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Asthma: Using an Asthma Action Plan
What is an Actionset?
If you or your child has asthma that requires daily treatment, it is important to have an asthma action plan. An asthma action plan is a written plan that tells you what asthma medicine to take every day and how to treat an asthma attack. It can help you make quick decisions in case you are not able to think clearly during an attack.
An asthma action plan usually includes:
- Treatment goals, which include your personal goals about your asthma.
- An outline of which medicines you take daily for asthma control and when to take them.
- An asthma diary where you record peak expiratory flow (PEF) and the triggers that cause asthma symptoms.
- Steps to take and medicines to use to treat an asthma attack early, before it becomes severe.
- What to do if an attack becomes an emergency, and where to get medical treatment.
Using an asthma action plan can help you stay active with fewer asthma problems. Following your plan is a big step toward controlling the disease so you can live the life you want.
Return to topic:
An asthma action plan has three zones. You can find out what zone you are in by checking your peak flow or symptoms. Peak flow is a measure of how fast you breathe out when you try your hardest. You check your peak flow with a peak flow meter, an inexpensive device that you can use at home. Your doctor can show you how to use it.
The zones of an asthma action plan are based on the colors of a stoplight. See an example of an asthma action plan(What is a PDF document?).
Green zone. Green means Go.
- You are in the green zone if your peak flow is 80% to 100% of your personal best measurement. You should have no asthma symptoms when you are in the green zone. You want to be in the green zone every day.
- If you continue to stay in the green zone, your doctor may lower your daily asthma medicines.
Yellow zone. Yellow means Caution.
- You are in the yellow zone if your peak flow is 50% to 79% of your personal best measurement. You may not have any symptoms, but your lung function is reduced. When symptoms are present, they may be mild to moderate, or may keep you from your normal activities or disturb your sleep.
- Being in the yellow zone means that you should take action. Your action plan should state what medicines you need to take, how much to take, and when to take them.
- If you keep going into the yellow zone from the green zone, talk with your doctor. You may need a different medicine. Or the doses of your medicines may need to be increased.
Red zone. Red means STOP.
- You are in the red zone if your peak flow is less than 50% of your personal best measurement. Your symptoms will be severe, and you may cough and be very short of breath.
- If your symptoms and peak flow are in the red zone, follow your action plan.
- Callright away if you are in the red zone and you have followed your action plan, but:
- You are having severe difficulty breathing.
- 20 to 30 minutes after taking the extra medicine, you do not feel better and/or your peak flow is still less than 50% of your personal best measurement.
Using an asthma action plan takes the guesswork out of treating asthma attacks. It can help you to:
- Take control of your treatment.
- Have fewer or less severe attacks.
- Avoid trips to the doctor or the hospital.
Develop your plan
- Work with your doctor to make an action plan for you or your child. The action plan is based on peak flow and asthma symptoms. These help your doctor know how bad your asthma is. An action plan may include:
See an example of an asthma action plan(What is a PDF document?).
- The peak flow readings and symptoms for each zone.
- What medicines to take in each zone.
- When to call a doctor.
- A list of emergency contact numbers.
- A list of your asthma triggers.
- Let your doctor know what you want regarding asthma care. For example, if you are not comfortable using a peak flow meter, tell your doctor.
- If you make an asthma action plan for your child, give a copy to the child's school or caregivers and make sure they know how to use it.
Follow your daily treatment, and use the asthma action plan
- Take your daily medicines to help minimize long-term damage and avoid asthma attacks.
- Check your peak flow every morning and evening. This is the best way to know how well your lungs are working.
- Check your action plan to see what zone you are in.
- If you are in the green zone, keep taking your daily asthma medicines as prescribed.
- If you are in the yellow zone, you may be having or will soon have an asthma attack. You may not have any symptoms, but your lungs are not working as well as they should. Take the medicines listed in your action plan. If you stay in the yellow zone, your doctor may need to increase the dose or add a medicine.
- If you are in the red zone, follow your action plan. If your symptoms or peak flow don't improve soon, you may need to go to the emergency room or be admitted to the hospital.
- Use an asthma diary. Write down your peak flow readings in the asthma diary. If you have an attack, write down what caused it (if you know), the symptoms, and what medicine you took. See an example of an asthma diary(What is a PDF document?).
Review the plan with your doctor
- Take both the asthma action plan and the asthma diary when you see your doctor. Get answers to any questions you may have about your asthma plan or your symptoms. Let your doctor know if treatment is not controlling your asthma attacks.
