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March 22, 2000
UPTON, NY - Painting a bridge can be a costly and time-consuming undertaking, especially if the paint job doesn't last. So scientists have been working on ways to test paint durability before the brushes even get wet. At a March 22 session at the American Physical Society meeting in Minneapolis, scientists from the University of Missouri at Kansas City, who worked in collaboration with physicist Bent Nielsen of the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory, will present findings that could lead to the development of an extremely sensitive and quick durability test.
The technique is called positron annihilation. Essentially, the scientists bombard small painted samples of metal with a beam of positrons, or positively charged electrons. When these "antielectrons" interact with the electrons in the molecules of the paint, they annihilate one another and send out gamma rays that give the scientists information about the molecules in the paint. The technique can detect nanometer-scale holes and defects in the paint molecules; free radicals, which indicate the presence of broken chemical bonds; and cross linking, which may make the paint brittle.
"These experiments show that this technique is extremely sensitive to detecting damage early," says Brookhaven's Nielsen - well before the formation of any visible cracks in the paint. "So you can test the paint on a much shorter time scale - a day instead of half a year. That's a big advantage," Nielsen says.
The scientists typically test the paint samples before and after exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, one of the components of sunlight known to damage bridge coatings. The more sensitive the paint is to UV damage, the less durable the paint would be on a bridge exposed to sunlight day after day. They've also exposed samples to UV light during the positron annihilation test to see if they could detect the damage as it occurred. In both cases, the damage increased with UV exposure time, and was most severe near the surface of the paint.
In addition to laying the foundation for a quick paint durability test, the detailed observations made possible by positron annihilation may also help scientists learn more about the fundamental mechanisms of paint degradation. That knowledge, in turn, may eventually lead to the development of more durable paints.
Brookhaven was a pioneer in developing positron beams in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, a medical technique used to learn about the function of body organs such as the brain, works on a similar principle, Nielsen says.
This paper will be presented at session L36 on March 22, 2000, at 10 a.m. in the Exhibit Hall of the Minneapolis Convention Center.
The U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory creates and operates major facilities available to university, industrial and government personnel for basic and applied research in the physical, biomedical and environmental sciences and in selected energy technologies. The Laboratory is operated by Brookhaven Science Associates, a not-for-profit research management company, under contract with the U.S. Department of Energy.
Note to local editors: Bent Nielsen lives in Port Jefferson, New York.
Last updated 5/28/99 by Public Affairs | [
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Multiple Choice Questions
This section contains 180 multiple choice questions about The Unbearable Lightness of Being. Multiple choice questions test a student's recall and understanding of the text. Use these questions for chapter quizzes, homework assignments or tests. Jump to the quiz/homework section for the multiple choice worksheets.
Multiple Choice - Part 1, Chapters 1-5 | Part 1, Chapters 6-10
1. Why is Tomas attracted to Tereza?
a) Her beauty is unlike any other.
b) He opens up to her like he does with no one else.
c) She seems like a child to him.
d) She is submissive.
2. Why does Tereza stay at Tomas's home for a week during her initial visit?
a) He invites her to stay.
b) She comes down with the flu.
c) She asks to stay, dreading returning to her mother's home.
d) She sprains her ankle.
3. After she returns home to her small...
This section contains 6,535 words|
(approx. 22 pages at 300 words per page) | [
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] | 240 |
Short Essay Questions
The 60 short essay questions listed in this section require a one to two sentence answer. They ask students to demonstrate a deeper understanding of the text. Students must describe what they've read, rather than just recall it.
Short Essay Question - Introduction
1. Describe the essential conflict of the Iron Heel.
2. What is the two-tiered future described in the Iron Heel?
3. What does the contemporary author H. Bruce Franklin describe about London?
4. What does the Iron Heel reveal about workers according to Franklin?
5. What tension did London experience in his own life that is reflected in the Iron Heel?
6. Why is it important to be vigilant in society in the Introduction?
Short Essay Question - Forward and Chapter...
This section contains 674 words|
(approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page) | [
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] | 188 |
- slide 1 of 4
There are two ways of fighting fire on board a ship - by using portable marine fire fighting equipments or by using different types of fixed fire fighting installations. The type of system used for fighting fire depends on the intensity and type of fire. Moreover, not all types of fixed fire installation systems can be used for any type of ship. A specific type of fixed fire fighting installation can be used only for a certain type of ship. In this article we will learn about a ship's fire main or the main fire fighting installation system.
- slide 2 of 4
A ship's main emergency fire system consist of a specific number of fire hydrants located at strategic positions across the ship. A series of dedicated pumps are provided to supply to these fire hydrants. The number and capacity of pumps required for a particular type of ship is decided by an international governing authority.
All these pumps are supplied power from the main power system. Apart from that, an emergency fire pump is also provided , which is located remote from the machinery space. The emergency fire pump has its own independent means of power source, which can be used to take over in case of main power failure.
Moreover, all the hydrant outlets are provided with an isolating valve so as to isolate those valves which are not in use. The fire hydrants are also provided with standard size flanges in order to attach hoses which have nozzles attached to them. All the hoses are provided with snap in connectors for easy and quick engaging and disengaging operation. The nozzles attached to the hoses are generally of two types - jet and spray , depending on the type of discharge required for extinguishing the fire. Both the nozzles can be adjusted according to the type of spray and flow required, which could be played over the fire to cool it without spreading.
The pumps are connected with the main sea water connection, having appropriate head to prevent any type of suction problem. The valves supplying water to these pumps are always kept open to provide a constant supply of sea water to fight fire at any point of time. Though sea water is the best mode of fighting fire, the main emergency fire fighting system can only be used on fires of Type A. However, in case of class B fires, if all modes for extinguishing fire fails, sea water from main emergency system can be used.
- slide 3 of 4
International Shore Coupling
The standard sized flanges provided at every strategically positioned hydrant are known as international shore connection. The international shore connections are always carried on all the ships and has standard dimensions decided by an international governing authority. The flange is also slotted in order to fit any shore side fire main and bring water onto the ship whenever required. The practice of international shore coupling has been followed to prevent difficulties at time of emergency when an external help is providing relief work.
- slide 4 of 4 | [
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] | 597 |
Exponential growth refers to an amount of substance increasing exponentially. Exponential growth is a type of exponential function where instead of having a variable in the base of the function, it is in the exponent. Exponential decay and exponential growth are used in carbon dating and other real-life applications.
I want to talk about exponential growth, I have an example here the population of mice in the Duchy of Grand Fenwick grows at a rate of 6% per year. How long will it take for the population to double or quadruple? I have a table of values here I wanted to show you why this is exponential growth. Increasing at 6% per year means very year we're multiplying by 1.06 and so we get p sub 0 when t=0, p sub 0 times 1.06 when t=1 and p sub 0 times 1.06 squared when t=2 and so on.
This would suggest the formula p sub t equals p sub 0 times 1.06 to the t and that's an exponential growth formula. Now to find the doubling time I need to plug in twice the initial population here. I don't know what the initial population is but twice the initial population is 2 times p sub and after you plug in you can see that the actual initial population doesn't matter it's going to cancel out. So now I have the equation 2=1.06 to the t, this is an exponential equation and the way we solve exponential equations is to take the log of both sides. I'm going to take that natural log of both sides, it doesn't matter what log you use as long as it's on your calculator so you can use either the common log or the natural log.
Okay before I calculate I actually need to use the property of the logs, natural log of 1.06 to the t this is the log of a power so the exponent can come out in front t times ln of 1.06 and then we have a simple linear equation to solve this all we need to do is divide both sides b y natural log of 1.06. So ln 2 over ln of 1.06 now I'd like a numerical answer so I'm going to calculate this value ln2 divided by ln 1.06 enter, I get t, t is approximately 11.89566 and that would be in years. Because the population growth rate was given as 6% per year, I want to round this off let's say your teacher likes you to round off to the nearest hundredth then when I calculate quadrupling time a reason like this in order for a population to quadruple, it's got to double and then double again. So we're going to have 2 doubling times in a row. So it stands to reason that the quadrupling time is twice the doubling time. Twice this, but if I write 23.80 years my answer is not quite right let me multiply in my calculator answer times 2. it's actually 23.79 years.
You have to be really careful when you're using rounded values to do calculations. These values rounded to the nearest hundredth and when I double it I double whatever round off error there was. So the best way to get my final answer for quadrupling time is to double this value which is still stored in the calculator so multiply this times 2 and you get the correct value to the nearest hundredth. This is my answer. | [
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advocacy by Jefferson
...to receive foreign ministers in run-down slippers and frayed jackets. He shunned display, protocol, and pomp; he gave no public balls or celebrations on his birthday. By completing the transition to republicanism, he humanized the presidency and made it a symbol not of the nation but of the people. He talked persuasively about the virtue of limiting government—his first inaugural address...
series of 85 essays on the proposed new Constitution of the United States and on the nature of republican government, published between 1787 and 1788 by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in an effort to persuade New York state voters to support ratification. Seventy-seven of the essays first appeared serially in New York newspapers, were reprinted in most other states, and were...
history of Portugal
During the period from 1890 to 1910, the relatively stable politics of rotating governments under the constitutional monarchy disintegrated. Feuding monarchist parties and politicians agreed that Portugal faced severe economic, financial, and social problems, but they quarreled over solutions. The republicans increased their support in Lisbon and the larger towns as well as in the rural south....
What made you want to look up "republicanism"? Please share what surprised you most... | [
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] | 297 |
sarangiArticle Free Pass
sarangi, also called saran or saranga , short-necked fiddle used throughout South Asia, particularly for folk and classical Hindustani music. Measuring about 76 cm (30 inches) long, the instrument has a roughly rectangular slightly waisted body and broad fretless neck generally carved from a single piece of wood. It has three melody strings made of gut, usually tuned a fifth and a fourth apart, and 11 to 37 sympathetically vibrating metal strings. At least two convex bone bridges are required to accommodate the three melodic strings on top and the many vibrating strings below. The musician, who is seated, normally holds the instrument against his left shoulder in a vertical position and plays with an arched bow held in an underhand grip in his right hand. The cuticles (or sometimes the space on the fingernail just above the cuticles) of the left hand are pressed against the strings to sound specific pitches.
What made you want to look up "sarangi"? Please share what surprised you most... | [
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Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article.
Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review.
Family Megalopygidae ( flannel moths)240 species in Central and South America; larvae similar to those of Limacodidae, but with normal prolegs and traces of additional ones; setae very toxic and...
What made you want to look up "flannel moth"? Please share what surprised you most... | [
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] | 105 |
died July 31, 1981, near Penonomé
dictator-like leader of Panama (196878), who negotiated the Panama Canal treaties with the United States, leading to Panama's eventual assumption of control of the canal.
Educated at a military school in El Salvador, Torrijos also studied military-related subjects in the United States and Venezuela. In 1952 he was commissioned second lieutenant in the National Guard of Panama (Guardia Nacional; the country's only military force), becoming lieutenant colonel (1966), colonel (1968), and brigadier general (1969). In October 1968 he participated in a coup by the National Guard that overthrew President Arnulfo Arias, and he gradually emerged as leader of the new military junta with the title Chief of Government and Supreme Leader of the Panamanian Revolution. He became one of the few Latin American leaders who visited Fidel Castro in Cuba, but he also suppressed leftist labour agitators and students in Panama. Under his rule, social services expanded, and Panamanians of African descent had more prominent roles in government; however, corruption and drug trafficking increased.
Transfer of the Panama Canal and Canal Zone to Panamanian sovereignty became Torrijos's main objective, and he pursued it to a successful conclusion when on September 7, 1977, he and President Jimmy Carter of the United States signed two treaties by which the transfer would take place gradually; Panama assumed full control of the canal on December 31, 1999.
In the election of October 1978, Torrijos declined to run for the presidency, though he retained command of the National Guard. He died in an airplane crash in a jungle area while making a military inspection tour. In 2004 his son Martín was elected president of Panama. | [
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] | 358 |
History's greatest empires covered a fifth of the world, ruled hundreds of millions of people, and lasted anywhere from 100 years to over a millennium.
Empire, which comes from the Latin "imperare" meaning "to command," is a collection of states or ethnic groups united under one ruler or oligarchy.
It is a term that has been used to describe recent US foreign policy. Wrote filmmaker Oliver Stone and historian Peter Kuznick in a recent USA Today op-ed: "Obama is about to enter his second term as heir of George W. Bush's imperial strategy unless his latest foreign policy appointments signal significant change."
Each empire seemed unstoppable for an age, but in the end they were all consigned to history. | [
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] | 151 |
Lateral Thinking, Logical Thinking, Applied Creativity
Certain processes enhance creative output and others enhance innovative output. Defining creativity as problem identification and idea generation and innovation as idea selection, development and commercialisation, this article will tackle stages two and three using the three-stage process of lateral thinking, logical thinking and applied creativity.
The start of the process involves building a sizeable idea pool of quality ideas. In this article, we can define quality as being a large number of ideas and a large number of diverse and novel ideas.
Simply creating the above three categories enhances the size of the idea pool. Whereas we might initially have come up with 20 ideas, we are now consciously able to come up with 20 ideas and then 20 others that are purposefully diverse and yet still 20 more that are purposefully novel. This framework that we are beginning to construct begins to show the value of frameworks and models. They break up problems into smaller, more manageable parts and allow the mind to focus on each.
We can also use lateral thinking techniques to enhance the size of our idea pool. This involves processes such as generating ideas without conscious direction, for the sake of generating ideas, purposefully ridiculous ideas, ideas generated from links to diverse and novel objects that have no relation to the apparent problem.
Next, we can use logical thinking to generate ideas and increase the quality of the idea pool still further. This involves using established models and associations that are recognised as being linked to the problem to generate ideas. For example, a million business models exist to address particular problems. SWOT, PEST, Five Forces, Competitive Advantages etc can be used if the issue is indeed a business one.
All of the above requires that creative thinking in general be used. That is daring, uninhibited, free-spirited, imaginative, unpredictable and revolutionary.
With a sizeable and good quality idea pool, we now begin to use critical thinking to reduce the ideas to feasible ones ? applied creativity. Critical thinking involves being reductive, logical, focused, conservative, practical and feasible.
Once we have a list of feasible ideas, we then further reduce the selection further through risk-reward mechanisms such as the S-curve and idea source probabilities. That is because most organizations do not have the resources to innovate all their good ideas and so only the most likely are given the resources and opportunity to succeed.
This topic is covered in depth in the MBA dissertation on Managing Creativity & Innovation, which can be purchased (along with a Creativity and Innovation DIY Audit, Good Idea Generator Software and Power Point Presentation) from http://www.managing-creativity.com. You can also receive a regular, free newsletter by entering your email address at this site.
Kal Bishop, MBA
You are free to reproduce this article as long as no changes are made and the author's name and site URL are retained.
Kal Bishop is a management consultant based in London, UK. He has consulted in the visual media and software industries and for clients such as Toshiba and Transport for London. He has led Improv, creativity and innovation workshops, exhibited artwork in San Francisco, Los Angeles and London and written a number of screenplays. He is a passionate traveller. He can be reached on http://www.managing-creativity.com.
Delegate Tasks to the Right Person
SELECTING THE RIGHT PERSON: To whom should tasks be delegated? Selecting the right subordinate to do the work is an evaluative process, and managers must be able to identify individuals both capable and willing to handle responsibility.
5 Surefire Ways to Bring Your Business Objectives Full Circle with Technology
All small to mid-sized company owners want to know where their dollar is being spent when it comes to computer technology in their organization. The challenge is for them to get the information they need to make the right purchasing decisions. 'Tell me in English why you think we need this technology in our company?' That question goes through every company owner's mind and mouth. Getting the answer that makes sense to them is another story. How can the people in charge of your company understand what the value is of specific technology if their computer support people cannot articulate why it is so important?
Delegate or Die!
You Can't Do It All - Learning To Delegate
Can What Someone Does Off-hours Affect Your Business?
Q: How much do I have to worry about what people who are part of my far-flung "virtual" corporation do when they're not working directly for me? I can't share too many details because the situation is touchy, as you might expect, but basically I have someone working for me as a writer, contributing material for my blog, and I have been hearing that he's writing some pretty far out, offensive material on other sites. Do I need to worry about it?
Rethinking Workplace Security: How the Rules Have Changed
The workplace has traditionally been a dangerous place. Very early in mankind's history perils emanated from the place and type of work they performed. Long before industrialization, men mined precious metals, gems and fuel in the form of peat and coal hidden beneath the earth's surface. Extracting these materials brought with it the risk of cave-ins and being buried alive. Moreover, the quest for the most basic of all life giving substances, water, could also end in sudden death or severe injury as well shafts were dug in the soft earth.
Sexual Harassment Policy Guidelines Part II
SEXUAL HARASSMENT COMPLAINT INVESTIGATION PROCEDURE
Three Foundation Stones for Building Organizational Integrity
When the stock market crashed in 1929, there were a lot of people who lost everything they had. You would think that the result of that event would be complete and utter despair. And, in fact, there were those who reacted that way. There were numerous cases of people who committed suicide because they lost their life savings on that fateful day. They simply went into a depression and just couldn't bring themselves to go on with life.
Focus on Outcomes to Keep Your Business On-Course
Did you know that an airplane in flight is off course nearly 98% of the time? No flight is completed in a straight line from Point A to Point B. Gravity, side winds, updrafts, and downdrafts are continually moving the plane off course. And yet, the majority of flights arrive at their planned destinations safely and on time. How do airline pilots make this happen? They continually keep the outcome or result in mind, say departing from Los Angeles and arriving in Honolulu. Pilots constantly make corrections to compensate for outside forces affecting the plane and use a proven set of process steps to keep everything on course.
The Comfort Zone
The Comfort Zone I have a friend named Gene, a serial entrepreneur who currently runs a software business. Like many people, last year was a tough one for his company. They survived largely by providing add-on services to existing customers - a decent response to difficult circumstances. They even grew revenues a bit. But here's something else that happened: They got comfortable. They decided they could exist on their base of customers, and then they "realized" there would be no new ones.
Million Dollar Support System For You and For Your Business
Whether you are a consultant, coach, business owner, doctor, professional, corporate elite or student, whatever your profession is, moving towards your dream requires taking courageous steps. Making long-lasting changes requires us to create a network of support. Surrounding yourself with a community of nice-giving-good people, committed to their own growth, will give you tremendous emotional strength to move forward.
The Top 5 Signals That Your Business Is Running You
Starting your own business is a great undertaking but running the day-to-day aspects of your business is the true challenge you will face as an entrepreneur. Do you find that the business you started to suit your lifestyle somehow taken over your life and home? If this sounds familiar, then your business is running you. Learn how to run your business again with these top five warning signs and helpful tips.
50 Great Ways to Motivate and Not Break the Bank
Quick, Easy, and Even Fun!
How to Get Your Procedures Project Done
Wouldn't it be nice for business owners and executives to be finished with their policies and procedures project already? They know they need to get it done, but maybe it's taking too long. Or perhaps their people are staring at a blank piece of paper, and they don't know where to begin. Or maybe they're not sure what to write. Or they're just too busy.
Involving People Gave Us the Improvements We Needed
We had a problem with handling materials in a production department. Our process required raw materials to enter the department, be processed, and leave the department. The raw material was placed on pods, delivered for production, removed from the pods, placed on a staging fixture, removed from the fixture and process materials were then placed on another pod and delivered to an internal customer. Internal customer had to place on still another pod.
Creativity and Innovation Management :- Thought Leadership
Leadership is only sustainable when leaders consistently come up with good ideas ? when they are dependable thought leaders. It follows then that leaders would be more effective if they knew how to manage creativity and innovation.
Outsourced Learning: Are You Ready for Learning BPO?
As the business world enters a period of hyper-competitiveness, every business process will be subjected to examination and possible restructuring. We have already seen outsourcing and offshoring used to an extent what nobody would have dreamed of a few years ago. McDonald's is testing the offshoring of its drive-thru process to India. How about, "Do you want fries with that?" with a New Delhi accent?
The Top 10 Requirements for Your Business to Become and Remain Profitable
We live in a relentlessly competitive world. The daily pressure to work "better, cheaper and faster" can make even talented business owners and entrepreneurs lose site of first principles. As you cope with the decisions and details of running your business, focus on the fundamentals! Regardless of the type of business or the products or services you sell, here are my suggestions for the Top 10 Basics that will make your fortune:
The Seven Cs: Partnership Danger Signs - The 6th C: Changing Vision
A series of articles exploring the seven critical areas that can indicate a partnership is in trouble.
Goodwill is an Intangible Asset
'Goodwill' is regarded as an intangible asset in a business. Goodwill carries a value over and above the tangible assets of a business, and representing all benefits derived from the distinctive location, trade and brand names, credit rating, reputation, cusotmers and patronage of the business. When a business is sold, a charge is usually applied for the goodwill as one of the assets.
Are You Ready to Sell Your Business
Make Sure You Understand Your Motivation for Selling | [
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] | 2,262 |
THE LAW. The Equal Pay Act (EPA) of 1963 prohibits employers from dishing out different wages or bene-fits on the basis of gender for "equal work on jobs (requiring) equal skill, effort and responsibility and which are performed under similar working conditions."
The EPA applies to all employees covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act, which means virtually all employees, and has no exclusion for small businesses. The law is administered by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which can conduct equal-pay audits even if it hasn't received a complaint and can initiate lawsuits on behalf of workers.
WHAT'S NEW? There's evidence the wage gap is widening, and that could spark more complaints and more inspections.
Also, the EEOC is already seeing the fruits of an Equal Pay Task Force it set up two years ago. Last year, employees filed 1,251 equal-pay charges and the EEOC brought in a record amount of monetary awards for workers, more than $5 million, compared with less than $2 million just five years ago.
HOW TO COMPLY. The law seems very straightforward: It requires that men and women be given equal pay for equal work. The jobs don't have to be identical, but they must be "substantially equal." Focus on the job content, not titles, to decide whether jobs are substantially equal.
When doing a self-audit of your workplace (or determining if a worker has a valid equal-pay case), always look at the factors a court would examine:
Skill. Look at the experience, ability, education and training required to perform a job, not what skills the individual employees have. Example: Two accounting jobs could be considered equal under the EPA even if one of the employees has a master's degree in physics, since that degree isn't required for the job.
Effort. Look at the physical or mental exertion needed to do the job. Suppose men and women work on an assembly line, but the employee at the end must perform his task and also lift the product into a box. That job requires more effort than the other jobs if the extra lifting is a substantial and regular part of the job. Net effect: You could pay that person more.
Responsibility. Look at the level of accountability needed to do the work. If you're assigning a minor difference in responsibility, it wouldn't be a factor.
Working conditions. This encompasses two things: physical environment, like temperature or ventilation, and workplace hazards. A more dangerous or demanding environment allows for a higher pay grade.
Key point: You can also set "pay differentials" when they're based on seniority, merit, quantity or quality of work or another business reason other than gender. Just be prepared to show a sound business reason why those differentials exist, and have good documentation of your reasons for employee pay levels.
Three other tips:
- Have accurate job descriptions to help justify pay-for-performance disputes.
- Offer equal amounts of overtime. It's illegal to favor a man because of a woman's "family constraints" or pregnancy.
- If you discover equal-pay problems, it's illegal to lower the wages of either sex to equalize the pay.
Resources: Equal Pay Act
- The EEOC's Equal Pay and Compensation Discrimination Web page, www.eeoc.gov/epa.
- The Equal Pay Act in full, www.eeoc.gov/laws/epa.html.
- Ten steps to performing an equal-pay self-audit at your company, www.dol.gov/wb/10step71.htm.
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] | 931 |
Enumerators in C#
In this article I will explain you about Enumerators in C#.
This article has been excerpted from book "The Complete Visual C# Programmer's Guide" from the Authors of C# Corner.
As explained earlier, C# has a new iteration syntax called foreach. The foreach statement can only be applied to objects of classes that implement the IEnumerable interface. The IEnumerable interface exposes the enumerator, which supports a simple iteration over a collection. Enumerators are intended to be used only to read data in the collection and cannot be used to modify the underlying collection. The enumerator does not have exclusive access to the collection. To understand what happens in the background, consider the code snippet in Listing 5.57.
Listing 5.57: Enumerator Example 1
foreach (int i in a)
This code functions just like the while loop used in Listing 5.58.
Listing 5.58: Enumerator Example 2
a = x.GetEnumerator();
Please refer to the C# Language Specification (http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa645596(VS.71).aspx) for more details and recent updates to the C# language.
Before entering the statement block, the compiler generates the code to call the method GetEnumerator of the object passed as the second parameter in the foreach statement. The GetEnumerator method must return an object, having a property named Current, of type similar to the first argument of the foreach statement. Also this object must have a MoveNext method of return type bool. This method informs the runtime when to terminate the loop.
When an enumerator is instantiated, it takes a snapshot of the current state of the collection. If changes are made to the collection, such as the addition, modification, or deletion of elements, the snapshot gets out of sync and the enumerator throws an InvalidOperationException. Two enumerators instantiated from the same collection simultaneously can have different snapshots of the collection.
If the enumerator is positioned before the first element in the collection or after the last element in the collection, the enumerator is in an invalid state. In that case, calling Current throws an exception.
The enumerator is positioned before the first element in the collection initially. The Reset function brings the enumerator back to this position. The MoveNext method must be called to advance the enumerator to the first element of the collection before reading the value of Current, after an enumerator is created or after a Reset. The Current property returns the same object until either MoveNext or Reset is called.
Once the end of the collection is passed, the enumerator is in an invalid state and calling MoveNext returns false.
Calling Current throws an exception if the last call to MoveNext returned false. With this information under your belt, you should insert your enumerating code inside a try-catchfinally block to prevent unexpected exits.
Hope this article would have helped you in understanding Enumerators in C#. See other articles on the website on .NET and C#.
| ||The Complete Visual C# Programmer's Guide covers most of the major components that make up C# and the .net environment. The book is geared toward the intermediate programmer, but contains enough material to satisfy the advanced developer.| | [
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] | 703 |
Author and historian Douglas Brinkley talks about his book "The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America." The book tells the story of Theodore Roosevelt's contribution to the early days of the conservation movement. Between 1901 and 1909, TR was responsible for 230 million acres of land being set aside as wilderness. Mr. Brinkley sees this as the most important initiative by a U.S. President between the Civil War and World War I. The interview was conducted at the National Conservation Training Center in Shepherdstown, West Virginia. The Center is part of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. This is Part One of a two-part Q&A. | [
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] | 137 |
First of all, students in smaller classes generally perform better in academics than those in larger classes. Project STAR was a project run in Tennessee from 1985 to about 1999. It compared the academics of kindergarten through third grade children taught in smaller classes (13-17 kids) to those in larger classes (22-26 kids). The results were stunning. The small class children substantially outperformed the larger class children. The rates of second grade suspension went down. The district even went from low tier in math and reading to middle tier in the state. Since smaller classes have been proven to outperform larger classes, then we should transition to smaller class sizes.
Secondly, being in smaller classes early on has lasting effects throughout the child's years in school. Project STAR saw that fourth grade children who had been in smaller classes in K-3 were better behaved, probably due to the less discipline needed to quiet a smaller class. Students also had better grades than those in larger classes, even when taking into account demographics, resources, and cost of living, according to a study by Harold Weglinsky. The Weglinsky study, which pretty much repeated the Project STAR studies but in different cities, also showed that fourth graders in the inner city were three quarters of a grade level ahead of children enrolled in larger classes. There was also a stronger bond between students. I know the bond part is true because last year in band class we had a grand total of ten people. We all got to know each other better.
The story doesn't end there. Project STAR also noted that the small class kids found in high school, and were more likely to graduate on schedule and less likely to drop out. More smaller class kids were found in honors classes, and more took the SATs and ACTs, indicating a higher rate of going to college. Since studies prove again and again that smaller classes are better for your kids, isn't it the logical choice?
The benefits of smaller class sizes keep going on. Smaller class sizes can actually save money. In smaller classes, there's a smaller teacher to child ratio, so that means that there's more time for children to talk directly to the teacher for assistance. Children receive a more personalized education that fits their needs. In smaller classes early on, during K-3 years, teachers can give personalized education to those who may have learning problems, rather than referring his or her parents to costly special education programs. Fewer children get left out since teachers don't have as many kids to teach. Since smaller classes save money, why shouldn't classes downsize?
The more and more time we take, the more children are left undereducated, the more money we spend on special education, tests, and false answers. Cutting class sizes is proven to be better. It saves your money, your child's education, and their future. We should minimize the classes as soon as possible in order to make sure our children get the education they need. If we don't act now, it could be too late for an entire generation of children. | [
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] | 620 |
Story last updated at 9/19/2012 - 12:46 pm
Near the mouth of the Stikine River is a rounded point along the mainland shore. When Navy Officer Jefferson Moser investigated Alaska's salmon resources in 1897 for the federal government, he named it Gerard Point, but fails to tell us for whom it was named. At that time, Fort Wrangel (as Wrangell was then known) was about to experience the Klondike Gold Rush when prospectors and miners thought the Stikine River was a short way to the Interior.
It is at Gerard Point that a sawmill and salmon cannery were constructed soon after Moser passed by in the "Albatross," a coal burner ship. The site has been described in early fishery reports as being on the mainland opposite Point Highfield (today's airport site), at the junction of Eastern Passage and the "southeast stream of the Stikine delta."
More than hundred years ago, the Stikine River delta had not extended itself as far south as Point Gerard, and a substantial deep-water wharf could accommodate steamers, that today, would run aground.
With the Gold Rush men coming to Fort Wrangel, Theo Nicholai, an experienced mill man from Portland, Ore., saw his chance to make money that wasn't grubbing for gold. His company, Stikeen Lumber Mills, constructed a saw mill in early 1898 at the head of the Stikine's deep water navigation. As manager, he selected J. Milner as the general superintendent. The mill had a capacity of 20,000 board feet per day, cutting principally spruce and cedar, undoubtedly harvested from the mountainside behind the site. The wharf was constructed and other buildings erected. Once started from 15 to 20 men worked supplying lumber for the Wrangell and Stikine River trades.
Apparently Nicholai didn't make as much money as he thought he would, because he sold the sawmill to Thlinket Packing Company, organized at Portland, Ore., by James T. Barron. It was in Portland that Barron and Nicholai closed the deal in spring 1899. Barron used the mill to cut lumber for his new fish processing plant.
The site chosen was not on level ground. Consequently the cannery building was small and crowded with men and equipment. With the wharf and cannery over deep water, the current carried away the gurry (heads and guts). This made it one of the few canneries of the times that did not have unpleasant odors, which so often were associated with canneries, where rotting fish parts accumulated on the beach.
Under the superintendency of Barron, president of the company, the cannery processed mainly pinks or humpback salmon the first year. The fleet was made up of one steamboat, the "Perhaps," sixteen fishing skiffs for imported company fishermen, and the chartered "Baranof." Local Natives also sold fish to the cannery, and in 1900 it paid collectively $8,000.
The site was close the mouth of the Stikine River because Barron and his company surmised that any river of that size must support large runs of salmon. Compared to many smaller streams in the same region, the river proved a great disappointment. Fishermen were forced to fish at streams on nearby islands, Cleveland Peninsula and the east and north coasts of Prince of Wales Island. The "Baranof" packed the fish longer distances.
Before the runs began, a Chinese crew imported from the Pacific Coast made cans by hand. Once fish were delivered to the fish house, the Chinese butchered the fish, and then hand-packed pieces into cans. Eight hundred cases of 48 cans each could be canned each day using some machinery: two steam boxes for creating a vacuum, a crimper to put on can lids, two retorts for cooking the fish under pressure, and a can-washer to remove the oil from the exterior of the processed cans.
In early 1902, Barron decided to sell his two canneries: Point Gerard and Santa Anna, south of Wrangell. A newly organized conglomerate, Pacific Packing and Navigation Company chose not to operate either cannery that year.
The new company's grandiose plans did not work out. It went into receivership in 1903. The receiver inventoried the Gerard plant during the summer and took steps to perfect title to the land. However, the land was never patented, and it remains part of the National Forest today.
The receiver wrote that, "On account of nearness to Santa Anna...the Gerard site is of considerable value as a fishing station if nothing more. The buildings are in good shape." The wharf was somewhat dilapidated, so the receiver arranged to have it reinforced to stand the stress of water and ice until spring.
Crews removed the machinery and gear to other canneries the receiver operated in 1903. The remaining fishing gear, machinery, wharf and fish site were estimated to be worth $19,789. The wharf and building probably cost, according to the appraiser, in the neighborhood of $12,000 to $15,000.
The bankruptcy court sold the canneries, and Barron successfully bid on the Gerard site. He had no use for the small cannery so the site and buildings were abandoned. Barron, using money from the sale of his two other canneries, had built a cannery in 1902 at Funter Bay.
The Point Gerard cannery ran for only three years, packing a total of 63,300 cases. Today when boaters pass by, the former cannery site is impossible to distinguish in the brush and trees. The late Dick Stokes of Wrangell thought the site was just south of the point near a waterfall that provided water for the processing.
Pat Roppel is the author of numerous books about mining, fishing, and man's use of the land. She lives in Wrangell. She may be reached at [email protected]. | [
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] | 1,247 |
Overspending can be very stressful when it comes time to pay your credit card bill. However, it's the added interest that makes overspending just that much more expensive.
Spending your future income
One survey of 21- to 35-year-old college graduates found that this group owes an average of $30,000 in student loans. The several hundred dollars these graduates pay each month to pay off the loan is money that can't be saved or invested for the future. It can't be spent on other necessities, such as emergency car repairs or household expenses either. It's money that's tied up until the debt is repaid.
While debt for education is considered "good" debt because it's an investment in your future, all debt obligates your future income because of the payments that must be made. So make sure you use debt wisely-eliminate "bad" debt (debt for depreciating assets, such as car loans and credit card debt) and limit the "good" debt to reasonable amounts.
Paying the price of debt
Interest payments on debt work against you. New college graduates carry an average credit card balance of $3,000. Let's say you're lucky—or better yet, careful—and you accumulate only $2,200 in credit card debt. Your interest rate is 18% and you pay the minimum amount each month on your card ($40) without any further purchases on your card. How long will it take to pay off your balance? Did you guess five years? Try 10. It will take almost 10 years to pay off the debt. Your total cost will be $4,680 (original balance of $2,200 plus $2,480 in interest).
Getting into debt is easy
It's easy to run up a credit card. How many times have you gone to dinner, put the whole bill on your credit card, collected money from friends for their portion of the bill, and then found that money gone by the time the bill arrives in the mail? How easy is it to buy another sweater on sale, not so much because you need it but because it was a good bargain? Pretty soon you've built up a large balance on your credit card. You could easily charge $2,200 on your credit card in two months, but it will take 10 years to pay it off if you only pay the minimum balance each month. Two months versus 10 years. Now that's downright scary! | [
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] | 505 |
When was the last time you farmed after a devastating drought, and tried to figure out how to balance all of the agronomic challenges it presented. Lack of soil moisture? Herbicide carryover? Fertility needs? Biomass? Soil tilth? Dad and Granddad may or may not have worried about any of those, but today’s agriculture will put some or most of those on a high priority list. Although it may take most of the winter to learn how to address most of those issues, it may soon be time to take action on some of those. And to kill multiple birds with one stone, a cover crop may be that stone
You may be new to the concept of a cover crop, and some research may be necessary, but it could be just the answer for questions that you have not yet thought about. Purdue agronomist Eileen Kladivko will tell you that a cover crop will be one way to keep your unused 2012 nitrogen on your farm and recycle it into the 2013 crop.
Her factsheet in a recent Purdue crops bulletin says the residual nitrates that were not used by the crop this year will soon be leached out of the soil by fall precipitation. While she is most concerned about where the nitrates will go (into waterways, streams, and the river), Kladivko says, “For farmers who lose the residual N, they are also losing the opportunity to trap that N and keep it in their fields for subsequent crop use. Cover crops are an excellent practice to scavenge residual N and recycle it through their plant biomass (shoots and roots).”
click image to zoom Kladivko says when the cover crop decomposes next spring some of the nitrogen it has absorbed will be released for use by the next row crop planted in that field. And some will help build the organic matter in the soil. How much uptake of nitrogen there will be depends on how much residual nitrogen you have in the soil, the type of cover crop that is planted, how much it grows until it is terminated, and how it decomposes next spring.
But Kladivko says, “This is precisely the type of year when a cover crop is needed, to trap the much larger amount of residual N that will be present after the poor (corn) crop. Cover crops will help the farmer recoup part of the fertilizer N investment from this season, and will provide some benefits in improving soil organic matter and soil biological activity.”
Her study of cover crops points to many other benefits, including protecting against soil erosion, and providing food for soil organisms.
If a cover crop is something that may be of interest, there are many decisions to make, particularly what you are going to plant, and how to manage it. Kladivko suggests:
- If the main focus of the cover crop is to scavenge N and build soil organic matter, then grasses such as oats, cereal rye, or annual ryegrass, perhaps mixed with oilseed radish, are good options.
- If fall grazing is desired, then turnips or crimson clover could be mixed with the oats and cereal rye.
- Farmers need to consider their next cash crop and have a plan for cover crop termination in the spring, as an important step before seeding cover crops this fall.
- Careful spring management is essential if cover crops are to be beneficial to the farmer and not pose major difficulties in planting the next crop.
- The amount of N scavenged by these cover crops is difficult to predict but may be in the 50 to 100 lb N/acre range in a year like this one.
- Although the amount of N released by the cover crop for next year’s crop is also difficult to predict, it may potentially be up to half of the N in the above-ground biomass, if the cover crops or cover crop mixture have a low C:N ratio and are terminated while in the vegetative state.
- A pre-sidedress nitrate test (PSNT) would be one way to help determine whether sidedress N applications could be reduced next year.
- Herbicides applied to row crops this year may have an impact on the cover crop to be planted, so read the label for the herbicide that was used.
Kladivko says a lot of advice is available from the Midwest Cover Crops Council.
Many farmers, who have explored the use of cover crops in the past and have been frustrated with the rules about insuring row crops following a cover crop, are advised that USDA’s recent drought initiatives have addressed some of the issues. While the official authorization has not yet occurred, USDA indicates it will allow insurable row crops to be grown after a cover crop has been cultivated over the winter.
Corn ground which may have unused nitrogen could be a great candidate for a fall/winter cover crop, to help with soil retention, capture the unused nitrogen, provide that nitrogen for the next crop, increase soil organic matter, and feed soil organisms. The drought this year has left this year to be a perfect time to plant a cover crop.
Source: FarmGate blog | [
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] | 1,061 |
NATURE Science Education SeriesExplores science topics of adaptations, animal survival, climate change, extreme environments, and changes in plants and animals in our world.
Creative Reading and Writing with Roald DahlWelcome to the mad and merrily macabre world of British author Roald Dahl, who continues to capture the imaginations of young readers.
Fundamental MathematicsGreat resources for helping students understand the fundamental aspects of Mathematics
Cultural Legacies of Ancient Civilizations SeriesThis series explores the life and times of a diverse array of ancient civilizations, including the Egyptians, Minoan, Greeks, Romans, Mayans, and Incas.
Secrets of Plant Genomes: Revealed!This program takes viewers on a lively and upbeat journey that explores how plants got to be the way they are and how we can make better use of them in the future.
Teachers have embraced media as an educational tool. Students, too, view media in the classroom as an extension of the media-rich environment in which they live. New Dimension Media has taken educational media beyond simple video playback in the classroom by pioneering an interactive media-on-demand system, CCC! Video on Demand. CCC! is a rich content and multimedia resource for educators and students to find pathways to teaching and learning for the world of tomorrow.
As schools and districts look to upgrade their curriculum to meet the new rigor of STEM, many are finding that their resources are insufficient. This collection represents content from the most respected producers in today's educational media industry including Disney Educational Productions, Nature, Britannica and the National Science Foundation. This STEM program is a must if you want to help reduce the pressure your teachers feel today about insuring their students are ready for college and the world of work tomorrow!
Visit the STEM home page to learn more!
Veteran Educator Credits CCC! with Assisting in Award Win
Mike McGowan - Supervisor of Technology at Lincoln Elementary School District 156 in Calumet City, Illinois - has been named the 2012 SMART Exemplary Educator of the Year by SMART Interactive Solutions. Mike credits his incorporation of CCC! streaming educational media from New Dimension Media (NDM) with helping him to achieve this national recognition.
CCC! Now Serves Over 200,000 students in New York State
Over the past few months, a number of new school districts and BOCES (Board of Cooperative Educational Services) have signed on to bring their classroom into the 21st century by adding CCC! streaming media. This means that over 200,000 students in New York State utilize CCC!'s award-winning content in their classrooms.
CCC! Content Partner Wins Three Emmys
New Dimension Media is pleased to announce that Atlantic Productions -producers of several of the over 4,500 programs on its CCC! streaming media service - has received three 2011 Emmy Awards from the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Atlantic Productions won Emmys for...
NDM Provides Professional Development for Interactive Classroom Media
New Dimension Media (NDM) is helping teachers create interactive lesson plans incorporating streaming media, interactive whiteboard technology, and Web 2.0 through a new professional development program. Under this program, NDM representatives travel to CCC!-subscribing schools and school districts to train educators on these new technologies, provide model lesson plans, and share cutting-edge classroom technology practices.
About CCC! VOD
Founded in 1978, New Dimension Media, a division of Questar, Inc., is the premier producer and distributor of original core curriculum media content created for K-12 classrooms. NDM programs have won over 100 of the industry's most prestigious honors, including the CINE Golden Eagle and the Golden Apple. NDM content is used in over 100,000 schools around the country.
The 21st Century Classroom
Teachers have embraced media as an educational tool. Students, too, view media in the classroom as an extension of the media-rich environment in which they live. New Dimension Media has taken educational media beyond simple video playback in the classroom by pioneering an interactive media-on-demand system, CCC! Video on Demand. CCC! is a rich content and multimedia resource for educators and students to find pathways to teaching and learning for the world of tomorrow. Its powerful, multifaceted software empowers teachers to seamlessly integrate thousands of core curriculum programs into their lesson plans. The CCC! library is comprised of over 3,500 titles, with hundreds of new programs added each year. | [
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] | 922 |
The creation of three distinct and separate branches of government were meant to create the necessary checks and balances to ensure that no one branch would be able to oppress the people as had been the case in England. Georgia's Constitution follows that same concept with a separate Article for each of the three branches of Government that defines the offices of each branch and their responsibilities.
It is no surprise that leaders want to amass powers, always promising to never abuse them. It is up to the members of each branch to defend the powers assigned to them by the Constitution.
We have certainly seen our share of those exercises during these first four days of our 2013 Legislative Session.
We began our first day, as we begin each day, with the pledge to both the U.S flag and the Georgia flag followed by our devotion and prayer. We then took our oath to support the Georgia and U.S. Constitutions. We also swore that we were not the holder of any unaccounted for money due to the state or any political subdivision or authority thereof.
It was an honor to be sworn in by former State Senator and now Superior Court Judge Bill Hamrick.
It all began on Monday when we convened for the first day. As we began to take our seats, amendments to the rules by which the Senate conducts its business we're introduced. We had the opportunity to see these proposed changes as we were convening in the Senate Chambers.
As we began our day, newly proposed Senate rules were distributed.
These rules made some significant changes in how the Senate would conduct itself. The most notable changes were a change in who controls every action in the Senate and a cap on lobbyist gifts to senators, albeit with many exceptions.
Article V of the Georgia Constitution lists the members of the Executive branch and their duties and powers. Paragraph III of this article addresses the office of the Lieutenant Governor. This paragraph states, "The Lieutenant Governor shall be the President of the Senate and shall have such executive duties as prescribed by the Governor and as may be prescribed by law not inconsistent with the powers of the Governor or other provisions of this Constitution."
The newly proposed amendments to the Senate rules gave the Lieutenant Governor, clearly a member of the Executive Branch, the powers to decide which committees each member serves on and who chairs those committees.
Prior to this change those powers had resided in the Senate itself, thereby preserving the separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches. The Lieutenant Governor was also given the powers to assign each bill to the committee of his/her choice.
While these changes don't necessarily give the Executive Branch the power to pass legislation, it certainly gives it the power to stop any legislation.
In an effort to be the first to claim the adoption of "Ethics Reform," the rules included a prohibition of any "gift" with a value in excess of $100. Of course there were exceptions. Among them were "actual and reasonable expenses for admission, registration, food, beverages, travel, and lodging attributed to participating in events, seminars, or educational programs sponsored by or in conjunction with a civic, charitable, governmental, educational, professional, community, or business organization or institution where attendance is related to the Senator's official duties." Of course these rules only apply to Senators, not members of the House of Representatives, Executive or Judicial Branches.
As I promised to do on day one, I introduced SB 36 that prohibits any gift to any public officer by a lobbyist. The law already includes the definition of a gift as something with a value in excess of $100.
On Thursday, the Senate took up SB 24. The stated purpose of the bill is to allow the continued collection of what has been referred to as the hospital bed tax.
In 2010, the hospital bed tax was coupled with a reduction in insurance premium taxes (once the state's Revenue Shortfall Fund reached $500 million) as a temporary measure to mitigate a Medicaid funding shortfall due to the declining revenues of the state.
SB 24 grants the Department of Community Health the ability to tax net hospital revenues at any rate up to the cap set by the Federal government of 6 percent for up to four years.
In an attitude of compromise, recognizing the difficulties facing the state, conservatives in the Senate fought for amendments that would have limited the measure to only two years, cap the rate at the current 1.45 percent and adopt reform measures that are predicted to save approximately $1 billion. Those amendments failed and ultimately the measure passed on a vote of 46 to 9.
It is an honor to represent you, the constituents of the 31st Senate District at the State Capitol. If you ever have any questions or concerns, please don't hesitate to call or email my office. | [
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] | 959 |
“Perfection is achieved, not when there is nothing more to add, but when there is nothing left to take away.” — Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
Most designers will recognise the quote, but it’s a shame so many fail to follow its advice in their writing. Good writing conveys information more clearly, of course, but the reader isn’t the only beneficiary. Writing also makes us better thinkers. Even a talented wordsmith must first clarify his thoughts and eliminate ambiguity to make a convincing argument.
Editing is integral to this thought process. Yet we often overlook it as the unglamorous relation; perhaps it doesn’t flatter our mental model of the creative scribe giving birth to a masterpiece.
Designers know well that we often miss problems until we review our intended solutions. Similarly, we may think we have a clear argument until the blank page forces us to find the right language to describe it. Therefore, just as we appreciate the power of iteration in design, we should embrace the power of editing. In essence, editing is critique for the written word: review, question, revise. Like its design counterpart, it involves attention to detail, viewing the problem from many angles, and even the familiar outflanking death-spiral: “Why is this section even here? Why am I even writing this piece?”
