317 р. до н. е., котре супроводжувалось масовою різаниною його політичних противників, призвело до появи численних вигнанців, котрі знайшли прихисток у інших сицилійських містах. Одним з них була Мессена, проти якої тиран вів боротьбу протягом наступних кількох років. Нарешті, у 311 р. до н. е. Агафокл відправив сюди військо на чолі з Пасифілом, котрий зміг під час несподіваного вторгнення до області мессенян захопити багатьох полонених. Обіцянка їх звільнення за умови висилки сиракузьких вигнанців стала вирішальною для схилення Мессени до прийняття умов Агафокла.
В ту ж кампанію 311 р. до н. е. військо вигнанців із 3 тисяч піхотинців та 2 тисяч вершників зайняло містечко Галерія (розташування наразі невідоме), куди його запросили мешканці. Агафокл спрямував проти них п'ятитисячний загін під командуванням Пасифіла та Демофіла. В наступній сутичці певний час сторони затято бились, проте після загибелі одного з командувачів армія вигнанців почала відступати. Як зазначає Діодор, Пасифіл під час переслідування перебив багатьох ворогів, а потім вчинив репрессії щодо винних у заколоті мешканців Галерії.
У 306 р. до н. е., після катастрофічного завершення африканської експедиції Агафокла, Пасифіл вирішив зрадити тирана та перейшов на сторону командуючого сиракузькими вигнанцями Дейнократа. Проте наступного року останній зазнав нищівної поразки у битві при Торгіумі, після чого відбулось примирення сиракузького володаря із вигнанцями. Пасифіл, котрий переховувався у Гелі, був вбитий за наказом Дейнократа.
Джерела
Діодор Сицилійський, «Історична бібліотека»
Елліністичні полководці
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10126478
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tini%20Wagner
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Tini Wagner
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Tini Wagner
Catharina "Tini" Wilhelmina Wagner (17 December 1919 – 2 June 2004) was a freestyle swimmer from the Netherlands, who represented her native country at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany.
In 1936 she won the gold medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, alongside Willy den Ouden, Rie Mastenbroek and Jopie Selbach. In the 100 m freestyle competition she finished fifth and in the 400 m freestyle event she finished seventh.
External links
Tini Wagner's profile at the Dutch Olympic Committee
1919 births
2004 deaths
Dutch female freestyle swimmers
Olympic swimmers for the Netherlands
Swimmers at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the Netherlands
Swimmers from Amsterdam
World record setters in swimming
Medalists at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists in swimming
20th-century Dutch women
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3106979
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%28%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
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Ольховка (Далматовський район)
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Ольховка (Далматовський район)
Ольховка — присілок у складі Далматовського району Курганської області, Росія. Входить до складу Білоярської сільської ради.
Населення — 106 осіб (2010, 127 у 2002).
Національний склад станом на 2002 рік: росіяни — 86 %.
Примітки
Джерела
Посилання
На Вікімапії
Населені пункти Далматовського району
Присілки Курганської області
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3361388
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%20%28%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
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Ідрісово (Салаватський район)
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Ідрісово (Салаватський район)
Ідрісово — присілок у складі Салаватського району Башкортостану, Росія. Входить до складу Алькінської сільської ради.
Населення — 151 особа (2010; 188 в 2002).
Національний склад:
башкири — 99 %
Джерела
Примітки
Посилання
На Вікімапії
Населені пункти Салаватського району
Присілки Башкортостану
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3825613
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloeon%20dipterum
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Cloeon dipterum
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Cloeon dipterum
Одноденка двокрила (Cloeon dipterum) — вид одноденок родини баетид (Baetidae).
Опис
Тіло самця забарвлене в чорний. Черевце самиці з темно-червоними лініями і смужками, хвостові нитки з білими колечками. Пара крил лише одна. Тіло завдовжки 8-10 мм.
Поширення та спосіб життя
В Україні поширена на Поліссі та в Лісостепу. Літає з травня по вересень. Личинка живе у повільно текучих водах, також болотах і ставках.
Галерея
Примітки
Джерела
Атлас комах України / В. І. Гусєв, В. М. Єрмоленко, В. В. Свищук, К. А. Шмиговський. — К.: Рад. шк., 1962. — 252 с.
Одноденки
Тварини, описані 1761
Комахи України
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