- Take your peak flow meter and medicines so your doctor can review your treatment.
- Make sure you know how and when to call your doctor or go to the hospital.
- Tell your doctor if you are having trouble following your action plan.
Now that you have read this information, you are ready to start using an asthma action plan. For related information, see:
Talk with your doctor
If you have questions, take this information with you when you visit your doctor. You may want to mark areas or make notes in the margins where you have questions.
If you would like more information on asthma, the following resource is available:
|Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA)|
|1233 20th Street NW|
|Washington, DC 20036|
|Phone: ||1-800-7-ASTHMA (1-800-727-8462)|
|Web Address: ||www.aafa.org |
The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA) provides information and support for people who have allergies or asthma. The AAFA has local chapters and support groups. And its Web site has online resources, such as fact sheets, brochures, and newsletters, both free and for purchase.
|Primary Medical Reviewer||E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine|
|Specialist Medical Reviewer||Lora J. Stewart, MD, MPH - Allergy and Immunology, Pediatrics|
|Last Revised||March 17, 2011|
eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. | [
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] | 1,607 |
An abscessed tooth is a tooth that has a pocket of pus in the tissue next to it. This often occurs because the inside (pulp) of a tooth is infected and the bacteria spread to the tissue underneath the tooth. An abscess usually causes throbbing pain in the tooth and red, swollen gums.
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] | 159 |
Definition of Cowper's gland
Cowper's gland: A tiny gland in the male, also known as the bulbourethral gland. Named after the English anatomist William Cowper (1666-1709). See: Bulbourethral gland.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary
Last Editorial Review: 10/9/2012
Medical Dictionary Definitions A - Z
Search Medical Dictionary
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] | 167 |
Kevin Vosper wrote:
(Yes I know it's not strictly true but it is a good example).
Kevin Vosper wrote:So a better example would be "Tony Blair has been Prime Minister since 1987." The example is "good" in that it illustrates the fact that the present perfect deals with past time from the point "now." It looks back in time from the present (hence the term present perfect) into the past and is therefore used when either the exact date of an event is not important or when a situation may still be true.
Kevin Vosper wrote:Tense refers to the way verb endings change in order to show differences in time for an event. In English there are two tenses, past and present.
Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 5 guests | [
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Oceana Petitions the Government to Protect Loggerhead Sea Turtles
The majestic loggerhead sea turtle, an animal that has inhabited Earth longer than man, faces extinction because of human activities, such as threats from fishing gear. In fact, loggerhead sea turtle populations in the Atlantic are plummeting and a recent report by the federal government shows that the greatest man-made threat to loggerhead sea turtles in the Atlantic is capture in fisheries.
The future for loggerhead sea turtles in the Atlantic is grim at best. On top of the existing pressure from human impacts, climate change could soon push these sea turtles even closer to the brink of extinction. Oceana has issued a new report showing the possible impacts of climate change on sea turtles.
As a result of these factors, Oceana and the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the U.S. Department of Commerce and the U.S. Department of the Interior to uplist this loggerhead population from "threatened" to "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act. In addition, the petition asks the government to protect the key habitat areas for these turtles in the Atlantic from human impacts. | [
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] | 236 |
American Scientists Make Great Leap in Battery Technology
One of the primary concerns with owning an electric vehicle is cost of the battery, the range it offers, and the time it takes to recharge. Those concerns will be significantly lessoned with the development of a new lithium-ion battery. Designed by scientists at Envia Systems, a US-based company, the new battery has roughly twice the energy density of existing rechargeable batteries. Such an innovation could greatly increase the range of electric cars as well as cut the price of the battery packs in half.
The research conducted by Envia Systems was funded by a $4 million federal grant through ARPA-Energy (Advanced Research Projects Agency). The work was done at the Argonne National Laboratory.
The new battery can achieve an energy density of 400 watt-hours per kilogram, double that of existing rechargeable batteries. The key was introducing manganese into the mix of materials used in the cathode, the electrode where the lithium ions congregate. Then, they added silicon to the anode, the electrode toward which the ions flow, producing the electric current.
The costs of the batteries are cheaper per kilowatt-hour than standard lithium ion batteries. At $125 per kwh, they are less than half the cost. The is not trivial because the batteries constitute roughly 65 percent of the total cost of an electric vehicle.
The major automakers have taken notice of this battery breakthrough and are knocking on Envia's door. General Motors is already an investor in the technology. However, according to Envia chairman and CEO, Atul Kapadia, Envia is "working with all the brand name [carmakers] in the world."