Here are a few tips I’ve found useful when bringing the iterative mentality to the written word.
The best writers are inquisitive readers, just as the best designers are attentive users. We need only look at our terminology to see the parallels: “design vocabulary”, “design literacy”. So a good writer reads incessantly. Absorb different styles and approaches: quality, trash, everything. Find writers whose style you admire, and consider what attracts you to their style. Find writers whose style you loathe, and again consider why. Deconstruct their language to understand better how to use it in useful ways.
Make every word matter
Every wasted word is an unnecessary design element. In fixed-length pieces, you lose space to tell your story, but even in open pieces an unnecessary word distracts the reader’s focus, diluting your message. The data-ink ratio isn’t just for graphics.
This rule applies at many levels in parallel.
- If a word doesn’t notably improve a sentence, remove it.
- If a sentence doesn’t notably improve a paragraph, remove it.
- If a paragraph doesn’t notably improve a text, remove it.
Screenwriters know that every line, page and scene should either
- advance the storyline, or
- provide depth to the characters and setting so that the storyline can advance later.
Adopt a similar mentality.
Cut adjectives and adverbs
Superfluous adjectives and adverbs are the staple of the pedestrian writer. It’s easy to see why: they appear to add spice to bland text. But adjectives and adverbs are often mere props, and editors I’ve worked with tend to slaughter them without mercy. This can be alarming: without this seasoning, where is my flavour going to come from?
The answer? Replace your adjective and adverbs with richer nouns and verbs.
- “Apple’s auteur”, not “Apple’s demanding CEO”.
- “The barman snarled”, not “The barman replied gruffly”.
- “An environmental obscenity”, not “A dreadful environmental accident”.
Memorable nouns are the nodes in your story. The static components; the space; the architecture. Nouns form mental models and associations: Apple’s leader is talented, painstaking and difficult.
Lively verbs describe the interactions in your story. The dialog, the motion, the time. They drive the text, giving it momentum and feel.
A broad vocabulary – a happy by-product of regular reading – will help you choose better nouns and verbs, but don’t be ashamed of a good thesaurus too. However, the most convincing language may not lie in synonyms but in creative parallels that help the reader to make unexpected associations. So use your inventive, lateral instincts to think of descriptive metaphorical words. A lothario might ooze across the dancefloor. A face might melt into tears.
Active, not passive
Active verbs encourage vigorous writing. It’s dogmatic to decree the passive a sin, but you should have a good reason in mind if you use it. Scientific writing rewards use of the passive – presumably to discourage the appearance of individuality (and hence subjectivity) within the scientific process – but non-scientific writing needs individuality. So rephrase passive sentences by focusing on the subject of the sentence – the thing or person that’s doing something. Then rewrite the phrase, putting the subject first and choosing the verb that correctly follows.
- “Designers overestimate the power of research”, not “The power of research is overestimated by the design community”.
Kill these redundant phrases on sight:
- “blah blah blah is that” – for example “One such issue is that…”
- “In my opinion” – It’s obviously your opinion, you’re the writer.
- Clichés – The Comic Sans of writing.
- “As X, we Y” – “As UX people, we must have empathy”, and so on. A well-targeted piece doesn’t need to remind its readers who they are; so know your audience and address it directly.
From the Longman Guide To Revising Prose:
“One of the factors that limits and warps the development of a theory of composition and style by teachers of the subject is the tendency to start with failed or inadequate writing”
Here, we have a string of prepositional phrases (phrases beginning with “in”, “of”, “by”, “with” etc) linked by a non-descriptive verb “is”. It’s easy to inadvertently chain together these monster sentences, but they’re a clear warning sign of overloading. To untangle the knot, follow the same principle as for passives: identify the subject first, then the natural verb. Split into multiple sentences if you like. Here’s one way to rewrite the sentence above:
“Teachers tend to start with inadequate writing. This limits students’ understanding of composition and style.”
Singulars and plurals
Look at the subject of your sentence, and make sure that your verbs and pronouns match.
- “The user (singular) might not understand why she (singular) needs to enter her password”, not
- “The user (singular) might not understand why they (plural) need to enter their password”.
English has no gender-neutral singular pronoun. Cater for this by alternating gender where appropriate – just don’t change someone’s gender mid-paragraph.
For added bonus points, remember that in British English, companies and teams are usually plural: “Microsoft have released an update”. In American English, they’re singular: “Microsoft has released an update.”
In short, choose the simple explanation over the complex one. Again, a sentiment we recognise in design, but it should also apply to language. Simplify, simplify. This doesn’t spell the end of rich verbs and nouns – instead, use Occam’s Razor to eliminate redundancy and buzzwords:
- “Use”, not “Utilise”
- “Quickly”, not “In a timely manner”.
The design industry is, of course, as ridden with jargon and gobbledygook as any specialist group.
- “Make the logo bigger”, not “Increase the visual hierarchy of the masthead brandmark”
- “Make it obvious what to do”, not “Expose the primary function of the interface”.
The Plain English Campaign offers a range of free guides that can help those with a jargon affliction.
Just like music, language has a tempo. An album of songs at the same speed quickly becomes boring, so use different sentence lengths to vary the pace of your writing.
The paragraph on the right mixes long, detailed sentences and short, punchy ones. Different sentence lengths give rhythm and variety to your writing. So mix it up.
Proofing your work
Some people say writing should be like speech. I don’t agree – I believe writing presents more scope for density and precision – but a writer must find her own voice.
However, the common tip of reading your work aloud is definitely helpful. It will help you to draw out clumsy phrases, and show where you need to quicken the pace or elaborate on a point. Some swear by reading their work backwards, from the last paragraph to the first. Other suggestions include proofing on paper, or changing the typeface to force you to re-parse the text.
What works for you?
For further advice, I recommend Austin Govella’s (More) tips for writing well. | [
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] | 1,999 |
Want to 'Win the Future'? Start by Reimagining Education
The little red schoolhouse—full of bright-eyed pupils carrying satchels and an apple for teach’—doesn’t exist anymore. Innovation, collaboration, and social entrepreneurship must be the lesson plans of tomorrow.
New studies show that three-quarters of American college students would not be able to study without some form of technology—almost half said they can’t even go ten minutes without checking their laptop, smartphone, or ereader. Notes are taken with keyboards instead of paper, presentations are carried by flash drives instead of poster board, and questions are asked in pixels. Number 2 pencils? Haven’t seen one in years.
Our current education system is failing our students in two areas: area of interest and delivery. Our standardized approach to education is leaving all students behind. They see a world growing smaller each day, woven tighter by a web of digital and Internet-based connections. Unfortunately, we too often look at the flawed, underfunded education system with tired eyes as we dust off old ‘solutions’ to persisting problems.
The 21st century school bell is ringing with a different tone, commanding a novel approach to education. Education must be deeper and richer. It must be faster and more complete. It must be inclusive and more accessible. And above all, it must speak to our children’s passion for technology, mathematics, engineering, and other science related fields (STEM). Tapping into that innate curiosity is paramount if we expect to see innovative ideas brought to life.
We now find ourselves living in the Imagination Age, according to Rita J. King, Executive VP of Business Development at Science House, a period between the dark and grimy industrial era and the embedded technological revolution. At its very core is “collaboration, rapid prototyping, a deeper understanding of failure as part of the process and the ability to think in the long-term despite the accelerated pace of transformation”—an approach that must be adopted in schools, from “K to 12” and beyond.
Charles Leadbeater, a researcher at the London think-tank Demos and former advisor to Tony Blair, during his TEDSalon talk in London last year called for a new, imaginative response to our global society’s educational needs.
“Education is a global religion—and education, plus technology, is a great source of hope,” said Leadbeater. “Mass education started with social entrepreneurship in the 19th century, and that’s desperately what we need again on a global scale. And what can we learn from all of that? Well, we can learn a lot because our education systems are failing desperately in many ways. They fail to reach the people they most need to serve. They often hit the target but miss the point. Improvement is increasingly difficult to organize. Our faith in these systems, incredibly fraught. And this is just a very simple way of understanding what kind of innovation, what kind of design we need.”
According to Leadbeater, sustaining and disruptive innovations are essentially kindling to fuel the fire behind an educational reinvention. What the world needs, and at scale, is threefold:
- A radical inception of new ideas about what education could be—we mustn’t be afraid to dream a little bigger.
- Community efforts to supplement schools because just as much, if not more, learning takes place outside of the classroom walls.
- And transformational innovation to empower all the world’s citizens with information and learning.
When President Obama delivered his State of the Union this past January, he voiced an undeniable determination to win that future. They way forward is not to fold in the face of adversity, but to re-up with a new course of action. There must be a greater emphasis on math and science, on research and new technologies, on innovation and imagination. So while this nation is transforming the American Dream, shouldn’t we give the latest dreamers a legitimate chance of making it a reality?
It is a pass-or-fail examination and the big, fat clock on the wall is ticking. The choice is simple: we must evolve as educators to prepare our children, our students with STEM education in order for them to succeed in the future.
A curriculum built around cross-border, cross-cultural collaboration and tied together with rich STEM learning is the only solution. Why force our students to view their world through the bifocals of iron and steel, when they should be exploring an open sourced world of global connections in three dimensions? Such a dedication to innovation and entrepreneurship, when adopted by faculty and peer-educators worldwide, will shift the worldviews of students. They’ll analyze problems with systems in mind and see unlimited potential for change in interdisciplinary solutions.
That brand of education is the key to America’s economic growth and prosperity and our ability to compete tomorrow's labor market. STEM education is the root of success, growing compelling opportunities for relevant, vibrant, and up-to-the-minute learning. Can we nurture that nature?
Photo courtesy of pastel (cc) | [
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] | 1,071 |
"Heavy womenís chances higher."
By Lindsey Tanner from The Washington Times.
CHICAGO ó Obesity during pregnancy may increase chances for having a child with autism, provocative new research suggests.
Itís among the first studies linking the two and, though it doesnít prove obesity causes autism, the authors say their results raise public health concerns because of the high level of obesity in this country.
Studied women who were obese during pregnancy were about 67 percent more likely than normal-weight women to have autistic children. They also faced double the risk of having children with other developmental delays.
On average, women face a 1-in-88 chance of having a child with autism; the results suggest that obesity during pregnancy would increase that to a 1-in-53 chance, the authors said. The study was released online Monday in Pediatrics.
Since more than one-third of U.S. women of child-bearing age are obese, the results are potentially worrisome and add yet another incentive for maintaining a prescribed normal weight, said researcher Paula Krakowiak, a study co-author and scientist at the University of California, Davis.
Previous research has linked obesity during pregnancy with stillbirths, premature births and some birth defects.
Dr. Daniel Coury, chief of developmental and behavioral pediatrics at Nationwide Children's Hospital in Columbus, Ohio, said the results ďraise quite a concern.Ē
He noted that U.S. autism rates have increased along with obesity rates and said the research suggests that may be more than a coincidence.
More research is needed to confirm the results. But if mothersí obesity is truly related to autism, it would be only one of many contributing factors, said Dr. Coury, who was not involved in the study.
Genetics has been linked to autism, and scientists are examining whether mothersí illnesses and use of certain medicines during pregnancy might also play a part.
The study involved about 1,000 California children, ages 2 to 5. Nearly 700 had autism or other developmental delays, and 315 did not have those problems.
Mothers were asked about their health. Medical records were available for more than half the women and confirmed their conditions. Itís not clear how mothersí obesity might affect fetal development, but the authors offer some theories.
Obesity, generally about 35 pounds overweight, is linked with inflammation and sometimes elevated levels of blood sugar.
Excess blood sugar and inflammation-related substances in a motherís blood may reach the fetus and damage the developing brain, Ms. Krakowiak said.
The study lacks information about blood tests during pregnancy. Thereís also no information on womenís diets and other habits during pregnancy that might have influenced fetal development.
There were no racial, ethnic, education or health insurance differences among mothers of autistic children and those with unaffected children that might have influenced the results, the researchers said.
The National Institutes of Health helped pay for the study. | [
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] | 606 |
Heart disease: first signs different, but threat similar for men and women
(BPT) - While heart disease
continues to receive a lot of attention, certain myths surrounding the disease persist.
A couple of the most common myths are that heart disease is more common in men than women, and that the first signs of a heart attack are the same for both men and women, says Dr. Mary Ann McLaughlin, medical director of the cardiac health program at The Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York.
Heart disease remains the leading cause of death in men and women in the United States
, affecting both sexes relatively equally. "Women are more afraid of dying from cancer," says McLaughlin. "But in fact, they are much more likely to die from heart disease."
Also, the first signs of a heart attack can manifest themselves in different ways between men and women. While both men and women can experience the more well-known symptoms like chest pain or tightness and a shooting pain in the left arm, here are the most common differences in symptoms by sex, according to McLaughlin.
The more obvious symptoms are more prevalent in men, which might be why research shows that men go to the emergency room with symptoms much earlier in than women.
More subtle symptoms are more likely in women. These include shortness of breath, sweating or dizziness, nausea, severe fatigue, sudden sleep disturbances, pain radiating through the jaw, small of the back or between the shoulder blades.
"Women with diabetes are about twice as susceptible to heart attacks as men with the condition," says McLaughlin. "Increased risk factors for women also include having an autoimmune disorder and a history of gestational diabetes or preeclampsia during pregnancies."
Knowing the first signs of a heart attack
is important, but reducing your risks for heart disease is the best way to avoid experiencing one. McLaughlin offers the following tips for a healthy heart:
* Reduce salt intake. Limiting your consumption of processed foods can help with this, as they are often high in salt.
* Choose your fats wisely. Use olive oil instead of butter, snack on nuts instead of other sugary and high-fat snacks, and take supplements like flax seed oil that can boost your levels of omega-3 fatty acids, which can reduce artery inflammation. Consuming more omega-3s can also help you reduce your LDL (bad cholesterol) levels.
* Get regular exercise. A good rule of thumb is when balanced with a proper diet, 30 minutes of exercise a day will help you maintain your current weight, while 60 minutes will help you lose weight. If that seems like a lot, try to work exercises in to your daily tasks by taking the stairs instead of the elevator or walking or biking to work. Maintaining a healthy weight lowers your risk for cardiovascular disease.
* Ask your doctor whether a daily regimen of low-dose aspirin would be appropriate for you, as it could lower your risk of a heart attack.
* Maintain a daily intake of 1,000 mg of vitamin D, which can be found in some of the same fatty fish that contain high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Vitamin D supplements can also help you achieve this, as low levels are associated with heart disease and high blood pressure. Exposure to sunshine also helps your body produce vitamin D, but don't forget your sunscreen.
* Know your numbers. Your doctor can help you get your readings and give you advice on how to meet the following goals for optimum heart health:
Total cholesterol: less than 200
LDL (bad cholesterol): less than 100
HDL (good cholesterol): greater than or equal to 40
Total cholesterol to HDL ratio: less or equal to 4.4 for women and less than or equal to 5 for men
Triglycerides: less than 150
Blood pressure: less than 120 systolic and less than 80 diastolic
Non-fasting glucose: less than 120
Fasting glucose: less than 100
Hemoglobin A1c: less than 7
To learn more about heart disease and care, and to hear stories from patients who have experienced heart disease, visit www.mountsinai.org/heart | [
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] | 863 |
With the economic situation as bad as it is, can we really afford to support sustainable agriculture? It’s a question of priorities, says Carlo Petrini, founder of the international Slow Food movement, and a question of waste. If we as a society were more conscientious eaters, we could cut our waste and not have to spend as much on food. And the price of food must be fair—which does not, of course, necessarily mean cheap.
Over the last two decades, journalist and political activist Carlo Petrini has led the grassroots Slow Food movement - which began as a critique of fast food fast life - and watched it grow into a global phenomenon with nearly 100,000 members in 150 countries around the world. This past weekend, Mr. Petrini was in Toronto to receive an Eco-Hero award from the Planet in Focus International Environmental Film & Video Festival. He also met with Slow Food leaders from across Canada who had gathered in Toronto to incorporate Slow Food Canada.
The Globe and Mail spoke to him on his first visit to English-speaking Canada.
Never before has food been such a popular topic in newspapers, magazines and on television. Does this mean progress?
We are in the presence of many paradoxes. We have never talked so much about food, and yet we have never had so much soil that is infertile, or a water table so polluted.
We have never talked so much about food, and yet farmers are disappearing. We have never talked so much about food, and yet it has never been less tasty. Everywhere, all over the world, at every hour of the day, there is always someone on television with a frying pan. You get the recipe, the aesthetic vision of food, but not the history or where it comes from. It risks becoming food pornography. We need instead a new gastronomy, a fuller vision of gastronomy.
What kind of food should we be eating?
Food must be good to eat, because it must be pleasurable. It must be clean, because the production must respect the environment. It must be fair because it must respect those who work the land. If one of those things is not present, quality is not there.
There must be a fair price for the people who produce our food, and a fair price for the co-producer. A fair price does not mean a low price.
How can we afford to pay more for our food when our budgets are shrinking with the economic recession?
Why don’t we look at what we waste, instead of what we spend? In Italy, we throw away 4,000 tones of food everyday. If we waste less, we can afford to consume better.
You prefer to call consumers “co-producers.” Why?
Because we can decide what we consume - this is where our power lies. We are all accomplices of the current system. When you go home, open your refrigerator and see what a family tomb it is! The parsley is dying, little jars are filled with mould. The refrigerator was invented to preserve food, not to bury it.
What do you say to people who call Slow Food elitist and see it as a gourmet tasting club rather than a political movement?
The day we become elitist, we have lost our mission. I think we are called elitist because society has a bad relationship with food and pleasure. Slow Food wants to reconcile pleasure with duty. Pleasure is a universal right. And responsibility is a universal duty. | [
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] | 725 |
Your child needs elective surgery and a date has been scheduled. Unlike emergency surgery, an elective procedure isn't done as an immediate matter of life and death. Having an elective procedure gives you the time to prepare your child psychologically for the hospital and the surgery.
Good preparation can help kids feel less anxious about the anesthesia and surgery and get through the recovery period faster. But, like parents everywhere, you're probably uncertain about the best way to prepare your child.
The key is to provide information at your child's level of understanding, correct misunderstandings, and get rid of fears and feelings of guilt. Help your child understand why the surgery is needed and become familiar with the hospital and some of the procedures he or she will undergo.
Kids of all ages cope much better if they have an idea of what's going to happen and why it's necessary. To do that, prepare yourself first and correct any misconceptions of your own. If a parent is anxious and nervous, a child will often reflect these feelings and behaviors as well. It's a good idea to educate yourself, feel comfortable with the process, and make sure all your questions are answered.
The horror stories you heard from grandparents and parents about traumatic parent/child separations and very limited hospital visiting hours belong to days gone by. Hospitals have changed enormously and have become more family-friendly and patient-centered. For example, many surgeries are now "same-day" procedures requiring no overnight or prolonged stays; most kids are back home, in their own beds, the same night.
Furthermore, most U.S. hospitals permit at least one parent to stay with the child at all times except during the operation. After the surgery, you may return to your child in the recovery room. As your child awakens, he or she will not even realize you left.
Ask the doctors, nurses, or staff for the information you need about what will take place so that you can prepare your child and deal with your own fears or concerns. To parents, one of the most fearful aspects of surgery is anesthesia. Anesthesia is much safer today than in the past, but still carries some risk. You should discuss any concerns you have in advance with the anesthesiologist.
When hospitalization is required overnight or longer, most hospitals avoid separation anxiety by permitting at least one parent to stay with the child day and night. Check with the hospital about its rules regarding parents staying over and when other close family members can visit.
As soon as your child is able, he or she may be playing with other children, toys, and games in a children's recreation room — even if that involves taking along an intravenous (IV) bag on a rolling support.
Explain the Problem
Now that you're more at ease, start preparing your child. Begin by explaining the reason for the surgery in simple, nonthreatening words. Explain — at your child's level of understanding — about the medical problem and why surgery is necessary. Don't use alarming language like "the doctor will cut you," "open you up," or "sew you with a needle." Say that the doctor will fix the problem, and explain that many kids have this problem and must get it fixed at the hospital.
Although they seldom express it, kids may fear that their parents aren't telling them everything — that their health problem is worse than they've been led to believe. To build trust, don't mislead your child — tell as much of the truth as your child can understand.
Many kids fear that an operation will be painful. It can help to explain that a special doctor, called an anesthesiologist, gives medicine to make patients sleep very deeply so they won't feel anything during the operation and once it's finished, they'll wake up. (Older kids, in particular, need special assurances that they will wake up.)
Again, avoid frightening language — don't say, "You'll be given gas" or "You'll be put to sleep." Young kids may confuse "gas" with the fuel that can poison or kill and "put to sleep" with what can happen to sick pets.
Explain that you'll be there when your child wakes up — and a favorite toy can come along, too. Tell your child that if anything feels sore right after the operation, a doctor or nurse can give medication that will make it feel better.
Common surgery-related fears of young children are the possibility of separation from (or abandonment by) parents and the possibility of pain. School-age kids also fear needles, knives, and damage to their bodies. Give a child this age clear, rational information as well as assurances that the surgery is to fix an existing problem, not create a new one.
The fears of teens go well beyond those of younger kids. Besides pain, change of appearance, and disfigurement, a teen might be afraid of losing control, missing out on events, being embarrassed or humiliated in public, and sounding childish by expressing fear, anxiety, or pain. A teen may also be afraid of waking up during the operation — or not waking up afterward.
Anticipate these fears, then emphasize that expressing fear, anxiety, and response to pain is quite normal (and OK) at any age, even adulthood. Correct any misconceptions about disfigurement or injury. And explain that anesthesia is very safe today and that patients do not wake up during operations but will certainly wake up afterward.
Encourage your teen to read up on the medical condition and share the information with the family. Reading and sharing information is an excellent coping mechanism.
One further fear that affects kids of all ages is being seen naked and having their "private parts" touched. If the operation involves the genital or anal area, your child will cope better if you explain in advance that although it might be embarrassing, doctors and nurses will need to examine these private areas, especially to check if they're healing after the operation. Explain that doctors, nurses, and parents are the only exceptions to the rules about privacy.
Encourage your child's questions about the health problem and hospital experience, so that other fears and anxieties can be expressed. Take all questions seriously and answer them to the best of your ability. If you don't know an answer, tell your child that you'll find it out, and explain that the doctors and nurses are happy to answer questions, too.
Children often believe that their medical problem and operation are really punishments for "being bad." They may not say so, but they may feel guilty and believe that they've brought events on themselves.
Explain that the medical problem is not the result of anything your child may have done or failed to do, and that the operation is not a punishment, but simply the way to "fix" the problem.
On the other hand, if the medical problem was caused by an accident that could have been avoided by obeying safety rules, make sure your child understands the reason for the rules and will follow them in the future.
Explaining What Will Happen
Find books, appropriate to your child's level of understanding, about what to expect at the hospital. Reading together and discussing the surgery will make the hospital seem less threatening. Discuss each idea and encourage your child's questions.
Young kids also will benefit from practicing on a doll or stuffed teddy bear with toy doctor-kit "instruments." Your child can take the toy's "temperature" and "pulse" and listen to its "heartbeat" and "breathing."
Ask your doctor for suggested videos or multimedia tools for parents or kids that can help explain the procedure.
As you discuss the hospital and surgery, remember that in addition to your words, your nonverbal cues convey assurance: your tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and body language send powerful messages. If you appear fearful, your child is likely to feel fearful regardless of the words you use.
Pre-Operative Orientation and Tour
Many hospitals offer special pre-operative children's programs, family orientations, and hospital tours, conducted by specially trained nurses or licensed child-life specialists. Child-life specialists are a valuable resource for parents and children. They are professionals trained to talk to kids and teens about medical procedures, comfort them if they're upset or need extra support, and organize "play time" for hospitalized kids and teens to get together and hang out.
Call the hospital to schedule a pre-operative tour, program, or orientation as soon as possible, even from the doctor's office when the appointment for the surgery is made. It's best to schedule the appointment for a few days before the surgery.
An orientation program can remove the mystery of the surgery for kids and their families by making the hospital familiar and friendly and the experience predictable.
On the Day of Surgery
When you arrive on the day of surgery, your young child can play with toys and books you bring from home or sit on your lap and be cuddled during the waiting time.
You won't be allowed to stay in the operating room during the surgery, but afterward, you'll be escorted to the recovery room to be with your child as he or she awakens. Upon discharge, you'll receive instructions for further recuperation at home and for a follow-up visit to the surgeon.
During recovery, there may be times of discomfort for your child. It can help to explain that your child may be sore or uncomfortable, but will get better.
Distracting your child, whether with a new book or a visit from a relative or friend, also can make recovery more pleasant. Just make sure your child gets plenty of time to rest and recuperate.
Reviewed by: Yamini Durani, MD
Date reviewed: November 2011 | [
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] | 1,994 |
What is skin testing for allergies?
The most common way to test for allergies is on the skin, usually the forearm or the back. In a typical skin test, a doctor or nurse will place a tiny bit of an allergen (such as pollen or food) on the skin, then make a small scratch or prick on the skin.
The allergist may repeat this, testing for several allergens in one visit. This can be a little uncomfortable, but not painful.
If your child reacts to one of the allergens, the skin will swell a little in that area. The doctor will be able to see if a reaction occurs within about 15 minutes. The swelling usually goes down within about 30 minutes to a few hours. Other types of skin testing include injecting allergens into the skin or taping allergens to the skin for 48 hours.
With a skin test, an allergist can check for these kinds of allergies:
- environmental, such as mold, pet dander, or tree pollen
- food, such as peanuts or eggs
- medications, such as penicillin
Some medications (such as antihistamines) can interfere with skin testing, so check with the doctor to see if your child's medications need to be stopped before the test is done. While skin testing is useful and helpful, sometimes additional tests (like blood tests or food challenges) also must be done to see if a child is truly allergic to something.
While skin tests are usually well tolerated, in rare instances they can cause a more serious allergic reaction. This is why skin testing must always be done in an allergist's office, where the doctor is prepared to handle a reaction.
Reviewed by: Larissa Hirsch, MD
Date reviewed: May 2012 | [
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] | 360 |
May 24, 2011
Contact: Rachel Salis-Silverman, Department of Public Relations, 267-426-6063
Using immunotherapy—biologic agents that stimulate the body’s immune system—pediatric oncologists have achieved the first substantial increase in over a decade in cure rates for the childhood cancer neuroblastoma. A newly released study shows that the new treatment improved two-year survival rates by 20 percentage points, compared to standard treatment for an aggressive form of neuroblastoma, a cancer of the nervous system.
The study appears in the Sept. 30 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, along with a separate COG study on intermediate-risk neuroblastoma. The corresponding author of the immunotherapy study is Alice L. Yu, MD, PhD, of the University of California, San Diego.
“We expect these findings will change clinical practice, setting a new gold standard of treatment for this often-deadly disease,” said John M. Maris, MD, a co-author of the study and director of the Center for Childhood Cancer Research at The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Maris is the chair of the neuroblastoma committee of the Children’s Oncology Group (COG), the cooperative multicenter research organization that sponsored the study.
Neuroblastoma, a cancer of the peripheral nervous system, usually appears as a solid tumor in the chest or abdomen. It accounts for 7 percent of all childhood cancers, but because it frequently occurs in an aggressive form, it causes 15 percent of all childhood cancer deaths. While low-risk forms of neuroblastoma may spontaneously disappear, in high-risk forms, the cancer tends to return after initial treatment, usually with lethal results.
In the current study, researchers assigned 226 high-risk patients at multiple cancer centers to receive one of two treatments:
Immunotherapy consisted of:
Monoclonal antibodies are molecular “guided missiles” engineered to kill cancer cells by targeting a substance appearing on those cells. Cytokines are naturally occurring signaling proteins that regulate immune responses.
The Cancer Center at The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia has been using this immunotherapy regimen as part of standard treatment for children with high-risk neuroblastoma for more than a year, since preliminary trial results were reported in June 2009. Children have arrived from around the world to receive this treatment at Children’s Hospital, which has a long-established research and clinical program in neuroblastoma.
Dr. Maris is internationally prominent as a neuroblastoma expert. Some highlights of his neuroblastoma research efforts include:
“Together, these studies report important advances in care for children with this challenging cancer,” said Maris. “We will continue to investigate treatments to further refine the standard of care.”
This study, Outcome after Reduced Chemotherapy for Intermediate Risk Neuroblastoma, found that physicians could substantially reduce the dose and duration of chemotherapy used for neuroblastoma and still achieve very high survival rates of 98 percent among children receiving the treatment. The benefits of lower doses include:
The corresponding author of this study was Katherine K. Matthay, MD, of the University of California, San Francisco.
Grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Food and Drug Administration supported the immunotherapy study. Grants from the National Cancer Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health, supported the study of intermediate-risk neuroblastoma. Both studies were conducted through the Children’s Oncology Group. | [
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] | 728 |
ChristianAnswers.Net WebBible Encyclopedia
Ten curtains, each twenty-eight cubits long and four wide, made of fine linen, also eleven made of goat’s hair, covered the tabernacle (Ex. 26:1-13; 36:8-17).
The sacred curtain, separating the Holy of Holies from the sanctuary, is designated by a different Hebrew word (peroketh). It is described as a “veil of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning work” (Ex. 26:31; Lev. 16:2; Num. 18:7).
“Stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain” (Isa. 40:22), is an expression used with reference to the veil or awning which Orientals spread for a screen over their courts in summer. According to the prophet, the heavens are spread over our heads as such an awning. Similar expressions are found in Ps. 104:2l; compare Isa. 44:24; Job 9:8. | [
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] | 226 |
By Katrina Vogelgesang, Contributing writer
For April Gottung, an active and healthy young girl, a heart issue shouldn't have been a worry. Yet, April had spells of fainting for six years until her issues peaked with a seizure at the age of 14, when she was rushed to the hospital.
Diagnosed with a heart arrhythmia, April had to have a defibrillator put in her chest, restrain from all strenuous activity, and will be on medication for the rest of her life.
An arrhythmia is an interruption in the electrical impulses that cause your heart to contract. With many different kinds of arrhythmias, and many different magnitudes as well, arrhythmias are more common than you think.
According to WebMD, an arrhythmia can sometimes be present without showing any symptoms. Often times, though, an arrhythmia causes palpitations, shortness of breath, fainting, dizziness, discomfort in the chest and weakness, according to WebMD. You should see a doctor if any of these symptoms occur frequently or suddenly, or at times when you would not expect, instructs the Mayo Clinic. If any fainting or collapsing occurs, 911 should be called immediately.
There are two types of arrhythmias, according to the Mayo Clinic. A Tachycardia is a sped up heart rate, and a Bradycardia is a slowed heart rate.
According to the Mayo Clinic, arrhythmias can be hereditary, but can also be caused by scarring on the heart, stress, smoking and other substance abuse, diabetes, or other health issues. Blocked arteries or changes in the heart structure can also cause an arrhythmia.
Some of the most common types of arrhythmias include PVC's and atrial fibrillations.
A PVC is a premature ventricular contraction. This is a common arrhythmia that we all experience from time to time. It can be due to many things, including stress or caffeine, according to WebMD. If someone has an unusual amount of PVC's, they should have their heart examined by a doctor, says WebMD.
Atrial fibrillations are when the upper chambers of the heart contract abnormally.
To diagnose both the magnitude and type of arrhythmia, the Mayo Clinic states that the doctor will most likely perform an electrocardiogram, or an ECG. This test attaches sensors to your chest to monitor your heart. Other tests could include bringing a monitor home to wear over a period of time in hopes of recording an arrhythmia. This will allow your doctor to examine your heart's pattern.
Once diagnosed, there are several treatments that can help cure or harbor an arrhythmia. Sometimes, it simply requires a lifestyle change, such as less caffeine or alcohol intake, stopping smoking, or restraining from certain activities.
Other times the condition is more serious, and requires drugs or surgery. According to WebMD, the most common drugs used are drugs that control heart rate or reduce the risk of blood clots. If drugs are not suitable, a doctor may suggest some sort of surgical procedure, whether it be to insert a device or directly operate on the heart.
A pacemaker is a device that helps the heart beat at a suitable rate. Other devices that serve relatively the same purpose include electrical cardioversion and an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD), states WebMD.
WebMD also says that heart surgery may be necessary to cure heart disease, which could be the cause of the arrhythmia. Whichever treatment you receive depends on the severity and type of your arrhythmia.
Anyone at any time can have an arrhythmia. It's important to know what the symptoms of an arrhythmia are, and when it's time to go get checked out. It's also important to know what usually causes an arrhythmia, and what kind of tests will be run to figure out the state of your arrhythmia. It's important to be informed on something as common as arrhythmias so that you can stop them before they progress, or even prevent them all together. | [
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] | 878 |
by Michael Morris, Parks Canada
June 5, 2002
En route to Rogers Pass, Park Warden Tim Laboucane braked in time to avoid a debris flow on the highway. As he parked well back from the mess of muck, rock, and timber, he felt the shock wave and the subsequent roar of another landslide as it hurdled down on to the Trans-Canada Highway, just west of Glacier National Park.
While new and unexpected debris flows have occurred along the highway in recent weeks, park staff expect this sort of trouble each spring at the Heather Mountain landslide near the eastern boundary of Glacier National Park. Slumping on Heather Mountain was first noticed by helicopter pilot Don McTighe in January 1997 when an unseasonably warm front including heavy rain caused water to percolate into the exposed fractures near the top of Heather Mountain. When the weather cooled quickly to minus 20 degrees Celsius, the rock face froze and the pressure of trapped water in behind the face created the slope separation.
Flying for nearby heli-skiers, McTighe watched the cracks in the slope grow day by day. Blocks failed and slid, and by spring grew into a massive debris flow that ended up as mud on the highway. Here the failing rock is a talc-rich mica schist that is strong enough when dry but disintegrates easily when it comes in contact with water. Talc is the same mineral as in talcum powder. Over the next two springs, the exposed surface was eroded and lubricated by the combination of rain and melting snow, creating an mountainside gash about two kilometers long and half a kilometer wide. It’s a wound that continues to ooze each spring, some years more than others, depending on the rate of melt of the snowpack and concurrent rain events.
While checking this place out I noticed that the freshly broken rocks on the landslide have an iridescent sheen and smell like rotting vegetation. The newly exposed surface is a mix of small and large boulders and mud as slick as soap. Walking across it was a process of finding the least slippery spots. Then there’s the clatter of the occasional tumbling rock departing the headwall. It’s not a place to visit.
The bottom of the landslide is a jumble of shattered timber with several outlets of café-au-lait colored mud which flow through 500 meters of forest to a diversion berm. Culverts under the highway to help the mud on its way into the Beaver River. Sometimes the debris flow is more than the catchment basin and culverts can handle. The result is mud spread over the road and highway crews working around the clock, passing traffic whenever possible.
With the advice of scientists from the Geological Survey of Canada, Parks Canada established a monitoring program to keep an eye on this chronic safety concern. Similar to the remote weather recording stations used in the prediction of avalanche activity or forest fires, a site on Heather Mountain transmits temperature and precipitation amounts to Parks Canada’s Highway Service Section in Rogers Pass, alerting road crews that the debris flow may increase, though the situation remains far from predictable.
Recognized as a National Historic Site because of its role in national transportation history, the Rogers Pass story continues to unfold. Landslides, avalanches, floods and other land-forming events occur all through the mountains but are only noticed when it interferes with our activities.
The road crews, flag persons, and park wardens that work on the highway contribute to an essential service that sees ever-increasing expectations. On the highway we’ve come to expect to get from point A to point B in a certain amount of time and are put out if we are delayed. However, the mountains don’t care. Occasionally the highway is closed for safety reasons as we respect that not everything in these rugged mountains can be controlled.
Columbia Mountains Institute of Applied Ecology
Box 2568 Revelstoke, B.C. V0E 2S0
Tel: 250-837-9311 Fax: 250-837-9311 | [
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] | 843 |
London (CNN) -- Bamboozled by eurozone debt crisis jargon? CNN is here to help you tell your bond yields from your banking interventions, your defaults from your haircuts. And if you need anything more explained, please submit your questions to Soundoff at the bottom of the story.
The euro is the common currency used by a bloc of nations within the European Union. The 17 states that use the euro -- including Germany, France, Italy and Spain -- form the eurozone. A further 10 EU nations -- including the UK, Sweden and Denmark -- continue to use their own currencies.
A recession is technically defined as two consecutive quarters of shrinking output -- or a country going backwards financially. The eurozone is currently teetering on the edge of recession, triggered in part by the crisis which has rolled on since May 2010. A double dip recession is when a country which has been in recession enters a downturn again after a brief and weak recovery.
The "contagion effect" referred to in the eurozone crisis is the fear that one country's financial problems will spill over to another country. This happens because the capital markets -- where sovereign bonds are bought and sold -- can be influenced by sentiment as well as the fundamentals of each country. Contagion can also occur because the more countries within the bloc struggle, the higher the cost to others of giving aid.
Countries, or companies, default when they can no longer pay their bills on time. Defaults can come in different forms: "Orderly" -- when investors holding the bonds can agree to take haircuts (see below) -- or "disorderly," where losses are unexpected and sudden.
Countries raise money by issuing sovereign bonds which are then purchased by investors. The '"yield" of the bonds - which can be thought of as IOUs -- is how much the investor wants to be paid to hold that bond. So, a higher yield indicates a higher risk bond. For sovereign bonds a yield of more than 7% is considered unsustainable for any extended period of time, because a country's earnings are unlikely to be able to cover repayments.
Liquidity is the oil which greases the world of finance. It refers to the ease at which funds -- cash, for example -- can flow through the system. A market with lots of buyers and sellers is liquid, while one without is illiquid.
A haircut refers to a cut in the value of investments lenders are asked to take. For example, a 50% haircut on an investment means you'll get back only half of what you paid. Investors in Greek bonds have been asked to take a haircut on their debt. It would be in their interest to do so if they thought the value of the debt could drop further in the future. Investors can also be asked to swap bonds maturing soon for longer dated ones which would pay out at a much later date.
The ratings agencies -- Moody's Investors Service, Standard & Poor's and Fitch Ratings being the big three -- award scores based on a company or country's credit worthiness. "Junk" refers to when that rating drops below investment grade. Once a credit rating drops below the BBB level, it is "sub-investment" grade and is commonly referred to as junk.
Eurobonds are being suggested as a way to tie the finances of the eurozone's 17 countries more closely. A eurobond would be a bond -- or debt which investors buy in return for yield -- backed by all the countries of the bloc. The idea remains under discussion, although it has rejected by the eurozone's two most powerful leaders, German Chancellor Angela Merkel and then-French President Nicolas Sarkozy earlier this year. Francois Hollande, Sarkozy's successor, has been more favorable to the idea.
Fiscal unity is centered on integrated taxation and spending. The eurozone is a monetary but not fiscal union, meaning its 17 members maintain their own taxation policies and also raise money to fund themselves. However, the bloc does have a central bank -- the European Central Bank (see below) -- which maintains monetary policy. The bloc appears to be moving toward closer fiscal integration as it seeks to stem the crisis.
European Central Bank
The European Central Bank, based in Frankfurt, Germany, was set up in 1998 to maintain monetary policy for the eurozone under its common currency, the euro. The ECB's mandate is to keep inflation at around 2% or below, and ensure some level of stability for the countries that use the euro. Like other central banks, the ECB's main tool for keeping to these targets is by raising or lowering interest rates -- a key tool for influencing financial markets. The ECB has also been actively buying the sovereign bonds of troubled eurozone economies, in the hope that it will lower those countries' funding costs.
European Financial Stability Facility
The European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) is Europe's temporary bailout fund. It was hurriedly set up after Greece needed its first bailout in May 2010, and has since become a key tool to combat the debt crisis. European leaders have increased its lending capacity from around €250 billion to €440 billion, and are investigating ways to boost its clout. A permanent bailout fund, the European Stability Mechanism, or ESM, will be operational mid 2012.
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund, which is based in Washington D.C., is an organization of 187 countries. It is designed to assist countries in financial trouble. Member countries contribute to the fund, relative to their economies, when assistance is needed. It has been a key player in the European bailouts.
A group of auditors from the International Monetary Fund, the European Union and the European Central Bank tasked with monitoring the progress of nations that have requested sovereign bailouts such as Greece, Portugal and Ireland. | [
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] | 1,179 |
Editor's note: MainSail is CNN's monthly sailing show, exploring the sport of sailing, luxury travel and the latest in design and technology.
(CNN) -- One of the world's largest private superyachts is the latest to set sail on an expedition to uncover the secrets of a British battle cruiser lost during World War II.
Octopus -- a 414 foot megayacht -- was donated to the British Navy by Paul Allen, co-founder of Microsoft. Allen will fund the recovery and research expedition, sparing the British government any cost.
This week the recovery team will return to the wreck site with a two-fold mission: Retrieve the ship's bell and document the remains of the battle cruiser in the hopes of later determining what happened in the Hood's final moments.
David Mearns, director of Blue Water Recoveries, said the ship's bell was "lovingly looked after" by the crew. Its recovery is seen by those who lost loved ones as a way to commemorate those who died.
The HMS Hood was sunk during a battle in the North Atlantic with German battleship Bismarck in 1941. The Hood remains the largest Royal Navy vessel to have gone down, and resulted in the largest loss of life suffered by any single warship in British history.
The wreck of HMS Hood is designated under the Protection of the Military Remains Act, meaning the recovery team had to seek permission from the British Navy in order to retrieve the bell.
The mission was agreed to by the British Government, and the Ministry of Defence say the bell -- if recovered -- will form a tangible and fitting memorial to the ship and the 1,415 men who died when she sunk in the North Atlantic.
Mearns recalls the astonishment of the team when they located the ship's bell, on their first dive, in 2001.
"There was just a miscellaneous pile of twisted and torn metal... most of it was very angled steel but there was this curved shape," Mearns remembers. "We pushed in on the camera and, lo and behold, there was the bell sitting basically unattached, not connected to the ship [and] all by itself on its side."
The team, Mearns recalls, "were just stunned by it."
The 40,000 ton wreck is strewn over two and half kilometers of seabed, and uncovering the bell was a stroke of luck for the recovery team.
"It's a really iconic item and personal symbol of the ship, but we were there conducting this investigation on a 'don't touch' basis. It never occurred to us, even for a second, 'What if we recovered the bell? Should we attempt to?'" Mearns tells CNN.
By the time Mearns and his team had returned to land, news of the bell's discovery had broken. A public debate had erupted over the ethics of disturbing a wreck where so many lives had been lost.
Mearns gained the support of the HMS Hood Association -- whose members include veterans and relatives of those who died -- before seeking financial support to return and recover the bell.
The association's president, rear admiral Philip Wilcocks, said in statement on the mission: "There is no headstone among the flowers for those who perish at sea."
Wilcocks added, "future generations will be able to gaze upon [the Hood's] bell and remember with gratitude and thanks the heroism, courage and personal sacrifice of Hood's ship's company who died in the service of their country."
If recovered, the bell will go on display in 2014, at an exhibition at the Royal Navy Museum in the southern English port of Portsmouth -- where the Hood was based.
Mearns says: "It's been out there as a wish of the association to do this and I've just been looking for the right sponsor to do it in the right way and to get the permission to do it.
"I'd been working with Vulcan, Paul Allen's company, and it just so happened we could combine the availability of Octopus in the region at the right time, because you can only really work in this area two months of the year."
The Octopus, the world's 13th largest megayacht, is a "fantastically capable vessel," Mearns says.
Despite being classified as a yacht, the Octopus carries equipment including a deepwater diving ROV [remotely operated vehicle] and survey and navigation equipment. The Octopus, says Mearns, "is very qualified" for the job.
The British Royal Navy has asked the team to place an ensign on the site of the wreck, Mearns added.
The mission also hopes to shed light on the final moments of the battle cruiser, which broke in two during the attack. It was under sustained fire from the Bismarck, but its own ammunition also exploded. The cause of its sinking has never been clarified.
"I think we are going to make a real improvement in the imagery and information that we bring back from the wreck to allow naval architects to look at and come to some firm conclusions about the damage," Mearns added.
"This isn't just a trophy hunt to go get the bell." | [
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] | 1,078 |
In all modern languages like C# and Java, we gain benefits of garbage collection. What about implementing our own. In this article, I will try to explain how to implement garbage collector for C language.
What is Garbage Collection?
In C language, dynamic memory management operations are done with
free() functions. When a piece of memory area is required, programmer calls the
malloc() function and receives a pointer of this area, and releases this area using
free() function when it is not used anymore. This is really a very easy task, you create memory area using
malloc() and release it using
free(). What if the programmer forgets to call the
free() function or application breaks before the
free() function is executed? If
free() function is not called, operating system cannot use this area and still thinks that it is in use. Large chunks of unreleased memory areas can affect system performance vitally.
Need for an automated garbage collection mechanism is born at this point. Automated garbage collection mechanism guarantees that all allocated memory during program run are released at the end.
There are a lot of garbage collection algorithms such as mark and sweep, copying, generational, reference counting, etc. In this article, I will try to explain mark and sweep algorithm.
What about Conservation?
Garbage collectors (abbreviated GC from now on) should not force developers to tag data or force to use special
datatype as pointers. GC also should work on existing source code. Working on existing code without compilation would be a more elegant solution. GC should not force to change on compilers. Conservative garbage collection approach provides GC solution preserving the above mentioned tasks.
In order to work properly, GC should have knowledge about the following tasks:
- Variables actively in use
- Which variable is a pointer and which is not
- Information of the allocated memory
Information about the allocated memory can be collected while GC allocates memory.
In C language collection about variables in use can be done with a special scanning on heap, stack and static data of the application. This solution is highly hardware dependent.
Also in C language, we do not have knowledge of a type at runtime. This means, at runtime phase it is not an easy task to distinguish pointers from non-pointers. Again we receive no assistance from the compiler. Once we have information about variables actively in use, we can scan this list with a special pointer identification algorithm to distinguish pointers. This step has some shortcomings but efficiency can be provided with elegant algorithms.
Conservative approach allows developers to use GC in their already written codes without any change on it. Developers call
malloc() function and never call
free() again inside the code. The rest is handled by GC as a smart servant.
Stop the World Approach
I mentioned that we scan memory areas of the application. We also need to release unused memory areas. These operations take additional CPU cycles. So when garbage is being collected, we need to use CPU. At this point, there are two main approaches for use of the CPU. These are stop the world and concurrent approaches.
Concurrent approach handles GC cycles on different threads. For this approach, complex locking mechanisms are needed. As a result, it benefits high performance which is desirable by most of the modern architecture. For further information, you can search on Tri-Color Marking Algorithm.
Stop the world approach stops program execution, does garbage collection and resumes program execution. This has a completely big disadvantage, it does not allow the application to use CPU while garbage is collected. This can cause the application to pause while garbage is being collected. Also we cannot use multi processor even if hardware has more than one CPU which can be a big performance gap. Although it has a lot of disadvantages, it is really very easy to implement so in this article we will use this approach.
Mark and Sweep Algorithm
Mark and Sweep Algorithm is the first algorithm which handles cyclic references. This algorithm is one of the most commonly used garbage collectors with combination of some other techniques.
Mark and sweep algorithm is a tracing collector so it traces through all available pointers to distinguish used and unused memory areas. It consists of two phases. The first phase is the marking phase. In marking phase, GC traces through all available variables and finds pointers using pointer identification algorithm. Once pointers are determined, marking phase finds the heap area of the pointers and marks them as used. In the second phase, GC traces through the heap and picks unmarked areas. Unmarked areas are the memory areas which are not currently used. These areas are reclaimed.
As mentioned, mark and sweep can handle cyclic references. Moreover, it includes no overhead on variables.
Conservative GC faces two main difficulties, the first is for identifying where to find root set and the second is how to identify pointers.
Root set can be described as the variables which are in use at time(t). Finding root sets without the assistance of the compiler is a highly system and hardware dependent issue. Root sets can be found on stack, registers and static area of the application. In order to implement our GC, we should find base addresses of these memory areas.
GC should discover the bottom and top of the stack. Stack is the main stack of the application. If we take a closer look into the CPU architecture, we can see that there is a dedicated stack which holds addresses of execution points, passed parameters to functions and local variables. Stack grow direction may change in each architecture. When a new item is pushed into the stack in some architectures, the stack grows downward and in some, it grows upward. GC should be aware of this. Stack bottom and top addresses can be found by combination of EBP, ESP and DS register values of 32bit architecture. Also there are alternative ways.
Static areas are held in the data segment register in 32Bit CPUs and stored in the heap of the running application. Static areas are the memory block where local static and global variables are held. In a realworld application, we can have some global and static local variables which hold pointers. GC should be aware of these variables.
Registers are CPU registers of the hardware. These memory areas are highly system dependent. GC should be aware of the root sets held in the registers before GC takes place. Reclaiming of the memory areas which are in use could cause severe bugs.
The second difficulty that Conservative GC faces is identification of the pointers. In C and C++ languages, pointers can be held inside the integer variables. In some cases, it is not an easy task to distinguish a pointer with a 32 bit integer value. As GC has no assistance from the compiler, it has to handle identification of the pointers by itself. In general, the approach for conservative garbage collector is that "GC must treat any word (integer) that it encounters as a potential pointer unless it can prove otherwise"¹.
While in this step, GC should be aware of pointers to pointers. In this project, I implemented depth first search as pointer traversal algorithm. In order to identify pointers, GC should have some test steps to filter pointers with non-pointers. Some of the tests are mentioned below:
- Does a potential pointer refer to the atom pointer.
- Does a potential pointer refer to application heap
- Does a potential pointer refer to root sets. If so, execute pointer traversal algorithm to find which portion of the heap it refers.
- If potential pointer refers to heap, traces through allocated block to find exact block that it points.
Atom pointers are the pointers which are used by GC itself. GC should distinguish these pointers from actual application pointers. Also GC should give the ability to the developer to identify custom atom pointers. Atom pointers are being skipped at pointer identification phase and they are not recognized as pointers by GC. GC never touches the memory areas of these pointers.
If a potential pointer passes these tests, it is treated as a pointer and marked as in use at mark phase. Pointer identification has some deficiencies such as false pointers. False pointers are the integer values which hold heap addresses. Assume that we have an integer
i which holds random 32bit value, also assume that this value is
0x003932e8. When GC takes place, we have also a pointer
p which points to
0x003932e8 heap address with size in MBs.
p is set to NIL and not used anymore. Application requests new memory block but having less memory GC cannot allocate free space and steps into collection phase. In collection phase,
p should be reclaimed so it is not used anymore but
i can be recognized as a pointer actually which is not. This type of situations can be troublesome. Boehm reports that certain classes of data, such as large compressed bitmaps, introduce false references with an excessively high probability [Boehm, 1993].
After a lot of theoretical information, let's take a look at how we can implement that type of automated memory manager.
As mentioned, the GC we will design will be highly system and hardware dependent. We will use IA32 architecture and Windows Operating system.
The first thing GC should do is to find root sets. Stack top can be found by retrieving address of the last created variable. In Windows environment, the address of the last created variable can be used to query active memory block using
VirtualQuery function. This function tells the base address and other properties of the related memory area². After calling
VirtualQuery function with top of the stack, we can retrieve full set of stack roots. This root set gives us the variables currently in use. Defining
static root sets requires another call to
VirtualQuery function. This time we query memory area using a created
static local variable. Register roots can be retrieved using
When developer calls
malloc function of GC, our code should add additional header information to this memory block. This block is linked to doubly linked list. Using this list, we can store and query which memory areas are allocated by GC. In my implementation, allocation does not invoke collection step which it should do when system gets low on memory, it does only create new memory area using low level
malloc and returns address of this block. In future releases, my implementation of
gc_malloc should work in a smarter and elegant way.
In our implementations, the developer should be able to call
collect function of GC. Calling this function is not recommended but for flexibility we can allow developers to call our
Collect function should invoke the following steps. First it should determine root sets, then it should invoke mark and sweep phases respectively.
In mark phase, GC should trace through whole root sets. Code should invoke pointer identification step for each possible pointer in the root set. Once possible pointer is passed identification step code should mark it as in use (in my current implementation, I have two lists. The first list holds used areas, and the second holds free areas. When I mark a pointer as used, I remove it from the used area and link it to a free area which decreases CPU use on sweep phase).
In sweep phase, GC should trace through the whole heap. In this step, only marked areas are not reclaimed and the rest is reclaimed. (In my current implementation, I free the memory area when it is not used anymore. This can cause performance penalties. A more advanced approach can be used at this step.)
The last thing GC should do is reclaiming the whole heap when the application quits. We can use
atexit() function of standard C. In this function, we will trace through the whole heap to reclaim all used memory.
Source Code and Last Words
This project is an open source project. Please feel free to join this project. If you wish to work on this project, please let me know. Source repository of this project can be found here.
Please note that this project is actively in development. Also the current version supports a fully working GC mechanism and it has a lot of deficiencies on performance issues.
- Garbage Collection - Algorithms for Automatic Dynamic Memory Management 1996, Richard Jones, Rafael Lins
- An introduction to garbage collection part II, Richard Gillam
- Mark-and-Sweep garbage collection
- Why conservative garbage collectors
- Automatic garbage collection
- Fast multiprocessor memory allocation and garbage collection, Hans-J.Boehm, HP Laboratories
- Composing high-performance memory allocators, Emery D. Berger, Benjamin G.Zorn, Kathryn S. McKinley
- Hoard: a scalable memory allocator for multithreaded applications, Emery D. Berger, Kathryn McKinley, Robert D. Blumofe, Paul R. Wilson
- Managing heap memory in win32
- Heap pleasures and pains
- The measured cost of conservative garbage collection, Bejamin Zorn
- Conservative garbage collection for general memory allocators, Gustavo Rodriguez-Rivera, Charles Fiterman
- Conservative garbage collection for C, Christian Höglinger
Yasin has more than 10 years of professional experience. He has several published articles includes graphics programming, robotics and application development in academic resources and national press. He is now working as a software developer for semi-governmental organization in Turkey. | [
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5621,
13,
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] | 2,723 |
Declaration on genuine democracy adopted on 24 January 2013
The Conference of International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs) of the Council of Europe,
1. As an active player in promoting democracy and defending the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights;
2. Noting that “genuine democracy”, a term enshrined in the Statute of the Council of Europe, goes hand in hand with “the protection of human rights” and “the rule of law” as a requirement for accession by states to membership of the Council of Europe;
3. Believing that there is a need for the fundamental elements of genuine democracy to be brought together in a reference text based on existing Council of Europe conventions and declarations, as well as the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights;
4. Recalling the work of the Council of Europe on the principles of genuine democracy*, which served us as basis for the drafting of this Declaration;
5. Underlining the need to determine and clarify more effectively the fundamental elements of the three complementary and inseparable principles that are the distinguishing features of the Council of Europe’s common heritage, namely respect for the universal and indivisible rights of the individual, the rule of law and the genuinely democratic nature of political systems;
6. Underlining the crucial part which civil society, in particular NGOs, can play in building a genuine democracy;
7. Believing that a general declaration on the fundamental principles of pluralist democracy will help to expand and consolidate democracy in Europe and throughout the world;
8. Recommending that this text be used to determine the conditions required for becoming or remaining a member state of the Council of Europe;
9. Bearing in mind the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights, as well as the Statute of the Council of Europe and all the texts adopted by the organisation listed in the appendix;
10. Urging those states which have not yet ratified the conventions included in the list to do so as soon as possible;
11. Believing that genuine democracy is a political, legal and cultural system based on respect for human rights, the rule of law and the ability of all individuals to take part in public life;
12. Aware that democracy entails the active commitment of individuals and their governments to equality, tolerance, and respect for diversity, as well as to social integration;
13. Recognising that education is the key means of developing democratic values in the young, and wishing to encourage them to exercise fully the rights and assume the responsibilities of citizenship;
14. Believing that effective democracy and good governance at all levels are essential for preventing conflicts, promoting stability, facilitating economic and social progress, and hence for creating sustainable communities where people want to live and work, now and in the future, and that this can only be achieved through the active involvement of citizens and civil society;
15. Wishing member states to maintain and develop effective, transparent and accountable democratic institutions, responsive to the needs and aspirations of all;
16. Adopts the present declaration:
A. PRINCIPLES AND VALUES OF GENUINE DEMOCRACY
I. HUMAN DIGNITY
a. Genuine democracy must ensure respect for the dignity and the equal value of all persons and for their inalienable rights.
II. EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION
a. All persons are equal under the law and shall be entitled to the equal protection of the law without any discrimination.
b. Gender equality is a fundamental criterion of democracy which must be ensured in all areas of public and private life.
c. Any discrimination based on sex, ethnic origin, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, sexual orientation, property, birth or other status is prohibited.
d. Genuine democracy ensures that all individuals enjoy equal and effective protection against any form of discrimination and also affords them full equality of opportunity.
e. No measure aimed at correcting existing imbalances or hastening the achievement of equality may be regarded as discriminatory.
III. RESPECT FOR DIVERSITY AND TOLERANCE
a. The principles of pluralism and tolerance require respect for the cultural and linguistic identity of all persons, as well as respect for their freedom to hold or not to hold religious or philosophical beliefs and to change them insofar as their manifestations remain compatible with human rights.
b. Genuine democracy must stand firm against all those who seek its destruction, in particular those advocating racial hatred, anti-Semitism, xenophobia, persecution on religious or ideological grounds or violence and terrorism.
c. The activities of any organisation which opposes the democratic order through violence or the encouragement of violence shall be punished by the law.
IV. UNIVERSALITY AND INDIVISIBILITY OF HUMAN RIGHTS
a. Human rights and fundamental freedoms are inherent in the individual and are inalienable; their protection is the primary responsibility of states. Respect for, and full enjoyment of, human rights and fundamental freedoms are the bases on which liberty, justice and peace are founded.
b. Civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent.
c. Any derogation from obligations to respect human rights shall remain within the limits provided for in international and European law. Such derogations are by definition of an exceptional nature and shall be applied and interpreted restrictively.
V. INTERDEPENDENCE OF HUMAN RIGHTS, DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
a. Genuine democracy and human rights are intrinsically related concepts which cannot exist without each other. Political rights and freedoms form part of human rights, while respect for human rights is essential to the establishment and maintenance of a democratic system. The implementation of a democratic culture helps to develop a human rights culture and vice versa.
b. Genuine democracy must maintain a balance between the requirements of the general interests of the community and the need to safeguard the fundamental rights of all individuals.
c. Democracy, human development and respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms are interdependent and mutually enhancing.
VI. THE RULE OF LAW
The principles of the rule of law include, in particular:
a. Respect for the principles relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms provided for in international law and, in particular, in the European Convention on Human Rights;
b. Respect for a constitutional order implementing fundamental rights and conformity of laws to this constitutional order;
c. The fact that the government and all other public authorities are subject to the law;
d. Legal certainty, which includes the principle of accessibility to the law and the principles of predictability and proportionality in the application of laws;
e. Refusal of impunity, which means that:
- In the event of violation of the rule of law, it shall fall to states and the international community to make sure that such violation does not go unpunished;
- Gross violations of human rights, in particular, torture, genocide, ethnocide, systematic rape and massacres should be condemned and their perpetrators punished.
VII. GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTABILITY
a. In a genuine democracy, those in authority are accountable for their acts to all citizens on whose behalf they exercise power and to their representatives.
B. POLITICAL CONDITIONS FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF GENUINE DEMOCRACY
I. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
1. PARTICIPATION IN PUBLIC AND POLITICAL LIFE
a. Genuine democracy presupposes power sharing as well as freedom based on solidarity.
b. Genuine democracy shall permit and encourage full and equal participation by women and men in the democratic process, including balanced representation at all levels of decision-making in public and political life.
c. Every citizen has a right to participate in the conduct of public affairs, either directly or through freely chosen representatives, both at European and national level and at local and regional level, as well as to vote and be elected.
d. Every citizen has a right to participate in the voluntary sector.
e. Every citizen has a duty to take part in the promotion of and respect for human rights and democratic values.
f. Genuine democracy shall encourage and recognise work done by non-governmental organisations or any voluntary association, whether national or international, working to protect human rights and democratic institutions.
g. Every foreign national residing lawfully on the territory of a state has the right to participate in public life and the voluntary sector, at least at local level.
2. FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS
a. Elections shall be free and fair, in accordance with international and European standards.
b. Periodic elections to political office are an essential means of enabling the will of the people to be expressed.
c. Such elections shall be based on universal and equal suffrage and held by secret ballot. They shall take place in circumstances guaranteeing the possibility of a genuine choice for the electorate and respect for its opinion, and ensuring the proper conduct and legality of procedures, as well as the legality of election results.
d. The presence of international observers and of the international press shall not be regarded as interference in the internal affairs of the state.
3. POLITICAL PARTIES
a. A genuinely democratic society requires the existence of a multi-party system.
b. The right to freedom of association includes the right to establish political parties. The role of these parties is to engage and promote political debate.
c. The setting up of political parties or other groupings shall be free in accordance with the law. The setting up of political parties may not be obstructed and political parties may only be banned in the cases mentioned under point A-III-b of this declaration. In no circumstances may a political party seek the destruction of democracy or fundamental rights.
d. The funding of political parties shall be regulated by law.
4. ASSOCIATIONS, NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND TRADE UNION ORGANISATIONS
a. Associations, non-governmental organisations and trade union organisations are necessary for the proper functioning of democracy; they provide citizens with a means of action and expression.
b. They have a specific independent role to promote the values of democracy and human rights and contribute to their effective implementation.
c. Their activities shall not be limited or forbidden in so far as they are carried out in the framework of the law and the respect for human rights.
5. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
a. Freedoms of thought, opinion, expression, information and communication are essential requirements for the functioning and progress of a democratic society and individual fulfilment. They shall not justify calls to violence, incitement to hatred or any form of discrimination.
6. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA
a. The freedom and independence as well as the pluralism and diversity of the media are essential for the functioning of a democratic society.
b. The media’s responsibility for ensuring respect for all human rights is an essential counterpart of media freedom. The exercise of this freedom shall not be used to incite violence, hatred or any form of discrimination.
c. Free circulation of information and ideas across borders must be guaranteed as an important factor in promoting understanding between nations, close relations between peoples and the mutual enrichment of cultures.
d. The possibilities offered by new information and communication technologies must be taken into consideration to develop a genuine democracy.
7. RESPECT FOR PERSONS BELONGING TO MINORITIES
a. While based on the principle of majority rule, genuine democracy must at the same time secure the respect of all rights of persons belonging to minorities.
II. LOCAL AND REGIONAL GOVERNANCE
a. Local and regional self-government is an important element of genuine democracy. It must have an institutional and legal basis.
b. Such a form of government contributes to the strengthening of a democratic Europe based on the principle of subsidiarity and decentralisation on all levels at which power is exercised.
c. This includes the ability of local authorities, within the limits of the law, to regulate and manage a substantial share of public affairs under their own responsibility and in the interests of the local population.
d. This right shall be exercised by bodies composed of members elected by universal suffrage. This provision shall in no way affect recourse to assemblies of citizens, referendums or any other form of direct citizen participation where it is permitted by statute.
e. The conditions of office of local elected representatives shall provide for free exercise of their functions.
III. EXERCISE OF POWER IN A STATE GOVERNED BY THE RULE OF LAW
1. SEPARATION OF POWERS
a. Democracy requires the separation and independence of the legislature, executive and judiciary.
b. The role of the legislature, as the representative of the electorate, is to draw up and pass legislation, to vote taxes and to hold the executive to account. To this end, the legislature must have independent powers of investigation and scrutiny and its representatives must enjoy immunity from executive pressure or coercion in the exercise of their office.
c. In implementing and upholding the law, the executive shall be answerable to the people and their representatives. In particular, it must ensure that the law is strictly applied by the agencies entrusted with law enforcement.
d. Judicial authority shall be exercised independently by the courts and their decisions shall be executed by the competent public authorities in each state.
e. The independence of judges shall be safeguarded. They shall be impartial and give their rulings within a reasonable time. Judges’ decisions shall not be influenced by the interests of the executive, the legislature or any other public authority or private group.
f. The independence of lawyers shall be recognised and protected, especially with regard to the conditions of their access to the profession and the performance of their duties.
2. IMPARTIALITY OF THE STATE
a. In keeping with the principle of non-discrimination, genuine democracy presupposes the impartiality of the state with respect to religions, beliefs and convictions.
b. The state must never favour the interests or values of a specific group.
3. EFFECTIVE PROTECTION AGAINST VIOLATIONS OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
a. Every person alleging a violation of his or her recognised rights and freedoms is entitled to an effective remedy before a competent national body, including when the alleged violation was committed by persons acting in the course of their official duties.
b. Every democratic state must offer any person within its jurisdiction the opportunity of submitting an individual complaint to an international body in the event of a violation of their fundamental rights.
c. Every democratic state must provide for setting up the office of ombudspersons, commissioners or other national human rights institutions, with the power to take any measure to ensure effective respect for the rights of all persons living on the territory of the state.
4. DEROGATIONS FROM OBLIGATIONS RELATED TO RESPECT FOR RIGHTS
a. Where the life of the nation is threatened, any exceptional measures taken shall be aimed solely at preserving the democratic system, upholding the rule of law and ensuring respect for fundamental rights and freedoms.
b. Where the executive authorities are legally empowered to take a decision to impose a state of emergency, the decision shall be subject to approval and review by the legislature. The measures taken shall not be exempt from judicial review under ordinary law.
C. ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF GENUINE DEMOCRACY
I. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
a. Genuine democracy shall develop economic systems aimed, amongst other things, at achieving social justice, sustainable economic development, well-being, the promotion of employment and the rational use of economic and environmental resources out of respect for future generations.
b. Genuine democracy must secure access to essential goods and services for all citizens.
c. Any economic system must promote the development and self-fulfilment of every individual and the social development of the community aimed at global sustainable development.
II. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
1. A GENUINE DEMOCRACY MUST BE A SOCIAL DEMOCRACY
a. Democracy cannot be genuine unless it has a social dimension. Lack of respect for fundamental social rights threatens legal and political equality, the foundation of any democracy.
b. Social debate and collective bargaining are elements of social development. Trade unions and other social partners must be able fully to play their role here.
2. PROTECTION AGAINST MARGINALISATION OR EXCLUSION
a. Democracy can be measured by the way in which it recognises and treats those who are excluded from society.
b. Any genuine democracy must take concrete measures to eliminate extreme poverty, economic, social and cultural deprivation and marginalisation, in particular:
- By giving the means to persons suffering poverty and social exclusion to obtain information and make themselves heard and to take part in decision-making on public policy, in particular when it affects them;
- By facilitating access by such persons to comprehensive services, including appropriate training to enable them to develop their abilities.
III. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
1. RIGHT TO EDUCATION
a. Genuine democracy involves giving effect to the right to education, as an integral part of human rights, with a view to lifelong learning.
b. Education in human rights, in the values and practice of democracy and in active and responsible citizenship is an essential part of the education system which must be provided not only as part of compulsory general education but also in other forms and at other levels of publicly funded education and lifelong learning. In particular, it concerns members of the judiciary, the police and the armed forces and, in general, those who are expected to ensure respect for the rights of individuals.
c. The right of parents to ensure that their children receive an education in keeping with their religious and philosophical convictions must be guaranteed insofar as this is compatible with human rights and respects the right of children to their own development.
2. PARTICIPATION IN CULTURAL LIFE
a. Genuine democracy requires everyone to have access to, and be able to participate actively in, cultural life, information and social communication without any discrimination.
b. All cultural communities, including those disadvantaged on account of their size, their specific cultural or religious characteristics or their conditions of existence, shall be entitled to pursue their own cultural policy without prejudice to human rights and the rights of other communities.
IV. INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION OF DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES
a. Democratic principles must play an ever-increasing role in the conduct of European and international affairs. Every democracy has a duty to support states in the process of transition to democracy, as well as a duty of solidarity with persons who are oppressed or live in conditions harmful to their development.
b. Every genuine democracy must defend democratic principles. It should promote human rights protection and democratic principles in its international relations.
c. The protection of universal human rights is an essential responsibility of the international community and of each of its members and no state may invoke the principle of non-interference in its internal affairs when instances of abuse of human rights are reported.
d. Preserving and accommodating, on an equal footing and in permanent structures, the democracies which will make Europe a vast area of democratic security must remain one of the major objectives of the Council of Europe. Democracies are therefore invited to commit themselves to the principles and values set out in this declaration.
A P P E N D I X
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950) and Protocols
European Cultural Convention (1954)
European Social Charter (1961), its Protocols and the revised European Social Charter (1996)
European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1987) and Protocols
Convention on the Participation of Foreigners in Public Life at Local Level (1992)
Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1994)
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (2005)
Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (2011)
European Charter of Local Self-Government (1985)
Additional Protocol to the European Charter of Local Self-Government on the right to participate in the affairs of a local authority (2009)
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (1992)
Revised European Charter on the Participation of Young People in Municipal and Regional Life (2003)
Vienna Declaration adopted by the heads of state and government of Council of Europe member states at their first summit on 9 October 1993
Strasbourg Declaration adopted by the heads of state and government of Council of Europe member states at their second summit on 11 October 1997
Warsaw Declaration adopted by the heads of state and government of Council of Europe member states at their third summit on 17 May 2005
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on Human Rights (1978)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers regarding intolerance – A threat to democracy (1981)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on freedom of expression and information (1982)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on equality of women and men (1988)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on cultural diversity (2000)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on the Code of Good Practice in Electoral Matters (2004)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on the Code of Good Practice for Civil Participation in the Decision-Making Process (2009)
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on religious freedom (2011)
European Landscape Convention (2000)
Recommendation Rec(2002)1 of the Committee of Ministers to member states
on the Guiding principles for sustainable spatial development of the European continent
Resolution of the Ministers responsible for spatial/regional planning of the member States of the Council of Europe (CEMAT) on the contribution of essential services to the sustainable spatial development of the European continent, Moscow (2010)
* Final activity report of the Project group “Human Rights and Genuine Democracy” (CAHDD), CM(96)12 Addendum I | [
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] | 4,600 |
Patent no. 1433. Filing year 1872.
"Improvements in Sewing Machines," C. Raymond.
For most of our history, the close relationship between Canada and the United States has been conducive to the flow of people and ideas across the border. Scottish immigrant Alexander Graham Bell, for example, divided his working life between Canada and the U.S., while inventors such as Thomas Leopold Willson and John J. Wright developed their ideas south of the border before applying them here.
Charles Raymond of Guelph, Ontario, could be considered an example of what the Canadian media has recently termed the "reverse brain drain." Born in Ashburnham, Massachusetts, Raymond had already invented two types of sewing machines before legal patent disputes with the Singer Company inspired him to relocate in 1860 to Montréal, the hub of Canada's textile industry. He soon lost money on a sewing-machine business and, in 1862, he and 15 tradesmen relocated to Guelph where he established the Raymond Sewing Machine Company. Here he finally found success, making and selling sewing machines and accessories based on a string of patents, including the one above.
Patent no. 1433 is of particular interest because it was preceded by a caveat filed by Raymond in 1869. A caveat, as it applies to patents, is a legal notification of the intention to file a patent for a concept still under development. Raymond's caveat claimed the invention of "the application of a check, lever, or spring to a single thread sewing machine, by which the thread is held up to or on the hook or looper, and thus prevented from dropping stitches." He just wasn't sure where to put the lever, but promised to perfect the design "as speedily as possible." His 1872 patent, above, included the completed lever mechanism.
Caveats were typically used when the stakes were high. One famous example is American inventor Elisha Gray's caveat for a telephone, filed in the United States Patent Office just two hours after Alexander Graham Bell filed his telephone patent. The sewing machine business in the 1800s was particularly competitive, and Raymond's experience with Singer in the U.S. may have prompted him to take extra precautions.
Over the years, Raymond's business instincts served him well. His Canadian base proved advantageous during the U.S. Civil War, which hampered his American competitors. Later, his emphasis on selling to European markets paid off, while many Canadian competitors failed because of their concentration on the domestic market. In 1870, he employed nearly 80 workers; ten years later, he owned two factories with a workforce of 200.
Raymond's health problems prompted his semi-retirement in 1877, though he continued to invent. He filed a number of patents unrelated to sewing, including an improvement to skates (no. 13026) and a cash register (no. 43108), and was working on a gasoline engine before his death in 1904. A religious man, Raymond was also involved in the local temperance movement, which doubtless would have put him at odds with fellow Guelph innovator and industrialist George Sleeman.
Grosvenor, Edwin S., and Morgan Wesson. Alexander Graham Bell: The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone. New York: Harry S. Abrams, 1997.
Nash-Chambers, Debra L. "Raymond, Charles." Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online.
(accessed November 7, 2005).
Van Dulken, Stephen. Inventing the 19th Century: 100 Inventions That Shaped the Victorian Age, From Aspirin to the Zeppelin. New York: New York University Press, 2001. | [
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] | 762 |
This archived Web page remains online for reference, research or recordkeeping purposes. This page will not be altered or updated. Web pages that are archived on the Internet are not subject to the Government of Canada Web Standards. As per the Communications Policy of the Government of Canada, you can request alternate formats of this page on the Contact Us page.
Before 1980, most of the Chinese who came to Canada were from countries in the southeast of Canton and so the Chinese spoken was mainly Cantonese. This is just one of the many dialects spoken in China. Today, Cantonese and Mandarin are the two Chinese dialects most spoken in Canada.
Although the Chinese brought their own religious beliefs with them, about ten percent of Chinese immigrants had changed to Christianity by 1923. By 1961, close to sixty percent of Chinese Canadians were Christians. Buddhism and Islam were also important religions for Chinese people in Canada.
The Chinese hold many celebrations throughout the year. The most important one is the Chinese New Year. It usually is celebrated in February and is a time for settling debts and cleaning house. Red packets containing small amounts of money are given away, especially to children, and firecrackers are set off.
The Lantern Festival takes place on the 15th day of the New Year. Lanterns are hung in homes, along with symbols of good fortune, happiness and health.
The Ching Ming Festival falls in April and is also known as Remembrance of Ancestors Day. Chinese visit the graves of their loved ones and clear away the weeds.
One of the best known festivals, the Dragon Boat Festival, is usually celebrated in June. Boats from 45 to 120 feet long, and decorated with dragon's heads and tails race each other in competition. Paddlers keep in stroke to the beat of loud drums.
The Mid-Autumn Festival is a time for people to gather and watch the moon. As darkness falls, lanterns are lit and everyone enjoys moon cakes (a mix of ground lotus, mashed beans, sesame seeds and dates) while watching the rise of the large autumn moon.
The Winter Soltice Festival takes place on the longest night of the year (December 22 or 23). As people look forward to longer days, they visit with family and enjoy a yummy banquet. | [
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] | 467 |
Some of our most interesting prints were once given away in a magazine. Today they comprise an important social history resource for the nineteenth century, illustrating spectacles and other visual devices in use by some of the most significant people of the day.
Vanity Fair was a Victorian magazine, founded in 1868 and aimed at the middle and upper sections of society. From the very beginning its illustrations included a distinctive satirical portraiture of a type which was new to English journalism. These portraits were designed to be collectible and many households or clubs enjoyed gathering their own gallery of the most distinguished politicians, clergymen and lawyers of the day. The artists became well-known by their pseudonyms such as 'Spy' and indeed their works are often known by the shorthand label 'Spy cartoons'. The caricatures were reproduced by the relatively new colour printing process of chromolithography.
Many of the Vanity Fair portraits include spectacles, monocles or pince-nez, often with a neck cord attached. In some cases the depiction is indistinct; the artist, usually working in watercolour, was interested only in providing an impression of the device. In other portraits however, the optical device is very clearly shown or else exaggerated such that it becomes a defining motif for the person concerned. An example would be the huge monocle filling the socket of Mr Maguire, the campaigner for Irish Home Rule.
The portraits are a useful source for studying the spectacle fashions of the second half of the nineteenth century and the Edwardian period. The manner in which a frame is worn, held or suspended is often clearly shown. This may be from a cord, or a coat button. The spectacles may be flourished in the hand or parked out of the way on the forehead. In one instance, the son of the novelist Charles Dickens is illustrated actually cleaning his spectacle lenses with a cloth.
Educated Victorian readers held contemporary scientists in a level of esteem that would be unfamiliar today. In consequence, certain distinguished names in the fields of optics and ophthalmology are to be found amongst the Vanity Fair portraits. This includes Mr Frank Crisp, the well-known collector of microscopes, Sir George Airy, reputedly the first to use a cylindrical lens for his own correction, Sir William Crookes the Chemist (a former Superintendent of the Radcliffe Observatory) and R Brudenell Carter who found fame through his operations on corneal staphyloma.
There are so many relevant Vanity Fair portraits (the BOA Museum has 68 for example) that a comprehensive listing would seem superfluous. Below is attached a list of some of the best that an enthusiast might consider including in his collection. It should be noted that many of these prints are available quite cheaply as modern reproductions.
Wearing Pince-Nez or Nose spectacles
Wearing a monocle
Other optical devices
The MusEYEum Guide to the pseudonyms of Vanity Fair cartoonists:
|Ao||= L’Estrange. Floruit 1903-7.|
|APE||= Carlo Pellegrini (1839-1889). Born Capua. Came to England 1864. Adopted name ‘APE’ from 1869.|
|F.C.G.||= Sir Francis Carruthers Gould (1844-1925).|
|F.T.D.||= F.T. Dalton. Floruit 1890.|
|GUTH||= Jean Baptiste Guth. Floruit 1883-1921.|
|Hay||= Floruit 1888-1893.|
|Lib||= Liberio Prosperi. Floruit 1886-1903.|
|PAL||= Jean de Paleogu. Born 1855.|
|SPY||= Sir Leslie Ward (1851-1922). Adopted name ‘SPY’ from 1873, working 36 years for Vanity Fair. Knighted 1918.|
|STUFF||= Possibly H.C. Sepping Wright (i.e. his name becomes the ‘wright stuff’). Floruit 1894-1900.|
|T||= Theobald Chartran (1849-1907).|
|w.a.g.||= A.G. Witherby. Floruit 1894-1901.| | [
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] | 906 |
Latino adolescents who share knowledge from the classroom, new media and information technology among immigrant families function as "civic information leaders," a new study by the University of Colorado Boulder shows.
Their role helps family members assimilate to American culture and also represents a powerful channel through which to campaign to immigrant parents, according to journalism Associate Professor Mike McDevitt, lead author of the study.
"There is a reason for optimism, as opposed to despair, in thinking about the prospects for reaching a demographic typically portrayed in social science as chronically disengaged from civic and political life," said McDevitt.
"Schools, news media and campaign strategists should view adolescents as the most effective way to mobilize Latino families for active citizenship," he said. "They should not try to reach parents directly, but instead reach out to teens. This can trigger a trickle-up influence."
The study was conducted primarily with Latino participants from Centaurus High School in Lafayette, Colo. Surveys completed by 74 students served as the basis of four focus group discussions involving 53 students and parents. In addition, 12 students completed diaries tracking their media and information technology use over 48 hours.
The student participants were surveyed on their use of media and information technology for schoolwork, entertainment and social interaction. Their consumption of traditional resources -- radio, newspapers, magazines and television -- and newer tools -- the Internet, MP3 players, cellular telephones and texting -- was measured.
They also were surveyed on their political views, activities and willingness to discuss civic issues in school and in family settings. Participants rated their willingness to listen to opponents, initiate discussion and to disagree, among other questions.
"Latino adolescents' use of traditional media and particularly new information technology is perhaps more frequent than many would expect," said McDevitt. "Youth are tapped into general information and issue awareness, which builds confidence in the classroom and serves as a bridge to the home front, where parents are otherwise disconnected and distrusting of mainstream media."
The focus group discussions revealed that Latino youth and immigrant parents experience distinct sets of information sources that rarely overlap. School and media efforts aimed at increasing civic participation should strive to increase the overlap, said McDevitt.
Immigrant parents commonly face language barriers and the undocumented status of many of them causes fear of societal rejection and marginalization, according to the study. Many parents in the focus groups also reported shaky computer skills and a skepticism of English-language news media.
However, McDevitt said there is a downside to the dynamic of Latino teens serving as information leaders when immigrant parents feel their authority is undermined.
"Family communication can be thwarted when Latino youth act as information leaders, changing the usual structure of authority," said McDevitt. "On the other hand, these provocations can promote reciprocal influence in the family because parents want to keep up with their kids and retain a leadership role, particularly about controversial political issues."
The study recommends figuring out ways to preserve family cohesion, cultural identity and parental leadership while taking advantage of Latino youth's propensity for leadership in accessing and using new media.
"For many decades, political scientists have often ignored the family in terms of strategy for promoting political participation, or have viewed the family as a barrier, as a private domain that must be overcome," said McDevitt. "The family is not something to overcome; it's not a deficit; it's a resource for political engagement."
Mary Butler, a graduate of CU-Boulder's communication department, co-authored the study, which is published in the current issue of InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies.
Student coaches from Public Achievement, a service-learning program of CU-Boulder's Institute for Ethical and Civic Engagement, helped to recruit study participants and to facilitate focus groups. Collaboration on the study also involved mentors from the I Have A Dream Foundation. | [
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] | 791 |
Students learn basic skills in electricity, line work installation, repair, cable splicing, and system testing, as well as transformer connections, underground electric installation and effective operation of digger derricks. Electric lineworkers install and repair cables or wires used in electrical power or distribution systems. They locate line trouble, climb poles, use hot line tools, and operate and maintain substations. This program prepares students to work for power line construction and utility companies.
All students are required to obtain a Red Cross First Aid card and a CPR card before a certificate is issued.
Electric Line mechanic | [
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] | [
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] | 119 |
The Demon in the Freezer by Richard Preston
Take to you handfuls of soot of the furnace, and let Moses throw it heavenward in the sight of Pha- raoh; and it shall become fine dust over all the land of Egypt, and shall be a boil breaking forth with blains upon man and upon beast, throughout the land of Egypt. [Exodus 9:8-9] WHATEVER ONE’S views on the historicity of the biblical plagues, it is remarkable how closely this passage resembles a description of modern biological warfare. A handful of smallpox virions, each about the size of a particle of soot, contains enough pestilent material to infect millions of people. Released at a high enough altitude, a cloud of such viral dust might spread invisibly for 50 miles or more. Anyone who breathes in as few as a half-dozen grains could become symptomatic in a fortnight, breaking out with blisters and sores or with bleeding skin.
About the Author
Kevin Shapiro is a research fellow in neuroscience and a student at Harvard Medical School. | [
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] | [
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] | 226 |
Practical and Common-Sense Breast Cancer Dietary Tips
1. Avoid trans-fats
Avoid consumption of processed foods, which is the main source of industrially produced trans-fatty acid.
An increased intake of trans-fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75 percent, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.
Women with breast cancer have higher levels of trans fats in their bodies than other women, suggesting–but not proving–that eating trans may raise the risk of the disease, says a new report from the European Community Multi-center Study on Antioxidants, Myocardial Infarction, and Breast Cancer.
Scientists at the national scientific research center at the University of Paris in France, discovered the link between trans-fats and breast cancer after carrying out a study of women taking part in a large European cancer trial.
The team found that women with the highest blood levels of trans-fats had about twice the risk of breast cancer compared to women with the lowest levels.
Trans-fats can be found in cooking fats, baked goods, snacks and a variety of other prepared foods.
2. Avoid vegetable Oils
Increased consumption of omega-6 fatty acids, found in corn oil and most of the oils used in bakery products, could be a reason for the rise in incidence of breast cancer in recent years, say many health researchers.
Omega-6 fats have been linked to the development of breast cancer, with a Spanish team reporting in 2004 that the fats enhanced expression of certain genes that accelerate the disease.
Omega-6 fats are found in refined supermarket cooking oils such as soy oil, corn oil, sunflower, safflower oil, in margarine, and in all processed foods that use these.
3. Eat Omega-3 fatty acids
Epidemiological research has clearly identified a significant inverse correlation between a woman’s consumption of foods rich in omega-3 fats and her risk for breast cancer.
Eat at least three servings a week of cold-water fish such as tuna, wild salmon, halibut, mackerel, haddock, cod, and sardines. If you don’t eat fish, you can also take fish oil capsules (2 to 10g a day).
4. Eat only organic free-range eggs
Avoid commercially produced eggs and eat only eggs that come from free-roaming hens fed on organic Omega 3 enhanced feed. Free-range, cage-free chickens have a greater variety of diet, producing eggs that contain more omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin E.
Omega 3 enhanced eggs are from hens fed a diet flax seed or fish oils. Omega 3 enhanced eggs contain more omega 3 fatty acids and Vitamin E than the regular eggs. An independent test conducted by the CBC’s TV show Marketplace found that omega-3 enhanced eggs contain approximately 7 times more omega 3 fatty acids than regular white eggs.
Free-range organic eggs have nearly twice the vitamin E, four times the beta carotene (a precursor to vitamin A), four times the omega-3 fatty acids, and half the cholesterol. In addition, the free-range eggs have a significant amount of folic acid.
Several studies have shown similar results—one even showed free-range organic eggs to have thirteen times the omega-3 fatty acids!
Research has confirmed that the essential nutrient choline, which is found in eggs, can significantly reduce the risk of getting breast cancer.
In 2003, a Harvard University study indicated that subjects who consumed more eggs and fiber than the average girl during adolescence had a smaller risk of developing breast cancer as adults. Eating one egg per day was associated with an 18 percent reduction in risk.
Conclusion: Eat only organic/hormone free egg products that are free of residue of estrogenic hormones that have been linked to promoting breast cancer.
5. Avoid processed soy products
Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign recently announced results of research suggesting that the highly purified soy foods and soy supplements marketed in the United States may promote the growth of some pre-existing breast cancers.
6. Eat whole soy products
There have been many studies suggesting that eating whole soy products can help to lower the risk of breast cancer. It’s been shown for example that Oriental women, who have a lower-than-normal incidence of breast cancer, consume much larger amounts of soy products than most American women. When Asian women move to the United States, however, their intake of soy products goes down and their incidence of breast cancer goes up. | [
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] | 954 |
A brochosopy is a procedure in which a long, lighted scope is inserted into the lungs in order to examine the airways of the lungs and to assess lung function.
Chest fluoroscopy may be performed when the motion of the lungs, diaphragm, or other structures in the chest need to be evaluated.
Chest ultrasound is a procedure in which sound wave technology is used alone, or along with other types of diagnostic methods, to examine the organs and structures of the chest.
A chest X-ray is used to examine the chest and the lungs and other organs and structures located in the chest.
CT/CAT scans are more detailed than standard x-rays and are often used to assess the organs of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems,and esophagus, for injuries, abnormalities, or disease.
A lobectomy is a surgical procedure that removes one of the lobes of the lungs.
A lung biopsy is a procedure in which tissue samples are removed with a special needle to determine if cancer or other abnormal cells are present.
A lung scan is a procedure that uses nuclear radiology to assess the function and structure of the lungs. It is most often performed when problems with the lungs and respiratory tract are suspected.
In a lung transplant, one or both diseased lungs are removed and replaced with a healthy lung from another person.
A mediastinoscopy is a surgical procedure performed to examine the mediastinum - the space behind the sternum (breastbone) in the middle of the chest that separates the two lungs.
Oximetry is a procedure used to measure the oxygen level—or oxygen saturation—in the blood.
Peak flow measurement is a procedure that records the amount of air flowing out of your lungs. Peak flow can be measured with either a spirometer or a peak flow meter.
A pleural biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of the pleura (the membrane that surrounds the lungs) is removed with a special biopsy needle or during surgery to determine if disease, infection, or cancer is present.
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a specialized radiology procedure used to examine various body tissues to identify certain conditions. PET may also be used to follow the progress of the treatment of certain conditions.
A pulmonary angiogram is aa procedure that uses a combination of contrast dye and X-rays to examine the blood vessels in the lungs and evaluate blood flow to the lungs.
Pulmonary function tests measure how well your lungs are functioning and are used to help diagnose certain lung disorders.
A sinus x-ray is a type of x-ray used to obtain images of the sinuses - the air-filled cavities lined with mucous membranes located within the bones of the skull.
A sleep study - or polysomnogram - consists of a number of medical tests performed at the same time during sleep. The tests measure specific sleep characteristics and help to diagnose sleep disorders.
Thoracentesis is a procedure in which a needle is inserted through the back of the chest wall to remove fluid or air from between the lungs and the interior chest wall. | [
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] | 647 |
Now that the X-37B space plane is spotted, what is its mission?
Amateur astronomers say they have found the X-37B in an orbit that takes it over Afghanistan and Iraq. A former Air Force missile officer offers up four possible uses for the space plane – and weapon is least likely.
Now we know where the X-37B is. Amateur sky-watchers have spotted the Air Force miniature space plane traveling in low-earth orbit at an inclination that takes it over Iraq and Afghanistan, among other nations.Skip to next paragraph
But this big question remains: What the heck is the X-37B doing up there, anyway?
The Air Force isn’t saying. It’s secret. “The actual on-orbit activities we do classify,” said Gary Payton, Air Force Undersecretary for Space Programs, during a conference call with reporters in late April.
On April 22 an Atlas V rocket roared into the sky from Cape Canaveral, Fla., carrying the X-37B on its first orbital test flight. At that moment the reusable craft vanished, as far as the general public was concerned. The Air Force did not say where in space the X-37B was going.
But last week a team of sky-watchers with members who specialize in tracking orbiting objects announced that they’ve spotted what they are certain is the X-37B in space, about 255 miles up, circling the earth every 90 minutes.
The X-37B is traveling in a an area bounded by 40 degrees north latitude (the mid-Atlantic of the US, Spain, the Middle East) and 40 degrees south latitude (Argentina, South Africa, Australia), according to Greg Roberts, a South African member of the spotting team.
The Air Force says that the performance of the system itself is the biggest thing this launch is testing. They want to see how the X-37B performs in orbit, how it flies itself back to the ground, and how quickly they can get it ready to re-launch. The goal is to be able to turn the X-37B around as fast as the Air Force could turn around a high-performance spy plane such as the SR-71 Blackbird. | [
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] | 462 |
Phishing: The Basics
Here's how to be on your guard against phishing attacks
CSO — Phishing is a method of trying to gather personal information using deceptive e-mails and websites. Pharming also aims to collect personal information from unsuspecting victims by essentially tinkering with the road maps that computers use to navigate the Web. You don't want either one working its evil genius on you, your employees or your customers. Here's how to be on your guard against both phishing and pharming. Last updated: April 2009
- What is phishing?
- Can we prevent phishing attacks?
- What can my company do to reduce our chances of being targeted?
- What plans should my company have in place before a phishing incident occurs?
- How can we quickly find out if a phishing attack has been launched using our company's name?
- How can we help our customers avoid falling for phishing?
- If an attack does happen, how should we respond?
- Any legal/regulatory requirements we should be aware of?
- What action can we take against the phishers themselves?
- How might phishing attacks evolve in the near future? (E.g. "spear-phishing)
- How can we guard against pharming attacks?
Q: What is phishing?
A: Phishing is a method of trying to gather personal information using deceptive e-mails and websites. Typically, a phisher sends an e-mail disguised as a legitimate business request. For example, the phisher may pass himself off as a real bank asking its customers to verify financial data. (So phishing is a form of "social engineering".) The e-mail is often forged so that it appears to come from a real e-mail address used for legitimate company business, and it usually includes a link to a website that looks exactly like the bank's website. However, the site is bogus, and when the victim types in passwords or other sensitive information, that data is captured by the phisher. The information may be used to commit various forms of fraud and identity theft, ranging from compromising a single existing bank account to setting up multiple new ones.
Early phishing attempts were crude, with telltale misspellings and poor grammar. Since then, however, phishing e-mails have become remarkably sophisticated. Phishers may pull language straight from official company correspondence and take pains to avoid typos. The fake sites may be near-replicas of the sites phishers are spoofing, containing the company's logo and other images and fake status bars that give the site the appearance of security. Phishers may register plausible-looking domains like aolaccountupdate.com, mycitibank.net or paypa1.com (using the number 1 instead of the letter L). They may even direct their victims to a well-known company's actual website and then collect their personal data through a faux pop-up window.
Can we prevent phishing attacks?
Companies can reduce the odds of being targeted, and they can reduce the damage that phishers can do (more details on how below). But they can't really prevent it. One reason phishing e-mails are so convincing is that most of them have forged "from" lines, so that the message looks like it's from the spoofed company. There's no way for an organization to keep someone from spoofing a "from" line and making it seem as if an e-mail came from the organization.
A technology known as sender authentication does hold some promise for limiting phishing attacks, though. The idea is that if e-mail gateways could verify that messages purporting to be from, say, Citibank did in fact originate from a legitimate Citibank server, messages from spoofed addresses could be automatically tagged as fraudulent and thus weeded out. (Before delivering a message, an ISP would compare the IP address of the server sending the message to a list of valid addresses for the sending domain, much the same way an ISP looks up the IP address of a domain to send a message. It would be sort of an Internet version of caller ID and call blocking.)
Although the concept is straightforward, implementation has been slow because the major Internet players have different ideas about how to tackle the problem. It may be years before different groups iron out the details and implement a standard. Even then, there's no way of guaranteeing that phishers won't find ways around the system (just as some fraudsters can fake the numbers that appear in caller IDs). That's why, in the meantime, so many organizationsand a growing marketplace of service providershave taken matters into their own hands.