The new batteries could greatly boost the nascent electric car industry. For example, a Nissan LEAF combined with the new Envia battery could potentially travel 300 miles on a single $10 charge, as opposed to its 80 mile range today. This is roughly the same range as many conventional internal combustion engines. It is the equivalent of driving from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh on a single charge.
The new battery breakthrough may well revolutionize the auto industry. It is foreseeable that electric vehicles may actually surpass sales of conventional vehicles, potentially phasing them out forever.
For more information: http://enviasystems.com/
Image shows Envia laboratories. Image credit: John F. Martin for General Motors | [
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Trilobite Olenoides erratus. Source: Mark A.Wilson A fossil is the preserved remain of a lifeform that lived in prehistoric times. Most commonly fossils are mineralized parts or a whole organism which is no longer alive. In other cases the fossil may contain actual remains of the dead organism; in particular, DNA may be preserved over long periods of time under the right conditions, since DNA is fundamentally an inanimate molecule. While the most familiar fossils are those derived from animals and plants including such exotic species as dinosaurs and woolly mammoths, there are also fossils from ancient bacteria.
There are several methods of fossil formation including re-crystallization, permineralization, compression, molding and entombment. Examination of fossils was the earliest technique of palaeoentology, the study of ancient lifeforms, and it continues as the companion of molecular biology, to be key in the elucidation of phylogenies (ancestral relationships of species). The earliest animal fossils date from the Cambrian Period, approximately 540 million years before present, although some bacterial fossils exist from at least two billion years before present.
Process of formation
Most fossils are the result of sedimentary rock formation where coverage of the original organism occurred quickly; preservation and mineralization is encouraged by anoxic (oxygen deprived) conditions, where decompostion was not able to occur rapidly upon death of the subject. Body parts most readily preserved are teeth and bony animal parts and the chitonous elements of plants, which elements are most resistive to decay, and thus have more time to enter their preserved state.
Recrystallized Scleractinian fossil coral. Source: Mark A.Wilson
One of the simplest processes for fossil formation is the phenomenon of re-crystalization. This is an easily understood process, whereby substances such as teeth and bone, which begin with a high mineral content, have their chemicals replaced by a new crystalline lattice. In a number of instances, mineral replacement of the original body part transpires so gradually that microstructural features are conserved even though a complete transformation of the original organism's material occurs. A shell is termed recrystallized when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as in a transition form aragonite to calcite. The process of re-crystallization is often termed replacement.
Living organisms ordinarily contain large amounts of volume that is filled with water or gases. When an organism is covered with sediment, those aqueous and gaseous portions of the individual may be replaced with mineral rich water from an aquifer or surface water body. This process is termed permineralization, and often is best viewed as a replacement phenomenon at the cellular level. Fine grained or small scale permineralization produces very detailed fossil specimens. For permineralization to occur, it is essential for the organism to become covered by sediment rapidly upon death, before significant decay has set in. In ideal cases of preservation, individual cell walls can be effectively fossilized, producing an incredible level of microscopic preservation.
Compression fossils, most often exemplified by planar plant forms such as leaves or ferns, result from chemical reduction of complex organic molecules that comprise biotic tissues. The fossil actually preserves original organism material, but in a geochemically altered state. In many cases the preserved fossil is nothing but a thin carbonaceous film.
Lepidodendron external mold. Source: Mark A.Wilson
Such a chemical change is a manifestation of diagenesis, the transformation of sediment after its original deposition. In some cases DNA may effectively be extracted from compression fossils.
Internal or external mold
In some cases the entire organism may vanish, but an exterior mold will be made by sedimentary rock encasing the original remains of the organism which has been completely dissolved or destroyed. This casting results in a sculptured cavity within the rock, with the exterior three dimensional outline of the original organism's exterior; the product of this process is termed an external mold. If this hole is subsequently filled with different minerals, it is a cast and called an internal mold. A common example of this latter type of mold is a bivalve mollusc.
Ant entombed in Baltic Amber. Souce: Anders L.Damgaard
In some cases exceptional preservation may occur by a relatively rapid fatal trapping and encasing of a live organism with (usually) an organic substance such as amber or tar. Some of these circumstances create fossils of unusual life-pose forms, and many of these instances provide substantial detail of the subjects. For example, recent research using crystallography has yielded amazing structural detail of the morphology of long extinct insects that were trapped in amber.