What can my company do to reduce our chances of being targeted by phishing attacks?
In part, the answer has to do with NOT doing silly or thoughtless things that can increase your vulnerability. Now that phishing has become a fact of life, companies need to be careful about how they use e-mail to communicate with customers. For example, in May 2004, Wachovia's phones started ringing off the hook after the bank sent customers an e-mail instructing them to update their online banking user names and passwords by clicking on a link. Although the e-mail was legitimate (the bank had to migrate customers to a new system following a merger), a quarter of the recipients questioned it.
As Wachovia learned, companies need to clearly think through their customer communication protocols. Best practices include giving all e-mails and webpages a consistent look and feel, greeting customers by first and last name in e-mails, and never asking for personal or account data through e-mail. If any time-sensitive personal information is sent through e-mail, it has to be encrypted. Marketers may wring their hands at the prospect of not sending customers links that would take them directly to targeted offers, but instructing customers to bookmark key pages or linking to special offers from the homepage is a lot more secure. That way, companies are training their customers not to be duped.
It also makes sense to revisit what customers are allowed to do on your website. They should not be able to open a new account, sign up for a credit card or change their address online with just a password. At a minimum, companies should acknowledge every online transaction through e-mail and one other method of the customer's choosing (such as calling the phone number on record) so that customers are aware of all online activity on their accounts. And to make it more difficult for phishers to copy online data-capture forms, organizations should avoid putting them on the website for all to see. Instead, organizations should require secured log-in to access e-commerce forms.
At the end of the day, though, better authentication is the best way to decrease the likelihood that phishers will target your organization. Banks are beginning to experiment with technologies like RSA tokens, biometrics, one-time-use passwords and smart cards, all of which make their customers' personal information less valuable for phishers.
One midsized bank was able to cut its phishing-related ATM card losses by changing its authentication process. Every ATM card has data encoded on its magnetic strip that the customer can't see but that most ATM machines can read. The bank worked with its network provider to use that hidden information to authenticate ATM transactionsan important step that, according to Gartner, only about half of U.S. banks had taken by mid-2005. "Since the number isn't printed on the back of the card, customers can't accidentally disclose it," the bank's CISO explained. The information was already in the cards, so the bank didn't have to go through an expensive process of reissuing cards. "It was a very economical solution, and it's been very effective," said the CISO. | [
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] | 1,619 |
Little Known Episode in John Bidwell’s History: Thwarting the 1851 Federal Indian Treaty
By Michele Shover, professor emerita, Political Science
In mid-August of that year, 200 members from Mountain and Foothill Maidu tribelets as well as 100 or so Valley Maidus gathered on the ranch at Bidwell’s request to consider a federal treaty. They moved back and forth from their tree-sheltered encampments, scattered to avoid old enemies but close enough to meet with friends. At large campfires, the Mechoopda Maidus roasted slabs of government beef, which rewarded each arriving group. The amount of beef would later become an issue.
While some Mountain Maidus were reluctant to enter rival Maidu turf without protection, their curiosity prevailed. They recalled many tribal “Big Times” there for trade with the Mechoopdas. Of course, when the best bow maker or other artisan was one of their own, they had held the get-togethers. But when a Valley Indian was the master builder, the advantage shifted and Mountain Indians became guests. According to Bidwell, such trading events took place at intervals of years, and when they concluded, the mountain and valley tribelets parted as enemies. In Bidwell’s time, the Mountain Maidus likely made surreptitious night visits to take a look at Bidwell’s ranch or for secret meetings with willing Mechoopdas. While Bidwell understood the land as his property, the tribelets at large still considered it, rightfully at least, as the Maidu territory of their Mechoopda tribelet.
The Indians, many of whom had arrived at Bidwell’s place about three weeks earlier than he expected them, set up camps in heavy groves across from his log house and the long shed, his stable and tack room. The visitors took a keen interest in the ranch’s new “saltbox”-style store with its “hotel” of several rooms above and the clapboard-sided bunkhouse where Bidwell housed “the Indian boys” who joined his vaqueros. Their elders had worked for John Potter, the area’s pioneer who had a substantial cattle operation which ran south from Big Chico Creek along both sides of the Oroville-Shasta Road. From Bidwell the young men learned how to work on field and row crops, and they had put in the rancher’s first orchards and some grape vines during the previous spring. Their elders were posted at the borders of grain fields with orders to keep out the cattle. The young men’s bunkhouse not only presented a considerable contrast to the older families’ bark huts, but it pointed to Bidwell’s separation of the male laborers from their families. In other respects, he respected their culture.
From their tree-shaded campsites, the Mountain Maidus could also assess the Mechoopdas’ situation. The Valley tribelet had agreed to work on Bidwell’s terms. They had nowhere they could go and they gained access to his resources, including added protection from their mountain rivals. This situation intrigued the more warlike mountain tribe. How could they drive off this rancher or tap his resources or find a way to restore their access to the valley? Now that they were at Bidwell’s headquarters, they also could communicate with the Mechoopdas to compare ideas.
While the Indians’ activities intrigued onlookers, the drama of Treaty Commissioner Oliver Wozencraft’s arrival conveyed command. Accompanying him were “gentlemanly and efficient” Army officers and 50 mounted infantry with a train of heavily laden packhorses enveloped in a rolling wall of dust. While Wozencraft’s mission was difficult, he had reason for confidence because he had negotiated signed treaties with other tribes. While he was at Bidwell’s rancho, the San Francisco Alta declared “the reservations must be made where the Indians at present reside … and that has been the course of the commissioners.”
As he slowed to dismount, Wozencraft noted the hundreds of Indians who took his measure in turn. By contrast to treaty meetings where a few tribesmen had shown up, Bidwell had organized an impressive turnout. As Wozencraft moved through the crowd with Bidwell “doing the honors,” he was impressed by the mix of valley headmen or “captains” and those of the mountain tribelets. The latter were difficult to assemble, most at risk and most dangerous to settlers. He explained later the Mountain and Foothill Maidus lived in small groups and were “generally at war with one another.” Hence, “they were very distrustful when it is attempted to bring them together.”
The treaty commissioner found Bidwell had anticipated his needs. Because the Native people would find it hard to understand the terms of a legal document, he had his carpenter build a lectern to draw a common focus. This podium’s image entered into the Mechoopdas’ oral history. In addition, Bidwell provided interpreters. One, Rafael, about 12, was the young boy he had “adopted” from a tribelet and trained as his personal assistant. The second interpreter, Napani, was about 9. She was a daughter of Mechoopda Headman Luc-a-yan, whom a settler woman described as “a man of superior ability, dignity and fine disposition.” She thought he resembled “a bronze statue.”
The ranch was organized for the meeting, the Indians were in place, and Wozencraft was ready to lay out the treaty terms. Deliberations would follow a rocky course—as would the relationship between Wozencraft and Bidwell. In 1858 Bidwell would testify that Commissioner Wozencraft had instructed him to offer the Indians all the beef they wanted regardless of cost. His statement contradicted Wozencraft’s explicit instructions, however. In an 1851 letter to Bidwell, Wozencraft referred to their common understanding that Bidwell should distribute beef to “keep the Indians pacified at the least cost to the government” and that his beef allocations “should be governed by necessity.” Bidwell also wanted Wozencraft to award him the lucrative contract to supply the beef, even though Wozencraft had already awarded it to someone else and wouldn’t go back on his word. Needless to say, Bidwell was not happy.
There is much more to the treaty story, but the end result was that Bidwell worked against the ratification of the treaty, and it failed to pass the California Legislature. California is one of the few states that did not establish a treaty with Indians. The consequences of this for the California Indians, especially the Mechoopda Maidu, is that many of them are still fighting to be recognized as a tribe, with the incumbent rights and privileges that accompany that recognition. In Butte County, the Mechoopda Maidu are in court to challenge Butte County’s effort to stop them from building a casino southeast of Chico.
Note: This is an excerpt from a chapter from a manuscript by Michele Shover, “The California Indian Wars on the Butte County Front, 1850-1865.” Shover, professor emerita, delivered the lecture at the Department of Political Science’s Faculty Forum on Oct. 21. The entire lecture can be found on the department’s website. Photo of Emma Cooper courtesy of Meriam Library, Special Collections. | [
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] | 1,602 |
|Connecticut Botanical Society|
Photos & Information
Plant ID Guides
Dryopteris clintoniana (Dryopteris cristata var. clintoniana)
Clinton's woodfern originated as a hybrid of Goldie's fern and crested woodfern, and its characteristics are mostly intermediate between the two parents. The fertile fronds of Clinton's woodfern are taller, narrower, and more upright than its sterile fronds, but the difference is less pronounced than it is in crested woodfern. Like crested woodfern, Clinton's woodfern's lowest leaflets are broadly triangular. The fronds are wider than crested woodfern fronds, but narrower than Goldie's fern fronds.
Photo © Don Lubin, courtesy of Ferns et al. of New England. | [
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] | 175 |
In early October, the military government of Guatemala’s president Otto Perez Molina massacred a peaceful protest held by Indigenous K’iche protestors from Totonicapán, resulting in the death of seven men and leaving thirty-four others injured. Totonicapán, a department in the western highlands of Guatemala, holds an Indigenous K’iche majority population. Despite being one of the poorest and most malnourished of the departments in Guatemala, it also has been ranked as one of the most peaceful, ranking third to last for rates of violent crime.
Military and national police arrived to the Cumbre de Alaska, a stretch of the Inter-American highway in the Guatemalan highlands, at 9:30 the morning of October 4th. There, hundreds of K’iches from the department of Totonicapán had gathered to protest three issues: elevations in the costs of electricity, changes to the education system, and constitutional reforms that would eliminate government recognition of Indigenous ancestral authorities.
Recounts of what happened that morning vary, but what is confirmed is that three vehicles of military and police personnel approached the scene and eventually fired at least 108 bullets into the crowd of protesters and launched 89 canisters of teargas.
Initial reactions from the government claimed the police were unarmed. “I want to be emphatic,” began Interior Minister Mauricio Lopez Bonillo. “The army and police forces that were present were not carrying firearms. They were carrying non-lethal weapons, tear gas and pepper spray. They follow protocol.” He concluded: “The community members attacked each other.”
Soldier Manuel Lima Vasquez, carrying assault rifle at the Cumbre de Alaska, October 4th.
A very short time later, after photos emerged of military forces carrying assault rifles, they changed the story. This time, the military were carrying weapons, but only shot them in the air to scare protestors who were throwing rocks and sticks.
Finally, a full investigation of the incident was carried out, concluding that eight soldiers fired weapons directly at protestors, which they did in violation of superior orders. The Attorney General of Guatemala has charged Colonel Juan Chiroy Sal, the commander of the detachment sent to the Cumbre de Alaska that morning, with extrajudicial murder, along with the eight soldiers who fired their weapons.
Commissioner Dinah Shelton, of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights responded: “The IACHR values the actions taken by the Office of the Attorney General. It is now essential that the judicial inquiry continues until all facts are cleared up, and criminal responsibilities are established. It is also of fundamental importance that the authorities of Guatemala adopt mechanisms to avoid excessive use of force by State agents in protests and demonstrations,” according to their press release.
The use of violence and repression by the military has come to a peak in Otto Perez Molina’s administration. Perez Molina, an ex-military general during Guatemala’s violent armed conflict, campaigned on the promise that he would use a militarized state to combat drug trafficking and violent crime that plagues urban areas. Instead, during his first year in office, the country has seen increasing use of military repression against Indigenous activists, as was seen in the State of Siege imposed in May in the town of Barillas, Huehuetenango after protests arose over a controversial hydroelectric dam. “We believe there has been a real return to the use of violence as a response to social demands,” explained Domingo Hernandez, part of the board of directors for the Mayan grassroots group Waqib’ Kej. He continued, “In Guatemala we urgently need to start a process of democratization. In this government it hasn’t been possible. A militarized system is vertical, authoritarian, patriarchal, and doesn’t allow for citizens– Indigenous Peoples, women, and youth– to express their opinions. This state, led by ex-military officials, is treating our country as if it were their headquarters.”
The protest was convened by the group 48 Cantones, (48 villages) one of the longest standing, and well-respected system of traditional Indigenous governance existing in Guatemala. The group is an amalgamation of 48 villages around the department of Totonicapán, and is organized to defend the cultural and territorial heritage of their ancestors. Anthropologists have tied the group to Mayan resistance dating back to the arrival of the Spanish colonizers in the region. Their system of sustainable forest and water management has been an example for communities all over Guatemala. In 2010, Cultural Survival's Community Radio Project worked with 48 Cantones to produce a radio-novella series on these sustainable practices for broadcast across community radio stations of Guatemala. Leaders of the movement have called for a deep and transparent investigation of the massacre, questioning the resolution of the government that the soldiers and the colonoal acted alone, against orders. "Hopefully this will lead to trials of those that acted to shoot but also start a process of investigation into the intellectual leaders,” said Juana del Carmen Tacán, president of the 48 Cantones. "Someone must have given the order to shoot them; we want to know who they were. You have to get to the top."
Cultural Survival deplores this act of violence against the members of 48 Cantones and extends our condolences to the community of Totonicapan. Leaders in Guatemala have called the international community to action: “We ask the international community to be attentive to what is happening in Guatemala. We can’t permit a return to the past, to new massacres. The people of Guatemala want to live in peace and take back our country from the hands of the oligarchy and the military; to recuperate a democracy that has been taken from us over hundreds of years,” said Domingo Hernandez.
Take Action: Visit the Guatemalan Human Rights Commission to urge the governmentt of Guatemala to respect the demands of 48 Cantones.
The massacre at Totonicapán became the forefront issue at the October 12th March of Resistance in Guatemala City, a national call to action for Indigenous People's to express their most pressing concerns on the anniversary of Columbus' arrival to the Americas.
"Now a massacre in Toto... tomorrow it could be you. Join the fight."
Wreaths for each of 7 victims shot and killed by Guatemalan military on October 4th.
"He who shot and killed is as guilty as he who ordered: Punishment for the minds behind the massacre."
"No More Massacres"
Cultural Survival helps Indigenous Peoples around the world defend their lands, languages, and cultures as they deal with issues like the one you’ve just read about.
To read about Cultural Survival’s work around the world, click here. To read more articles on the subject use our Search function and explore 40 years of information on Indigenous issues.
For ways to take action to help Indigenous communities, click here.
We take on governments and multinational corporations—and they always have more resources than we do—but with the help of people like you, we do win. Your contribution is crucial to that effort. Click here to do your part. | [
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] | 1,491 |
Teaching Materials Social Studies Kits
A social history of women [kit] by Shiela C. Robertson and Kathleen O’Brien. (1986). TKSS 700
Unit of study on the social history of women, concentrating on women from Minnesota. Includes general lessons on women’s history, and lessons on six "non-famous" historic women: Mathilda Tolksdorf Shillock, Linda James Benitt, Theresa Ericksen, Mary Longley Riggs, Caroline Seabury, and Ethel Ray Nance. For elementary grades. 7 booklets, 6 posters : b&w and col. ; in portfolio, 26 x 39 x 3 cm.
My cup runneth over : value game [kit]. (1973). TKSS 701
Assists players in communicating personal values and interpreting the values of others.
Black studies [kit]. (1973). TKSS 702
Examines some of the significant aspects of Black American culture. 1. African heritage. 9 cards.--2. Slavery & Civil War. 16 cards.--3. Reconstruction & Jim Crowism. 13 cards.--4. Twentieth century. 32 cards.--5. Literature & dramatic arts. 14 cards.--6. Music. 12 cards.--7. Sports. 6 cards.--8. Famous black Americans. 33 cards.--9. Bibliography. 7 cards. 142 activity cards, 1 foreword card, 1 table of contents card, 1 title card, and 9 divider cards in container.
Social studies strategies. [flash card] by Annette Sue Hart. (1972). TKSS 703
Social studies activities emphasizing student involvement and including dramatic play, role playing, simulation games, map experiences, documents and ancient writing, and making filmstrip. For elementary education.
Developing understanding of self and others. [Kit] by Don Dinkmeyer. (1970). TKSS 704
Designed to help children better understand social emotional behavior and may be used by teachers, elementary school counselors, and others as a developmental guidance program.
Developing understanding of self and others : DUSO D-2. [Kit] (1973). TKSS 705
A program of activities designed for upper primary and grade 4 levels, ages 7-10, to help teach concepts of social and emotional behavior.
World map in equal area presentation: Peters projection. (1983). TKSS 707
"One square inch on the map = 158,000 square miles."
Escapades! [flash card]. (1996). TKSS 709
Box of 300 different games, challenges, energizers, mind stumpers, tongue twisters, alternate versions to traditional sports and games. For all ages; 2 or more players. 350 activity cards : b&w ; in box 18 x 10 x 12 cm. + 11 dividers.
Skillstreaming the elementary school child [activity card] : skill cards. (1997). TKSS 710
Skill cards list the steps needed to successfully perform each of the 60 prosocial skills outlined in "Skillstreaming the Elementary School Child. 480 cards : col. ; 8 x 13 cm.
A Visit to Colonial Williamsburg [Slide]. (1978). TKSS 713
Follows the tourist route through Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia. Shows various buildings and gardens in order as they appear along the way. Shows the interiors and exteriors of major exhibition buildings. " With lecture notes. Revised 3/21/78."
Here’s looking at you, demo kit. Grades 7-9 [kit]. (2001). TKS 714
Demonstration kit for preview purposes with a sampling of the materials contained in the complete "Here’s looking at you". A research-based, mixed-media prevention program focused on the gateway drugs of alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana. Designed to promote healthy norms, increase protective factors, and reduce risk factors that have been correlated with drug use. Developed around three components: giving students current and accurate information, teaching them social skills, and providing opportunities for them to bond with their school, their families, and their community. 3 posters, 1 audiocassette, 3 videocassettes, 1 book, 1 magazine, 1 teacher’s guide with CD-ROM, 2 inventory/ordering pages ; in container, 31 x 35 x 12 cm.
Project ALERT [videorecording] : a drug prevention program for middle grades. (2003). TKSS 715
A two year, fourteen lesson plan program for middle school students, which focuses on drugs that adolescents are most likely to use: alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and inhalants. Parent involved homework assignments extend the learning process. Project ALERT -- A guided tour -- Let’s talk about marijuana -- Pot: the party crasher -- Lindsey’s choice -- Pot or not? -- Clearing the air -- Saying no to drugs -- Paul’s fix -- Resisting peer pressure. Videotape dates run from 1996-2002 ; teacher’s guidebook is copyrighted for 2003. Grades 6-8. 9 videocassettes : sd., col. ; 1/2 in. + 1 loose-leaf teacher’s guidebook + 12 posters. Multimedia VC 4713 Pts. 1-9 & suppl. & TKSS 715
My friends and me. [Kit] by Duane E. Davis. (1977). TKSS 716
A carefully balanced program of group activities and materials designed to help teachers and parents assist the healthy personal and social development of young children. For preschool education.
Mix-n-match cards [game]. (1995). TKSS 717
Geography term-n-definition -- Historical character-n-achievement -- Historical event-n-date -- State-n-abbreviation -- State-n-capital -- Sports. v. of cards : ill. ; 28 cm.
Raccoon circles [kit] : a handbook for facilitators. (2001). TKSS 718
Intended to teach coworkers to work as a team while performing various games. 1 piece of nylon webbing; 2 books.
Relocation of Japanese Americans [picture]. (197?). TKSS 719
Photographs of Japanese Americans who had to leave their homes and businesses during World War II. 15 study prints : b&w. ; 28 x 36 cm. + 1 explanatory sheet.
Just choices [videorecording] : exploring social justice today. (19??). TKSS 721
This video complements the Just Choices program as it teaches students about a modern-day social justice movement. The video documents the journeys of four high school students as they investigate the roles and treatment of animals in society for a class project on social justice. As the students learn about the movement, its victories and struggles, and the role of animals in society, they realize that they can make a difference through the choices that they make. 1 videocassette (21 min.) : col. ; 1/2 in. + teacher’s guide (6 p. : col. ill. ; 28 cm.) + 1 poster + 5 activity sheets.
Dr. PlayWell’s don’t pick on me game [game]. (2005). TKSS 722
Designed to help children learn to deal with bullying and teasing in a non-threatening atmosphere. For 2-4 players, ages 6-12. 1 game (1 board, 16 figures, 1 spinner, 72 game cards, 16 stands, 100 chips, 1 assessment card, 1 answer sheet (two-sided), 1 booklet of instructions) ; in box 6.5 x 29 x 24 cm.
Dr. PlayWell’s game of social success [game]. (2004). TKSS 723
Designed to help children get to know one another while playing games and learn social skills that can be used immediately with other players. For 2-4 players, ages 6-12. 1 game (1 board, 4 playing pawns, 1 egg timer, 1 spinner, 48 social success cards, 1 skills assessment card, 1 pad of questionnaires, 1 pad of success certificates, 1 booklet of instructions) ; in box 6.5 x 29 x 24 cm.
[Positive behavior poster collection] [picture]. (2003). TKSS 724
Posters designed to help encourage good behavior in children through positive reinforcement. Say it with signs -- Caught you being good -- Rules & consequences chart. 3 posters : col. ; 60 x 46 cm. + 3 directions sheets, 2 felt markers.
Coat of arms. by Catherine Daly-Weir ; illustrated by Jeff Crosby. (2000). TKSS 725
Traces the origins of coat of arms and the rules that govern their use and design. Includes a stencil to help the reader design their own coat of arms. 31 p. : col. ill. ; 24 cm. + 1 plastic stencil.
TimetoEnrich : grades 7-12 activity kit : instruction manual. (2002). TKSS 726
Presents activities that educate as well as entertain in the areas of social development, healthy living, citizenship, and career awareness. Cards present 180 activities and the leader’s guide contains a CD-ROM with reproducible worksheets, sample letters to parents, praise certificates, and a list of resources. Grades 7-12. 187 p. ; ill. : 28 cm. + 1 CD-ROM (4 3/4 in.) + 180 activity cards (in box 20 X 16 X 9 cm.)
The story grammar marker [kit]. (2002). TKSS 727
Kit provides methods for organizing the integration of thinking, speaking and writing skills in the classroom. Grades K-5. 1 teacher’s marker (27 in.) ; 1 guide (195 p.).
Harcourt horizons. (2003). TKSS 728
About my community (grade 2) -- People and communities (grade 3) -- States and regions (grade 4) -- United States history (grade 5) -- World regions (grade 6). Grades K-6/7.
Harcourt horizons. (2005). TKSS 729
About my community (grade 2) -- People and communities (grade 3) -- States and regions (grade 4) -- United States history: beginnings (grade 5) -- World history (grade 6).
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders [kit] : education & prevention curriculum. (2006). TKSS 730
A school-based curriculum for grades K-12 that provides age-appropriate information about the consequences that alcohol can have on human development. The curriculum also teaches youth to be tolerant and accepting of all individuals regardless of their individual capabilities or disabilities. 5 books, 5 computer optical discs, 1 model of brain with stand and guide card.
This is my home [kit] : a Minnesota human rights education experience. (2005). TKSS 731
The goal of the kit is to integrate and simplify human rights education in K-12 schools statewide. The objectives are to engage all members of the school community in creating a learning environment in which everyone can grow to their full potential with their human rights and human dignity upheld; to motivate all members of the school community to take responsibility in promoting and protecting human rights, so that student achievement, development, and performance can thrive; to develop new tools for sharing and monitoring emerging human rights education practices. 2 booklets, 1 computer optical disc, 1 DVD, 1 pamphlet, 5 guide cards.
The land of Tutankhamen [chart] produced by Sunday Times Special Projects Unit. (1972). TKSS 732
Presents Egyptian civilization at the time of Tutankhamen, 1361-1352 B.C. Includes descriptions of Tutankhamen, Egyptian kingship, pyramid construction, hieroglyphics. 1 wall chart : col. ; 98 x 74 cm., folded to 25 x 19 cm.
Skillstreaming the adolescent [kit] by Arnold P. Goldstein ; Ellen McGinnis. TKSS 733
Program for teaching prosocial skills. Skill cards list the steps needed to successfully perform each of the 50 prosocial skills outlined in skillstreaming the adolescent. 337 p. : 23 cm. + 400 skillcards : (col. ; 8 x 13 cm.) + 1 program form (43 p. ; 28 cm.) + 1 student manual. (60 p. ; 28 cm.)
Dr. PlayWell’s game of self-control [game]. (2005). TKSS 734
Designed to help children learn the importance of self-control at school, in their homes and communities, and in personal habits. For 2-4 players, ages 6-12. 1 game (1 board, 2 dice, 4 pawns, 48 game cards, 100 chips, 1 assessment card, 4 colored circles, 1 booklet of instructions) ; in box 6.5 x 29 x 24 cm.
Turtle puppet [toy]. (2008). TKSS 735
Turtle plush puppet with Western Hemisphere on shell, green head, green feet with yellow soles, yellow underbelly and edge of shell, purple mouth, and embroidered eyes.
For more information, contact:
Martha Eberhart, Reference Librarian
416 Library Drive
Duluth, MN 55812
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1983,
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1987,
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] | 2,807 |
Go out and have unprotected sex, you'll be happier! Say what?!
That's what researchers from SUNY Albany are saying in a new study. They claim that certain chemicals found in semen can have a positive effect on the physical and mental health of women who frequently engage in unprotected sex.
According to the study, "semen is known to contain such "mood-altering chemicals" as estrone and oxytocin, which elevate mood; cortisol, which promotes affection; serotonin, which acts as an antidepressant; and melatonin, which induces sleep."
They determined through an anonymous survey of 293 women on campus, that women who have oral sex or unprotected sex on a regular basis were "happier than those who practiced safe sex."
To measure the mood of survey participants, researchers had the women complete the Beck Depression Inventory, which is a standard clinical test used to assess depressive symptoms.
Of all their findings, perhaps the most interesting was the discovery that sexually active women who usually or always used condoms were on par in their unhappiness with women who abstained from sex altogether.
We'll see how "happy" they are after they get an STD.
According to statistics an estimated 65 million Americans are living with an STD. There are 19 million new cases of STDs every year. And women are even more at risk for some STDs. For instance 75% of women have Chlamydia and don't even know it. 1 in 4 women have HPV. Not to mention women account for one in four new HIV diagnoses and deaths caused by AIDS.
Why don't they just start selling medicinal sperm at sperm banks, it'd be safer.
What do you think about this study?
Get in on the dish. Send me your tweets: twitter.com/maggiesworld or emails: [email protected] or comment on the Online Dish Facebook fan page.
And that's today's helping of Online Dish. | [
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] | 402 |
Prairie dogs enjoy a snack in their habitat at the Detroit Zoo. (Joe Ballor/Daily Tribune)
Species: Prairie dogs (Cynomus lodovicianus)
Home: North America’s prairies and open grassland. The Detroit Zoo is home to over 70 black-tailed prairie dogs. The zoo’s prairie dog habitat features three clear observation areas where children under 4-feet tall can observe the animals from inside the habitat. “The kids love it,” said Betsie Meister, assistant curator of mammals at the Detroit Zoo. “They can’t believe they can get right up close and look eye-to-eye with the prairie dog. It’s really unique.”
Average life span: 3-4 years in the wild; up to 8 years in captivity
Height: Head and body, 12-15 inches; tail, 3-4 inches
Weight: 2-4 pounds
Going to town: Prairie dogs live in towns that typically cover less than a half-square mile. Some prairie dog towns are enormous, with one in Texas reportedly covering 25,000 square miles with an estimated 400 million individuals.
Birth: Reproduce once per year, with 3-4 pups
Now you know: There are five species of prairie dogs, rodents that are considered ground squirrels. They live in underground burrows, an extensive tunnel system with front and back doors and separate rooms for sleeping, defecating, nurseries, etc. There are also listening rooms near the surface, so they can detect predators. A prairie dog family consists of a male, several females and the youngsters. They are highly sociable and grooming is a regular pastime. They even “kiss” and hug each other. Family members share food and work together to chase off other prairie dogs. They have a complex communication system that helps warn of predators.
Protection status: Because they eat crops and their burrows are a tripping danger to horses, prairie dogs have been targeted by extermination campaigns. Several species dependent on the prairie dog, such as the black-footed ferret, are endangered or threatened.
Detroit Zoo information: (248) 541-5717, www.detroitzoo.org.
— Joe Ballor, Daily Tribune
Note: Animals of the Zoo is a weekly series. Next: Tigers. | [
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] | 504 |
Calendar Reform and Eclipses: The Place of Edzná
HIGH NOON AMONG THE MAYA
Although both the 260-day sacred almanac and the 365-day secular calendar predated the Maya by well over a millennium, and the "principle" of using key calendar dates to define urban locations and the Long Count itself had likewise been developed by the Olmecs several centuries before the Maya emerged as a civilized society, it was the latter who seized upon these intellectual tools and honed them to the highest level of sophistication of any of the native peoples of Mesoamerica. Ironically, they did so in one of the most difficult environments in the entire region; yet, this same environment may ultimately have been responsible for their failure to survive as an advanced and vigorous culture until the arrival of the Europeans.
Having largely been displaced from their initial homeland in the Gulf coastal plain of Mexico by the migration of the Zoques in the thirteenth century B.C., most of the Mayan-speaking peoples ended up moving toward the east. (It will be remembered that only one group of Maya moved northward as a result of the Zoque advance, becoming in the process the Huastecs.) The area into which the Maya moved can be subdivided into three rather distinct geographic regions. The first of these was the Petén region of northern Guatemala and southern Yucatán: an area of relatively heavy precipitation mantled in dense tropical rain forest, developed on a deeply weathered base of flat-lying limestone, pocked with solution valleys -- many of which contain lakes of some size -- and laced by numerous rivers. The second region was the Yucatán Peninsula itself: an area of drier climate developed on a low and almost featureless limestone plateau with no surface drainage and supporting a vegetation cover of short, deciduous, tropical scrub forest. And the third region comprised the highlands of Guatemala: an area of subtropical to temperate mixed forest developed on a base of folded limestone ridges in the north that give way to lofty volcanic peaks in the south.
The climatic station of Flores is located in the heart of the region of Petén, now a part of northern Guatemala. It is representative of Tikal and the core area of the so-called "Old Empire" of the Maya. Although its water need (i.e., temperature) curve is somewhat more variable than those of Soconusco or the Olmec region, its precipitation curve demonstrates both a monsoonal peak during the warmest months of the year and a very marked hurricane peak in early autumn. Its warmth and moisture indices insure its classification as a tropical humid climate, which supports a native vegetation of heavy rain forest.
Mérida, the capital and largest city of Yucatán, is located in the northwestern quadrant of the peninsula, away from the trade winds which blow in constantly from the Caribbean Sea. Its water budget diagram is typical of the region which constituted the so-called "New Empire" of the Maya, represented by such sites as Uxmal, Mayapán, and Chichén Itzá. Its relatively uniform water need (i.e., temperature) curve is unfortunately not matched by its precipitation curve, so much of the year the area experiences a moisture deficit. Monsoonal rains in the high-sun period seasonally provide enough moisture for a corn harvest, and a small surplus is usually recorded with the passage of an autumn hurricane. While the station's warmth index indicates that it is clearly tropical, the fact that Mérida only receives about 60 percent of the moisture it actually needs means that the native vegetation of the northern Yucatán is scrub forest. (Data from Secretaría de Recursos Hidráulicos.)
As was pointed out earlier, the Maya seem to have founded their earliest major ceremonial center in what has to have been the most favored geographic setting in all of the Yucatán -- on the edge on the largest aguada or alluvial depression, in the entire peninsula. Located in what today is the interior of Campeche state, this vast soil-filled depression provided the agricultural support system for the incipient "city" we now know as Edzná. Dating to about 150 B.C., Edzná was a bustling urban node for more than 20,000 persons at the peak of its existence in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Figure 34. The climatic station of Quezaltenango is located in the western highlands of Guatemala, just over the Sierra Madre from Soconusco. Its low latitude and high elevation combine to produce a very even water need curve which in no month exceeds 75 mm (3 in.). Although the station enjoys a 12-month growing season (delimited by the straight line near the bottom of the graph),, an occasional frost can pose a risk to crops. Its extreme precipitation curve, with a low-sun deficit and a high-sun surplus, exemplifies a typical monsoonal climate. However, with a warmth index of less than 4.0, it qualifies as a warm-temperate humid climate which supports a native vegetation of mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest.
Although the layout of Edzná mimicked that of Teotihuacán, its contemporary on the Mexican plateau, by being oriented to the setting sun on the "day the world began," the Maya priests were no doubt quick to realize that August 13 was a date that had no real meaning to the peasant farmers of the Yucatán. The priests were certainly aware of the practice of using the zenithal passage of the sun to herald the beginning of a new year, but at Edzná the sun passed overhead at noon no less than 18 days earlier than the date that the Olmecs had established as "the beginning of time." Obviously, while the Maya couldn't change the facts of history, they could amend the calendar to accord more closely with the realities of their own physical setting.
Not only did the priests of Edzná appreciate the need for such a calendar reform, but their reckoning also told them that an auspicious time for such a change was drawing nigh. The Long Count was nearing the completion of baktun 7, and baktun 8 was soon about to begin. What more appropriate a time could they have contemplated for "turning over a new leaf"?
Yet, as baktun 8 neared and the zenithal sun passed overhead, it was as if the Maya's own auguries obliged them to postpone the calendar reform. Forty-five days before the dawn of baktun 8, they recorded the passage of the zenithal sun, which fell in that year (A.D. 41) on the Maya date 3 Men 3 Uayeb. It was the latter aspect of this date which must have given them pause, because the "month" of Uayeb was the five-day unlucky period at the end of the Maya year. During these five inauspicious days, the people were wont to keep as low a profile as possible, engaging in only a minimum of activities, as if hoping thereby to escape the wrath of the gods. Certainly, not until the zenithal sun had cleared Uayeb could the calendar reform be instituted safely and prudently. But because their calendar did not take into account the extra quarter day in the length of the solar year, this meant that a full 20 years were required to advance the calendar by five days. Since the coincidence of the zenithal sun with the "month" of Uayeb had begun in the equivalent of the year A.D. 28 -- i.e., 13 years earlier -- there were still 7 years to go before its passage would occur on 0 Pop, the first day of the secular year. Thus, the very first time that the zenithal sun passed overhead in the Maya area on 0 Pop occurred in the year A.D. 48 -- an event which would have been recorded in the Long Count as 188.8.131.52.12 12 Eb 0 Pop.
In order to calibrate the zenithal sun passage, the Maya priests had erected at the base of the Cinco Pisos pyramid in Edzná an absolutely ingenious gnomon. (Remember that a gnomon can be any upright pillar or post; its function is to not cast a shadow on the days the sun is directly overhead.) The Edzná gnomon was a tapered shaft of stone about half a meter (20 in.) in height surmounted by a disk of stone which had the same diameter as the base of the shaft (see Figure 29). Thus, on the days that the sun stood directly overhead, the disk at the top of the shaft would envelop the entire shaft in its own shadow, whereas on any other day a stripe of sunlight would fall across the shaft. Hence, there was no question as to what day would begin the new year.
There were also a couple of other things which the Maya priests may have realized at the invocation of their reformed calendar of which they may have been unaware earlier. They were well aware, of course, that every time one of their "Vague Years" of 365 days was completed, the date in the 260-day sacred almanac had advanced by another 105 days. But, because the least common divisor between the two counts was 5 and there were 20 day-names in the sacred almanac, there would only be 4 day-names that would repeatedly coincide with the beginning of the 365-day year. Thus, because their calendar reform was initiated on a day called 12 Eb in the sacred almanac, in the following year the Maya new year fell on 13 Caban (105 days later in the sacred almanac). However, in the year after that -- because the sacred almanac used only 13 numerals -- the new year fell on 1 Ik (another advance of 105 days). And in the fourth year, the Maya new year's day was celebrated on 2 Manik (105 days farther along in the almanac). By the beginning of the fifth year, the cycle of 20 day-names started over, so that the following four years began on 3 Eb, 4 Caban, 5 Ik, and 6 Manik, respectively -- each year being identified with the next higher numeral but always with one of the same 4 day-names.
From this realization, the Maya developed the notion that these four days of the sacred almanac -- Eb, Caban, Ik, and Manik -- were "the bearers of the years"; that is, they "carried" the year along until it was passed on to the next "bearer," much as athletes run a relay race. This idea of "year bearers" gives us an insight into how the Maya envisioned time; each day was a "burden" to be carried by the deity who presided over it until his leg of the relay was complete, at which time he transferred it to the next deity, and so it went.
Reassuring as the notion of regular "year bearers" must have been to the Maya, they were still troubled by the fact that the beginning of their new year soon failed to coincide with the zenithal passage of the vertical sun. Naturally, this was because their "Vague Year" was 365 days long, rather than 365 days plus a fraction, so that in four years their secular calendar slipped a full day. Thus, when the zenithal sun passed over Edzná for the fifth time, it did so on 1 Pop rather than 0 Pop; by the ninth time, new year's day fell on 2 Pop; by the thirteenth time, its passage took place on 3 Pop, and so forth. Ironically, by measuring the passage of the zenithal sun over Edzná so precisely, the Maya priests came to realize as never before how imprecise their time-count really was. (In this same connection, it is interesting to note that Bishop Landa records that the Maya had, by the sixteenth century, shifted over to using the days Kan, Muluc, Ix, and Cauac as their year bearers.)
On the other hand, the decision by the priests of Edzná to make the beginning of their year accord with the zenithal passage of the sun over their city -- an event which occurs on July 26 in our own calendar -- left a lasting mark on Maya timekeeping. As it turned out, the parallel of 19º.5 N latitude on which Edzná is located neatly bisects the Yucatán Peninsula, which means that throughout the Maya heartland the zenithal passage of the sun was an event that had meaning and relevance to everyone. It appears, therefore, that Edzná, through the combined "accidents" of geography and history came to serve as the "Greenwich of the Maya," for nowhere else within the region they occupied could the July 26 zenithal passage be calibrated except there. In other words, no other ceremonial center within the Maya area is situated at precisely this latitude, so only at Edzná could the new year's date be pinpointed. In fact, writing about Edzná, Thompson observes that its priests seem to have exercised something akin to a "veto power" in calendrical matters, for he mentions a possible one-day correction to the calendar having been made there in the year 671, after which all the other Maya ceremonial centers appear to have fallen into line (Thompson, 1950).
One of the early Spanish prelates of the Yucatán, Bishop Landa, reported that the Maya marked the beginning of their new year with the zenithal passage of the sun on the equivalent of July 26 in our calendar. Such an event takes place along the parallel of 19º.5 N, a line which neatly bisects the peninsula but intersects only one major site in doing so -- Edzná. Because the first day of the Maya new year, 0 Pop, initially coincided with July 26 around the year A.D. 48, this would appear to mark the beginning of their "reformed" calendar.
Some researchers have assumed that each Maya ceremonial center had its own calendar, but the observation by Thompson cited above suggests otherwise. So, too, does the historical record, because Bishop Diego de Landa, the third Spanish prelate of the Yucatán, specifically records that the Maya began their new year with the passage of the zenithal sun, and that the day this occurred was the equivalent of July 26 in the Gregorian calendar. It is of further interest to note that in the interval between the time the Maya priests undertook the calendar reform in the year A.D. 48 and the time that Landa wrote, one entire Sothic cycle of 1460 years had passed, and astronomical events which were in phase in the year 48 were again in phase in the year 1508. (The word Sothic comes from the Egyptian name for the star Sirius. Because the ancient Egyptian calendar also had 365 days, rather than 365.25 days, the rising of Sirius, which marked the Egyptian new year, was likewise found to get out of phase with the movements of the sun. However, by careful measurement the Egyptians found that after 1460 full solar years had passed -- the equivalent of 1461 of their "imperfect" years -- the sun and the stars would once more be back in harmony with each other.) Thus, the zenithal sun passage once again coincided with the day 0 Pop in the Maya secular calendar in that year and during the three following years.
All attempts to understand Maya civilization have been made immensely more difficult because Bishop Landa, in his religious zeal, managed to consign all but a handful of the Maya's books and records to his bonfires. The rather straightforward description of the astronomical importance of Edzná which I have sketched out above was by no means as direct and uncomplicated as it might sound. But it did begin with the two clues which Landa bequeathed to us -- namely, that the Maya new year coincided with the passage of the zenithal sun and that this event occurred on the equivalent of July 26 in our present calendar.
Working from these clues, I reasoned that, if Landa's information was correct, I should be able to zero in on the geographic location where the Maya had devised their version of the calendar. A solar ephemeris revealed that on July 26 the noonday sun passes overhead at 19º.5 N latitude, so armed with this knowledge, I next turned to a detailed map of archaeological sites in the Yucatán (National Geographic's "Archaeological Map of Middle America," published in 1968). The latter showed only one ceremonial center of any significance at this latitude, its name being rendered as "Etzná"; to one side, there was a vignette describing it as a "Late Classic site [having a] temple atop a pyramid faced with four stories of rooms." A subsequent search of the literature turned up only a couple of references to Edzná, including the one attributed to Thompson which I cited above. Therefore, all I really knew about the place was that its construction had been dated to the period A.D. 600-900 and that it seemed to have had some "clout" when it came to resolving calendrical issues.
In the winter of 1976 as I was devising my computer program to run the "Maya" calendars back to the dates on which they had been initiated, I put in a "flag" to have the program alert me as to when the Maya day 0 Pop coincided with our day July 26. Employing Goodman's correlation as my starting point -- namely, that the Long Count date of 184.108.40.206.0 13 Ahau 8 Xul = November 4, 1539, 1 set the program in motion and only seconds later I was informed that the coincidence I was looking for had occurred most recently during the years 1508-1511. Thereafter, the computer churned away until an entire Sothic cycle had passed and we were back in the period A.D. 48-51.
In view of the antiquity of this date as opposed to the relative "lateness" of Edzná's supposed founding, in my 1978 article reporting the findings of my computer study I decided to make no mention of the "Maya calendar reform" which I had hypothesized had taken place there. (The deductions which had led me to Izapa had embroiled me in enough conflict with the archaeologists, I felt.) Ironically, as my article was going to press in the winter of 1978, 1 chanced to meet Prof. Matheny, who had recently excavated Edzná, in the field. When I cautiously mentioned to him how my deductions had suggested a calendar reform having taken place there "about 600 years before the place was founded," he laughed and replied, "Well, Cinco Pisos may have been a Late Classic construction but our radiocarbon data show us that Edzná itself was a thriving concern already about 150 B.C." Encouraged by both my computer findings and Prof Matheny, I then went on to Edzná to make the further discoveries reported in these pages.
MAKING SENSE OF THE MOON
Pinning down the movement of the sun, irregular as it was with respect to the Long Count, was like child's play for the Maya compared to their struggle to understand the movements of the moon. Once again their failure to recognize the concept of fractions obliged them to undertake lengthy counts of cycles in the hope of eventually finding two periods which coincided in nice, whole integers. A case in point is the length of a lunation, the period of time between two successive new moons. The Maya obviously realized that it was not 29 days, but it also was not 30 days. Attempting to describe a time period which was actually 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 2.8 seconds in length was for them a philosophical impossibility. Yet, after they had counted 149 "moons" in a row they realized that exactly 12 tuns and 4 uinals had elapsed, or a total of 4400 days; they were then confident that the cycle would begin over again, with the moon occupying the same position it had had relative to the sun when the cycle began. That they could do so with reasonable assurance is demonstrated by the fact that 4400 days divided by 149 lunations yields an average of 29.5302 days per lunation -- a value less than 0.0004 at variance with that used by modern astronomers!
More difficult yet, however, was trying to find some regular pattern in the moon's seemingly erratic bouncing around the sky. Unlike the sun, which moves progressively farther north or south each day until it finally reaches its "stopping place" and then turns around, the moon rises and sets at such different times of the day or night in such widely differing places along the horizon that it might seem "illogical," "crazy," or "drunken" in its behavior. Indeed, if it were not for the fact that on occasion the moon suddenly became dark, or, even worse, that the sun itself was sometimes "devoured" by darkness without warning, perhaps there would have been no real reason to try to make sense out of the moon's motions. Initially, the priests may have shared the layman's terror of the disappearing sun or moon, but not too many eclipses would have occurred before they may have suspected some functional relationship between the orderly path of the sun and the seemingly disorderly path of the moon. Yet, not until the "crazy" ricocheting of the latter could be understood would they be able to predict the occurrence of eclipses, and only after they had mastered that skill would they be in a position to exercise the full power of that knowledge over their untutored subjects.
Stela C from Tres Zapotes now reposes in the National Museum of Anthropology and History in Mexico City. The missing baktun value of its Long Count inscription was found in 1969, confirming the carving's 32 B.C. date. The lower edge of the stela is ruptured through the middle of the glyphs that give the number and name of the day in the sacred calendar.
The preoccupation of the early Mesoamericans with this matter of eclipses can probably be detected in one of the oldest Long Count inscriptions yet discovered, namely, Stela C from Tres Zapotes found by Matthew Stirling in 1939. Although the controversy over whether its missing baktun value was a "7" or an "8" was conclusively settled with the discovery of the detached fragment in 1969, no real attempt has been made to ascertain what its date actually recorded. Its inscription reads "220.127.116.11.18" in the Long Count, which may be transcribed into the Julian date of September 5, -31, or 32 B.C., if we use the Goodman-Martínez-Thompson correlation value of 584,285. (Of course, if we were to employ Thompson's "revised" value of 584,283 from 1935, the date would equate to September 3 instead.)
In an earlier paper (Malmström, 1992a), I advanced the notion that, although Stela C was only discovered in 1939, the meaning of its inscription may well be found in a monumental work of European science first published in 1877. Known as Canon der Finsternisse, or "Table of Eclipses," the volume is the work of Theodor von Oppolzer, an Austrian count, and a team of his assistants, and constitutes a catalog of over 8000 solar and 5200 lunar eclipses ranging in date from 1208 B.C. to A.D. 2161. Although his 376 pages of calculations and 160 maps charting the central paths of the solar eclipses were all carried out by hand, their accuracy has only recently been reconfirmed by modern researchers using computers (Meeus and Mucke, 1979).
Listed as event no. 2803 in Oppolzer's list of solar eclipses is one whose path of centrality passed right over the Olmec ceremonial center of Tres Zapotes at dawn on the morning of August 31, 32 B.C. A more frightening celestial event can scarcely be imagined, for the sun rose out of the Gulf of Mexico totally black except for a ring of light around its outer edges. Oppolzer described it as an annular, or ringlike, eclipse, and subsequent calculations at the U.S. Naval Observatory have revealed that the disk of the sun was 93 percent obscured (personal communication). Surely, a "day without a sunrise" is not likely to have gone unrecorded by the Olmecs!
But, if this eclipse really is the same event as that described by Oppolzer, why does its date not coincide with that which he records? A number of possible explanations suggest themselves: (1) perhaps the Olmecs waited either three or five days to record it, depending on which correlation value of Thompson's one uses; (2) perhaps the stone carver who engraved the stela made an error of either three or five days in inscribing the date; or (3) perhaps the Goodman-Martínez-Thompson correlation value is incorrect by three to five days. Of course, there is also a fourth possibility -- namely, that it had nothing whatsoever to do with the eclipse recorded by Oppolzer, and that it was merely a strikingly close coincidence of both geography and history.
The first hypothesis has no merit whatsoever, for if the Olmecs consciously chose to put off recording the date, they would certainly have no means for measuring eclipse cycles with any precision. Any basis they might have had for maintaining accurate records would thus largely have been vitiated.
The second hypothesis is credible; after all, "to err is human." If this is the case, the inscription on Stela C is more likely the result of an illiterate stone carver's mistake, however, than of a priest's miscalculation. But, if so, which is the "easier" mistake to make: to carve an extra three dots in the final, or kin, position -- equivalent to a three-day error -- or to carve an extra bar in the kin position -- equivalent to a five-day error? Clearly, the mistaken addition of one symbol -- the bar -- would have been more likely than the mistaken addition of three symbols, so the discrepancy between Oppolzer and the Olmecs would appear to have been a matter of five days rather than three.
The third hypothesis -- that the GMT itself may be off by three to five days -- is hardly likely, but the merits of the second hypothesis are now reflected in the accuracy of the original Thompson correlation value of 584,285. If that value is used, then the five-day discrepancy between Oppolzer and the Olmecs is substantiated; if, on the other hand, we use Thompson's "revised" value of 584,283, then the lack of a correspondence between the two dates can no longer be explained as an error, and we would probably have to abandon any thought that the Olmecs were recording the eclipse after all. That, in turn, would mean discarding both the close historical "coincidence" between the two dates and the geographic "coincidence" of the passing of the eclipse's central path directly over Tres Zapotes. In effect, therefore, the inscription of Stela C, erroneous though it seems to be, appears to confirm the accuracy of the original Thompson correlation value between the Olmec calendar and our own.
In all fairness, however, it should be noted that there is one further complication in this interpretation of Stela C's date. The bottom edge of the inscription is broken just at the point where the number and name of the day in the sacred almanac is recorded. If the Long Count inscription itself is accurate, the day-number and -name should be 6 Eznab, and this is the way the fragmentary glyph at the bottom of the inscription is translated by most scholars. If the numeral is indeed rendered by a dot and a bar, then there is no question of its being a "6," but in keeping with my hypothesis that a second bar had been mistakenly added to the inscription. Obviously, my argument is not destroyed by such a reading but it is substantially weakened, for to be consistent with my hypothesis, the day -number should have been a " 1 " instead.
Of course, if the inscription is accurate as it stands, it would then reopen the whole issue of what it was that the Olmecs were actually recording on that intriguing occasion. If the blackened sun at dawn was not noteworthy enough to take cognizance of, what other event could have been so much more spectacular or important to them that they took notice of it instead? Was it the occultation of Mars by the sun that coincided very closely with the eclipse? Or might it have been the occultation of the bright star Regulus (magnitude 1.35) by the planet Venus that occurred during the following couple of nights? Neither of these seem very likely, for surely both of these astronomical events literally pale into insignificance when compared to a total solar eclipse. Thus, we are left with the very real possibility that nothing of note astronomically had prompted the carving of the inscription of Stela C but that something even more earthshaking had taken place in and around Tres Zapotes shortly after the ominous eclipse had occurred. Thanks to its location in the foothills of a volcanic region like the Tuxtlas, the most obvious possibilities become either a monstrous earthquake or a devastating eruption.
The point of this digression has been simply to illustrate that, about the time that Edzná was coming into being, the Mesoamericans appear to have begun recording eclipse data on their stelae, possibly in the hope that through accurate timekeeping they would eventually solve the puzzle of when these fearsome events would recur. In the intellectual community of the Maya, therefore, this problem must have been near the top of the agenda as Edzná was being founded.
In the flat and featureless landscape of Yucatán, it had been a rather simple matter to lay out a new city oriented to the sunset on "the day the world began" because the "summer solstice + 52 days" formula had already been developed. Nonetheless, in a region where the local topography presented no opportunities for calibration against a natural landmark, the "gun-sight" alignment from the courtyard of Cinco Pisos through the notch in the artificial horizon to the top of the small pyramid constituted an ingenious solution to the problem of the city's orientation. In the same way, the erection of the tapered shaft surmounted by the stone disk had been an ingenious solution to calibrating the passage of the zenithal sun. The problem now at hand required some means of marking the moon's rising and setting position along the circumference of the monotonously uniform horizon that stretched out from Edzná in all directions.
View of the western horizon as seen from the top of Cinco Pisos at Edzná. The elongated mound across the plaza served as an artificial horizon for a priest standing in the doorway of the courtyard, allowing him to sight through the notch in the middle of the mound to the summit of the pyramid immediately behind it to calibrate the sunset on August 13 -- an azimuth of 285º.5. The pyramid which intersects the true horizon farther to the right, or northwest, is "La Vieja," whose azimuth marks the northernmost stillstand of the moon (i.e., 300º).
No doubt the first task was to provide the priests with a vantage point which allowed them a complete and unencumbered view of the entire 360º circuit of the horizon -- hence the need to erect what was perhaps the highest pyramid yet constructed in Mesoamerica. When completed, the aptly named Cinco Pisos ("Five Stories") towered more than 40 m (130 ft) above the rocky platform on which it was sited, becoming in the process a true landmark visible from 40-50 km (20-30 mi) away. Although Cinco Pisos is a Late Classic structure (i.e., built between A.D. 600 and 900), its situation at a focal point for the ceremonial center's canal system (which dates to the Late Preclassic period -- 300 B.C. to A.D. 300) makes it seem likely that an earlier structure previously occupied this critical position. In fact, Matheny suggests that "perhaps the remains of the Late Preclassic structure still exist within Cinco Pisos" (1983, 81). In any case, from the top of this key structure one could look out in any direction in a clear sight-line to the far horizon.
The real problem was to keep track of the places along the horizon where the moon either rose or set. That Cinco Pisos faced slightly to the northwest to begin with -- having been oriented along with the rest of Edzná to an azimuth of 285º.5 -- meant that the moon's setting position was the one the priests chose to calibrate. But with a horizon so distant and so featureless, one is tempted to conclude that most of the initial record keeping may have been done by marking lines in the appropriate directions on the top platform of Cinco Pisos itself. Only after the observations had narrowed in on a distinct enough point to erect some structure against the horizon at the required azimuth would that have been done.
Conceptually, the Maya already had the model of the sun's behavior on which to predicate their observations. Its northernmost stopping point marked the summer solstice, which in turn established the beginning date for the 52-day count which fixed "the day the world began" -- i.e., August 13. If they could locate a similar position for the moon -- its northernmost setting point -- perhaps that would allow them to begin the count which would eventually reveal the secrets of the eclipse cycle.
Deciding what the northernmost setting point of the moon really was must have been a tedious and frequently altered judgment in itself. Each time the moon reached what appeared to be an even more extreme setting position, the count for the eclipse cycle would have to be started again. One can well imagine that sometimes years of patient counting and record keeping might have gone on before the moon unexpectedly pushed its setting position even farther north along the horizon and literally wiped out the whole exhaustive tally in one fell swoop.
When this process actually began and how long it took to yield any kind of meaningful results has to be pure conjecture. It is probably safe to say that the idea for launching the count may already have been formulated shortly after Edzná was founded, and may well have been under way when the calendar reform fixing the new new year's day was adopted. What we do know for certain is that the first time that mention is made of the phase of the moon corresponding to a given Long Count date is in an inscription dating from A.D . 357 (Coe, 1980, 159). This does not mean, of course, that the problem had been solved by then, but only that from that time forward this seemingly important fact was now to be regularly recorded along with the date itself. Indeed, this may be evidence that the lunar cycle had not yet been worked out, and that the priests felt the additional bit of information regarding the phase of the moon might actually be useful in finally establishing the cycle -- once they could examine the records in retrospect.
This is not to say that the eclipse cycle could not have been worked out within the first half century that the quest was initiated. What the Maya were ultimately to learn was that the cycle required a full 6797 days, or 18.61 years, to complete, so if they had actually recognized the moon's northernmost stillstand on one occasion, they would have had to count that long to find the moon once more back at the same setting position. Of course, to confirm the accuracy of their count would require the completion of at least one more full cycle, so by this time more than 37 years would have elapsed. Thus, to postulate even the minimum time span necessary for such an achievement makes one appreciate the care and continuity which the Maya priests exercised in keeping a constant, running tally over the equivalent of more than an entire generation.
Although less than a half dozen of the original Maya manuscripts appear to have escaped the flames of the fanatic Spaniards, one of those that did survive is the so-called Dresden Codex, which has subsequently been recognized as an elaborate eclipse warning table. Thompson, among other scholars, assigns a twelfth-century origin to it, but concedes that its three base dates go back to the middle of the eighth century. (My suggestion that the Stela C inscription may have involved a five-day error owing to a stone carver's failure to understand the date he was carving finds an ironic parallel in the Dresden Codex. Thompson's study of the manuscript revealed that no fewer than 92 errors of transcription have been made in recording its dates [1972, 115-116], but no one, least of all Thompson, has ever suggested discounting the validity of the tables on that account.)
The three base dates of the Dresden Codex occur in the latter part of the year 755 and define two 15-day intervals. For this reason, Maud Makemson suggested, in 1943, that they most likely represent two solar eclipses bracketing a lunar eclipse (Makemson, 1943). While not disputing such an interpretation, Floyd Lounsbury, writing in 1978, argues that if this is correct, then these dates must have been arrived at by calculation rather than through observation, because no such celestial events took place in Yucatán in that year (Lounsbury, 1978, 816).
The three dates in question would equate to November 8, November 23, and December 8, 755, if the original correlation value of Thompson (namely, 584,285) is employed. (Naturally, if his "revised" version is used, it would put each of these dates two days earlier.) When the first of these dates was checked against a planetarium programmed to duplicate celestial events as seen from Edzná on that day, it was found that the sun and moon did in fact rise just eight minutes apart on that morning over the Yucatán, with an angular separation of less than 2º.5. In other words, there had been a "near miss" to a solar eclipse visible in the Maya area on that date.
For the second date, we once again employ the calculations of Oppolzer (1887). Fifteen days after the near solar eclipse over the Yucatán -- i.e., on November 23 -- he records a total lunar eclipse as having taken place, but ironically, his data demonstrate that it was visible only in the half of the world centered on the Indian subcontinent. On the third date, again using Oppolzer as our source, we find that a partial solar eclipse did indeed take place on December 8, 755, but its central path lay over the ocean between South Africa and Antarctica, where probably not a single human being witnessed it.
From this data we can draw two very important conclusions. First, by the year 755 the Maya had apparently worked out the motions of the moon with such precision that they knew when an eclipse should occur, but they still could not be sure if it actually would occur, in the sense of being visible to them. Second, the original Thompson correlation value of 584,285 is clearly the correct one, for an acknowledged eclipse warning table such as the Dresden Codex could certainly not have been based upon a foundation two days out of phase with the realities of the celestial sphere.
In this map view of Edzná, we see the features shown photographically in Figure 37. The astronomical importance of Edzná may be gauged from these facts: (1) only at its specific latitude could the beginning of the Maya new year be calibrated, here with the assistance of a remarkable gnomon; (2) the "day the world began" was commemorated in the "gun-sight" orientation between the doorway of Cinco Pisos and the small pyramid across the plaza; and (3) lunar cycles were measured by using the line of sight between Cinco Pisos and "La Vieja" on the northwestern horizon.
Although we cannot be certain when the Maya finally succeeded in working out the lunar eclipse cycle, it would seem that most of the basic "research" on the problem was carried out at Edzná. Located some 300 m (1000 ft) to the northwest of Cinco Pisos is the ruin of a lofty pyramid which Matheny has termed "La Vieja," or the "Old One." The "La Vieja" complex appears to date to the Late Classic period as well, but has not experienced the "urban renewal" from which Cinco Pisos subsequently benefited (Matheny, 1983, 109). Even in its dilapidated condition it is still high enough to intersect the horizon as seen from the top of Cinco Pisos; indeed, it is the only manmade construction which does so. This fact immediately prompted me to measure its azimuth as seen from Edzná's commanding edifice, and the value I obtained was 300º. This means that the summit of the pyramid lies exactly 5º beyond the sun's northernmost setting position at the summer solstice. Because the moon's orbit is just a hair over 5º off that of the sun, it seems very likely that the Northwest Pyramid, or "La Vieja," had been erected as a horizon marker to commemorate the moon's northernmost stillstand. Not only is "La Vieja" an eloquent testimonial to the patience and accuracy of Maya "science," but because of its specialized function, it is also probably worthy of being designated as the oldest lunar observatory in the New World. (Indeed, if Matheny's dating of "La Vieja" is accurate, then it is apparent that the Maya had succeeded in measuring the interval between lunar stillstand maxima at least by A.D. 300.) | [
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445,
18619,
286,
7815,
546,
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16430,
357,
1238,
287,
2014,
287,
6001,
969,
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416,
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7815,
543,
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898,
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319,
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286,
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1973,
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13,
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612,
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644,
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561,
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13,
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286,
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543,
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423,
6939,
379,
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286,
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286,
543,
484,
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13,
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547,
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3910,
11,
286,
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11,
326,
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1,
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273,
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290,
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287,
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737,
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287,
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614,
706,
326,
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780,
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435,
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973,
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5470,
874,
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3214,
319,
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32840,
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286,
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1528,
737,
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649,
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338,
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1708,
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642,
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290,
718,
1869,
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11,
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852,
5174,
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1306,
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475,
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976,
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11258,
553,
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355,
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1057,
257,
24248,
3234,
13,
770,
2126,
286,
366,
1941,
307,
34231,
1,
3607,
514,
281,
11281,
656,
703,
262,
26041,
32295,
640,
26,
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1110,
373,
257,
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65,
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1,
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416,
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13,
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1941,
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1,
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423,
587,
284,
262,
26041,
11,
484,
547,
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17840,
416,
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1109,
326,
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3726,
286,
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614,
2582,
4054,
284,
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351,
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1976,
268,
342,
282,
10066,
286,
262,
11723,
4252,
13,
30413,
11,
428,
373,
780,
511,
366,
53,
2064,
6280,
1,
373,
21268,
1528,
890,
11,
2138,
621,
21268,
1528,
5556,
257,
13390,
11,
523,
326,
287,
1440,
812,
511,
14589,
11845,
18859,
257,
1336,
1110,
13,
6660,
11,
618,
262,
1976,
268,
342,
282,
4252,
3804,
625,
1717,
47347,
6557,
329,
262,
8150,
640,
11,
340,
750,
523,
319,
352,
8099,
2138,
621,
657,
8099,
26,
416,
262,
19646,
640,
11,
649,
614,
338,
1110,
3214,
319,
362,
8099,
26,
416,
262,
294,
343,
20283,
640,
11,
663,
10066,
1718,
1295,
319,
513,
8099,
11,
290,
523,
6071,
13,
37731,
11,
416,
15964,
262,
10066,
286,
262,
1976,
268,
342,
282,
4252,
625,
1717,
47347,
6557,
523,
10582,
11,
262,
26041,
17345,
1625,
284,
6537,
355,
1239,
878,
703,
848,
8344,
786,
511,
640,
12,
9127,
1107,
373,
13,
357,
818,
428,
976,
4637,
11,
340,
318,
3499,
284,
3465,
326,
16559,
406,
5282,
4406,
326,
262,
26041,
550,
11,
416,
262,
2237,
20283,
4289,
11,
14869,
625,
284,
1262,
262,
1528,
14248,
11,
17996,
1229,
11,
314,
87,
11,
290,
327,
559,
330,
355,
511,
614,
307,
34231,
2014,
198,
2202,
262,
584,
1021,
11,
262,
2551,
416,
262,
17345,
286,
1717,
47347,
6557,
284,
787,
262,
3726,
286,
511,
614,
8178,
351,
262,
1976,
268,
342,
282,
10066,
286,
262,
4252,
625,
511,
1748,
1377,
281,
1785,
543,
8833,
319,
2901,
2608,
287,
674,
898,
11845,
1377,
1364,
257,
15727,
1317,
319,
26041,
640,
19934,
13,
1081,
340,
2900,
503,
11,
262,
10730,
286,
678,
36165,
13,
20,
399,
32477,
319,
543,
1717,
47347,
6557,
318,
5140,
29776,
47457,
478,
82,
262,
575,
1229,
265,
21162,
24078,
11,
543,
1724,
326,
3690,
262,
26041,
2612,
1044,
262,
1976,
268,
342,
282,
10066,
286,
262,
4252,
373,
281,
1785,
326,
550,
3616,
290,
23082,
284,
2506,
13,
632,
3568,
11,
4361,
11,
326,
1717,
47347,
6557,
11,
832,
262,
5929,
366,
4134,
3231,
1,
286,
27876,
290,
2106,
1625,
284,
4691,
355,
262,
366,
13719,
11451,
286,
262,
26041,
553,
329,
12062,
2073,
1626,
262,
3814,
484,
12030,
714,
262,
2901,
2608,
1976,
268,
342,
282,
10066,
307,
48050,
2845,
612,
13,
554,
584,
2456,
11,
645,
584,
39490,
3641,
1626,
262,
26041,
1989,
318,
22765,
379,
10582,
428,
32477,
11,
523,
691,
379,
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663,
5882,
2764,
40189,
373,
1043,
287,
16450,
11,
23366,
262,
39510,
338,
3933,
347,
13,
34,
13,
3128,
13,
383,
2793,
5743,
286,
262,
336,
10304,
318,
31580,
1522,
832,
262,
3504,
286,
262,
25874,
82,
326,
1577,
262,
1271,
290,
1438,
286,
262,
1110,
287,
262,
13626,
11845,
13,
198,
464,
662,
19596,
341,
286,
262,
1903,
14937,
78,
2382,
22398,
351,
428,
2300,
286,
39097,
274,
460,
2192,
307,
12326,
287,
530,
286,
262,
13325,
5882,
2764,
1035,
24370,
1865,
5071,
11,
14811,
11,
520,
10304,
327,
422,
309,
411,
36079,
6421,
1043,
416,
9308,
520,
24297,
287,
24414,
13,
4900,
262,
10386,
625,
1771,
663,
4814,
275,
461,
28286,
1988,
373,
257,
366,
22,
1,
393,
281,
366,
23,
1,
373,
369,
44307,
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351,
262,
9412,
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30795,
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11,
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2230,
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587,
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6264,
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9743,
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13,
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13,
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13,
1157,
13,
1507,
1,
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11,
543,
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307,
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8725,
656,
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286,
2693,
642,
11,
532,
3132,
11,
393,
3933,
347,
13,
34,
1539,
611,
356,
779,
262,
33318,
12,
13143,
8836,
710,
89,
12,
48942,
16096,
1988,
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5705,
11,
26279,
13,
357,
5189,
1781,
11,
611,
356,
547,
284,
1873,
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338,
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260,
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1,
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11,
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30704,
11,
262,
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561,
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284,
2693,
513,
2427,
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198,
818,
281,
2961,
3348,
357,
15029,
76,
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9101,
76,
11,
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64,
828,
314,
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262,
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326,
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327,
373,
691,
5071,
287,
24414,
11,
262,
3616,
286,
663,
40189,
743,
880,
307,
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287,
257,
36364,
670,
286,
3427,
3783,
717,
3199,
287,
1248,
3324,
13,
29454,
355,
19507,
4587,
4463,
301,
1142,
20782,
11,
393,
366,
10962,
286,
412,
31945,
274,
553,
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6115,
318,
262,
670,
286,
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30530,
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11,
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274,
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287,
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422,
1105,
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347,
13,
34,
13,
284,
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13,
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13,
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5468,
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66,
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262,
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26,
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357,
18,
8,
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33318,
12,
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8836,
710,
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12,
48942,
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3226,
1781,
11,
612,
318,
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5544,
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11,
326,
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550,
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290,
326,
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6974,
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47305,
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290,
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17004,
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621,
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11,
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34466,
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349,
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290,
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6544,
76,
721,
82,
561,
1656,
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423,
587,
257,
2300,
286,
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2138,
621,
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13,
198,
464,
2368,
14078,
1377,
326,
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16987,
2346,
743,
307,
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1218,
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12548,
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2656,
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1988,
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5705,
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319,
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356,
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1,
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30290,
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788,
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6544,
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82,
547,
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25872,
706,
477,
13,
1320,
11,
287,
1210,
11,
561,
1612,
1221,
13493,
1111,
262,
1969,
6754,
366,
1073,
1939,
1704,
1,
1022,
262,
734,
9667,
290,
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22987,
366,
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1939,
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1,
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6427,
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2656,
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290,
674,
898,
13,
198,
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50256
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] | 8,784 |
Translated by W. D. Ross.
WE have treated of that which is primarily and to which all the other categories of being are referred—i.e. of substance. For it is in virtue of the concept of substance that the others also are said to be—quantity and quality and the like; for all will be found to involve the concept of substance, as we said in the first part of our work. And since ‘being’ is in one way divided into individual thing, quality, and quantity, and is in another way distinguished in respect of potency and complete reality, and of function, let us now add a discussion of potency and complete reality. And first let us explain potency in the strictest sense, which is, however, not the most useful for our present purpose. For potency and actuality extend beyond the cases that involve a reference to motion. But when we have spoken of this first kind, we shall in our discussions of actuality’ explain the other kinds of potency as well.
We have pointed out elsewhere that ‘potency’ and the word ‘can’ have several senses. Of these we may neglect all the potencies that are so called by an equivocation. For some are called so by analogy, as in geometry we say one thing is or is not a ‘power’ of another by virtue of the presence or absence of some relation between them. But all potencies that conform to the same type are originative sources of some kind, and are called potencies in reference to one primary kind of potency, which is an originative source of change in another thing or in the thing itself qua other. For one kind is a potency of being acted on, i.e. the originative source, in the very thing acted on, of its being passively changed by another thing or by itself qua other; and another kind is a state of insusceptibility to change for the worse and to destruction by another thing or by the thing itself qua other by virtue of an originative source of change. In all these definitions is implied the formula if potency in the primary sense.—And again these so-called potencies are potencies either of merely acting or being acted on, or of acting or being acted on well, so that even in the formulae of the latter the formulae of the prior kinds of potency are somehow implied.
Obviously, then, in a sense the potency of acting and of being acted on is one (for a thing may be ‘capable’ either because it can itself be acted on or because something else can be acted on by it), but in a sense the potencies are different. For the one is in the thing acted on; it is because it contains a certain originative source, and because even the matter is an originative source, that the thing acted on is acted on, and one thing by one, another by another; for that which is oily can be burnt, and that which yields in a particular way can be crushed; and similarly in all other cases. But the other potency is in the agent, e.g. heat and the art of building are present, one in that which can produce heat and the other in the man who can build. And so, in so far as a thing is an organic unity, it cannot be acted on by itself; for it is one and not two different things. And ‘impotence'and ‘impotent’ stand for the privation which is contrary to potency of this sort, so that every potency belongs to the same subject and refers to the same process as a corresponding impotence. Privation has several senses; for it means (1) that which has not a certain quality and (2) that which might naturally have it but has not it, either (a) in general or (b) when it might naturally have it, and either (a) in some particular way, e.g. when it has not it completely, or (b) when it has not it at all. And in certain cases if things which naturally have a quality lose it by violence, we say they have suffered privation.
Since some such originative sources are present in soulless things, and others in things possessed of soul, and in soul, and in the rational part of the soul, clearly some potencies will, be non-rational and some will be non-rational and some will be accompanied by a rational formula. This is why all arts, i.e. all productive forms of knowledge, are potencies; they are originative sources of change in another thing or in the artist himself considered as other.
And each of those which are accompanied by a rational formula is alike capable of contrary effects, but one non-rational power produces one effect; e.g. the hot is capable only of heating, but the medical art can produce both disease and health. The reason is that science is a rational formula, and the same rational formula explains a thing and its privation, only not in the same way; and in a sense it applies to both, but in a sense it applies rather to the positive fact. Therefore such sciences must deal with contraries, but with one in virtue of their own nature and with the other not in virtue of their nature; for the rational formula applies to one object in virtue of that object’s nature, and to the other, in a sense, accidentally. For it is by denial and removal that it exhibits the contrary; for the contrary is the primary privation, and this is the removal of the positive term. Now since contraries do not occur in the same thing, but science is a potency which depends on the possession of a rational formula, and the soul possesses an originative source of movement; therefore, while the wholesome produces only health and the calorific only heat and the frigorific only cold, the scientific man produces both the contrary effects. For the rational formula is one which applies to both, though not in the same way, and it is in a soul which possesses an originative source of movement; so that the soul will start both processes from the same originative source, having linked them up with the same thing. And so the things whose potency is according to a rational formula act contrariwise to the things whose potency is non-rational; for the products of the former are included under one originative source, the rational formula.
It is obvious also that the potency of merely doing a thing or having it done to one is implied in that of doing it or having it done well, but the latter is not always implied in the former: for he who does a thing well must also do it, but he who does it merely need not also do it well.
There are some who say, as the Megaric school does, that a thing ‘can’ act only when it is acting, and when it is not acting it ‘cannot’ act, e.g. that he who is not building cannot build, but only he who is building, when he is building; and so in all other cases. It is not hard to see the absurdities that attend this view.
For it is clear that on this view a man will not be a builder unless he is building (for to be a builder is to be able to build), and so with the other arts. If, then, it is impossible to have such arts if one has not at some time learnt and acquired them, and it is then impossible not to have them if one has not sometime lost them (either by forgetfulness or by some accident or by time; for it cannot be by the destruction of the object, for that lasts for ever), a man will not have the art when he has ceased to use it, and yet he may immediately build again; how then will he have got the art? And similarly with regard to lifeless things; nothing will be either cold or hot or sweet or perceptible at all if people are not perceiving it; so that the upholders of this view will have to maintain the doctrine of Protagoras. But, indeed, nothing will even have perception if it is not perceiving, i.e. exercising its perception. If, then, that is blind which has not sight though it would naturally have it, when it would naturally have it and when it still exists, the same people will be blind many times in the day—and deaf too.
Again, if that which is deprived of potency is incapable, that which is not happening will be incapable of happening; but he who says of that which is incapable of happening either that it is or that it will be will say what is untrue; for this is what incapacity meant. Therefore these views do away with both movement and becoming. For that which stands will always stand, and that which sits will always sit, since if it is sitting it will not get up; for that which, as we are told, cannot get up will be incapable of getting up. But we cannot say this, so that evidently potency and actuality are different (but these views make potency and actuality the same, and so it is no small thing they are seeking to annihilate), so that it is possible that a thing may be capable of being and not he, and capable of not being and yet he, and similarly with the other kinds of predicate; it may be capable of walking and yet not walk, or capable of not walking and yet walk. And a thing is capable of doing something if there will be nothing impossible in its having the actuality of that of which it is said to have the capacity. I mean, for instance, if a thing is capable of sitting and it is open to it to sit, there will be nothing impossible in its actually sitting; and similarly if it is capable of being moved or moving, or of standing or making to stand, or of being or coming to be, or of not being or not coming to be.
The word ‘actuality’, which we connect with ‘complete reality’, has, in the main, been extended from movements to other things; for actuality in the strict sense is thought to be identical with movement. And so people do not assign movement to non-existent things, though they do assign some other predicates. E.g. they say that non-existent things are objects of thought and desire, but not that they are moved; and this because, while ex hypothesi they do not actually exist, they would have to exist actually if they were moved. For of non-existent things some exist potentially; but they do not exist, because they do not exist in complete reality.
If what we have described is identical with the capable or convertible with it, evidently it cannot be true to say ‘this is capable of being but will not be’, which would imply that the things incapable of being would on this showing vanish. Suppose, for instance, that a man—one who did not take account of that which is incapable of being—were to say that the diagonal of the square is capable of being measured but will not be measured, because a thing may well be capable of being or coming to be, and yet not be or be about to be. But from the premisses this necessarily follows, that if we actually supposed that which is not, but is capable of being, to be or to have come to be, there will be nothing impossible in this; but the result will be impossible, for the measuring of the diagonal is impossible. For the false and the impossible are not the same; that you are standing now is false, but that you should be standing is not impossible.
At the same time it is clear that if, when A is real, B must be real, then, when A is possible, B also must be possible. For if B need not be possible, there is nothing to prevent its not being possible. Now let A be supposed possible. Then, when A was possible, we agreed that nothing impossible followed if A were supposed to be real; and then B must of course be real. But we supposed B to be impossible. Let it be impossible then. If, then, B is impossible, A also must be so. But the first was supposed impossible; therefore the second also is impossible. If, then, A is possible, B also will be possible, if they were so related that if A,is real, B must be real. If, then, A and B being thus related, B is not possible on this condition, and B will not be related as was supposed. And if when A is possible, B must be possible, then if A is real, B also must be real. For to say that B must be possible, if A is possible, means this, that if A is real both at the time when and in the way in which it was supposed capable of being real, B also must then and in that way be real.
As all potencies are either innate, like the senses, or come by practice, like the power of playing the flute, or by learning, like artistic power, those which come by practice or by rational formula we must acquire by previous exercise but this is not necessary with those which are not of this nature and which imply passivity.
Since that which is ‘capable’ is capable of something and at some time in some way (with all the other qualifications which must be present in the definition), and since some things can produce change according to a rational formula and their potencies involve such a formula, while other things are nonrational and their potencies are non-rational, and the former potencies must be in a living thing, while the latter can be both in the living and in the lifeless; as regards potencies of the latter kind, when the agent and the patient meet in the way appropriate to the potency in question, the one must act and the other be acted on, but with the former kind of potency this is not necessary. For the nonrational potencies are all productive of one effect each, but the rational produce contrary effects, so that if they produced their effects necessarily they would produce contrary effects at the same time; but this is impossible. There must, then, be something else that decides; I mean by this, desire or will. For whichever of two things the animal desires decisively, it will do, when it is present, and meets the passive object, in the way appropriate to the potency in question. Therefore everything which has a rational potency, when it desires that for which it has a potency and in the circumstances in which it has the potency, must do this. And it has the potency in question when the passive object is present and is in a certain state; if not it will not be able to act. (To add the qualification ‘if nothing external prevents it’ is not further necessary; for it has the potency on the terms on which this is a potency of acting, and it is this not in all circumstances but on certain conditions, among which will be the exclusion of external hindrances; for these are barred by some of the positive qualifications.) And so even if one has a rational wish, or an appetite, to do two things or contrary things at the same time, one will not do them; for it is not on these terms that one has the potency for them, nor is it a potency of doing both at the same time, since one will do the things which it is a potency of doing, on the terms on which one has the potency.
Since we have treated of the kind of potency which is related to movement, let us discuss actuality—what, and what kind of thing, actuality is. For in the course of our analysis it will also become clear, with regard to the potential, that we not only ascribe potency to that whose nature it is to move something else, or to be moved by something else, either without qualification or in some particular way, but also use the word in another sense, which is the reason of the inquiry in the course of which we have discussed these previous senses also. Actuality, then, is the existence of a thing not in the way which we express by ‘potentially’; we say that potentially, for instance, a statue of Hermes is in the block of wood and the half-line is in the whole, because it might be separated out, and we call even the man who is not studying a man of science, if he is capable of studying; the thing that stands in contrast to each of these exists actually. Our meaning can be seen in the particular cases by induction, and we must not seek a definition of everything but be content to grasp the analogy, that it is as that which is building is to that which is capable of building, and the waking to the sleeping, and that which is seeing to that which has its eyes shut but has sight, and that which has been shaped out of the matter to the matter, and that which has been wrought up to the unwrought. Let actuality be defined by one member of this antithesis, and the potential by the other. But all things are not said in the same sense to exist actually, but only by analogy—as A is in B or to B, C is in D or to D; for some are as movement to potency, and the others as substance to some sort of matter.
But also the infinite and the void and all similar things are said to exist potentially and actually in a different sense from that which applies to many other things, e.g. to that which sees or walks or is seen. For of the latter class these predicates can at some time be also truly asserted without qualification; for the seen is so called sometimes because it is being seen, sometimes because it is capable of being seen. But the infinite does not exist potentially in the sense that it will ever actually have separate existence; it exists potentially only for knowledge. For the fact that the process of dividing never comes to an end ensures that this activity exists potentially, but not that the infinite exists separately.
Since of the actions which have a limit none is an end but all are relative to the end, e.g. the removing of fat, or fat-removal, and the bodily parts themselves when one is making them thin are in movement in this way (i.e. without being already that at which the movement aims), this is not an action or at least not a complete one (for it is not an end); but that movement in which the end is present is an action. E.g. at the same time we are seeing and have seen, are understanding and have understood, are thinking and have thought (while it is not true that at the same time we are learning and have learnt, or are being cured and have been cured). At the same time we are living well and have lived well, and are happy and have been happy. If not, the process would have had sometime to cease, as the process of making thin ceases: but, as things are, it does not cease; we are living and have lived. Of these processes, then, we must call the one set movements, and the other actualities. For every movement is incomplete—making thin, learning, walking, building; these are movements, and incomplete at that. For it is not true that at the same time a thing is walking and has walked, or is building and has built, or is coming to be and has come to be, or is being moved and has been moved, but what is being moved is different from what has been moved, and what is moving from what has moved. But it is the same thing that at the same time has seen and is seeing, seeing, or is thinking and has thought. The latter sort of process, then, I call an actuality, and the former a movement.
What, and what kind of thing, the actual is, may be taken as explained by these and similar considerations. But we must distinguish when a thing exists potentially and when it does not; for it is not at any and every time. E.g. is earth potentially a man? No—but rather when it has already become seed, and perhaps not even then. It is just as it is with being healed; not everything can be healed by the medical art or by luck, but there is a certain kind of thing which is capable of it, and only this is potentially healthy. And (1) the delimiting mark of that which as a result of thought comes to exist in complete reality from having existed potentially is that if the agent has willed it it comes to pass if nothing external hinders, while the condition on the other side—viz. in that which is healed—is that nothing in it hinders the result. It is on similar terms that we have what is potentially a house; if nothing in the thing acted on—i.e. in the matter—prevents it from becoming a house, and if there is nothing which must be added or taken away or changed, this is potentially a house; and the same is true of all other things the source of whose becoming is external. And (2) in the cases in which the source of the becoming is in the very thing which comes to be, a thing is potentially all those things which it will be of itself if nothing external hinders it. E.g. the seed is not yet potentially a man; for it must be deposited in something other than itself and undergo a change. But when through its own motive principle it has already got such and such attributes, in this state it is already potentially a man; while in the former state it needs another motive principle, just as earth is not yet potentially a statue (for it must first change in order to become brass.)
It seems that when we call a thing not something else but ‘thaten'—e.g. a casket is not ‘wood’ but ‘wooden’, and wood is not ‘earth’ but ‘earthen’, and again earth will illustrate our point if it is similarly not something else but ‘thaten'—that other thing is always potentially (in the full sense of that word) the thing which comes after it in this series. E.g. a casket is not ‘earthen’ nor ‘earth’, but ‘wooden’; for this is potentially a casket and this is the matter of a casket, wood in general of a casket in general, and this particular wood of this particular casket. And if there is a first thing, which is no longer, in reference to something else, called ‘thaten’, this is prime matter; e.g. if earth is ‘airy’ and air is not ‘fire’ but ‘fiery’, fire is prime matter, which is not a ‘this’. For the subject or substratum is differentiated by being a ‘this’ or not being one; i.e. the substratum of modifications is, e.g. a man, i.e. a body and a soul, while the modification is ‘musical’ or ‘pale’. (The subject is called, when music comes to be present in it, not ‘music’ but ‘musical’, and the man is not ‘paleness’ but ‘pale’, and not ‘ambulation’ or ‘movement’ but ‘walking’ or ‘moving’,—which is akin to the ‘thaten’.) Wherever this is so, then, the ultimate subject is a substance; but when this is not so but the predicate is a form and a ‘this’, the ultimate subject is matter and material substance. And it is only right that ‘thaten’ should be used with reference both to the matter and to the accidents; for both are indeterminates.
We have stated, then, when a thing is to be said to exist potentially and when it is not.
From our discussion of the various senses of ‘prior’, it is clear that actuality is prior to potency. And I mean by potency not only that definite kind which is said to be a principle of change in another thing or in the thing itself regarded as other, but in general every principle of movement or of rest. For nature also is in the same genus as potency; for it is a principle of movement—not, however, in something else but in the thing itself qua itself. To all such potency, then, actuality is prior both in formula and in substantiality; and in time it is prior in one sense, and in another not.
(1) Clearly it is prior in formula; for that which is in the primary sense potential is potential because it is possible for it to become active; e.g. I mean by ‘capable of building’ that which can build, and by ‘capable of seeing’ that which can see, and by ‘visible’ that which can be seen. And the same account applies to all other cases, so that the formula and the knowledge of the one must precede the knowledge of the other.
(2) In time it is prior in this sense: the actual which is identical in species though not in number with a potentially existing thing is to it. I mean that to this particular man who now exists actually and to the corn and to the seeing subject the matter and the seed and that which is capable of seeing, which are potentially a man and corn and seeing, but not yet actually so, are prior in time; but prior in time to these are other actually existing things, from which they were produced. For from the potentially existing the actually existing is always produced by an actually existing thing, e.g. man from man, musician by musician; there is always a first mover, and the mover already exists actually. We have said in our account of substance that everything that is produced is something produced from something and by something, and that the same in species as it.
This is why it is thought impossible to be a builder if one has built nothing or a harper if one has never played the harp; for he who learns to play the harp learns to play it by playing it, and all other learners do similarly. And thence arose the sophistical quibble, that one who does not possess a science will be doing that which is the object of the science; for he who is learning it does not possess it. But since, of that which is coming to be, some part must have come to be, and, of that which, in general, is changing, some part must have changed (this is shown in the treatise on movement), he who is learning must, it would seem, possess some part of the science. But here too, then, it is clear that actuality is in this sense also, viz. in order of generation and of time, prior to potency.
But (3) it is also prior in substantiality; firstly, (a) because the things that are posterior in becoming are prior in form and in substantiality (e.g. man is prior to boy and human being to seed; for the one already has its form, and the other has not), and because everything that comes to be moves towards a principle, i.e. an end (for that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end), and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potency is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see. And similarly men have the art of building that they may build, and theoretical science that they may theorize; but they do not theorize that they may have theoretical science, except those who are learning by practice; and these do not theorize except in a limited sense, or because they have no need to theorize. Further, matter exists in a potential state, just because it may come to its form; and when it exists actually, then it is in its form. And the same holds good in all cases, even those in which the end is a movement. And so, as teachers think they have achieved their end when they have exhibited the pupil at work, nature does likewise. For if this is not the case, we shall have Pauson’s Hermes over again, since it will be hard to say about the knowledge, as about the figure in the picture, whether it is within or without. For the action is the end, and the actuality is the action. And so even the word ‘actuality’ is derived from ‘action’, and points to the complete reality.
And while in some cases the exercise is the ultimate thing (e.g. in sight the ultimate thing is seeing, and no other product besides this results from sight), but from some things a product follows (e.g. from the art of building there results a house as well as the act of building), yet none the less the act is in the former case the end and in the latter more of an end than the potency is. For the act of building is realized in the thing that is being built, and comes to be, and is, at the same time as the house.
Where, then, the result is something apart from the exercise, the actuality is in the thing that is being made, e.g. the act of building is in the thing that is being built and that of weaving in the thing that is being woven, and similarly in all other cases, and in general the movement is in the thing that is being moved; but where there is no product apart from the actuality, the actuality is present in the agents, e.g. the act of seeing is in the seeing subject and that of theorizing in the theorizing subject and the life is in the soul (and therefore well-being also; for it is a certain kind of life).
Obviously, therefore, the substance or form is actuality. According to this argument, then, it is obvious that actuality is prior in substantial being to potency; and as we have said, one actuality always precedes another in time right back to the actuality of the eternal prime mover.
But (b) actuality is prior in a stricter sense also; for eternal things are prior in substance to perishable things, and no eternal thing exists potentially. The reason is this. Every potency is at one and the same time a potency of the opposite; for, while that which is not capable of being present in a subject cannot be present, everything that is capable of being may possibly not be actual. That, then, which is capable of being may either be or not be; the same thing, then, is capable both of being and of not being. And that which is capable of not being may possibly not be; and that which may possibly not be is perishable, either in the full sense, or in the precise sense in which it is said that it possibly may not be, i.e. in respect either of place or of quantity or quality; ‘in the full sense’ means ‘in respect of substance’. Nothing, then, which is in the full sense imperishable is in the full sense potentially existent (though there is nothing to prevent its being so in some respect, e.g. potentially of a certain quality or in a certain place); all imperishable things, then, exist actually. Nor can anything which is of necessity exist potentially; yet these things are primary; for if these did not exist, nothing would exist. Nor does eternal movement, if there be such, exist potentially; and, if there is an eternal mobile, it is not in motion in virtue of a potentiality, except in respect of ‘whence’ and ‘whither’ (there is nothing to prevent its having matter which makes it capable of movement in various directions). And so the sun and the stars and the whole heaven are ever active, and there is no fear that they may sometime stand still, as the natural philosophers fear they may. Nor do they tire in this activity; for movement is not for them, as it is for perishable things, connected with the potentiality for opposites, so that the continuity of the movement should be laborious; for it is that kind of substance which is matter and potency, not actuality, that causes this.
Imperishable things are imitated by those that are involved in change, e.g. earth and fire. For these also are ever active; for they have their movement of themselves and in themselves. But the other potencies, according to our previous discussion, are all potencies for opposites; for that which can move another in this way can also move it not in this way, i.e. if it acts according to a rational formula; and the same non-rational potencies will produce opposite results by their presence or absence.
If, then, there are any entities or substances such as the dialecticians say the Ideas are, there must be something much more scientific than science-itself and something more mobile than movement-itself; for these will be more of the nature of actualities, while science-itself and movement-itself are potencies for these.
Obviously, then, actuality is prior both to potency and to every principle of change.
That the actuality is also better and more valuable than the good potency is evident from the following argument. Everything of which we say that it can do something, is alike capable of contraries, e.g. that of which we say that it can be well is the same as that which can be ill, and has both potencies at once; for the same potency is a potency of health and illness, of rest and motion, of building and throwing down, of being built and being thrown down. The capacity for contraries, then, is present at the same time; but contraries cannot be present at the same time, and the actualities also cannot be present at the same time, e.g. health and illness. Therefore, while the good must be one of them, the capacity is both alike, or neither; the actuality, then, is better. Also in the case of bad things the end or actuality must be worse than the potency; for that which ‘can’ is both contraries alike. Clearly, then, the bad does not exist apart from bad things; for the bad is in its nature posterior to the potency. And therefore we may also say that in the things which are from the beginning, i.e. in eternal things, there is nothing bad, nothing defective, nothing perverted (for perversion is something bad).
It is an activity also that geometrical constructions are discovered; for we find them by dividing. If the figures had been already divided, the constructions would have been obvious; but as it is they are present only potentially. Why are the angles of the triangle equal to two right angles? Because the angles about one point are equal to two right angles. If, then, the line parallel to the side had been already drawn upwards, the reason would have been evident to any one as soon as he saw the figure. Why is the angle in a semicircle in all cases a right angle? If three lines are equal the two which form the base, and the perpendicular from the centre—the conclusion is evident at a glance to one who knows the former proposition. Obviously, therefore, the potentially existing constructions are discovered by being brought to actuality; the reason is that the geometer’s thinking is an actuality; so that the potency proceeds from an actuality; and therefore it is by making constructions that people come to know them (though the single actuality is later in generation than the corresponding potency).
The terms ‘being’ and ‘non-being’ are employed firstly with reference to the categories, and secondly with reference to the potency or actuality of these or their non-potency or nonactuality, and thirdly in the sense of true and false. This depends, on the side of the objects, on their being combined or separated, so that he who thinks the separated to be separated and the combined to be combined has the truth, while he whose thought is in a state contrary to that of the objects is in error. This being so, when is what is called truth or falsity present, and when is it not? We must consider what we mean by these terms. It is not because we think truly that you are pale, that you are pale, but because you are pale we who say this have the truth. If, then, some things are always combined and cannot be separated, and others are always separated and cannot be combined, while others are capable either of combination or of separation, ‘being’ is being combined and one, and ‘not being’ is being not combined but more than one. Regarding contingent facts, then, the same opinion or the same statement comes to be false and true, and it is possible for it to be at one time correct and at another erroneous; but regarding things that cannot be otherwise opinions are not at one time true and at another false, but the same opinions are always true or always false.
But with regard to incomposites, what is being or not being, and truth or falsity? A thing of this sort is not composite, so as to ‘be’ when it is compounded, and not to ‘be’ if it is separated, like ‘that the wood is white’ or ‘that the diagonal is incommensurable’; nor will truth and falsity be still present in the same way as in the previous cases. In fact, as truth is not the same in these cases, so also being is not the same; but (a) truth or falsity is as follows—contact and assertion are truth (assertion not being the same as affirmation), and ignorance is non-contact. For it is not possible to be in error regarding the question what a thing is, save in an accidental sense; and the same holds good regarding non-composite substances (for it is not possible to be in error about them). And they all exist actually, not potentially; for otherwise they would have come to be and ceased to be; but, as it is, being itself does not come to be (nor cease to be); for if it had done so it would have had to come out of something. About the things, then, which are essences and actualities, it is not possible to be in error, but only to know them or not to know them. But we do inquire what they are, viz. whether they are of such and such a nature or not.
(b) As regards the ‘being’ that answers to truth and the ‘non-being’ that answers to falsity, in one case there is truth if the subject and the attribute are really combined, and falsity if they are not combined; in the other case, if the object is existent it exists in a particular way, and if it does not exist in this way does not exist at all. And truth means knowing these objects, and falsity does not exist, nor error, but only ignorance—and not an ignorance which is like blindness; for blindness is akin to a total absence of the faculty of thinking.