Bioimmuration is a form of fossilization whereby a skeletal organism envelopes or subsumes another living creature, preserving the latter, or its mold, within the skeleton. Most typically this process occurs with a sessile skeletal animal, such as a bryozoan or an oyster, which grows along a substrate that covers other sessile encrusting organisms. Frequently the bioimmured organism is soft-bodied and is thus conserved in negative relief in an external mold form. There are also cases where an organism settles on top of a living skeletal organism which grows upwards, preserving the settler within its skeleton. Most of the examples of bioimmuration are from the fossil record of the Ordovician Period.
The geological record and fossil records are respectively the prehistoric sequence of events for rocks and organisms. In the 19th century early days of research in these fields age of rocks was imputed from the best estimates of the age of the fossil organisms found entrained within those rocks.
The fossil record and flora and faunal succession form the basis of biostratigraphy, the science of determining the age of rocks based on the fossils they contain. For the earliest years of geological study, biostratigraphy and superposition were the chief methods of assigning the relative age of rocks. The geologic time scale was first developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by pioneering paleontologists.
Since the early 1900s, absolute dating methods, including radiometric dating (including potassium-argon argon/argon and uranium-lead dating techniques were applied. In the case of young fossils, carbon-14 dating has been applied to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils. Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites, or bacterial fossils, are more than 3.4 billion years old.
Since the close of the 20th century new techniques in molcular biollogy using DNA marker techniques have allowed great progress to be made in defining phylogenetic trees, which illustrate the lineage of plant and animal families. These techniques can also use regression techniques to establish reasonable estimates of the absolute timelines of common parentage of biotic families.
Proterozoic stromatolite cyanobacteria fossil, Bolivia. Source: GNU SNP
The most ancient fossils are bacterial colonies constructed from sedimentary layers of rock; these fossils are termed stromatolite. Based on studies of living stromatolites it has been ascertained that the formation of stromatolitic fossils was biogenetically mediated by microorganism mats via sediment entrapment. However, abiotic mechanisms for stromatolitic growth are also known, leading to a decades-long scientific debate regarding biogenesis of certain formations, especially those from the lower to middle Archaean eon.
Stromatolites from the late Archaean through the middle Proterozoic eon were chiefly formed by massive colonies of cyanobacteria, and that the oxygen byproduct of their photosynthetic metabolism first resulted in earth’s massive banded iron formations and subsequently oxygenated Earth’s atmosphere.
History of fossil studies
Georges Cuvier, French zoologist (1769-1832)
The Greek scientist Aristotle observed that fossilized shells were previously living organisms, constituting the first observational recognition of the relationship of a time relationship between earlier living organisms and their fossilized remnants. In the pre-Darwinian era of the 18th century English geologist William Smith noticed that rocks of varying ages and origins preserved different fossil assemblages, which succeeded in a systematic sequence. He was the first to state that rocks from distant locations may be correlated based on the fossils they contained, and he termed this the principle of faunal succession.
Smith expressed no awareness of biological evolution, and he did not speculate why faunal succession occurred. His contemporary Lord Monboddo, in nearby Scotland, was expressing a clear recognition of evolutionary sequences, but the two are not known to have communicated. Biological evolution would later explains faunal and floral succession exists: as different organisms evolve, change and go extinct, they leave behind fossils. Faunal succession was one of the chief pieces of evidence cited by Darwin that natural selection had occurred. Georges Cuvier in 1796 noted that the majority of the animal fossils he examined were remains of species that had become extinct. It was not until the era of Charles Darwin and his contemporaries that a clearly stated link existed with the hierarchical tree of life and the fossil record.
Image by Ghedoghedo (Wikimedia Commons)
Process of formation
- T.P.Jones and Nick P.Rowe. 1999. Fossil plants and spores: modern techniques. Geological Society. 396 pages
- Berndt Herrmann and Suzanne Hummel. 1994. Ancient DNA: recovery and analysis of genetic material from paleontological, archaeological, museum, medical, and forensic specimens. Springer. 263 pages
- Paul Selden and John R. Nudds. 2004. Evolution of fossil ecosystems. Manson Publishing. 160 pages
- Douglas H.Erwin and Robert L.Ansley. 1995. New approaches to speciation in the fossil record. Columbia University Press. 342 pages.
- Eduardo A.M.Koutsoukos. 2007. Applied Stratigraphy. Springer. 488 pages
History of fossil studies
- William Knight. 1900. Lord Monboddo. John Murray. London. 314 pages
- Charles Darwin. 1859. On the Origin of Species. Chapter 10: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record. | [
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] | 2,133 |
What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?