It is evident also that about unchangeable things there can be no error in respect of time, if we assume them to be unchangeable. E.g. if we suppose that the triangle does not change, we shall not suppose that at one time its angles are equal to two right angles while at another time they are not (for that would imply change). It is possible, however, to suppose that one member of such a class has a certain attribute and another has not; e.g. while we may suppose that no even number is prime, we may suppose that some are and some are not. But regarding a numerically single number not even this form of error is possible; for we cannot in this case suppose that one instance has an attribute and another has not, but whether our judgement be true or false, it is implied that the fact is eternal. | [
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] | 8,436 |
At the University of Dubuque, students learn Environmental Science by getting wet, getting muddy, and getting their hands on fish, birds, soil, prairie plants, and rocks. We believe that field-oriented, hands-on courses prepare students for jobs following graduation, while providing real life experiences that lead to internships and undergraduate research projects. Students are exposed to the latest technologies, such as water quality analysis, toxicological assays, and radio telemetry.
Our fleet of field boats provides an excellent opportunity to explore the Mississippi River ecosystem, and yearly field trips to the Audubon Center of the North Woods, Boundary Waters -- and other fun spots, as well as study trips to interantional locations, provide an opportunity to learn about other habitats. Through integrated classroom work and hands-on research, students are prepared to be leaders in the environmental science field after graduation.
We also love field trips. See some of our photos at http://www.geocities.com/daleeasley/FieldTrips/Page.html | [
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In recent years there has also been a slight drop in the fraction of daily calories that American adults get from fast food. But among some groups -- young black adults, people in low-income families -- fast-food consumption remains high and unchanged.
Those are among the findings of the federal government's periodic look at Americans' health, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). "I think there's some potential good news here," said Cynthia Ogden, who oversaw two studies released Thursday by the National Center for Health Statistics.
From 1999 through 2010, the average intake for boys age 2 to 19 declined to 2,100 from 2,260 calories per day. For girls, the decline was to 1,760 calories from 1,830 calories. Previously, daily caloric intake had been rising since the 1960s.
The percentage of calories from protein increased over the past 12 years, and the percentage of calories from fat did not change. What did change was the consumption of carbohydrates. It fell by 1 percent in boys and girls.
"The survey didn't look at sugar specifically. But other studies suggest that a decrease in carbohydrates is due to a decrease in added sugar," Ogden said.
From 2007 to 2010, adult Americans (defined as those age 20 and older) got 11 percent of their calories from fast food. That was down from 13 percent found in the previous NHANES survey, conducted from 2003 to 2006.
Blacks obtained 15 percent of their calories from fast food; for whites and Hispanics, the figure was 11 percent. The percentage declined slightly for whites over the two survey periods but didn't change for blacks or Hispanics.
Among people in their 20s and 30s, 15 percent of whites' and Hispanics' calories came from fast food. Blacks of that age group got 21 percent -- roughly one-fifth -- of their total calories from fast food. People age 60 or older got a much smaller portion of their calories -- 6 or 7 percent -- from that source.
Income level had little relation to fast-food consumption, except in the young adult (20-39) age group. Within that group, people in low-income households got slightly more of their calories from fast food than did people in middle-income families -- 17 percent vs. 14 percent. Obese adults also got more of their calories from fast food (13 percent) than adults of normal weight (10 percent). | [
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Recent Event Highlights: Last American troops Leave Vietnam, Operation Linebacker 2, Operation Linebacker 1, and 18 more...
Created by 13RodriguezH on Dec 20, 2010
Last updated: 01/02/11 at 07:47 PM
Vietnam war menu has no followers yet. Be the first one to follow.
On March 29, 1973, two months after signing the Vietnam peace agreement, the last U.S. troops leave South Vietnam when Hanoi freed the remaining American prisoners of war.
These talks included secret preparatory talks, formal meetings, walkouts from negotiations, and return to the table after military force, resulted in a formal document signing on January 28, 1973.
On January 15, 1973, President Richard Nixon ordered a ceasefire of the aerial bombings in North Vietnam. The decision came after Dr Henry Kissinger returned to Washington from Paris France with a draft peace proposal. Combat missions continued in South Vietnam. By January 27, 1973, all warring parties in the Vietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the Paris Peace Accord.
It was a U.S military bombing campaign Over North Vietnam, that started when the Paris negotiations broke down In December of 1972 .
Linebacker was a great improvement over Rolling Thunder. During Linebacker, American aircraft attacked targets like airfields, power plants, and radio stations which disrupted the flow of supplies and reinforcements to the units fighting in the South.
President Richard Nixon introduced his policy of "vietnamization". The plan was to encourage the South Vietnamese to take more responsibility for fighting the war.
In March 1969, President Richard Nixon authorized secret bombing raids in Cambodia, Nixon believed North Vietnam was transporting troops and supplies through neighboring Cambodia into South Vietnam. He hoped that bombing supply routes in Cambodia would weaken the United States' enemies.
The Media really changed the view of the public's opinion on the Vietnam war because not only was the media showing some good things such as secret bombings that were being planned, but was also making Lyndon B. Johnson as well as his military look very bad and badly represented the military due to war efforts. Which made the people of the United States angry at Lyndon B. Johnson's administration and the soldiers of the military was also very angry on how the media was representing them.
Money spent in vietnam war.
Lyndon B Johnson's general Westmoreland said that his next step was to capture Hue. He explaining the city was the symbol of a unified Vietnam, and capturing it would have profound psychological impact on the Vietnamese in both the North and the South.
Richard Nixon, a Republican won the election. He campaigned against rising crime and claimed he would restore "law and order". Nixon also instituted the Southern policy, taking advantage of Southern voters.
A supply convoy was ambushed by PAVN forces on Route 9. This was the last overland attempt to resupply Khe Sanh until the following April. Through December, PAVN troops were spotted in the area, but there was little fighting. With the increase in enemy activity a decision was needed regarding whether to further reinforce Khe Sanh or abandon the position.
The Tet Offensive was a series of surprise attacks by the Vietcong and North Vietnamese forces, on scores of cities, towns, and hamlets throughout South Vietnam. It was considered to be a turning point in the Vietnam War.
The most notorious U.S. military event of the Vietnam War. My Lai was one of a cluster of South Vietnamese hamlets making up Son My village, nicknamed "Pinkville" by U.S. soldiers because of its concentration of Communist sympathizers and Viet Cong activity.
It was a military operation of the Vietnam War conducted primarily by US forces. The aim of this massive search and destroy operation was to corrupt the so-called "Iron Triangle."
This was the first major battle between the United States Army and the People's Army of Vietnam (referred to by US fighting units as the North Vietnamese Army during the Vietnam War.) U.S. CIA agents had been tracking the NVA's movements since the early fall, and by November 13 U.S. forces had been moved in to attack.
Operation Rolling Thunder was a prolonged U.S. bombing campaign during the Vietnam War that failed to achieve its major political and military objectives.
This was a major carpet-bombing of North Vietnamese targets.
3,500 Marines were deployed to secure the U.S. airbase, freeing South Vietnamese troops up for combat. On March 1, Ambassador Maxwell Taylor had informed South Vietnamese Premier Phan Huy Quat that the United States was preparing to send the Marines to Vietnam. Three days later, a formal request was submitted by the U.S. Embassy, asking the South Vietnamese government to "invite" the United States to send the Marines.
Was a congressional resolution passed in 1964 that authorized military action in Southeast Asia. On Aug. 4, 1964, North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin attacked U.S. destroyers that were reporting intelligence information to South Vietnam.
On July 31, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox started a Desoto patrol off North Vietnam. it steamed through the Gulf of Tonkin getting used to the area until it was attacked by three Soviet-built P-4 motor torpedo boats were dispatched to attack the destroyer.
The Ho Chi Minh Trail was a series of roads built from North Vietnam to South Vietnam through the friendly countries of Laos and Cambodia, to provide logistical support to the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese Army during the Vietnam War.
The Eisenhower Doctrine defined itself as a defensive move to contain Soviet expansionism, but response from the governments of the Middle East was mixed. Jordan and Lebanon liked the declaration. Egypt and Syria said it as a threat to their security. And, Israel was unsure of their response and Iraq and Saudi Arabia opposed a U.S. military role in the region.
The domino theory was the view held by U.S. policy makers during the cold war that if one country went to communism, its neighbors were threatened with a chain reaction of Communist takeovers.
President Harry Truman addresses Congress in March 1947, introducing the new policy (Truman Doctrine) of providing economic and military aid to Turkey and Greece, the policy encompassed support for anticommunist efforts around the world. | [
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] | 1,296 |
The salmonella linked to uncooked tomatoes has now spread to 16 states. The Associated Press reports:
Investigations by the Texas and New Mexico Departments of Health and the U.S. Indian Health Service have tied 56 cases in Texas and 55 in New Mexico to raw, uncooked, tomatoes.Hopefully this doesn’t get as bad as the spinach-E. coli outbreak.
"We're seeing a steady increase," Deborah Busemeyer, New Mexico Department of Health communications director, said Saturday.
An additional 50 people have been sickened by the same Salmonella "Saintpaul" infection in Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah, Virginia, Washington and Wisconsin, the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported.
Investigators are trying to determine if raw tomatoes also are responsible for the illnesses in those states, said Arleen Porcell, a CDC spokeswoman. | [
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] | 196 |
One of the more surprising aspects of the early missions of the NX class Enterprise during the 2150s was the number of hostile alien species which the ship encountered. One of the more mysterious of these incidents came in 2151, during the ship's first year of exploration. Enterprise was deploying Subspace Amplifiers to expand Earth's communications network when an alien vessel approached. The ship refused all attempts at communication, simply observing Enterprise for a short time before departing. Over the next few days the vessel returned several times, but on subsequent visits it scanned Enterprise and then launched a series of unprovoked attacks on the ship.
The alien vessel was fitted with a defensive energy screen which Enterprise's torpedoes had little impact upon. The initial haste to get Enterprise out of dock in time to return the Klingon courier Klaang to his home world had meant that there was no time to install the ship's most powerful weapons - three five hundred Gigajoule phase cannon. The engineering and weapon crews managed to install the single cannon which the ship carried in storage, and to construct and install a second cannon. This remarkable feat, which would be expected to take up to a week in dock, was completed in 48 hours whilst the ship was still underway and engaged in periodic combat.
On one of the attacks the alien craft dispatched a shuttlecraft which landed a two person boarding party aboard Enterprise in what seemed to be some form of reconnaissance mission. The aliens were Humanoid, but of a species completely unknown to the crew. They were equipped with personal force fields which proved invulnerable to the fire of the phase pistols Enterprise carried, and after conducting scans of some crewmen and planting a surveillance device the aliens withdrew.
Once Enterprise had its phase cannon installed, they were tested against a small mountain on an uninhabited moon. The effects were unexpected; an overload caused the cannon to fire with ten times the expected yield, completely destroying the mountain and inflicting significant damage on the ship. Some modification allowed the cannon to perform more normally, but when used against the alien craft they proved as ineffective as the torpedoes had.
The chief engineering officer formulated a method of protecting the ship from the overload damage experienced earlier, and Captain Archer ordered that the conditions of the first firing be deliberately re-created. The overload allowed the phase cannon to puncture the shields of the enemy ship, inflicting considerable damage on it. A volley of torpedoes convinced the aliens to withdraw.1
There has been no further encounter with this species since 2151, leading most to speculate that they were only passing through this region of space rather than being permanent inhabitants. | [
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] | 527 |
When I was a kid, my favorite crayon was the one called "Burnt Sienna."
It produced a warm orange-brown color that reminded me of Georgia Red Clay.
I wasn't far off the mark. The rich pigments of the color sienna are derived from a form of limonite clay used in the production of oil-based paints.
Ferric oxides found in certain soils produce the complex color. Natural soil pigments, such as siena, ochre and umbra are found in many cave paintings and are believed to be the first pigments used by humans.
Burnt sienna is a warm reddish-brown hue, created by heating raw sienna to remove excess water from the clay.
"Sienna" is short for Terra di Siena, or "earth of Siena." The color is named for the town of Siena, ITALY, where it occurs in abundance.
The southwest entrance to Siena through medieval city wall.
Palazzo Pubblico (Town Hall)
Piazza del Campo
A beautiful medieval door
In Siena, ITALY, the Cathedrale di Santa Maria, known as the Duomo, is a treasure trove of sacred art from the 13th and 14th centuries.
This marble mosaic by an unknown artist depicts the "she-wolf," symbol of Siena
Our guide explained that the relief on this bronze door to the Duomo (Siena, ITALY) depicts the "glorification of the virgin."
Cathedral de Santa Maria Assunta
(Holy Mary of the Assumption)
These colorful frescoes on the library ceiling were painted by Umbrian artist Bernardino di betto, better known as "Pinturicchio." The sequential panels depict the life story of Siena cardinal Enea Silvio Piccolomini, who eventually became Pope Pius II.
Fresco Painted Archway
Bernardino di Betto (Pinturicchio) painted several frescoes in the Cathedral.
This one, in the nave above the door to the Piccolomini Library, substitutes portraits of Pinturicchio's patrons for the faces of the saints. | [
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] | 475 |
Comparing an Integer With a Floating-Point Number, Part 1: Strategy
Last week, I started discussing the problem of comparing two numbers, each of which might be integer or floating-point. I pointed out that integers are easy to compare with each other, but a program that compares two floating-point numbers must take NaN (Not a Number) into account.
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That discussion omitted the case in which one number is an integer and the other is floating-point. As before, we must decide how to handle NaN; presumably, we shall make this decision in a way that is consistent with what we did for pure floating-point values.
Aside from dealing with NaN, the basic problem is easy to state: We have two numbers, one integer and one floating-point, and we want to compare them. For convenience, we'll refer to the integer as
N and the floating-point number as
X. Then there are three possibilities:
- Neither of the above.
It's easy to write the comparisons
N < X and
X < N directly as C++ expressions. However, the definition of these comparisons is that
N gets converted to floating-point and the comparison is done in floating-point. This language-defined comparison works only when converting
N to floating-point yields an accurate result. On every computer I have ever encountered, such conversions fail whenever the "fraction" part of the floating-point number — that is, the part that is neither the sign nor the exponent — does not have enough capacity to contain the integer. In that case, one or more of the integer's low-order bits will be rounded or discarded in order to make it fit.
To make this discussion concrete, consider the floating-point format usually used for the
float type these days. The fraction in this format has 24 significant bits, which means that
N can be converted to floating-point only when
|N| < 224. For larger integers, the conversion will lose one or more bits. So, for example, 224 and 224+1 might convert to the same floating-point number, or perhaps 224+1 and 224+2 might do so, depending on how the machine handles rounding. Either of these possibilities implies that there are values of
X such that
N == X,
N+1 == X, and (of course)
N < N+1. Such behavior clearly violates the conditions for C++ comparison operators.
In general, there will be a number — let's call it
B for big — such that integers with absolute value greater than
B cannot always be represented exactly as floating-point numbers. This number will usually be 2k, where
k is the number of bits in a floating-point fraction. I claim that "greater" is correct rather than "greater than or equal" because even though the actual value 2k doesn't quite fit in
k bits, it can still be accurately represented by setting the exponent so that the low-order bit of the fraction represents 2 rather than 1. So, for example, a 24-bit fraction can represent 224 exactly but cannot represent 224+1, and therefore we will say that
B is 224 on such an implementation.
With this observation, we can say that we are safe in converting a positive integer
N to floating-point unless
N > B. Moreover, on implementations in which floating-point numbers have more bits in their fraction than integers have (excluding the sign bit),
N > B will always be false, because there is no way to generate an integer larger than
B on such an implementation.
Returning to our original problem of comparing
N, we see that the problems arise only when
N > B. In that case we cannot convert
N to floating-point successfully. What can we do? The key observation is that if
X is large enough that it might possibly be larger than
N, the low-order bit of
X must represent a power of two greater than 1. In other words, if
X > B, then
X must be an integer. Of course, it might be such a large integer that it is not possible to represent it in integer format; but nevertheless, the mathematical value of
X is an integer.
This final observation leads us to a strategy:
N < B, then we can safely convert
Nto floating-point for comparison with
X; this conversion will be exact.
- Otherwise, if
Xis larger than the largest possible integer (of the type of
Xmust be larger than
X > B, and therefore
Xcan be represented exactly as an integer of the type of
N. Therefore, we can convert
Xto integer and compare
I noted at the beginning of this article that we still need to do something about NaN. In addition, we need to handle negative numbers: If
N have opposite signs, we do not need to compare them further; and if they are both negative, we have to take that fact into account in our comparison. There is also the problem of determining the value of
However, none of these problems is particularly difficult once we have the strategy figured out. Accordingly, I'll leave the rest of the problem as an exercise, and go over the whole solution next week. | [
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] | 1,175 |
Eye test – acuity; Vision test – acuity
Definition of Visual acuity test
The visual acuity test is used to determine the smallest letters a person can read on a standardized chart or card held 14 - 20 feet away.
Paul B. Griggs, MD, Department of Ophthalmology, Virginia Mason Medical Center, Seattle, WA . Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. – 1/21/2009 | [
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] | 113 |
Atenolol Pregnancy and Breastfeeding Warnings
Atenolol is also known as: Tenormin
Atenolol Pregnancy Warnings
Atenolol crosses the placental barrier and appears in cord blood. Administration of atenolol in the second trimester of pregnancy has been associated with the birth of infants that are small for their gestational age. In addition, some data have shown a significantly decreased fetal heart rate and significantly decreased mean birth weight of infants whose mothers were taking atenolol relative to those taking acebutolol or pindolol. Case reports of profound beta-blockade in neonates of mothers who were taking atenolol are reported. Because of this, observation of affected neonates for bradycardia and hypotension is recommended for 48 hours postpartum. The results of one study indicate that maternal renal function, mean cardiac output, and heart rate are significantly increased, while mean total peripheral resistance is significantly decreased during the second and third trimesters as compared to 3 months postpartum.
Atenolol has been assigned to pregnancy category D by the FDA. Animal studies have revealed evidence of dose-related embryotoxicity and fetotoxicity. Atenolol has been used during human pregnancy (starting in the second trimester) with evidence of lower birth weight and preterm (less than 37 weeks) delivery. Neonates born to mothers who are receiving atenolol at parturition may be at risk for hypoglycemia and bradycardia. Atenolol should only be given during pregnancy when there are no alternatives and benefit outweighs risk.
Atenolol Breastfeeding Warnings
Atenolol is excreted into human breast milk at a ratio of 1.5 to 6.8 when compared to the concentration in plasma. Neonates born to mothers who are receiving atenolol and are breast-feeding may be at risk for hypoglycemia and bradycardia. The manufacturer recommends that caution be used when administering atenolol to nursing women.
Milk atenolol levels may be four times higher than maternal serum levels. One case of bradycardia, peripheral cyanosis, and hypothermia is reported in a nursing infant whose mother was taking atenolol 50 mg orally every 12 hours. The authors calculated that the atenolol exposure to the nursing infant was 9% of the mother's daily dose. Because of this, observation of nursing infants for bradycardia and hypotension is recommended during breast-feeding. In addition, neonates born to mothers who are breast-feeding may be at an increase risk for hypoglycemia. Premature infants or infants with impaired renal function may be more at risk to develop side effects.
- Atenolol use while Breastfeeding (in more detail)
- Atenolol Consumer Information
- Pregnancy Support Group
- FDA Pregnancy Categories
- Medicine use during Pregnancy
- Medicine use while Breastfeeding
- Safe Medications during Breastfeeding
Disclaimer: Every effort has been made to ensure that the information provided by Cerner Multum, Wolters Kluwer Health and Drugs.com is accurate, up-to-date, and complete, but no guarantee is made to that effect. In addition, the drug information contained herein may be time sensitive and should not be utilized as a reference resource beyond the date hereof. This drug information does not endorse drugs, diagnose patients, or recommend therapy. This drug information is a reference resource designed as supplement to, and not a substitute for, the expertise, skill , knowledge, and judgement of healthcare practitioners in patient care. The absence of a warning for a given drug or drug combination in no way should be construed to indicate that the drug of drug combination is safe, effective, or appropriate for any given patient. Multum Information Services, Inc. does not assume any responsibility for any aspect of healthcare administered with the aid of information Multum provides. Copyright 2000-2008 Multum Information Services, Inc. The information in contained herein is not intended to cover all possible uses, directions, precautions, warnings, drug interactions, allergic reactions, or adverse effects. If you have questions about the drugs you are taking, check with your doctor, nurse, or pharmacist. | [
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] | 886 |
Violin For Dummies
With all of its different parts and its beautiful, delicate-looking body, the violin can feel a bit intimidating at first. This Cheat Sheet helps you get to know your instrument by introducing the most important parts of your violin, provides some easy steps to keep it in tip-top condition, and takes you through the process of taking the violin out of its case for the very first time.
Examining the Parts of Your Violin
More than 70 parts go into making a complete violin. This hourglass-shaped string instrument consists of several basic parts, including the 21 important elements explained here.
Back: One of the most important parts of the violin, for both aesthetic and acoustic properties. The back of the violin can be made of one or two pieces, and it’s arched for strength and tone power.
Bass bar: A slim strip of wood glued under the table of the violin on the side of, and running more or less parallel to, the lower strings. The bass bar reinforces the strength of the violin’s top and enriches the tone of the lower notes.
Body: The sounding box of the violin has evolved to produce the best sound and use the most convenient playing shape. The waist of the violin is actually a necessary indentation, so that the bow can move freely across the strings without bumping into the body.
Bridge: The only piece of unvarnished wood on the violin, it sits on top, about halfway down the body, placed exactly between the little crossbars of the violin’s f-holes. The strings run over the top of the bridge, which transfers their vibrations to the main body of the violin for amplification. The bridge is slightly rounded to match the shape of the fingerboard and to enable the player to bow on one string at a time.
Chinrest: The spot on which your jaw rests when you’re playing (come to think of it, it should be called a jaw rest). Chinrests are usually made of ebony that has been carved into a cupped shape to fit the left side of your jaw. Your chinrest is attached just to the left of the tailpiece by a special metal bracket. You can choose from a variety of models to fit your chin shape and neck length most comfortably.
End button: A small circular knob made of ebony, to which the tailpiece is attached by a loop.
F-holes: The openings on either side of the bridge. They’re called f-holes because they’re shaped like the italic letter f.
Fine tuners: Small metal screws fitted into the tailpiece and used for minor tuning adjustments.
Fingerboard: A slightly curved, smooth piece of ebony that’s glued on top of the neck of the violin, under most of the length of the strings.
Neck: The long piece of wood to which the fingerboard is glued. The neck connects the body of the violin to the pegbox and scroll.
Nut: A raised ridge at the pegbox end of the fingerboard that stops the strings from vibrating beyond that point.
Pegbox: The rectangular part of the scroll immediately adjoining the nut end of the fingerboard, before all the fancy carving begins, where each of the four pegs fits snugly sideways into its individual hole.
Pegs: Four pieces of wood, usually ebony, shaped for ease of turning and fitted into round holes in the pegbox. The player turns the peg to tighten or loosen each string when tuning the violin.
Purfling: An inlay running around the edge of the top and back of the violin’s body. The purfling is both decorative and functional because it protects the main body of the violin from cracks that can occur through accidental bumps. Of all the parts of the violin, purfling is the most fun to say.
Ribs: The sides of the violin. The luthier (a fancy word for violin maker) bends the wood, curving it to fit the outline of the top and back of each instrument.
Saddle: An ebony ridge over which the tailpiece loop passes. The saddle protects the body of the violin from becoming damaged and prevents rattling sounds, which would occur if the tailpiece was to contact the top of the violin when it’s vibrating with sound.
Scroll: Named after the rolled-up paper scrolls that were sent instead of envelopes in the old days, the scroll forms the very end of the pegbox. Carving a scroll requires artistic vision and great expertise, so creative violin makers see the scroll as an opportunity to display their best work. Occasionally, you meet a violin with a lion’s head scroll, or some other fanciful shape, the result of a maker’s whimsy.
Sound post: Enhances the volume and tone of the violin by transferring the sound vibrations to the back of the instrument after the bow makes a string sound near the bridge. If you peek into the f-hole near the E string (your thinnest string), you see a small round column of unvarnished wood, about the circumference of a pencil, which fits vertically from the top to the back of the violin.
Strings: The four metal-wrapped wires (often made with silver or aluminum ribbon spiraling smoothly around a gut or synthetic core material) that you bow on (or pluck) to produce the notes of the violin.
Tailpiece: A flared-shaped piece of wood into which the top end of each string is attached. The tailpiece itself is attached to the end button by a gut or synthetic loop.
Top (or Table): The face of the violin. The top is very important to the character and quality of the violin’s sound as well as to its general appearance.
Protecting Your Violin from Damage
Violins are made of natural materials that are sensitive to temperature and humidity changes. Follow these tips to help your violin have a long and happy life:
Keep your violin at about room temperature.
Store the case away from high-traffic areas so that it doesn’t get knocked around.
Always close and latch the case when you finish playing, to protect your violin from falls.
Keep your violin away from radiators, air ducts, and direct sunlight, and avoid leaving it for long stays (or almost any stays!) in car trunks, especially in very hot or very cold weather.
Most important of all, keep your violin in a humidity of 40 to 60 percent whenever possible, and if you’re traveling to a different climate, take care to preserve the humidity in the violin’s case at a similar level.
How to Take Your Violin Out of Its Case
Taking the violin out of its case (and putting it away again safely) is a skill; mastering the art ensures that your instrument will have a long and happy life. To open the case, follow these steps:
Place the violin case on a stable, flat surface, such as a table or a sofa, with the lid facing the ceiling, and then turn the latch-and-handle side to face you.
You may have to unzip the case’s cover first, which usually has two zips that pull away to either side of the case’s handle. Pull the zippers all the way around to the back of the case so that the lid is able to open fully.
Open the latches first, then release the lock and lift the lid.
Because the cases are very snugly built, the top can be a bit sticky to lift, in which case (no pun intended!), you hold firmly on the handle while you lift the lid.
After you open the case, lift off the covering blanket (if you have one) and undo the strap or the ribbon that safely holds your violin around its neck in the case, before you lift out the violin.
Hold the violin around its neck to lift it from the case — don’t grab the body, because that’s not good for the varnish.
It’s a good idea to place the velvet cloth that covers the violin onto the table and next to the case; this way, you can place the instrument on the cloth.
Release the bow from the case by turning the toggle from a vertical to a horizontal position, taking the bow by the frog end (the name for the piece of ebony wood below the stick at the right end of the bow) with your right hand, and then sliding it gently to the right until the tip (the pointy end) of the bow is out of its loophole.
Never twist the stick while doing this — bows are strong, but they can’t always resist sideways twists. | [
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] | 1,832 |
Bing online dictionary defines “symptom” as: “indication of illness felt by patient: an indication of a disease or other disorder, especially one experienced by the patient, e.g. pain, dizziness or itching, as opposed to one observed by the doctor.”
So, how long does it take from the time symptoms start to get help? With symptoms of a common cold, relief can be found at the nearest supermarket or pharmacy; over-the-counter remedies are as abundant as they are accessible. So on average, I would guess from the time of the first sneeze or cough until the first swig of medicine, we’re looking at about an hour.
With symptoms of cardiac or other emergency distress, 911 is typically called, and help arrives quickly. Perhaps an average 10 to 20 minutes or so from the onset of symptoms until help arrives, depending on the location of the patient. Shooting pain from a tooth? Most of us will deal with this symptom for only as long as it takes for the dentist can get us in. How about a torn knee ligament on the ski hill? Most likely, we will get that treated as soon as possible.
What about symptoms of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and other behavioral-health conditions? Interestingly, we wait 10 years on average from the onset of symptoms until we get treatment. Why do we wait? One answer is stigma, as defined by the online dictionary as, “sign of social unacceptability: the shame or disgrace attached to something regarded as socially unacceptable.”
It’s true that our culture has not been (historically) accepting of behavioral-health conditions. That being said, I wonder how we can still consider these conditions to be socially unacceptable – especially when they are so prevalent nowadays. As evidence of the widespread nature of behavioral health conditions, the National Alliance on Mental Illness reports an estimated 26.2 percent of adults, or about 1 in 4, experience a diagnosable mental disorder every year. What are the consequences of waiting 10 years? Unfortunately, as with any issue, the longer we wait to get treatment, the greater likelihood we have of developing advanced symptoms.
However, as with other illnesses, the good news is that early intervention and treatment has proved effective in treating behavioral-health conditions. As I often write in this column, Mental Health First Aid is an evidence-based set of skills that have proved to be effective in lessening the time between the start of symptoms and getting help.
For more information about MHFA, you can visit National Council for Community Behavioral Healthcare at www.thenationalcouncil.org. Locally, Axis Health System provides MHFA training. To sign up for an upcoming training or to find out more information, call Liza Fischer, MHFA training coordinator, at 259-2615.
Additionally, NAMI provides support for families of people in recovery from behavioral-health conditions. For more information about NAMI, including contact information for local and statewide resources, visit www.namicolorado.org.
Recovery can start at any time – there’s no need to wait.
Mark White is director of quality for Axis Health System. Reach him at [email protected] or 335-2217. | [
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] | 681 |
Durham Cathedral Library descends from the library of the monastery founded on Lindisfarne by St Aidan in 635. When the community left Lindisfarne in 875, the monks took with them relics of St Cuthbert, and a number of books. These probably included the famous manuscript now known as the Lindisfarne gospels. The community settled at Chester-le-Street in 883, where it continued to acquire books. In 995 it moved to Durham, where it built the 'White Church' completed in 1017.
The medieval priory library
In 1083 the Bishop of Durham, William of St Calais, founded a Benedictine priory to replace the community of secular clerks which had served the White Church and shrine of St Cuthbert, and in 1093 the foundation stone of the present cathedral was laid. William drew his first monks from the recently re-founded abbeys of Wearmouth and Jarrow. The new priory inherited books from all these predecessors, including 7th and 8th century manuscripts of Northumbrian origin, some of which are still in the Cathedral Library today. The priory gradually amassed a substantial library, including books written in its own scriptorium. Most books were housed in the Spendement off the west cloister, cupboards in the north cloister, and (from the early 15th century) a new library room above the east cloister.
The Cathedral Library after the dissolution of the monastery
After the dissolution of the monastery in 1539, the cathedral was re-founded under a dean and chapter who inherited what survived of the priory's collection of manuscripts and printed books. Further severe losses occurred in the later 16th century, including the Lindisfarne Gospels (now in the British Library; a facsimile is on display in the Cathedral Treasury). Nonetheless, over 300 manuscripts and some 60 printed books from the monastic collection still remain in the Cathedral Library today.
After almost a century of neglect, the library was reformed in the 1620's through the initiative of John Cosin and other canons. During the civil war and Interregnum it suffered less depredation and dispersal than many other cathedral libraries. After the Restoration, the former monastic refectory was restored and fitted out as a library by Dean Sudbury, and the old library room above the east cloister ceased to be used for library purposes. The book collection grew rapidly, both by purchase and gift, and by 1676 the stock had increased to almost 1000 volumes.
The 18th century brought further substantial expansion, with less emphasis on theology and more on antiquities, history, travel, topography, and natural history. In 1742 the library received the important bequest of the music books and scores of Philip Falle, and in 1757 the Dean and Chapter bought the manuscripts (ca. 150 volumes) collected by the local antiquary Dr. Christopher Hunter, including several which had belonged to the medieval priory library.
The Library began to outgrow the Refectory. In 1849-54 the former monastic Dormitory was restored and fitted out as a library. (Looking today at this impressive room with its medieval open timber roof, it is difficult to picture its pre-1854 state. The Dormitory became derelict after the dissolution of the monastery. After the Restoration, a house for one of the canons was constructed in the southern end, while the northern end was used as a covered yard where children played and washing dried). In 1858 the Refectory was 'restored' by Anthony Salvin, who was responsible for the present windows. Between 1823 and the end of the century a number of important additional collections of local antiquaries were acquired (Allan, Longstaffe, Raine, Randall, and Sharp MSS, and, a little later, the Surtees MSS).
20th - 21st centuries
The Library's steady growth has continued, but, as alternative library provision in the region has increased, the range of subjects covered by new acquisitions has been gradually narrowed. Acquisitions are now concentrated on the cathedral itself (history, architecture, liturgy, music), its contents and collections, and the region it serves, and on major reference works and critical studies to set those topics in their wider contexts.
Major new developments in this period:
- 1930s: Durham branch of the Archdeacon Sharp Library located in the Dormitory, to provide a modern theology library for local users.
- 1958: music manuscripts and printed scores from the Bamburgh Castle Library deposited by Lord Crewe's Charity.
- 1990s: Meissen Library (German Protestant theology) established.
- Hughes, H.D., A history of Durham Cathedral Library (Durham, 1925)
- Piper, A.J., 'The libraries of the monks of Durham', in Malcolm Parkes (ed.), Medieval scribes, manuscripts and libraries. Essays presented to N.R. Ker (London, 1978), pp. 213-41
- Mynors, R.A.B., Durham cathedral manuscripts to the end of the 12th century (Oxford, 1939)
- Rud, T., Codicum Mss Ecclesiae Cathedralis Dunelmensis catalogus classicus (Durham, 1825)
- The cathedral libraries catalogue: books printed before 1701 in the libraries of the Anglican cathedrals of England and Wales, 2 vols (London, 1984-98)
- Doyle, A.I., 'The printed books of the last monks of Durham', The Library, 6th ser., 10 (1988), 203-19
- Crosby, Brian, A catalogue of Durham Cathedral music manuscripts (Oxford, 1968)
- Harman, R.A., A catalogue of the printed music at Durham Cathedral (Oxford, 1968) | [
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] | 1,211 |
Grades3-5, 6-8, 9-12
Brief DescriptionStudents determine revenue generated by sample pages from the Yellow Pages and discuss the value of advertising a business in this venue.
Keywordstelephone, phone, yellow, directory, advertise, business, revenue, calculate, chart, table, research, data, decision
Note: This math activity is designed to be done by hand, but you might integrate technology by having students use a computer spreadsheet program to organize and calculate data.
Open this activity with a brief discussion about the Yellow Pages section of the local telephone directory. How do the Yellow Pages differ from other parts of the book? What kinds of people publish phone numbers in the Yellow Pages? What might be the benefits of publishing phone numbers in the Yellow Pages? Lead the discussion to how businesses use the Yellow Pages to advertise their products or services with other businesses offering similar services.
Share with students that Yellow Pages ads can be very expensive but that many business owners pay the rates because it's profitable for them to be listed among businesses that offer competitive products. A small Yellow Pages ad can cost hundreds, or even thousands, of dollars a year! In large urban areas, the costs of advertising in the Yellow Pages are likely to be greater than they are in a small, rural area. Costs vary by geographic location and by the size of the ad. Other variations might include whether the ad includes art or colored inks.
In this activity, students will use the local telephone directory and some fictitious ad rates to calculate the amount of revenue that a page in the Yellow Pages generates. The fictitious ad rates might or might not be close to rates actually paid in your area. You are welcome to substitute true rates for your local area if you can get that information from your Yellow Pages publisher. (Publishers might not be willing to provide that information; ad rates are frequently unpublished and often negotiable.)
For this activity, assign each student three pages in the Yellow Pages section of your local directory, or you might copy a number of pages and give three to each student. Have each student create a chart (or use a teacher-created chart) and do the math for the three pages he or she is assigned.
If you have time, it's a good idea to provide students with pages that include ads in a variety of sizes. You might even plan to give more complex pages (with ads of a wide variety of sizes plus a fair number of individual listings) to students with strong math abilities; for students who are not as strong in math, you might provide simpler pages that will require less calculation.
When students have their phone book pages, share with them that the rates advertisers pay for Yellow Pages ads depend on the size of the ad. Ask: What different sizes of ads do you find on the pages you have in front of you? (Students will share that they see full-page ads, ads that take up a half of the page, or ads that take up a quarter, an eighth, or a sixteenth of the page.)
To accommodate students who are visual learners, you might cut 16 squares from a page of the yellow pages; each square should be the size of an ad that takes up 1/16th of a page in the phone directory. Have students assist as you paste those squares over a sample page; students will see clearly that a page can be made up of 16 ads that are 1/16 of a page in size. You might also cut squares to show students that a page could include eight 1/8th-page ads, four 1/4th-page ads, or two 1/2-page ads.
At this time, provide a couple of sample pages from the Yellow Pages section of the phone directory. (Photocopying those pages onto overhead transparencies would be best.) As a class, count and record the number of ads of different sizes and the number of individual (1- or 2-line) ads that appear on each page. Record the results in a format similar to the one below:
|Page no.||2-line||1/16th page||1/16th page with art||1/8th page||1/8th page with art||1/4th page||1/4th page with art||1/2 page||1/2 page with art||Full page||Full page with art|
Hand out to students three pages from the Yellow Pages. Have students create a chart similar to the one above (or provide the chart for students to fill in). Have students use the chart to record the number of ads of different sizes and the number of individual listings on each page.
Introduce the Ad Rate Sheet. Provide the sheet for students in one of the following formats:
The simple Ad Rate Sheet below can be used if you do not have access to an actual Ad Rate Sheet from the publisher of your phone directory. (Notes: For younger students, you might simplify the activity by leaving off the "Extra Charge for Art" column. All rates on this chart are on the low side for most locales.)Next, have students create a chart (or use a teacher-created chart) to figure how much revenue the Yellow Pages publisher took in for three pages of the phone directory. The chart below is a sample of the chart older students might use for each page. (Younger students might have fewer types of ads listed.)
Size of Ad Cost per Year Extra Charge for Art 1 or 2 lines $120 No art allowed 1/16th page $390 $50 1/8th page $760 $75 1/4th page $900 $100 1/2 page $1,420 $125 Full page $2,170 $175
|Number of ads||Type and cost of ad||Total cost of ads|
|2-line ad @ $120||$|
|1/16th-page ad @ $390||$|
|1/16th-page ad with art @ $440||$|
|18th-page ad @ $760||$|
|1/8th-page ad with art @ $835||$|
|1/4th-page ad @ $990||$|
|1/4th-page ad with art @ $1,090||$|
|1/2-page ad @ $1,420||$|
|1/2-page ad with art @ $1,545||$|
|Full-page ad @ $2,170||$|
|Full-page ad with art @ $2,345||$|
|Total ad dollars||$|
Ask students to record on the chart the number of each type of ad that appears. Then they should figure out the total ad dollars generated by each type of ad. Finally, they should total the figures for each type of ad to find the amount generated by each page of the Yellow Pages. Have students repeat those steps for all three pages.
Students answer the following question: If you owned a restaurant, would you publish a business ad in the Yellow Pages of your phone book? Why or why not?
Lesson Plan Source
LANGUAGE ARTS: English
MATHEMATICS: Number and Operations
NL-ENG.K-12.4 Communication Skills
NL-ENG.K-12.7 Evaluating Data
NL-ENG.K-12.12 Applying Language Skills
NM-NUM.3-5.1 Understand Numbers, Ways of Representing Numbers, Relationships Among Numbers, and Number Systems
NM-NUM.3-5.3 Compute Fluently and Make Reasonable Estimates
NM-NUM.6-8.1 Understand Numbers, Ways of Representing Numbers, Relationships Among Numbers, and Number Systems
NM-NUM.6-8.3 Compute Fluently and Make Reasonable Estimates
NM-NUM.9-12.1 Understand Numbers, Ways of Representing Numbers, Relationships Among Numbers, and Number Systems
NM-NUM.9-12.3 Compute Fluently and Make Reasonable Estimates
NM-CONN.PK-12.3 Recognize and Apply Mathematics in Contexts Outside of Mathematics
NM-REP.PK-12.1 Create and Use Representations to Organize, Record, and Communicate Mathematical Ideas
NSS-EC.K-4.2 Effective Decision Making
NSS-EC.K-4.9 Competition in the Marketplace
NSS-EC.5-8.2 Effective Decision Making
NSS-EC.5-8.9 Competition in the marketplace
NSS-EC.9-12.2 Effective Decision Making
NSS-EC.9-12.9 Competition in the Marketplace
See more fun math lessons in these Education World articles: | [
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] | 1,826 |
Torque is an important factor in much of the equipment on a factory floor. Measuring torque is often something that's misunderstood, which can lead to over- under-designing of measurement systems. This article addresses the many techniques and tradeoff of torque measurement techniques.
Torque can be divided into two major categories, either static or dynamic. The methods used to measure torque can be further divided into two more categories, either reaction or in-line. Understanding the type of torque to be measured, as well as the different types of torque sensors that are available, will have a profound impact on the accuracy of the resulting data, as well as the cost of the measurement.
In a discussion of static vs. dynamic torque, it is often easiest start with an understanding of the difference between a static and dynamic force. To put it simply, a dynamic force involves acceleration, were a static force does not.
The relationship between dynamic force and acceleration is described by Newton’s second law; F=ma (force equals mass times acceleration). The force required to stop your car with its substantial mass would a dynamic force, as the car must be decelerated. The force exerted by the brake caliper in order to stop that car would be a static force because there is no acceleration of the brake pads involved.
Torque is just a rotational force, or a force through a distance. From the previous discussion, it is considered static if it has no angular acceleration. The torque exerted by a clock spring would be a static torque, since there is no rotation and hence no angular acceleration. The torque transmitted through a cars drive axle as it cruises down the highway (at a constant speed) would be an example of a rotating static torque, because even though there is rotation, at a constant speed there is no acceleration.
The torque produced by the cars engine will be both static and dynamic, depending on where it is measured. If the torque is measured in the crankshaft, there will be large dynamic torque fluctuations as each cylinder fires and its piston rotates the crankshaft.
If the torque is measured in the drive shaft it will be nearly static because the rotational inertia of the flywheel and transmission will dampen the dynamic torque produced by the engine. The torque required to crank up the windows in a car (remember those?) would be an example of a static torque, even though there is a rotational acceleration involved, because both the acceleration and rotational inertia of the crank are very small and the resulting dynamic torque (Torque = rotational inertia x rotational acceleration) will be negligible when compared to the frictional forces involved in the window movement.
This last example illustrates the fact that for most measurement applications, both static and dynamic torques will be involved to some degree. If dynamic torque is a major component of the overall torque or is the torque of interest, special considerations must be made when determining how best to measure it. | [
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] | 602 |
Printed wiring board (PWB) interconnect inductance can make or break the performance of a power supply. A large interconnect inductance can raise the high-frequency impedance of a gate drive circuit, impacting efficiency, or it can degrade the effectiveness of filter capacitors. In this Power Tip, we examine some simple formulas for interconnect inductance in free space and over a ground plane. We will find that the ground plane significantly reduces trace inductance and is critical for optimal performance in power supplies.
The simplest trace to consider is a rectangular conductor in free space. A formula for its inductance is shown in Figure 1
. Note that the inductance is a strong function of length but has a logarithmic relationship to the width of the conductor. While the recommendation of making a conductor as wide as possible to reduce its inductance is substantiated by the expression, the benefit of wide conductors is diminished by the logarithm. This is clearly shown in the table, which contains some sample conductor widths and calculates the resulting inductance of a one-inch-long conductor. For instance, a 10 mil (0.25 mm), 2 oz (1.8 mil or 0.07 mm) conductor has an inductance of about 24 nH, if it is one-inch (25 mm) long. If its width is increased by 50 times, the inductance only drops by a factor of four due to the logarithm in the expression.
Click on image to enlarge.
Figure 1: Inductance of a free space conductor has a logarithmic relationship to width.
Ground planes in circuit boards are used to ease routing, minimize the ground voltage variation, provide electrical and magnetic shielding, control impedances, and to help cool the components. Additionally, they provide the opportunity to reduce the inductance of circuit conductors in the PWB. Figure 2
presents a simple formula for the calculation of a conductor over a ground plane. The expression shows linear relationships between inductance, conductor height over the plane and its length. So to a first order, minimizing the separation of the conductor and ground or increasing the conductor width lets you drive the inductance toward zero. The table presents some sample calculations that can be compared with Figure 1
. For instance, we found that a 0.10-inch-wide conductor in free space had an inductance of 14 nH per inch. That same conductor placed over a ground plane of a two-sided board (0.06 inches thick) would have 3 nH per inch. That is a 5:1 reduction in interconnect inductance, which translates into faster gate drives, more effective filtering capacitors and reduced circuit losses from proximity effects. The table also shows that with a six-layer board where the dielectric thickness is reduced to 0.01 inch, the inductance is reduced by another factor of six. Clearly, when routing boards, you will want to put your ground layers as close to the board surface as possible to minimize inductance connecting the components on the surface.
Click on image to enlarge.
Figure 2: Inductance of conductor over plane can be driven arbitrarily small.
To summarize, inductances of conductors on single-layer boards are high due to the lack of a ground-plane layer. This can be mitigated somewhat by routing conductor pairs together. However, ground planes offer the ability to make order of magnitude reductions in this stray inductance, which will result in lower impedance signal paths. This can provide improved efficiency with improved gate drives, better electromagnetic interference (EMI) performance due to improved filter performance, and lower crosstalk due to lower impedance nodes.
Please join us next month when we discuss a second look at snubbing the flyback converter.
For more information about this and other power solutions, visit: www.ti.com/power-ca
About the author
is a senior applications manager and distinguished member of technical staff at Texas Instruments. He has more than 30 years of experience in the power electronics business and has designed magnetics for power electronics ranging from sub-watt to sub-megawatt with operating frequencies into the megahertz range. Robert earned a BSEE from Texas A&M University and an MSEE from Southern Methodist University. | [
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] | 879 |
DSP Tricks: Interpolating a bandpass signalThere are many digital communications applications where a real signal is centered at one fourth the sample rate, or fs/4. This condition makes quadrature downconversion particularly simple.
In the event that you'd like to generate an interpolated (increased sample rate) version of the bandpass signal but maintain its fs/4 center frequency, there's an efficient way to do so.
Suppose we want to interpolate by a factor of two. So the output sample rate is twice the input sample rate, fs-out = 2fs-in. In this case the process is: quadrature downconversion by fs-in/4, interpolation factor of two, quadrature upconversion by fs-out/4, and then take only the real part of the complex upconverted sequence.
The implementation of this scheme is shown at the top of Figure 13-36 below.
|Figure 13-36. Bandpass signal interpolation scheme, and spectra.|
The sequences applied to the first multiplier in the top signal path are the real x(n) input and the repeating mixing sequence 1,0,-1,0. That mixing sequence is the real (or in-phase) part of the complex exponential
needed for quadrature downconversion by fs/4. Likewise, the repeating mixing sequence 0,-1,0,1 applied to the first multiplier in the bottom path is the imaginary (or quadrature phase) part of the complex downconversion exponential
The 2 symbol means insert one zero-valued sample between each signal at the A nodes. The final subtraction to obtain y(n) is how we extract the real part of the complex sequence at Node D. That is, we're extracting the real part of the product of the complex signal at Node C multiplied by
The shaded spectra indicate true spectral components, while the white spectra represent spectral replications. Of course, the same lowpass filter must be used in both processing paths to maintain the proper time delay and orthogonal phase relationships.
There are several additional issues worth considering regarding this interpolation process. If the amplitude loss, inherent in interpolation, of a factor of two is bothersome, we can make the final mixing sequences 2,0,-2,0, and 0,2,0,-2 to compensate for that loss.
Because there are so many zeros in the sequences at Node B (three-fourths of the samples), we should consider those efficient polyphase filters for the lowpass filtering.
Finally, if it's sensible in your implementation, consider replacing
the final adder with a multiplexer (because alternate samples of the
sequences at Node D are zeros). In this case, the mixing sequence in
the bottom path would be changed to 0,-1,0,1.
Used with the permission of the publisher, Prentice Hall, this on-going series of articles on Embedded.com is based on copyrighted material from "Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Second Edition" by Richard G. Lyons. The book can be purchased on line.
Richard Lyons is a consulting systems engineer and lecturer with Besser Associates. As a lecturer with Besser and an instructor for the University of California Santa Cruz Extension, Lyons has delivered digitasl signal processing seminars and training course at technical conferences as well at companies such as Motorola, Freescale, Lockheed Martin, Texas Instruments, Conexant, Northrop Grumman, Lucent, Nokia, Qualcomm, Honeywell, National Semiconductor, General Dynamics and Infinion.
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] | 757 |
Swollen Lymph Nodes
What are lymph nodes?
Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped glands throughout the body. They are part of the lymphatic system, which carries fluid (lymph fluid), nutrients, and waste material between the body tissues and the bloodstream.
The lymphatic system is an important part of the immune system, the body's defense system against disease. The lymph nodes filter lymph fluid as it flows through them, trapping bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances, which are then destroyed by special white blood cells called lymphocytes.
Lymph nodes may be found singly or in groups. And they may be as small as the head of a pin or as large as an olive. Groups of lymph nodes can be felt in the neck, groin, and underarms. Lymph nodes generally are not tender or painful. Most lymph nodes in the body cannot be felt.
What causes swollen lymph nodes?
Lymph nodes often swell in one location when a problem such as an injury, infection, or tumor develops in or near the lymph node. Which lymph nodes are swollen can help identify the problem.
Common sites for swollen lymph nodes include the neck, groin, and underarms.
What does it mean when lymph nodes swell in two or more areas of the body?
When lymph nodes swell in two or more areas of the body, it is called generalized lymphadenopathy. This may be caused by:
How are swollen lymph nodes treated?
Treatment for swollen glands focuses on treating the cause. For example, a bacterial infection may be treated with antibiotics, while a viral infection often goes away on its own. If cancer is suspected, a biopsy may be done to confirm the diagnosis.
Any swollen lymph nodes that don't go away or return to normal size over about a month should be checked by your doctor.
How long will lymph nodes remain swollen?
Lymph nodes may remain swollen or firm long after an initial infection is gone. This is especially true in children, whose glands may decrease in size while remaining firm and visible for many weeks.
eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
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] | 485 |
Biography All Music Guide
All Music Guide:
One of a handful of musicians who can be said to have permanently changed jazz, Charlie Parker was arguably the greatest saxophonist of all time. He could play remarkably fast lines that, if slowed down to half speed, would reveal that every note made sense. "Bird," along with his contemporaries Dizzy Gillespie and Bud Powell, is considered a founder of bebop; in reality he was an intuitive player who simply was expressing himself. Rather than basing his improvisations closely on the melody as was done in swing, he was a master of chordal improvising, creating new melodies that were based on the structure of a song. In fact, Bird wrote several future standards (such as "Anthropology," "Ornithology," "Scrapple from the Apple," and "Ko Ko," along with such blues numbers as "Now's the Time" and "Parker's Mood") that "borrowed" and modernized the chord structures of older tunes. Parker's remarkable technique, fairly original sound, and ability to come up with harmonically advanced phrases that could be both logical and whimsical were highly influential. By 1950, it was impossible to play "modern jazz" with credibility without closely studying Charlie Parker.
Born in Kansas City, KS, Charlie Parker grew up in Kansas City, MO. He first played baritone horn before switching to alto. Parker was so enamored of the rich Kansas City music scene that he dropped out of school when he was 14, even though his musicianship at that point was questionable (with his ideas coming out faster than his fingers could play them). After a few humiliations at jam sessions, Bird worked hard woodshedding over one summer, building up his technique and mastery of the fundamentals. By 1937, when he first joined Jay McShann's Orchestra, he was already a long way toward becoming a major player.
Charlie Parker, who was early on influenced by Lester Young and the sound of Buster Smith, visited New York for the first time in 1939, working as a dishwasher at one point so he could hear Art Tatum play on a nightly basis. He made his recording debut with Jay McShann in 1940, creating remarkable solos with a small group from McShann's orchestra on "Oh, Lady Be Good" and "Honeysuckle Rose." When the McShann big band arrived in New York in 1941, Parker had short solos on a few of their studio blues records, and his broadcasts with the orchestra greatly impressed (and sometimes scared) other musicians who had never heard his ideas before. Parker, who had met and jammed with Dizzy Gillespie for the first time in 1940, had a short stint with Noble Sissle's band in 1942, played tenor with Earl Hines' sadly unrecorded bop band of 1943, and spent a few months in 1944 with Billy Eckstine's orchestra, leaving before that group made their first records. Gillespie was also in the Hines and Eckstine big bands, and the duo became a team starting in late 1944.
Although Charlie Parker recorded with Tiny Grimes' combo in 1944, it was his collaborations with Dizzy Gillespie in 1945 that startled the jazz world. To hear the two virtuosos play rapid unisons on such new songs as "Groovin' High," "Dizzy Atmosphere," "Shaw 'Nuff," "Salt Peanuts," and "Hot House," and then launch into fiery and unpredictable solos could be an upsetting experience for listeners much more familiar with Glenn Miller and Benny Goodman. Although the new music was evolutionary rather than revolutionary, the recording strike of 1943-1944 resulted in bebop arriving fully formed on records, seemingly out of nowhere.
Unfortunately, Charlie Parker was a heroin addict ever since he was a teenager, and some other musicians who idolized Bird foolishly took up drugs in the hope that it would elevate their playing to his level. When Gillespie and Parker (known as "Diz and Bird") traveled to Los Angeles and were met with a mixture of hostility and indifference (except by younger musicians who listened closely), they decided to return to New York. Impulsively, Parker cashed in his ticket, ended up staying in L.A., and, after some recordings and performances (including a classic version of "Oh, Lady Be Good" with Jazz at the Philharmonic), the lack of drugs (which he combated by drinking an excess of liquor) resulted in a mental breakdown and six months of confinement at the Camarillo State Hospital. Released in January 1947, Parker soon headed back to New York and engaged in some of the most rewarding playing of his career, leading a quintet that included Miles Davis, Duke Jordan, Tommy Potter, and Max Roach. Parker, who recorded simultaneously for the Savoy and Dial labels, was in peak form during the 1947-1951 period, visiting Europe in 1949 and 1950, and realizing a lifelong dream to record with strings starting in 1949 when he switched to Norman Granz's Verve label.
But Charlie Parker, due to his drug addiction and chance-taking personality, enjoyed playing with fire too much. In 1951, his cabaret license was revoked in New York (making it difficult for him to play in clubs) and he became increasingly unreliable. Although he could still play at his best when he was inspired (such as at the 1953 Massey Hall concert with Gillespie), Bird was heading downhill. In 1954, he twice attempted suicide before spending time in Bellevue. His health, shaken by a very full if brief life of excesses, gradually declined, and when he died in March 1955 at the age of 34, he could have passed for 64.
Charlie Parker, who was a legendary figure during his lifetime, has if anything grown in stature since his death. Virtually all of his studio recordings are available on CD along with a countless number of radio broadcasts and club appearances. Clint Eastwood put together a well-intentioned if simplified movie about aspects of his life (Bird). Parker's influence, after the rise of John Coltrane, has become more indirect than direct, but jazz would sound a great deal different if Charlie Parker had not existed. The phrase "Bird Lives" (which was scrawled as graffiti after his death) is still very true. | [
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] | 1,299 |
Diamonds are a scientist's best friend: Research into building better small machines
Do diamonds really last forever? That's the hope of University of Wisconsin-Madison researchers who are trying to solve the problems associated with building extremely small machines and having them withstand the test of time, wear and tear.
The problem is that these machines are so small — microscopic or smaller — that their moving parts cannot be assisted by lubricants; instead, they have to function in a dry state, like a car with no oil.
A really, really small car with no oil.
"They no longer behave in the same way as they do at the macro-scale, where materials may be far stronger, have more power to catalyze chemical reactions, be more optically responsive, and more," says Rob Carpick, associate professor of engineering physics. "That is why it is very interesting to study the fundamental physics of nanoscale materials and also to try to utilize these unique properties for real applications."
An example of a real application includes the tiny sensors in cars that sense rapid deceleration and deploy airbags.
Carpick and his colleagues — including collaborators from Argonne National Laboratories — recently published research that is integral to better understanding the issues facing the engineering of both micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems, called MEMS and NEMS. The paper, published in the journal Advanced Materials, explored a material made by their Argonne collaborators, ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) and, in particular, its structure and surface chemistry.
"When you consider fabricating devices with sliding and rotational motion, you need to consider the structure and surface chemistry of the materials at the location of contact, called a tribological interface," Carpick explains.
It's this issue of tribology — the study of friction, lubrication and wear of moving parts — that's particularly interesting when considering MEMS and NEMS. Just because small machines can be made doesn't mean that they can be made to work well and not wear down the researchers say.
Due to the vast knowledge of its use in microscale fabrication, the material of choice has traditionally been silicon. But because silicon does not respond well to uses that require repetitive sliding or rolling, the machines made from it fail. Two solutions to the problem include improving silicon's wearability or finding a new material. Carpick is putting his money a new material: diamond.
The published study reported on data taken exclusively at the Synchrotron Radiation Center, an electron storage ring located at UW-Madison that uses the light produced by electrons whizzing around a basketball court-sized ring to conduct spectroscopy — a method that uses electrons kicked out of the sample by this light like knocking bricks out of a wall — to analyze the bonding configuration of materials like diamond in detail.
"To our surprise, we found that the structure and surface chemistry of the diamond at the tribological interface is worse than the original diamond. We found that at the tribological interface, the surface is more graphitic in nature," explains Carpick. "This would be bad news for a MEMS device."
The solution offered by Carpick and his colleagues is to coat the surface of the diamond by removing the graphite and attaching hydrogen to the remaining pure diamond. This forms a strongly bonded "atomic cap" to the surface. Like putting varnish on a wooden table, the diamond surface becomes sealed and the diamond becomes water repellent, a critical feature for a machine that runs without lubrication.
"This means, if one wishes to build MEMS or NEMS devices from UNCD, then we have shown a way to minimize friction and adhesion, and this will help us to develop more reliable, robust (and) long lasting MEMS devices," Carpick notes.
The next step for Carpick includes a collaborative effort with UW-Madison physics Professor Gelsomina "Pupa" de Stasio, who has developed world-renowned spectroscopy methods at the Synchrotron Radiation Center. The team has been awarded a $480,000 grant from the United States Air Force Office of Scientific Research to tackle the issue of wear and tear on these thin diamond films and to answer the question of whether diamonds can truly last forever — or at least a really long time. | [
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] | 883 |
Mary Stuart (Maria Stuarda) synopsis
Music by Gaetano Donizetti
Libretto by Giuseppe Bardari after Schiller
First performed: 1835
(n/a) Scene 1 The Palace of Westminster It is a day of revelry at the court of the young Elizabeth. The courtiers are celebrating in anticipation of the queen’s decision to accept the marriage proposal of the King of France. Elizabeth arrives and announces her inclination to accept the proposal; however, she loves Leicester, and in private confesses that her freedom to love as an individual conflicts with her public duty as a sovereign. Talbot and the courtiers plead for mercy for the imprisoned Mary Stuart, but Elizabeth angrily cuts them short. Cecil, who wants Mary executed, urges Elizabeth to come to a decision about her. The queen declares that should Mary pose a threat to her then she would not hesitate to act. When he arrives at court, Leicester is ordered by Elizabeth to take a ring to the King of France as a token of her provisional acceptance of the marriage proposal. Annoyed by his indifference to this news, the queen departs. Talbot hands Leicester a portrait and a letter from Mary in which she asks for his help. Leicester’s love and sympathy for Mary are reawakened. He vows to champion her cause, despite Talbot’s warnings of the dangers involved. Elizabeth returns and confronts Leicester, suspecting that he has had a message from Mary. He persuades her to meet Mary face to face. Scene 2 The grounds of Fotheringhay Castle Leicester has contrived that Mary be temporarily released from her confinement so that she may ‘inadvertently’ meet Elizabeth. Mary is innocently walking with her companion Hannah Kennedy in the grounds of the castle, where the beauties of the natural world remind her of her early life in France. The sounds of the royal hunt are heard and Mary realizes that Elizabeth is close by. Leicester arrives to prepare her for her meeting with Elizabeth; he asks her to be submissive before the English queen, but Mary is both resentful and afraid. Mary rushes off before Elizabeth, Cecil and the hunting party approach, but is later brought back into Elizabeth’s presence by Talbot. The two queens meet for the first time. Elizabeth is infuriated by Mary’s demeanour and, although Mary is humble and pleads for mercy, Elizabeth is scornful and haughty, accusing Mary of treachery and murder. Mary can take no more of these insults and turns on Elizabeth, denouncing her as the bastard daughter of Anne Boleyn. Furious, Elizabeth summons the guards to return Mary to custody and swears to be avenged.
(n/a) Sixteen years have passed Scene 1 Elizabeth’s private chamber Cecil tries to persuade Elizabeth to sign Mary’s death warrant. She eventually does so, ignoring Leicester’s final pleas for Mary to be spared. He upbraids Elizabeth for her cruelty and jealousy when she refuses to reconsider. Elizabeth orders Leicester to witness the execution. Scene 2 Fotheringhay Castle Cecil delivers the death warrant to Mary. Left alone with Talbot, she becomes distraught, imagining ghosts from her past. Talbot, however, urges her to place her trust in God, confess her sins, and prepare to face the inevitable. Scene 3 The courtyard of Fotheringhay Castle A crowd has gathered to witness Mary’s execution. She enters and asks her faithful companions to join her in praying for forgiveness. A cannon shot is heard and Cecil announces that the moment of execution draws near. Mary forgives Elizabeth. Leicester enters in a state of agitation, but is unable to help Mary. As a second cannon shot is heard, Mary takes her final farewells and prays for the welfare of England. She is led towards her executioner.
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] | 842 |
Share your documents with thousands of students and teachers!
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Test Your Knowledge | [
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] | 142 |
Image: Walter Tape
Colourful light pillars often appear in winter when snow or ice crystals reflect light from a strong source like the sun or moon. Aided by extreme cold, light pillars appear when light bounces off the surface of flat ice crystals floating relatively close to the ground. The pillars look like feathers of light that extend vertically either above or below the light source, or both.
Diagrams showing the formation of light pillars from street lamps (left) and the reflection of light rays from plate ice crystal surfaces (right):
Images: Keith C. Heidorn
Light pillars also form from strong artificial light sources like street lamps, car headlights or the strong light sources of an ice-skating rink as in the picture above of Fairbanks, Alaska. Though they are local phenomena, light pillars can look distant like an aurora. The closer an observer is to the source of the light pillar, the larger it seems.
National Geographic has more pictures of recent light pillars in Idaho, California, Belgium, Latvia and Canada. You can also view another Environmental Graffiti article on more incredible light phenomena here. | [
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] | 228 |
The Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA) was developed to help identify children who are delayed in their development of phonological awareness. Research supports the theory that children with poor phonological awareness are at risk of later reading difficulties. Children who score in the bottom quartile of the TOPA are considered to be at risk for reading difficulties. There are two versions of the TOPA, one for kindergarten and one for early elementary school. Both are made up of two 10-question subtests with pictures used to represent words. The quality of the items appears to be adequate for screening for awareness of phonemes, and the test appears easy to administer. The TOPA yields raw scores, percentiles, and standard scores. Scores are sensitive to the time of the school year the test is administered for the kindergarten version. The normative sample was carefully selected. Norms for the kindergarten TOPA were made up from responses of 875 children from 10 states, while those for the early elementary version are from 3,654 children from 38 states. Coefficient alpha, based on 100 children at each age level, was 0.90 for kindergarten and 0.88 for early elementary, results that support the internal consistency of the TOPA. Overall, the TOPA has many strengths, including a large and representative normative sample. This does not mean that all school districts will relate to the instrument's norms. One suggestion for improvement would be to prepare local norms. Another issue of concern is the clarity of pronunciation and dialect of the administrator. The TOPA-Early Elementary correlated well with subtests from the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test. Correlations with other measures designed to measure phonological awareness were moderate for the kindergarten version and moderate to high for the early elementary version. It is concluded that the TOPA has potential for identifying children at risk for reading difficulties, and due to the ease of administration and the short time required, it can be used as a screening device. (Contains three references.) (SLD)
Paper presented at the Education Research Exchange (College Station, TX, February 7, 1998). | [
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] | 422 |
Lava flows in Daedalia Planum
Mars Express imaged Daedalia Planum, a sparsely cratered, untextured plain on the Red Planet featuring solidified lava flows of varying ages.
Daedalia Planum lies to the south-east of Arsia Mons, one of the largest volcanoes on Mars. It is 350 km in diameter and rises 14 km. The plain is dominated by numerous lava flows of varying ages.
It lies at about 21°S / 243°E. The images have a ground resolution of about 17 m/pixel and cover about 150 x 75 km or 11 250 sq km, an area roughly the size of Jamaica.
The region features numerous solidified lava flows of different ages. These flows originate at the southern flank of Arsia Mons.
The map shows two lava flows: the younger flow (upper portion visible in nadir images) exhibits flow structures, pressure ridges as well as the central lava channel (upper right corner). An older flow visible in the lower portion has a smoother surface owing to gradual accumulation of sediments.
Two striking depressions lying almost at right angles to the lava flow are also visible in the upper portion of the imaged region. These structures are related to grabens that existed earlier (grabens are depressional features formed by faults in the crust).
It is likely that the lava flows invaded the grabens partially or filled them up completely. Where a graben was only partially filled, the original dimensions are still recognisable.
In the upper left of the nadir image is a portion of this feature that remains unmodified by the younger lava flows.
Existing impact craters have also been transformed by the lava flows. The two larger craters show different stages of modification (visible in the 3D image). The largest crater (bottom) was not affected by the lava flow but the ejecta blanket formed during the impact is partially covered in lava.
The second largest crater has been flooded almost entirely, although minor portions of the rim are still preserved. It is likely that the lava entered through a breach in the rim, filling it up. Fully covered impact craters, whose outlines are still visible, are also known as ghost craters. One such ghost crater is located in the immediate vicinity of the second largest impact crater.
The colour scenes have been derived from the three HRSC-colour channels and the nadir channel. The perspective views have been calculated from the digital terrain model derived from the stereo channels. The anaglyph image was calculated from both stereo channels. The black and white high resolution images were derived from the nadir channel which provides the highest detail of all channels. | [
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] | 551 |
The Gummy Bear Romp
"The Gummy Bear Romp"
Levels: Low to Intermediate
Applications: Review or introduce 1.Colours.
2.Animals and/or objects vocabulary
3.Interrogatives:"Do you want...?"
"Do you have...?"
4.Responses: "Yes, I do"
"No, I don't"
"I don't have..." etc.
Supplies needed: 1.A bag of gummy bears or two.
2.A good picture dictionary or pictures of animals
or other objects.
Optimum group size: 1 - 30
Variations: Limited only by your imagination.
This particular activity can be adapted to almost any environment.
Start the activity with a bag of gummy bears. You'll probably find that each bag of candy has maybe 4 or 5 different colours. Depending on class size, you might want to form several groups.
1. Start off by making sure that everyone knows what a bear is and by showing the various colours of candy bears that you have; (usually red, yellow, green, white and orange). Begin by asking a student if he/she would like a particular colour of candy bear which you have.
ie"Do you want a red candy bear?"
Response will be either, "Yes I do" or "No, I want a (different colour) candy bear please". Of course, give them what they asked for.
Continue this process until each student has a candy bear.
2. Next, redo the questioning but this time, introduce colours which you don't actually have ie"Do you want a purple candy bear?"
Possible responses: "No, I want a red candy bear" or
"Yes I do" to which you respond
"I don't have a purple candy bear. What do
3.Continue with the questioning and alter as many variables as you wish which will stimulate an ongoing give and take dialogue.
Possible scenario: Teacher: Do you want a green elephant candy?
Student: No, I don't. I want a blue octopus candy.
Teacher: I'm sorry, I don't have a blue octopus
candy. What do you want?
Student: You don't have a blue octopus candy?
Teacher: No, I'm sorry I don't. What do you want?
Student: I want a pink worm candy.
Teacher: I'm sorry, I don't have a pink worm
candy. What do you want?
4. Once the students get the idea of the activity, they can take turns asking and answering the questions of the teacher or of other students.
You'll probably find that this activity works best with a picture dictionary which the kids can peruse while asking the various questions. This way, they encounter new words and get the chance to use them in conversation albeit in a fun and silly way. For example:
Student A: Do you want an orange gorilla candy?
Student B: No I want a purple underwear candy.
And so on.
Anyhow, have fun with it. Any ideas you may have on this one would be greatly appreciated.
World's Best Jobs!
Dave's ESL Cafe Copyright © 2008 Dave Sperling. All Rights Reserved. | [
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] | 692 |
Bethesda, MD—As you decide what to get dad for Father's Day, you might want to consider what he gave you when you were conceived. If he smoked, your genes are likely damaged, and your odds for cancers and other diseases throughout your life could be increased. A new research report appearing online in the FASEB Journal, scientists show for the first time in humans that men who smoke before conception can damage the genetic information of their offspring. These inherited changes in DNA could possibly render an offspring in the womb susceptible to later disease such as cancer. This provides evidence showing why men should be urged to stop smoking before trying to conceive in the same way women have been urged to quit. Interestingly, a fertile sperm cell takes about three months to fully develop; therefore men would ultimately need to quit smoking long before conception to avoid causing genetic problems.
"That smoking of fathers at the time around conception can lead to genetic changes in their children indicates that the deleterious effects of smoking can be transmitted through the father to the offspring," said Diana Anderson, Ph.D., a researcher involved in the work from the School of Life Sciences at the University of Bradford, in the United Kingdom. "These transmitted genetic changes may raise the risk of developing cancer in childhood, particularly leukemia and other genetic diseases. We hope that this knowledge will urge men to cease smoking before trying to conceive."
To make this discovery, Anderson and colleagues used DNA biomarkers to measure genetic changes in the paternal blood and semen around conception, as well as maternal and umbilical cord blood at delivery in families from two different European regions in central England and a Greek island. Information regarding the lifestyle, environmental and occupational exposures of these families was taken from validated questionnaires. The combined analysis of exposures and DNA biomarkers was used to evaluate the role of exposures before conception and during pregnancy in the causation of genetic changes in the offspring. These results have strong implications for the prevention of disease.
"This report shows that smoking is a germ cell mutagen. If dad uses cigarettes, his kids will be affected even before they are born," said Gerald Weissmann, M.D., Editor-in-Chief of the FASEB Journal. "As Father's Day approaches, family members may want to give dads and prospective dads the help they need to quit smoking for good."
Receive monthly highlights from the FASEB Journal by e-mail. Sign up at http://www.faseb.org/fjupdate.aspx. The FASEB Journal is published by the Federation of the American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) and is the most cited biology journal worldwide according to the Institute for Scientific Information. In 2010, the journal was recognized by the Special Libraries Association as one of the top 100 most influential biomedical journals of the past century. FASEB is composed of 26 societies with more than 100,000 members, making it the largest coalition of biomedical research associations in the United States. Celebrating 100 Years of Advancing the Life Sciences in 2012, FASEB is rededicating its efforts to advance health and well-being by promoting progress and education in biological and biomedical sciences through service to our member societies and collaborative advocacy.
Details: Julian Laubenthal, Olga Zlobinskaya, Krzysztof Poterlowicz, Adolf Baumgartner, Michal R. Gdula, Eleni Fthenou, Maria Keramarou, Sarah J. Hepworth, Jos C. S. Kleinjans, Frederik-Jan van Schooten, Gunnar Brunborg, Roger W. Godschalk, Thomas E. Schmid, and Diana Anderson. Cigarette smoke-induced transgenerational alterations in genome stability in cord blood of human F1 offspring. FASEB J. doi: 10.1096/fj.11-201194 ; http://www.fasebj.org/content/early/2012/06/21/fj.11-201194.abstract
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system. | [
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] | 865 |
San Diego, CA (October 17, 2012) – A sweeping study on the issue of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in hospitals shows that using antimicrobial soap and ointment on all intensive-care patients significantly decreases bloodstream infection. The results, which are being presented for the first time at IDWeek 2012TM, may suggest a major change in health care practice that could help save lives.
The study involved nearly 75,000 patients in 43 mostly community hospitals in 16 states and involved each hospital's own quality improvement team. Working with these teams enabled important questions to be answered during routine medical care. As such, the study's findings about "universal decolonization" for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may have widespread applicability to hospitals across the country.
Of the strategies tested, the one that proved to be most effective, was arguably the simplest and most straightforward: Rather than screening intensive care unit (ICU) patients for the bacteria and then focusing on those identified as carriers, all patients were bathed daily with chlorhexidine antiseptic soap for the duration of their ICU stay, and all received mupirocin antibiotic ointment applied in the nose for five days.
Investigators found that the number of patients harboring MRSA—not sick because of it, but at risk for later illness and for spreading it to others—dropped by more than a third. Bloodstream infections caused by MRSA and other pathogens decreased by nearly half.
"This trial provides strong evidence that removing bacteria from the skin and nose is highly effective at preventing serious infection in high-risk ICU patients," said lead researcher Susan Huang, MD, MPH, an associate professor at the University of California, Irvine School of Medicine and medical director of epidemiology and infection prevention at University of California, Irvine Healthcare.
"A 44 percent reduction in infection is very promising for improving medical care and protecting highly vulnerable patients," Huang said. "It suggests that treating all ICU patients with this strategy is beneficial. This approach may make screening for drug-resistant organisms unnecessary."
The study is among the significant work being discussed at the inaugural IDWeek meeting, taking place through Sunday in San Diego. With the theme Advancing Science, Improving Care, IDWeek features the latest science and bench-to-bedside approaches in prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and epidemiology of infectious diseases, including HIV, across the lifespan. More than 1,500 abstracts from scientists in this country and internationally will be highlighted over the conference's five days.
The trial, which was conducted in 2010-2011, was a collaborative effort involving several academic institutions, the Hospital Corporation of America (HCA), and research programs at two U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' agencies, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The study concept and design was created by investigators in the CDC's Prevention Epicenter Program at the University of California, Irvine, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute and Harvard Medical School, Rush University and Washington University in St. Louis. A total of 74 adult ICUs in the 43 HCA-affiliated hospitals took part. AHRQ's Healthcare Associated Infections program provided funding to conduct the research as part of the agency's Developing Evidence to Inform Decisions about Effectiveness program.
Scott Fridkin, MD, vice-chair of IDWeek and a CDC senior medical epidemiologist, said the partners planned the study to impact clinical practice at the bedside. "We know that easy-to-use solutions help clinicians protect patients from MRSA and other drug-resistant infections that are known to be deadly for patients in healthcare settings," he said. "The ultimate goal of this effort is to prevent infections and save patients' lives."
In ICUs, many infections are caused by increasingly antibiotic-resistant bacteria that for most people live harmlessly on the skin or, particularly in the case of MRSA, in the nose. These often preventable infections can cause serious complications for patients, prolonging hospital stays, driving up costs and increasing the risk of death. More and more states have mandated MRSA screening by hospitals, but some experts question whether other measures, either targeted or universal, would have greater impact.
Huang and her colleagues looked at the potential benefit in covering all ICU patients. The 43 participating hospitals were randomized and assigned one of three approaches. One group was to continue routine care, screen ICU patients for MRSA and isolate those found to be carrying the bacteria. The second group similarly screened and isolated carriers but also provided bathing with chlorhexidine soap and then nasal mupirocin ointment to help remove (decolonize) MRSA from the body. The third group of hospital ICUs eliminated all screening and instead treated every patient who was admitted with the daily chlorhexidine bath and five days of mupirocin ointment in the nose.
The number of ICU patients carrying MRSA fell by approximately 35 percent in the universal decolonization group, compared to no change among patients who were screened and isolated. Bloodstream infection due to all causes in the universal decolonization intervention group decreased to 3.6 cases per 1,000 patient days in the hospital, down from the previous rate of 6.1.
Huang cautioned that the results apply only to ICUs and that widespread use of antimicrobial soap and ointment in patient populations at low risk for infection might increase resistance to these products without providing benefit. In addition, there is concern whether broad adoption within critical-care settings could speed emerging antibiotic resistance. These issues will require further research, Huang said. Formal cost analyses also will be needed. CDC is in the process of evaluating how the findings should inform its infection prevention guidelines.
IDWeek 2012TM is the first joint annual meeting of IDSA, SHEA, HIVMA, and PIDS. The meeting convenes leading researchers and practitioners from around the world to showcase the latest developments in the field. Sessions present advances in basic, translational, and clinical research in infectious diseases, including HIV infection, and healthcare epidemiology, and provide state-of-the-art updates on key topics and issues. For more information, visit www.idweek.org, follow us on Twitter @IDWeek2012 and like us on Facebook at IDWeek.
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system. | [
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] | 1,348 |
History of the Baptist Churches
In Holland a group of English separatists, led by John Smyth, came under Mennonite influence and formed c.1608 in Amsterdam the first English Baptist congregation. Smyth baptized first himself, then the others. In 1611 certain members of this congregation returned to London and established a church there. This was the first of the churches afterward known as General Baptists, since they held the Arminian belief that the atonement of Jesus is not limited to the elect only but is general.
In 1633 the Particular Baptists were founded. They were a group whose Calvinistic doctrine taught that atonement is particular or individual. Immersion was not yet insisted upon in these churches, but in 1644 seven Particular Baptist churches issued a confession of faith requiring that form of baptism, and Baptist was thenceforth the name given to those who practiced it. In 1891, General and Particular Baptists united into a single body called the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland.
In America it was Baptists of the Particular type that first gained influence among the Puritans and Calvinists, when Roger Williams and his companions in Rhode Island rejected infant baptism and established a church in 1639 based on the individual profession of faith. Baptists were later persecuted in New England for opposing infant baptism, and one group emigrated c.1684 from Maine to Charleston, S.C. A group of Separate Congregationalists from New England under Shubael Stearns and Daniel Marshall established (1755) the Separate Baptists in Sandy Creek, N.C.
In the Southeast the General Baptist views found acceptance, but the stricter Calvinistic ideas suited the pioneers who settled the southern mountains after the Revolution. Their opposition to mission work gave them the name Anti-Mission. They were also called Hard Shell or Primitive Baptists.
Early missionary activity extended the Baptist movement to the Continent and elsewhere. In the United States the American Baptist Missionary Union (under a longer title) was formed in 1814 to support workers in foreign lands. In 1832 the American Baptist Home Mission Society was organized. When the question of slavery became a dividing wall, the Southern Baptist Convention was established (1845).
Sections in this article:
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] | 486 |
Good news for sky watchers, bad news for sky travelers: The eruption of a volcano in Iceland means that all flights to and from Ireland and the U.K. are grounded until 6 a.m. GMT tomorrow morning, and airports have closed in Sweden, France, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, and the Netherlands. That means a lot of very unhappy people at airports throughout Europe. And this is when the classic understatement of the Brits comes into its own: "I'm meant to be going to Lanzarote," said one passenger interviewed at Glasgow airport. "We've traveled from Oban, leaving at 3 a.m. Now we've decided we might as well just go home and do a bit of gardening."
Excellent choice, sir, if I might say so. According to Robin Scagell of the U.K.'s Society for Popular Astronomy, the cloud of ash drifting over the U.K. is going to make for some stunning sunsets. "Be ready to enjoy some dazzling arrays of colors, especially purples and reds looking much stronger than usual." The effects will not be confined to the skies above Europe.
When a volcano erupts, the mixture of ash and sulphur compounds create a volcanic aerosol in the stratosphere. The ensuing blue glow, invisible to the eye, reacts with the sun's red light when it sets and turns skies violet, crimson and purple. You may even see a blue moon.
However, anyone thinking that beautiful sunsets=bikini weather might want to consider having a Michael Phelps-esque LZR Racer tailored for them--in wolfskin. All that ash in the atmosphere means less sunlight will get through to the earth's surface, which will mean a colder summer. When Mount Tambora erupted in 1815, the resulting changes to the weather the following year included snow in June, and rivers as far south as Pennsylvania froze.
A professor of geophysics at the University of Iceland has, however, warned that Eyjafjallajokull could continue belching lava and ash for a couple more months, which doesn't bode well for Europeans hoping to fly somewhere sunny for their summer holidays. The last time it erupted was in 1821, and the volcanic activity continued, on and off, for a year. "If there is any rule about volcanos, it is: There is no rule," professor Pall Einarsson said. The airline bosses will be quaking in their complimentary first-class slippers.
[Images via Flickr ; AP Photo/Brynjar Gaudi (Eyjafjallajokull)] | [
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] | 542 |
Under the Texas Family Code (Tex. Fam. Code) a “Parent” is defined as the mother, a man presumed to be the father, a man legally determined to be the father, a man who has been adjudicated to be the father by a court of competent jurisdiction, a man who acknowledged his paternity under applicable law, or an adoptive mother or father.
The father-child relationship is established between a man and a child by:
- an unrebutted presumption of the man’s paternity of the child under Section 160.204;
- an effective acknowledgment of paternity by the man under Subchapter D, unless the acknowledgment has been rescinded or successfully challenged;
- an adjudication of the man’s paternity;
- the adoption of the child by the man; or
- the man’s consenting to assisted reproduction by his wife under Subchapter H, which resulted in the birth of a child.
Tex. Fam. Code Sec. 160, otherwise known as the Uniform Parentage Act, states that a man is presumed to be the father of a child if:
- he is married to the mother of the child and the child is born during the marriage;
- he is married to the mother of the child and the child is born before the 301st day after the date the marriage is terminated by death, annulment, declaration of invalidity, or divorce;
- he married the mother of the child before the birth of the child in apparent compliance with law, even if the attempted marriage is or could be declared invalid, and the child is born during the invalid marriage or before the 301st day after the date the marriage is terminated by death, annulment, declaration of invalidity, or divorce;
- he married the mother of the child after the birth of the child in apparent compliance with law, regardless of whether the marriage is or could be declared invalid, he voluntarily asserted his paternity of the child, and:
a) the assertion is in a record filed with the bureau of vital statistics;
b) he is voluntarily named as the child’s father; or
c) he promised in a record to support the child as his own; or
- during the first two years of the child’s life, he continuously resided in the household in which the child resided and he represented to others that the child was his own.
A presumption of paternity established under this section may be rebutted only by:
- an adjudication under Subchapter G; or
- the filing of a valid denial of paternity by a presumed father in conjunction with the filing by another person of a valid acknowledgment of paternity.
A presumed father of a child may sign a denial of paternity. However, the denial is valid only if:
- an acknowledgment of paternity signed or otherwise authenticated by another man is filed under Section 160.305 of the Texas Family Code;
- the denial is in a record and is signed or otherwise authenticated under penalty of perjury; and
- the presumed father has not previously:
a) acknowledged paternity of the child, unless the previous acknowledgment has been rescinded under Section 160.307 of the Texas Family Code or successfully challenged under Section 160.308 of the Texas Family Code; or
b) been adjudicated to be the father of the child.
The rules for adjudication of paternity are as follows:
- The paternity of a child having a presumed, acknowledged, or adjudicated father may be disproved only by admissible results of genetic testing excluding that man as the father of the child or identifying another man as the father of the child.
- Unless the results of genetic testing are admitted to rebut other results of genetic testing, the man identified as the father of a child under section 160.505 shall be adjudicated as being the father of the child.
- Unless the results of genetic testing are admitted to rebut other results of genetic testing, the a man excluded as the father of a child by genetic testing shall be adjudicated as not being the father of the child.
- If the court finds that genetic testing under Section 160.505 does not identify or exclude a man as the father of a child, the court may not dismiss the proceeding. In that event, the results of genetic testing and other evidence are admissible to adjudicate the issue of paternity.
Under Tex. Fam. Code Sec. 160.608, if there is an established relationship between the presumed father and the child, the court may deny genetic testing and adjudicate the presumed father as the father of the child.
In In re Shockley, 123 S.W.3d 642, 652-53 (Tex. App.–El Paso 2003, no pet.) the court ruled a mother was equitably estopped from litigating a child’s parentage due to the fact that she refused to consent to DNA testing in prior years and brought suit for parentage more than four years after the birth of a child to question the parentage of the father. The mother then consented to DNA testing that showed another man to be the father of the child, but the court refused to recognize the DNA tests and her claim was barred. | [
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] | 1,070 |
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by Dave DeWitt
I am constantly asked to explain the exponential growth of interest in chile peppers and the boom in fiery foods products in the U.S. over the past two decades. How did a meat and potatoes America become enamored of hot sauces, salsas, spicy snack food, chili con carne, and hundreds and hundreds of other fiery foods? First, we must look at the historical trends for why cooks add spices to their foods in the first place.
There are a number of explanations for why we have added spices such as chile peppers to our foods over the tens or hundreds of thousands of years that we have been cooking. They are:
Spices make foods taste better.
The "eat-to-sweat hypothesis"–eating spicy foods makes us cool down during hot weather.
To disguise the taste of spoiled food.
Spices add nutritional value to food.
The antimicrobial hypothesis: spices kill harmful bacteria in food and aid in food preservation.
Which of these explanations are correct?
The First Cornell University Study
In 1998, Jennifer Billing and Paul W. Sherman published a study in The Quarterly Review of Biology that examined the reasons why humans might use spices. They studied 4,578 recipes from 93 cookbooks on traditional, meat-based cuisines of 36 countries; the temperature and precipitation levels of each country; the horticultural ranges of 43 spice plants; and the antibacterial properties of each spice.
The first thing they discovered was that many spices were incredibly antibacterial. For example, garlic, onion, allspice, and oregano were the best all-around microbe killers, killing almost everything. Next were thyme, cinnamon, tarragon, and cumin, which kill about 80 percent of all bacteria. Chile peppers were in the next group, with about a 75 percent kill rate. In the lower ranges of 25 percent were black pepper, ginger, and lime juice.
Next, they learned that "Countries with hotter climates used spices more frequently than countries with cooler climates. Indeed, in hot countries nearly every meat-based recipe calls for at least one spice, and most include many spices, especially the potent spices, whereas in cooler counties substantial fractions of dishes are prepared without spices, or with just a few." Thus the estimated fraction of food-spoilage bacteria inhibited by the spices in each recipe is greater in hot than in cold climates, which makes sense since bacteria grow faster and better in warmer areas.
The researchers addressed the various theories. First, obviously spices make food taste better, "But why do spices taste good? Traits that are beneficial are transmitted both culturally and genetically, and that includes taste receptors in our mouths and our taste for certain flavors. People who enjoyed food with antibacterial spices probably were healthier, especially in hot climates. They lived longer and left more offspring."
Billing and Sherman discounted the "eat-to-sweat" theory, noting that not all spices make people sweat and that there are easier ways to cool down, like moving into the shade. Regarding the theory that spices mask the odor of spoiled food, they noted that it "ignores the health dangers of ingesting spoiled food." And since spices, except for chiles and citrus, add minimal nutritional value to food, that theory goes nowhere.
That leaves just two theories: that spices make foods taste good, and that they kill harmful bacteria–and those two theories are inseparable. "I believe that recipes are a record of the history of the co-evolutionary race between us and our parasites. The microbes are competing with us for the same food," Sherman says. "Everything we do with food--drying, cooking, smoking, salting or adding spices--is an attempt to keep from being poisoned by our microscopic competitors. They're constantly mutating and evolving to stay ahead of us. One way we reduce food-borne illnesses is to add another spice to the recipe. Of course that makes the food taste different, and the people who learn to like the new taste are healthier for it. We believe the ultimate reason for using spices is to kill food-borne bacteria and fungi."
The Second Cornell University Study
In 2001, Paul W. Sherman and Geoffrey A. Hash continued the examination of spices in human diet with a study entitled "Why Vegetable Recipes Are Not Very Spicy," published in Evolution and Human Behavior. They compiled information from 2,129 vegetable-only recipes from 107 traditional cookbooks of 36 countries. Then they examined the history of the spice trade and discovered that for thousands of years spices have been traded all over the world, resulting in their availability in most world cuisines. The most traded spices are black pepper and chile pepper, in that order.
Many studies have proven the antibacterial properties of spices, the fact that spices are more prevalent in warm climates than cool climates, and that the concentrations of spices in recipes are sufficient to kill bacteria. It is true that cooking eliminates the antimicrobial properties of some spices, such as cumin, but has no effect on others, such as chiles.
The researchers compared the vegetable-only recipes to the previous study of meat recipes according to the spices found in the recipes and discovered that vegetable recipes used far fewer spices than meat recipes. They attributed this to the fact that bacteria "do not survive or proliferate as well in vegetables, so adding spices is not as necessary." Interestingly, the four most common spices in both the meat and vegetable recipes were onion, black pepper, garlic, and chile peppers. Onion appeared in more than 60 percent of both types of recipes; black pepper in about 60 percent of the meat recipes and 48 percent of the vegetable recipes; garlic in 35 percent of the meat recipes and 20 percent of the vegetable recipes; and chile peppers in 22 percent of the meat recipes and 18 percent of the vegetable recipes.
Within countries, vegetable-based recipes called for fewer spices than meat recipes in all 36 countries. The countries using the most spices in both vegetable and meat recipes were, in order from the most used: India, Vietnam, Kenya, Morocco, Mexico, Korea, and The Philippines. Following were France, Israel, and South Africa.
In their second study, the researchers concluded: "By every measure, vegetable-based recipes were significant less spicy than meat-based recipes. Results thus strongly support the antimicrobial hypothesis."
Chile Peppers Take Over
But in the United States, with refrigerators and freezers almost every home, the antimicrobial hypothesis simply does not explain the rush to embrace chiles and spicy foods over the past two decades. After answering questions verbally for literally dozens of media interviews, I finally decided to keep track of my reasons for why chile peppers have conquered the United States.
Ethnic diversity. Immigration patterns have changed and now feature new citizens with hot and spicy ingredients and cuisines imported from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The immigrate and open restaurants and markets, making ethnic chiles and spicy foods commonplace.
Americans are more knowledgeable now and realize that most chiles and spicy foods won't hurt them.
Increasing interest in the hobbies of cooking, gardening, and traveling.
The large number of ethnic and hot and spicy cookbooks published since 1978--literally hundreds of them.
The increasing availability of chiles and fiery foods products in mainstream locations such as supermarkets and fast-food outlets.
The publicity generated by the constant media attention. The recent National Fiery Foods Show in Albuquerque generated more than 5,000 column inches of coverage in U.S. newspapers. Do a Web search for terms like "chile peppers," "spicy," "hot sauce," or "habanero" and stand back–you will get thousands and thousands of solid citations.
Trade and consumer shows and festivals featuring chiles and fiery foods.
The enormous increase in manufacturing, with thousands of fiery foods products now on the market.
The "addiction syndrome." Chiles are not physically addicting–you don’t have withdrawal symptoms when you stop eating them. But they are psychologically addicting because chileheads miss the burn if they don’t have any spicy food for a while. I never hear anyone say, "Oh, I used to eat spicy food, but now I’m back to bland." Once someone starts liking hot and spicy foods, he or she is likely to be a chilehead for life.
The Rozin Theory
But perhaps the most fundamental reason for the boom in fiery foods is a major shift in the way many Americans are eating. My revelation began in Philadelphia while dining with Liz Rozin, who hosted an incredibly diverse dinner at Serrano Restaurant during the Book and the Cook Festival. She is a food historian with fascinating insights into the origins of spicy cuisines. "When we look at the broad spectrum of human flavoring practices, we see one curious correlation," she writes in The Primal Cheeseburger. "The heavier the dependence on plant or vegetable foods, the more pronounced the seasonings; the heavier the consumption of animal foods, the less pronounced the seasonings. Those cuisines that clearly demonstrate a highly spiced or complex seasoning profile--Southeast Asia, India, Africa, Mexico--all have long relied on high-plant, low meat diets." Her theory, interestingly enough, directly contradicts the Cornell University studies above!
Of course, the U.S. was just the opposite: a culture that in its early days relied on beef, pork, and chicken as well as dairy foods. Vegetable foods in the U.S. were eaten primarily in the same regions where the cuisine was also the spiciest: the South and the Southwest.
When Rozin turns her attention to chile peppers in high-vegetable, low-meat cultures, she notes: "The pattern of acceptance, the level of enthusiasm with which the pungent chiles were enfolded into certain existing traditions, seems to indicate that the unique stimulation they provide is an important compensation for foods that are somehow less satisfying, less perfect when eaten unseasoned. And on the other hand, the chiles were largely ignored or rejected by cuisines and areas of the world where meat and other animal foods were a significant focus of the diet."
At least three other major food trends have paralleled the move to spicy foods over the past two decades: natural foods, vegetarian foods, and low-fat foods. Meat consumption has declined as well, setting the scene for the modern return of Liz Rozin's theory of why ancient, "less satisfying" foods were highly spiced: we need the heat and flavor of chiles and other spices to make up for the lack of the flavors of meat and fat in more spartan cuisines. The new corollary of eating in the 21st century might be: "The healthier you eat, the more you need to spice it up with chile-laden condiments."
To sum up, Paul Sherman thinks that we added chiles to meat-based recipes to prevent the growth of bacteria, while Liz Rozin believes we used to chiles to spice-up bland food. Perhaps they are both correct. But we do know one thing: chile peppers have conquered America, and they are not going away.
Top 30 Spices with Antimicrobial Properties
10. Lemon grass
11. Bay leaf
12. Chile peppers
26. Pepper (white/black)
28. Anise seed
29. Celery seed
(Listed from greatest to least inhibition of food-spoilage bacteria)
Source: "Antimicrobial Functions of Spices: Why Some Like It Hot,"
by Jennifer Billing and Paul W. Sherman, The Quarterly Review of
Biology, Vol. 73, No.1, March 1998.
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] | 2,438 |
A meteor streaks through the sky over Joshua Tree National Park in Southern California's Mojave Desert. The Leonid meteor storm was captured in this 30-minute time exposure from Nov. 17, 1998. / Reed Saxon, AP
Will this year's Leonid meteor shower roar like the lion constellation it's named for or meow like a kitty cat as it sometimes does? Stargazers who stay up late Saturday night or get up early Sunday morning can judge for themselves.