The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six common air pollutants. These commonly found air pollutants (also known as "criteria pollutants") are found all over the United States. They are particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter), ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. These pollutants can harm your health and the environment, and cause property damage. Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level ozone are the most widespread health threats. EPA calls these pollutants "criteria" air pollutants because it regulates them by developing human health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting permissible levels. The set of limits based on human health is called primary standards. Another set of limits intended to prevent environmental and property damage is called secondary standards.
Click on one of the pollutants below for information on sources of the pollutant, why the pollutant is of concern, health and environmental effects, efforts underway to help reduce the pollutant, and other helpful resources.
Air Pollution Trends
For each of these pollutants, EPA tracks two kinds of air pollution trends: air concentrations based on actual measurements of pollutant concentrations in the ambient (outside) air at selected monitoring sites throughout the country, and emissions based on engineering estimates of the total tons of pollutants released into the air each year. Despite the progress made in the last 30 years, millions of people live in counties with monitor data showing unhealthy air for one or more of the six common air pollutants. For EPA's most recent evaluation of air pollution trends for these six pollutants, click on the following:
Health Effects Information
Exposure to these pollutants is associated with numerous effects on human health, including increased respiratory symptoms, hospitalization for heart or lung diseases, and even premature death. Try these helpful resources:
- Air Quality Index (AQI)
- Ozone - Good Up High, Bad Nearby
- Ozone and Your Health
- Particle Pollution and Your Health
- Air Quality Guide for Ozone
- Air Quality Guide for Particle Pollution
- Smog - Who Does it Hurt?
State Implementation Plan Status and Information
EPA must designate areas as meeting (attainment) or not meeting (nonattainment) the standard. The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires states to develop a general plan to attain and maintain the NAAQS in all areas of the country and a specific plan to attain the standards for each area designated nonattainment for a NAAQS. These plans, known as State Implementation Plans or SIPs, are developed by state and local air quality management agencies and submitted to EPA for approval. Detailed information about state SIP elements and their status can be found on the State Implementation Plan Status and Information page. | [
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] | 593 |
Ozone - Good Up High Bad Nearby
What Causes "Bad" Ozone?
Ground-level or "bad" ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC.
At ground level, ozone is a harmful pollutant. Ozone pollution is a concern during the summer months because strong sunlight and hot weather result in harmful ozone concentrations in the air we breathe. Many urban and suburban areas throughout the United States have high levels of "bad" ozone. But many rural areas of the country are also subject to high ozone levels as winds carry emissions hundreds of miles away from their original sources.
How Does "Bad" Ozone Affect Human Health and the Environment?
Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. "Bad" ozone also can reduce lung function and inflame the linings of the lungs. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissue.
Healthy people also experience difficulty breathing when exposed to ozone pollution. Because ozone forms in hot weather, anyone who spends time outdoors in the summer may be affected, particularly children, outdoor workers and people exercising. Millions of Americans live in areas where the national ozone health standards are exceeded.
Ground-level or "bad" ozone also damages vegetation and ecosystems. It leads to reduced agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased susceptibility to diseases, pests and other stresses such as harsh weather. In the United States alone, ground-level ozone is responsible for an estimated $500 million in reduced crop production each year. Ground-level ozone also damages the foliage of trees and other plants, affecting the landscape of cities, national parks and forests, and recreation areas.
What Is Being Done About "Bad" Ozone?
Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has set protective health-based standards for ozone in the air we breathe. EPA, state, and cities have instituted a variety of multi-faceted programs to meet these health-based standards. Throughout the country, additional programs are being put into place to cut NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles, industrial facilities, and electric utilities. Programs are also aimed at reducing pollution by reformulating fuels and consumer/commercial products, such as paints and chemical solvents, that contain VOC. Voluntary programs also encourage communities to adopt practices, such as carpooling, to reduce harmful emissions. | [
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] | 569 |
Your gelding scrapes the front of his hind cannon. Should it be bandaged? Use these criteria to help you decide how to handle any leg wound:
- Depth. Wounds that penetrate all the way through the skin—enabling you to see the underlying tissues—provide deep access for infection-causing bacteria and are best covered until granulation tissue fills the gap.
- Mobility. Wounds that are pulled open with each step can be stabilized with a bandage for faster healing. A wound on a knee, for instance, often benefits from a bandage.