The annual meteor storm is known for sometimes producing as many as a thousand fireballs per minute, as it did in 1966, but astronomers say this year sky-watchers are likely to see maybe 20 per hour.
The peak will begin building late Friday night into Saturday morning and continue through early Sunday morning, says Ben Burress, an astronomer at Chabot Space and Science Center in Oakland.
The Leonid meteors aren't really associated with the constellation Leo, they just appear to come from the same place in the sky. The Leonids are actually tiny pieces of the comet Tempel-Tuttle, which orbits the sun in a large ellipse.
"A comet is a often called a 'dirty snowball,' as it's made up of pieces of rock held together by ice. As a comet orbits the sun, it heats up and some of the ice is vaporized, releasing bits of rock along the orbit," says Rebecca Johnson of StarDate magazine.
Tempel-Tuttle orbits the sun in an ellipse. Each year as the Earth moves around the sun, it encounters the trailing tail of debris the comet leaves in its wake. Once every 33 years, Tempel-Tuttle comes close to the Earth as it whizzes by in its orbit. In those years, the debris trail Earth travels through is especially thick, and the resulting meteor showers can be spectacular.
Burress says his grandfather saw the 1933 shower.
"There were thousands of meteors per hour," he says.
This year's Leonids aren't expected to be that spectacular because the comet last passed close to us in 1999.
The expected 10 to 20 meteors per hour isn't bad, Burress says: "That gives you a good chance of seeing one every five or so minutes."
By comparison, the big Perseid meteor shower in August typically rains about 50 meteors an hour down on the Earth.
This year should be good viewing, because the moon will set around 10:30 p.m. Saturday in each U.S. time zone.
"So Sunday morning anywhere from midnight to 3 or 4 a.m. is the prime window," Burress says.
With the exception of the Southeast coast, most of the USA east of the Rockies should have ideal weather for watching the meteor shower Friday night and Saturday morning, according to AccuWeather meteorologist Kristina Pydynowski. However, she says, clouds could prevent anyone from Florida to the eastern Carolinas from seeing it.
For Saturday night's viewing, though, the clouds will clear for most of the Southeast.
Much of the far West will be poor for Leonid-viewing through the weekend, Pydynowski says, because of a pair of Pacific storm systems that will bring clouds streaming across the West Coast and toward the Rockies Friday and Saturday nights.
Clear skies should make for great viewing in the Northeast, Midwest, lower Mississippi Valley and most of the Plains states.
Contributing: Doyle Rice
Copyright 2013 USATODAY.com
Read the original story: Leonid meteor will put on a show this weekend | [
32,
19999,
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] | 741 |
Published April 26, 2012
Anyone who’s driven on a busy highway can attest that vehicles moving erratically and braking needlessly breaks up the smooth flow of traffic and leads to congestion.
Honda has also observed this phenomenon and claims to have pioneered a technology based on this principle that, rather than just helping to avoid traffic jams, aims to prevent them from occurring entirely.
The Japanese automaker claims that its new technology can detect the potential for a traffic jam and determine whether the driving pattern of a vehicle is likely to create one.
Working with researchers from the University of Tokyo, Honda conducted experimental testing of a system utilizing the technology on a primary vehicle and with several secondary vehicles trailing behind it.
The test results demonstrated that the system helped increase the average speed of the primary vehicle by approximately 23 percent and improved fuel efficiency of the secondary trailing vehicles by approximately 8 percent.
Rather than providing information to help the driver avoid existing congestion based on current traffic information, the system monitors the acceleration and deceleration patterns of the vehicle to determine whether the driver's driving pattern is likely to create traffic congestion. Based on this determination, the system provides the driver with appropriate information, including a color-coded display through the on-board terminal, to encourage smooth driving which will help alleviate the intensity of acceleration and deceleration by trailing vehicles, thereby helping to prevent or minimize the occurrence of vehicle congestion.
Moreover, the system is said to be even more affective when all the vehicles communicate with each other, which is similar to the SARTRE ‘road train’ initiative being tested in Europe though Honda’s system still requires the driver to make adjustments to their driving pattern rather than rely on an autonomous system like with SARTRE.
With the goal to bring this technology to market, Honda will begin the first public-road testing of the technology in Italy and Indonesia in May and July of this year, respectively, to verify the effectiveness of the technology in minimizing vehicle congestion. | [
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] | 404 |
Free Spirit, collaborating with Read How You Want, can now make several books more accessible to young people with
learning difficulties or visual impairments.
Select titles are available in these formats: braille, DAISY, Easy Read and large type, and e-book.
- EasyRead Formats: Books that have been optimized to improve both word recognition and ease of eye tracking by adjusting word and line spacing
- EasyRead Super Large Formats: Books designed to make reading easier for people with a broad range of vision issues
Learn more about Read How You Want's Print Formats.
back to top
|A DAISY book is a special kind of electronic book that adds an audio function for persons with reading difficulties. DAISY books play on DAISY players. They work well for vision-impaired or blind readers as well as for readers who are unable to hold a conventional book or turn pages.
DAISY empowers a reader to:
- Listen to text as it is read aloud
- Read the text in very large fonts
- Read the text while listening to the audio
- Read and listen to the text without using one's hands
- Bookmark passages
Learn more about Read How You Want's DAISY Formats. | [
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] | 263 |
The involvement of family members in a student’s educational journey plays a crucial part in that student’s success. This page will lead you to a number of resources that can help you shepherd your student through this important step in his or her life. Our FAQ section may answer many of the questions you may have, but also try our A-Z index (on the tab above) for quick access to many topics.
Valuable tips in how you can assist your student, as well as contact information can be found in the links provided. We hope you and your student have a wonderful FSU experience.
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), also known as the “Buckley Amendment,” is designed to protect the confidentiality of educational records and give students access to their own information. This access to information does not include parents, unless the student expressly gives you permission each year.
More information about FERPA can be found here.
How FERPA affects grading policies is addressed online and in the Parents Handbook. | [
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] | 216 |
Foodborne Illness: What Consumers Need to Know
What Is Foodborne Illness?
Foodborne illness is a preventable public health challenge that causes an estimated 48 million illnesses and 3,000 deaths
each year in the United States. It is an illness that comes from eating contaminated food. The onset of symptoms may occur
within minutes to weeks and often presents itself as flu-like symptoms, as the ill person may experience symptoms such as
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or fever. Because the symptoms are often flu-like, many people may not recognize that the
illness is caused by harmful bacteria or other pathogens in food.
Everyone is at risk for getting a foodborne illness. However, some people are at greater risk for experiencing a more serious
illness or even death should they get a foodborne illness. Those at greater risk are infants, young children, pregnant women and
their unborn babies, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems (such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, kidney
disease, and transplant patients.) Some people may become ill after ingesting only a few harmful bacteria; others may remain symptom
free after ingesting thousands.
[Top of Page]
How Do Bacteria Get in Food?
Microorganisms may be present on food products when you purchase them. For example, plastic-wrapped boneless chicken breasts and
ground meat were once part of live chickens or cattle. Raw meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs are not sterile. Neither is fresh
produce such as lettuce, tomatoes, sprouts, and melons.
Thousands of types of bacteria are naturally present in our environment. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens.
When certain pathogens enter the food supply, they can cause foodborne illness. Not all bacteria cause disease in humans.
For example, some bacteria are used beneficially in making cheese and yogurt.
Foods, including safely cooked and ready-to-eat foods, can become cross-contaminated with pathogens transferred from raw egg products
and raw meat, poultry, and seafood products and their juices, other contaminated products, or from food handlers with poor personal
hygiene. Most cases of foodborne illness can be prevented with proper cooking or processing of food to destroy pathogens.
[Top of Page]
The "Danger Zone"
Bacteria multiply rapidly between 40 °F and 140 °F.
To keep food out of this "Danger Zone," keep cold food
cold and hot food hot.
- Store food in the refrigerator (40 °F or below) or
freezer (0 °F or below).
- Cook food to a safe minimum internal temperature.
- Cook all raw beef, pork, lamb and veal steaks, chops, and roasts to a minimum internal temperature of 145 °F as measured with a food thermometer before removing meat from the heat source. For safety and quality, allow meat to rest for at least three minutes before carving or consuming. For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook meat to higher temperatures.
- Cook all raw ground beef, pork, lamb, and veal to an internal temperature of 160 °F as measured with a food thermometer.
- Cook all poultry to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured with a food thermometer.
- Maintain hot cooked food at 140 °F or above.
- When reheating cooked food, reheat to 165 °F.
[Top of Page]
In Case of Suspected Foodborne Illness
Follow these general guidelines:
- Preserve the evidence. If a portion of
the suspect food is available, wrap it securely, mark "DANGER"
and freeze it. Save all the packaging materials, such as
cans or cartons. Write down the food type, the date, other
identifying marks on the package, the time consumed, and
when the onset of symptoms occurred. Save any identical
- Seek treatment as necessary. If the victim
is in an "at risk" group, seek medical care immediately.
Likewise, if symptoms persist or are severe (such as bloody
diarrhea, excessive nausea and vomiting, or high temperature),
call your doctor.
- Call the local health department if the
suspect food was served at a large gathering, from a restaurant
or other food service facility, or if it is a commercial
- Call the USDA Meat and Poultry Hotline
at 1-888-MPHotline (1-888-674-6854) if the suspect food is a USDA-inspected product and you
have all the packaging.
[Top of Page]
||Symptoms and Potential Impact
||Contaminated water, raw or unpasteurized milk, and raw or undercooked meat, poultry, or shellfish.
|| Diarrhea (sometimes bloody), cramping, abdominal pain, and fever that appear 2 to 5 days after eating; may last 7 days. May spread to bloodstream and cause a life- threatening infection.
||Cook meat and poultry to a safe minimum internal temperature; do not drink or consume unpasteurized milk or milk products; wash your hands after coming in contact with feces.
||Improperly canned foods, garlic in oil, vacuum-packed and tightly wrapped food.
||Bacteria produce a nerve toxin that causes illness, affecting the nervous system. Toxin affects the nervous system. Symptoms usually appear 18 to 36 hours, but can sometimes appear as few as 6 hours or as many as 10 days after eating; double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness. If untreated, these symptoms may progress causing muscle paralysis and even death.
||Do not use damaged canned foods or canned foods showing signs of swelling, leakage, punctures, holes, fractures, extensive deep rusting, or crushing/denting severe enough to prevent normal stacking.
Follow safety guidelines when home canning food. Boil home canned foods for 10 minutes before eating to ensure safety. (Note: Safe home canning guidelines may be obtained from State University or County Extension Office).
||Meats, meat products and gravy Called "the cafeteria germ" because many outbreaks result from food left for long periods in steam tables or at room temperature.
||Intense abdominal cramps nausea, and diarrhea may appear 6 to 24 hours after eating; usually last about 1 day, but for immune comprised individuals, symptoms may last 1 to 2 weeks. Complications and/or death can occur only very rarely.
||Keep hot foods hot and cold foods cold! Once food is cooked, it should be held hot, at an internal temperature of 140 °F or above. Use a food thermometer to make sure. Discard all perishable foods left at room temperature longer than 2 hours; 1 hour in temperatures above 90 °F.
||Soil, food, water, contaminated surfaces. Swallowing contaminated water, including that from recreational sources, (e.g., a swimming pool or lake); eating uncooked or contaminated food; placing a contaminated object in the mouth.
||Dehydration, weight loss, stomach cramps or pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting; respiratory symptoms may also be present. Symptoms begin 2 to 10 days after becoming infected, and may last 1 to 2 weeks. Immune-comprised individuals may experience a more serious illness.
||Wash your hands before and after handling raw meat products, and after changing diapers, going to the bathroom, or touching animals. Avoid water that might be contaminated. (Do not drink untreated water from shallow wells, lakes, rivers, springs, ponds, and streams.)
|Escherichia coli O157:H7
||Uncooked beef (especially ground beef), unpasteurized milk and juices (e.g., “fresh” apple cider); contaminated raw fruits and vegetables, or water. Person to person contamination can also occur.
||Severe diarrhea (often bloody diarrhea), abdominal cramps, and vomiting. Usually little or no fever. Can begin 2 to 8 days, but usually 3-4 days after consumption of contaminated food or water and last about 5 to 7 days depending on severity. Children under 5 are at greater risk of developing hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which causes acute kidney failure.
||Cook hamburgers and ground beef to a safe minimum internal temperature of 160°F. Drink only pasteurized milk, juice, or cider. Rinse fruits and vegetables under running tap water, especially those that will not be cooked. Wash your hands with warm water and soap after changing diapers, using the bathroom, handling pets or having any contact with feces.
||Ready-to-eat foods such as hot dogs, luncheon meats, cold cuts, fermented or dry sausage, and other deli-style meat and poultry. Also, soft cheeses made with unpasteurized milk. Smoked seafood and salads made in the store such as ham salad, chicken salad, or seafood salad.
||Fever, muscle aches, and sometimes gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea or diarrhea. If infection spreads to the nervous system, symptoms such as headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance, or convulsions can occur .Those at risk (including pregnant women and newborns, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems) may later develop more serious illness; death can result from Listeria. Can cause severe problems with pregnancy, including miscarriage or death in newborns.
||Cook raw meat, poultry and seafood to a safe minimum internal temperature; prevent cross contamination, separating ready to eat foods from raw eggs, and raw meat, poultry, seafood, and their juices; wash your hands before and after handling raw meat ,poultry, seafood and egg products. Those with a weakened immune system should avoid eating hot dogs, and deli meats, unless they are reheated to 165 ºF or steaming hot. Do not drink raw (unpasteurized) milk or foods that have unpasteurized milk in them, (e.g. soft cheeses). Do not eat deli salads made in store, such as ham, egg, tuna or seafood salad.
|Salmonella (over 2300 types)
||Raw or undercooked eggs, poultry, and meat; unpasteurized milk and juice; cheese and seafood; and contaminated fresh fruits and vegetables.
||Diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps usually appear 12 to 72 hours after eating; may last 4 to 7 days. In people with weakened immune system, the infection may be more severe and lead to serious complications, including death.
||Cook raw meat, poultry, and egg products to a safe temperature. Do not eat raw or undercooked eggs. Avoid consuming raw or unpasteurized milk or other dairy products. Produce should be thoroughly washed before consuming.
|Shigella (over 30 types)
||Person-to-person by fecal-oral route; fecal contamination of food and water. Most outbreaks result from food, especially salads, prepared and handled by workers using poor personal hygiene.
||Disease referred to as "shigellosis" or bacillary dysentery. Diarrhea (watery or bloody) , fever, abdominal cramps; 1 to 2 days from ingestion of bacteria and usually resolves in 5 to 7 days
||Hand washing is a very important step to prevent shigellosis. Always wash your hands with warm water and soap before handling food and after using the bathroom, changing diapers or having contact with an infected person.
||Commonly found on the skin and in the noses of up to 25% of healthy people and animals. Person-to-person through food from improper food handling. Multiply rapidly at room temperature to produce a toxin that causes illness. Contaminated milk and cheeses.
||Severe nausea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea occur 30 minutes to 6 hours after eating; recovery from 1 to 3 days — longer if severe dehydration occurs.
||Because the toxins produced by this bacterium are resistant to heat and cannot be destroyed by cooking, preventing the contamination of food before the toxin can be produced is important. Keep hot foods hot (over 140°F) and cold foods cold (40°F or under); wash your hands with warm water and soap and wash kitchen counters with hot water and soap before and after preparing food.
||Uncooked or raw seafood (fish or shellfish); oysters
||In healthy persons symptom include diarrhea, stomach pain, and vomiting May result in a blood infection and death for those with a weakened immune systems particularly with underlying liver disease.
||Do not eat raw oysters or other raw shellfish; cook shellfish (oysters, clams, mussels) thoroughly. Prevent cross-contamination by separating cooked seafood and other foods from raw seafood and its juices. Refrigerate cooked shellfish within two hours after cooking.
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] | 2,695 |
Play Safely and Responsibly
1. Health and Safety guide
WARNING: READ BEFORE PLAYING
Photosensitive Seizure Warning
A very small proportion of people can experience epileptic seizures when exposed to certain light patterns or flashing lights. Exposure to these patterns or backgrounds on a computer screen, and often while playing video games, may induce an epileptic seizure in these people. Certain conditions can induce previously undetected epileptic symptoms even in people who have no prior history of prior seizures or epilepsy.
If you, or anyone in your family, have an epileptic condition, consult your physician prior to playing any FunOrb games. If you experience any of the following symptoms while playing a video or computer game - dizziness, eye or muscle twitches, altered vision, loss of awareness, disorientation, involuntary movement, or convulsions - STOP PLAYING IMMEDIATELY and consult your physician. Only when they have given you the all clear should you resume play.
Repetitive Strain Injury Warning
Prolonged use of a computer, bad posture and low levels of fitness can all contribute to a condition referred to as Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI).
To help avoid RSI, please follow these simple steps:
When playing FunOrb games, take a 10 minute break from your computer every hour. Get up and walk around, do some stretches. Exercise regularly. When using the computer, only maintain a loose grip on the mouse. Never rest your wrists on a support whilst typing or using the mouse. For extended periods of mouse-only use, place the mouse directly in front of you, between you and the monitor. Make sure the top of the monitor is at eye level and directly in front of you and that your seat is at the right height so that your forearms are at right angles to your upper arms.
The picture below illustrates a correct sitting position:
If you have any serious pain or discomfort in your arms, neck, shoulders or back while playing FunOrb games stop playing immediately and consult your physician. Only when they have given you the all clear should you resume play.
2. Play Safely
FunOrb has several multiplayer games, so you are going to meet a lot of new people when playing. Please remember, however, that you DO NOT know any of these people in real-life. This is not to say that they are not as nice in real-life as they act in-game - they most likely are - but it's important and sensible to keep a safe distance from your fellow FunOrb players in real life.
For this reason, we have put together some helpful hints, so you can be safe and have fun while playing FunOrb games.
1. DO NOT tell other players personal information. Not even if they claim to be Jagex staff!
Don't tell ANYONE your real name, email address, home address, messenger handle or phone number. Use your in-game friends list to chat and interact with the other players safely in multiplayer games.
2. If someone is making you feel uncomfortable then you should not attempt to carry on a conversation with this person.
Please see our Reporting Abuse guide for details on both how to ignore these players and reporting them, should they insult you directly.
3. Chatting of a sexual nature (aka cybering) is strictly forbidden in all FunOrb games and should someone approach you in-game with this type of chat, please follow the instructions in our Reporting Abuse guide and report the player to us.
4. FunOrb games are ONLINE games. There is no need to meet anyone from FunOrb games in real life. Remember, you only have the other player's word that they are who they say they are. In addition, for our players' safety, it is against the rules to ask for or give out personal information, so please do not do so. For further information about this policy, please read Play Safe: Asking for or giving out personal details.
If you decide against this and plan to meet a FunOrb player in real life, please inform someone that you trust about what you are doing and have them accompany you to the meeting. DO NOT go alone.
5. We advise our younger players to keep your parents or guardians informed of how your playing is going. It would be a good idea to introduce them to the games and encourage them to check on you regularly to ensure that your game remains problem-free.
6. For serious cases related to Child Protection, please report the incident to the following authorities:
|USA||The Cyber Tipline|
|Europe||Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre|
|Australia||Virtual Global Taskforce|
Or, if you are outside the United Kingdom or the United States, we suggest you contact your local law enforcement agency.
For further information and advice on how to chat safely online, please see the following sites:
|Jugendschutz im Internet (German)||http://www.jugendschutz.net/|
|Virtual Global Taskforce||http://www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com|
|Get Net Wise||http://www.getnetwise.org|
|Think You Know||http://www.thinkyouknow.co.uk|
9. If you are a parent seeking more information about FunOrb, you can view our Parents' Guide by clicking here.
3. Responsible Gaming Policy
Jagex intends everyone to use and enjoy FunOrb in a responsible way.
FunOrb games are computer entertainment products and are operated with the intention of providing our users with an engaging, challenging and entertaining experience which they can enjoy from home, work or college via an online device.
While we do not block people from being logged in to FunOrb over a certain number of hours, we do not encourage people to play for more hours than is reasonable.
Please follow these simple guidelines to maintain a balanced life and get the most out of playing our games.
- Take a break from the computer: read a book, go for a walk.
- Exercise at least once a week.
- Remember, it is just a game.
- When eating, take a break from the computer - it'll still be there when you come back.
- Don't ignore your real-life friends, meet up with them on a regular basis.
- Work and study matters: don't let playing a game stop you doing well in your studies or at work.
If you feel that your use of FunOrb is out of control and you are finding it difficult following some, or all, of the steps mentioned above, then please seek advice and help from someone that you trust or a medical professional. | [
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] | 1,400 |
The issue of censorship remains prevalent in today's society, taking on many different forms, from suppressing individuals' rights to speak freely and read what they choose to curtailing the independence of the media. Censorship may seem outdated in a world of globalization and electronic technology, but its practice throughout the world has not diminished since the era of the right and left wing dictatorships of the 20th century. Censorship examines the history and current practices of censorship in five countries (the United States, Russia, China, Zimbabwe, and Egypt) and discusses key counterstrategies. In addition, this enlightening volume contains relevant primary source documents that are placed in context with brief introductions; information on how to research and evaluate sources; biographical information on important figures whose lives were, or are, linked with censorship; and a list of U.S. and international organizations and agencies that monitor and publicize censorship activity, provide legal assistance, and develop counterstrategies. An annotated bibliography, a glossary, and a chronology complete this invaluable resource.
Price: Sign In for price | [
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] | [
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] | 224 |
How Beans Grow
by National Gardening Association Editors
If you've ever walked by containers of bulk seed in a garden store, you may have been surprised by the many different colors, sizes and shapes of the beans -- even by the variety of designs on the seed coats and their descriptive names: 'Soldier', 'Wren's Egg', 'Yellow Eye', 'Black Eye', and others.
Maybe you were impressed, too, with how big some of these seeds are. Underneath the large, hard seed coat is an embryo, a tiny plant ready to spring to life. When you plant a bean seed, the right amount of water, oxygen and a warm temperature (65°F to 75°F) will help it break through its seed coat and push its way up through the soil.
The Seed of Life
Most of the energy the young plant needs is stored within the seed. In fact, there's enough food to nourish bean plants until the first true leaves appear without using any fertilizer at all.
As the tender, young beans come up, they must push pairs of folded seed leaves (or cotyledons) through the soil and spread them above the ground. Beans also quickly send down a tap root, the first of a network of roots that will anchor the plants as they grow. Most of the roots are in the top eight inches of soil, and many are quite close to the surface.
What Beans Need
Beans need plenty of sunlight to develop properly. If the plants are shaded for an extended part of the day, they'll be tall and weak. They'll be forced to stretch upward for more light, and they won't have the energy to produce as many beans.
The bean plant produces nice, showy flowers, and within each one is everything that's necessary for pollination, fertilization and beans. Pollination of bean flowers doesn't require much outside assistance -- a bit of wind, the occasional visit from a bee, and the job is done. After fertilization occurs, the slender bean pods emerge and quickly expand. Once this happens, the harvest isn't far off.
Although beans love sun, too much heat reduces production. Bean plants, like all other vegetables, have a temperature range that suits them best: They prefer 70°F to 80°F after germinating. When the daytime temperature is consistently over 85°F, most beans tend to lose their blossoms. That's why many types of beans don't thrive in the South or Southwest in the middle of the summer -- it's simply too hot.
Beans don't take to cold weather very well, either. Only Broad or Fava beans can take any frost at all. Other types must be planted when the danger of frost has passed and the soil has warmed up. | [
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50256
] | [
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] | 572 |
Transplanting Cole Crops
by National Gardening Association Editors
At last! You're ready to transplant your broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage seedlings. If you have a choice, pick a day that's overcast and moderately cool; too much hot sunshine or cold wind will be hard on the plants. Planting late in the afternoon also helps protect them.
Readying for Transplanting
Have everything ready before you lift a single transplant: well-worked soil; your rows marked off; water; fertilizer; two-inch-wide newspaper strips to use as cutworm collars; trowel or spade for making holes; seedlings.
Water the seedlings thoroughly while they're still in the tub, pots or flats. This causes the soil around their roots to adhere to the roots, protecting them from exposure to air and light.
Prepare each row step by step, rather than starting and finishing one transplant at a time. This way the plants get uniform amounts of fertilizer, even spacing and water, and the rows are generally neater.
First, make all the holes for the seedlings. Cole crop roots need large enough planting holes and loosened soil around them to take hold quickly. Use a trowel to dig 4- to 8-inch-deep holes. Space the holes 10-to 18-inches apart, depending on the crop.
- Broccoli -- 5-to 18-inches apart for transplants; 4-to 8- inches apart for seeds.
- Brussels Sprouts -- 8-to 24-inches apart for transplants; 4-to 8-inches apart for seeds
- Cabbage -- 10-to 12-inches apart for transplants; 4-to 8- inches apart for seeds
- Cauliflower -- 10-to 12-inches apart for transplants; 4-to 8-inches apart for seeds
- Chinese cabbage -- 4-to 5-inches apart for seeds
- Kohlrabi -- 3-to 4-inches apart for seeds
Next, drop a small handful of compost or fertilizer in each hole and cover it with one to two inches of soil. This prevents the nitrogen in the fertilizer from burning any roots that touch it.
Do use the hole with water. By making it muddy and soupy, you create a complete moisture seal around the roots that helps each plant take hold.
Carefully lift a seedling from the flat, cupping the roots in your hand to protect them. The ideal transplant has more roots than leaves. You can create this situation by pinching off some of the big outer leaves on each transplant, making certain to leave the center "mouse ear" leaves.
Place a cutworm collar around the stem of each seedling, then place the seedling in the planting hole. Remember to put it at the same depth as it was in its original container. Scoop soil into the hole to fill it back to level ground. Firm the soil around the plant and water it well before moving on to the next one.
Transplant Insurance -- Cutworm Collars
Unless you protect your seedlings, cutworms can wipe out whole rows of newly planted transplants overnight. These smooth, black or grayish 2-inch worms chew through tender, young stems at ground level.
Luckily, it's easy to prevent cutworm damage when you're setting out your plants. The simplest way is to wrap the seedling stem with 2- to 3-inch strips of newspaper. You can also make a collar from a paper cup with the bottom cut out, a strip of cardboard or a tuna can with both ends removed.
Cutworms chew stems right at ground level, just above it or just below. In order to make your collar an effective barrier, place it so it extends 1- to 2-inches below and 1- to 2-inches above the soil surface. A strip of newspaper will last long enough to keep the damaging cutworms away from your younger plants without interfering with their growth. Paper cups, cardboard or tin can collars can be left around the plants all season. Some gardeners place a pencil-thick stick or nail next to the stem of the transplant. Cutworms need to encircle the transplant to cut it off and this simple trick prevents them from getting around the stem.
|Feeding Cole Crops||Table of Contents| | [
8291,
15060,
278,
11768,
9325,
862,
198,
1525,
2351,
12790,
3101,
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2005,
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1088,
262,
10717,
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9712,
25323,
7778,
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28042,
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11,
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49617,
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19916,
503,
2187,
15274,
286,
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1187,
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] | 892 |
Banjul, The Gambia, 19 August 2009 - Minister of Health Dr. Mariatou Jallow administered the first dose of the pneumococcal vaccine to Gambian children at a rural clinic outside Banjul today.
Joined by the Gambia Vice President Mrs. Isatou Njie-Saidy, Dr. Jallow and hundreds of Gambian citizens celebrated this historic event, which marks the first step in the rollout of the Gambia's national pneumococcal immunisation programme.
"This is a proud day for the Gambia and a seminal moment for West Africa and all low-income countries around the world," said Dr. Jallow.
"We are committed to saving the lives and improving the health of our children and families, and we are proud to set an example for our West African neighbours to follow. With the introduction of this vaccine, the goal of significantly reducing childhood death in our country will now be within reach."
If all GAVI countries act to introduce pneumococcal vaccine, we could save seven million children by 2030.
Dr. Julian Lob-Levyt, GAVI CEO
Pneumococcal disease is the leading vaccine-preventable killer of children younger than five worldwide and can cause potentially life-threatening illnesses such as pneumonia, meningitis and sepsis.
Pneumonia, the most common form of severe pneumococcal disease, is responsible for 1 in 6 deaths in Gambian children less than five years of age, according to the World Health Organization.
Safe and effective vaccines exist to combat the pneumococcal disease but until recently have not been broadly available to low income countries, despite the fact that more than 95% of pneumococcal cases occur in those nations.
Gambia's introduction of the pneumococcal vaccine follows an earlier introduction of the same vaccine in Rwanda four months ago. To help make both introductions possible, Wyeth contributed more than three million doses of Prevenar*, the company's seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, through the GAVI Alliance.
Thanks to the partnership between developing countries, donor governments, the World Health Organization, UNICEF, the World Bank and industry, the GAVI Alliance provides financial support to accelerate the introduction of basic and new vaccines and strengthen health systems in developing countries, including the Gambia.
An important next milestone will be the availability of newer generation vaccines to the rest of the world's low income countries, which is expected to begin as early as 2010.
"The Gambia represents one of the 60 countries in which we hope to rollout the pneumococcal vaccine by 2015. If all GAVI countries act to introduce pneumococcal vaccine, we could save seven million children by 2030," said Dr. Julian Lob-Levyt, CEO of the GAVI Alliance.
"Donor support will be critical to achieving this goal and to continuing progress toward the Millennium Development Goal 4 - a two-thirds reduction in child mortality by 2015."
"Wyeth is committed to protecting current and future generations from pneumococcal disease around the world," said Jim Connolly, Executive Vice President and General Manager, Wyeth Vaccines. "Wyeth takes great pride in providing the GAVI Alliance with more than three million doses of Prevenar to help the Gambia and Rwanda protect its children against this serious health threat."
To accelerate the introduction of next generation pneumococcal vaccine in poor countries, in June 2009, the governments of Italy, the United Kingdom, Canada, the Russian federation, Norway and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, together with the GAVI Alliance, launched the pilot pneumococcal Advance Market Commitment (AMC).
Donors pledged US $1.5 billion to fund the pilot AMC for pneumococcal vaccine, and the GAVI Alliance committed to raising $1.3 billion for the period 2010-2015 to help fund the vaccine's long-term price. The AMC is expected to help expand access to pneumococcal vaccines to all GAVI-eligible countries and potentially save millions of lives.
"Wyeth welcomes the AMC concept as an innovative financing mechanism to help accelerate the introduction of needed vaccines in the least developed countries. We look forward to working together with GAVI and the international community on the next steps of the AMC process," said Mr. Connolly.
The nationwide rollout of pneumococcal vaccine in the Gambia follows a large-scale pneumococcal vaccine efficacy trial in the country using a different formulation. The four-year study followed more than 17,000 young Gambian children to see whether a vaccine that had been shown to prevent pneumococcal disease in urban South Africa would also work in the challenging environment of rural Africa.
The results, published in The Lancet in March 2006, showed that the vaccine reduced childhood mortality by 16 percent in Gambian children - a huge impact for a single intervention and the first statistically significant reduction in overall child mortality to be demonstrated by a major randomized, controlled vaccine clinical trial in nearly twenty years.
"It is particularly rewarding to see Gambian children now benefiting from these scientific advances and from the opportunities for access provided by the GAVI Alliance", said Dr. Orin Levine, Executive Director of the PneumoADIP at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
"No other country has contributed as much to our understanding of the burden of pneumococcal disease and the value of pneumococcal vaccines as the Gambia."
For more information, please contact:
Cell: + 41 79 240 45 59
Cell: +41 79 340 1878
Cell:+1 443 315 7209
Gambian Ministry of Health
Tel: +220 422 7390 or +220 972 2539
Lili Gordon (Wyeth)
About Pneumococcal Disease:Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus, is a bacterium frequently found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy children and adults. The bacterium, however, cause a range of infections - from relatively mild ear infections to fatal pneumonia, meningitis and sepsis. Serious pneumococcal infections are most common in young children (especially those < 2 years old), the elderly and immune compromised individuals such as those who are undernourished or HIV positive.
The pneumococcus is the main cause of pneumonia, which kills more children than any other disease. Pneumonia causes nearly 1 in 5 deaths of children under five worldwide and kills more children than AIDS, malaria and measles combined. For those children in developing countries who contract and survive pneumococcal meningitis, one in four are left with serious disabilities, including neurological damage, kidney disease, deafness, limb amputations, and developmental delays.
About the GAVI Alliance: the GAVI Alliance (formerly the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation) is a public-private partnership of major stakeholders in immunisation and health system support. It includes developing country and donor governments, the World Health Organization, UNICEF, the World Bank, the vaccine industry in both industrialised and developing countries, research and technical agencies, civil society, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and individuals. WHO projections show that GAVI support has prevented more than 3.4 million future deaths by the end of 2008.
About PneumoADIP: PneumoADIP is a small, dedicated team based at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health - the world's largest school of public health - and is supported by a grant from the GAVI Alliance. PneumoADIP's mission is to improve child survival and health by accelerating the evaluation of and access to new, lifesaving pneumococcal vaccines for the world's children. PneumoADIP coordinates its activities through a strategic alliance with the World Health Organisation and aims to achieve its goals through partnerships with countries, donors, academia, international organisations, and industry. Visit http://www.preventpneumo.org or http://www.jhsph.edu
About Wyeth: Wyeth is one of the world's largest research-driven pharmaceutical and health care products companies. It is a leader in the discovery, development, manufacturing and marketing of pharmaceuticals, vaccines, biotechnology products, nutritionals and non-prescription medicines that improve the quality of life for people worldwide. The Company's major divisions include Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, Wyeth Consumer Healthcare and Fort Dodge Animal Health. Visit http://www.wyeth.com
Prevenar*: Prevenar™ (Pneumococcal 7-valent Conjugate Vaccine) is approved by the World Health Organization for active immunisation of infants and children from 6 weeks through 9 years of age against invasive disease, pneumonia, and otitis media caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes 4, 6B, 9V, 14, 18C, 19F and 23F.
Prevenar may be given at the same time as DTP, hepatitis B, measles, mumps, rubella, polio (OPV or IPV) and varicella. The use of Prevenar should be based on official recommendations taking into consideration the impact of invasive disease in different age groups as well as variability of serotype epidemiology in different geographic areas.
Important Safety Information for Prevenar: in clinical trials, the most frequently reported adverse events included injection site reactions, fever (≥38°C/100.4°F), irritability, drowsiness, restless sleep, decreased appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, and rash. Risks are associated with all vaccines, including Prevenar. Hypersensitivity to any vaccine component, including diphtheria toxoid, is a contraindication to its use. Prevenar does not provide 100% protection against vaccine serotypes or protect against non-vaccine serotypes. | [
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] | 2,031 |
|http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®|
Hystrix-like ichthyosis with deafness (HID) is a disorder characterized by dry, scaly skin (ichthyosis) and hearing loss that is usually profound. Hystrix-like means resembling a porcupine; in this type of ichthyosis, the scales may be thick and spiky, giving the appearance of porcupine quills.
Newborns with HID typically develop reddened skin. The skin abnormalities worsen over time, and the ichthyosis eventually covers most of the body, although the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are usually only mildly affected. Breaks in the skin may occur and in severe cases can lead to life-threatening infections. Affected individuals have an increased risk of developing a type of skin cancer called squamous cell carcinoma, which can also affect mucous membranes such as the inner lining of the mouth. People with HID may also have patchy hair loss caused by scarring on particular areas of skin.
HID is a rare disorder. Its prevalence is unknown.
HID is caused by mutations in the GJB2 gene. This gene provides instructions for making a protein called gap junction beta 2, more commonly known as connexin 26. Connexin 26 is a member of the connexin protein family. Connexin proteins form channels called gap junctions that permit the transport of nutrients, charged atoms (ions), and signaling molecules between neighboring cells that are in contact with each other. Gap junctions made with connexin 26 transport potassium ions and certain small molecules.
Connexin 26 is found in cells throughout the body, including the inner ear and the skin. In the inner ear, channels made from connexin 26 are found in a snail-shaped structure called the cochlea. These channels may help to maintain the proper level of potassium ions required for the conversion of sound waves to electrical nerve impulses. This conversion is essential for normal hearing. In addition, connexin 26 may be involved in the maturation of certain cells in the cochlea. Connexin 26 also plays a role in the growth and maturation of the outermost layer of skin (the epidermis).
At least one GJB2 gene mutation has been identified in people with HID. This mutation changes a single protein building block (amino acid) in connexin 26. The mutation is thought to result in channels that constantly leak ions, which impairs the health of the cells and increases cell death. Death of cells in the skin and the inner ear may underlie the signs and symptoms of HID.
Because the GJB2 gene mutation identified in people with HID also occurs in keratitis-ichthyosis-deafness syndrome (KID syndrome), a disorder with similar features and the addition of eye abnormalities, many researchers categorize KID syndrome and HID as a single disorder, which they call KID/HID. It is not known why some people with this mutation have eye problems while others do not.
Changes in this gene are associated with hystrix-like ichthyosis with deafness.
This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder.
In some cases, an affected person inherits the mutation from one affected parent. Other cases result from new mutations in the gene and occur in people with no history of the disorder in their family.
These resources address the diagnosis or management of hystrix-like ichthyosis with deafness and may include treatment providers.
You might also find information on the diagnosis or management of hystrix-like ichthyosis with deafness in Educational resources (http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/hystrix-like-ichthyosis-with-deafness/show/Educational+resources) and Patient support (http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/hystrix-like-ichthyosis-with-deafness/show/Patient+support).
General information about the diagnosis (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/diagnosis) and management (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/treatment) of genetic conditions is available in the Handbook. Read more about genetic testing (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing), particularly the difference between clinical tests and research tests (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/researchtesting).
To locate a healthcare provider, see How can I find a genetics professional in my area? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/findingprofessional) in the Handbook.
You may find the following resources about hystrix-like ichthyosis with deafness helpful. These materials are written for the general public.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for healthcare professionals and researchers.
For more information about naming genetic conditions, see the Genetics Home Reference Condition Naming Guidelines (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ConditionNameGuide) and How are genetic conditions and genes named? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/naming) in the Handbook.
Ask the Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GARD/).
amino acid ; autosomal ; autosomal dominant ; cancer ; carcinoma ; cell ; cochlea ; connexin ; epidermis ; gap junctions ; gene ; ichthyosis ; ions ; keratitis ; mucous ; mutation ; potassium ; prevalence ; protein ; syndrome
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary (http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary).
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/consult/findingprofessional) in the Handbook. | [
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Types of Explosions
Any explosion that is the direct result of using a weapon; such as a sword laden with explosive magics, or a gun that's been given explosive bullets. The most obvious example is a grenade or a block of TNT. Most guns can be put into this category, given the common firearm mechanism of propelling a bullet out of the gun's barrel through an explosion in the chamber.
A larger scale example would be the atomic bomb that a player can detonate on the town of Megaton in Fallout 3.
Think Final Fantasy or Dragon Warrior for magic-based explosions in games. Spells such as "Flare" in Final Fantasy and "Explodet" in Dragon Warrior are good examples.
In other games, a character may motion with their hand to create a fireball or a beam of powerful light, which will explode upon impact. In Oblivion, the magic-wielding player motions forward with his/her arm and points to create a fireball, which then hurdles through the air, exploding upon any solid surface.
Magical "summonings" also create magical explosions, such as Bahamut's attack in most Final Fantasy games.
These explosions emanate from the world around the player. They can activate on their own, or be triggered by the player's actions. Classics, such as the exploding barrel and fuel tank are often large and loud explosions - and in some environments, they can connect with other exploding objects to create a chain-reaction.
This also contains objects such as vehicles, booby traps, and mines. This type of explosion can be very important to some games, as explosive environmental objects are often part of objectives or checkpoints in a game.
These explosions are the result of any living thing that is able to explode. A simple example of this would be any kamikaze enemy in a game that's willing to run up to a player and detonate themselves. | [
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] | 393 |
October 7, 2005 2005 marks the 30th anniversary of the one of the hottest consumer electronic products in the world today – the digital camera. In 1975, the world’s first digital photograph was taken at a Kodak lab in Rochester, NY, USA, in an event that preceded the Compact Disc, the Personal Computer and the Internet. In 1974 Steven Sasson, an engineer at Kodak’s Applied Electronics Research Centre, was tasked with devising an “electronic handheld still camera”. The following year his first working prototype – weighing 8.5 pounds, powered by 16 AA batteries and recording images on a cassette – took the first ever digital still camera photograph. That’s Steve, the world’s first digital camera and the world’s first ever digital photograph at right.
« Back to 30th Anniversary of the Digital Camera | [
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] | 178 |
Chicago's Willis Tower, formerly known as Sears Tower, was the world's tallest building from 1974 to 1998 and remains the tallest building in the U.S. to this day. Its 1451-foot (442 m) height adds up to enough window area to keep a window washer busy for life, or space for enough solar panels to be comparable to a 10 acre solar power plant. As part of a pilot project, the south facing windows of the 56th floor of the Willis Tower will be replaced with Pythagoras Solar's transparent solar windows which cut down on heat gain – and therefore cooling costs – as well as harnessing energy from the sun.
While the image that comes to mind when one thinks of solar power plants is probably one of rows upon rows of panels covering large areas of desert, replacing the windows of skyscrapers with solar windows gives cities with limited free space the opportunity to create vertical solar power plants. Pythagorus Solar's solar windows, which the company calls photovoltaic glass units (PGUs), are rectangular box-shaped units that allow diffused light to pass through, but use a prism to reflect sunlight down onto a horizontal PV cell along the bottom of the unit to generate the same amount of energy as standard rooftop-mounted solar cells.
"We are excited to launch this pilot with Pythagoras Solar's leading-edge solar window solutions as a test for not only the energy savings that can be achieved, but the potential they represent to actually generate power through the sun," said John Huston, Executive Vice President of American Landmark Properties, one of the ownership partners of Willis Tower.
If the pilot project proves successful, Pythagoras Solar's PGU's could be expanded beyond the 56th floor to cover enough surface area to provide over two megawatts of solar power.
Just enter your friends and your email address into the form below
For multiple addresses, separate each with a comma | [
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] | 393 |
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
March 11, 2011
Office of College Communications
WENHAM, MA –Since the 18th-century Enlightenment, Americans have maintained much friendlier ties with religion than Western Europeans. In fact, the United States and Western Europe’s paths to modernity have differed exponentially.
Thomas A. (“Tal”) Howard, associate professor of history, will be presenting a lecture entitled “America, Europe, and the Religious Divide” as part of the Old Town Hall Lecture Series sponsored by the Gordon College Institute for Public History. He will be discussing some of the main themes he addresses in his most recent book, God and the Atlantic: America, Europe, and the Religious Divide. The event will take place Thursday, March 17, at 7:30 p.m. at the Salem Old Town Hall.
“The book seeks to explain some of the religious differences between Europe and America,” says Howard. “I am especially keen to show how Europeans have interpreted America’s early experiment in religious liberty and its long-term effects.”
Howard is also the founding director of the College’s great books honors program, the Jerusalem and Athens Forum. He was the winner of the Lilly Fellows Program annual book award in 2007. Howard is also the author of Religion and the Rise of Historicism (2000) and Protestant Theology and the Making of the Modern German University (2006).
“The causes of the religious divide between Europe and America are hotly disputed among social scientists and contemporary historians,” says Hartmut Lehmann, former director, Max Planck Institute for History and the German Historical Institute, of Howard’s book. “By carefully examining European views of America since the late 18th century, Thomas Albert Howard is the first scholar to give historical depth to this debate. Everyone interested to find a way through the labyrinth of transatlantic comparisons and prejudice is well-advised to read this book.”
For more information visit http://oldtownhalllectures.com/
Gordon College is a multidenominational Christian college of the liberal arts and sciences on Boston’s North Shore, offering majors in 38 fields with graduate programs in education and music education. Gordon is nationally recognized for excellence in academics and in character building, and ranks as one of the nation’s top Christian colleges. www.gordon.edu | [
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] | 499 |
April 16, 2002 By Bill McGarigle
Texas was among the first to adapt geospatial technologies to the monitoring, decision-making and treatment processes involved in cotton production. The need was clear: Cotton is the state's number one cash crop, contributing over $1.3 billion annually to the Texas economy, even after losing 10 percent of crops to weevils each year. Losses would be upward of 20 percent had Texas, the federal government and cotton growers not taken action, according to Carl Anderson, agricultural economist and cotton marketing specialist at the Texas A&M Cooperative Extension Program.
In an effort to banish the weevil once and for all, the State Legislature in 1996 established the Texas Boll Weevil Eradication Foundation (TBWEF), a quasi-government entity funded by cotton growers, the state and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Since 1999, the Legislature has appropriated $125 million in support of the foundation's eradication program.
"Based on GIS analysis of predefined biological, meteorological and operational parameters, such a system could indicate which fields to treat and when," El-Lissy said. "If the system is user friendly and practical to integrate into the Boll Weevil Eradication Program, fewer, less-experienced workers will be able to produce the same results as those achieved by many experienced personnel, but faster and more efficiently."
Role of Spatial Technology
In 1996, the TBWEF introduced the Boll Weevil Eradication Expert System (BWEES) to facilitate the eradication program. A GIS-based application developed by El-Lissy and the foundation's IT group, the BWEES incorporates data from a wide range of sources. Differential GPS point files of field coordinates, field shapes, acreage and weevil trap locations are downloaded to MapInfo Pro GIS and integrated into the base map of a cotton field and its surrounding environment. Grower data, planting dates, cotton variety, numbers of weevils found in the traps and related agricultural information are all stored in an Oracle database-management system and integrated into thematic maps of the respective cotton fields.
Trap data are collected with bar code scanners during weekly field inspections. The scanner automatically records date, time and trap number, and prompts the user for the number of weevils in the trap, the growth stage of the crop and related information. Data from the scanners is downloaded to the GIS and linked to the map location of each trap, enabling supervisors and producers to precisely locate weevil infestations in the field.
MapInfo MapX compares this data against parameters established for cotton fields at various stages of crop growth and infestation. Based on the number of weevils caught in traps over time, MapX color-codes fields meeting various growth and treatment criteria. Data on fields marked for treatment are entered into a contractor's DGPS-based flight-tracking system, which is designed to trigger spray only on the infested areas of the field. After treatment, the swath tracks and related data from the aerial applications are incorporated into the BWEES and used to assess the progress of eradication and monitor the health of the field.
The foundation has also Web-enabled the BWEES. Cotton producers can now query a TBWEF site to find out if weevils are present in their fields, where they were trapped, the degree of infestation and progress toward
You may use or reference this story with attribution and a link to | [
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | 715 |
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