- Proximity to the ground. A wound on the pastern or coronary band is likely to become contaminated with dirt, or worse, manure, making it a candidate for bandaging. A gelding’s hind cannon wound is a special case because urine splash can irritate exposed and healing tissue. A horse who often accumulates “splash crud” on his cannons will benefit from having wounds in that area bandaged.
Wounds that do not require bandaging can be protected from dirt, insects and bacteria with a thick, greasy ointment such as Desitin or ichthamol. It will need to be applied at least twice daily, but that still may be more convenient than bandaging. | [
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] | 273 |
SMART-1: the lunar adventure begins
ESA INFO 14-2003. This is clearly Europe's time for interplanetary exploration. Having sent the first European mission to Mars, ESA is about to launch its first probe to the Moon. It is called SMART-1 and its goals are both technological and scientific. It is the first of a series of 'Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology'.
On the one hand, SMART-1 will test new state-of-the art instruments and techniques essential to ambitious future interplanetary missions, such as a solar-electric primary propulsion system. On the other, SMART-1 will answer pending scientific questions, addressing key issues such as the Moon's formation, its precise mineralogical composition, and the presence and quantity of water. These data will help scientists to understand the Earth-Moon system and Earth-like planets, and will also provide invaluable information when considering a long-lasting human presence on the Moon.
On 15 July 2003, SMART 1 was shipped to the European launch base in Kourou, French Guiana, where it is being prepared for its launch, due to take place on an Ariane-5 rocket on 29 August 2003 (Central European Summer Time).
For the first time, SMART-1 will combine the power obtained by solar-electric propulsion - never used before by Europe as a main propulsion system - with lunar gravity. It will not follow a direct path to cross the 400 000 kilometres distance between the Earth and the Moon. Instead, from an elliptical orbit around the Earth where it is placed by the rocket, SMART-1 will gradually expand the orbit in a spiral pathway that will bring it closer to the Moon every month. Finally, the Moon’s gravitational field will capture the spacecraft. SMART-1 will not land on the Moon, but will make its observations from orbit, obtaining a global view. When it reaches its destination, in December 2004, it will enter orbit around the Moon and make measurements for a period of six months possibly extended to one year.
Why the Moon? Water, minerals, and a violent origin
“Our knowledge of the Moon is still surprisingly incomplete,” says Bernard Foing, ESA’s SMART-1 Project Scientist. “We still want to know how the Earth-Moon system formed and evolved, as well as the role of geophysical processes such as volcanism, tectonics, cratering, or erosion in shaping the Moon. And, of course, in preparation for future lunar and planetary exploration, we need to find resources and landing sites.”
So, there are many unsolved questions about the Moon, even though six NASA Apollo missions and three unmanned Soviet spacecraft have landed on it and brought back rock samples. The far side of the Moon --the one that never faces Earth-- and the polar regions remain fairly unexplored. The existence of water on the Moon has also never been confirmed, although two orbiters in the 1990s found indirect evidence. We are not even sure how the Moon was formed. According to the most accepted theory, 4500 million years ago an asteroid the size of Mars collided with our planet, and the vapourised debris that went into space condensed to form the Moon.
SMART-1 will map the Moon's topography, as well as the surface distribution of minerals such as pyroxenes, olivines, and feldspars. Also, an X-ray detector will identify key chemical elements in the lunar surface. These data will allow scientists to reconstruct the geological evolution of the Moon, and to search for traces of the impact with the giant asteroid. If the collision theory is right, the Moon should contain less iron than the Earth, in proportion to lighter elements such as magnesium and aluminium. By gauging the relative amounts of chemical elements comprehensively for the very first time, SMART-1 can make a significant contribution in resolving this issue.
As for water, if it exists, it must be in the form of ice in places always hidden from the Sun. In such places, the temperature will never rise above -170ºC. Dark places like that could exist in the bottoms of small craters in the polar regions. Peering into these craters is maybe the trickiest task that the SMART-1 scientists have set themselves. They will look for the infrared signature of water- ice. It will be difficult because no direct light falls in those areas, but rays from nearby crater rims, catching the sunshine, may light the ice sufficiently for SMART-1 instruments to see it.
New technologies to prepare for future interplanetary missions
Future scientific missions will greatly profit from the technologies being tested on SMART-1. Solar-electric primary propulsion is a new propulsion technique based on so-called 'ion engines' that feed on electricity derived from solar panels. It is a technique that has only ever been used once before. These engines provide a very gentle thrust, but they work for years while conventional, more powerful chemical rockets burn for only a few minutes.
Ion engines offer key advantages. They need considerably less propellant than chemical propulsion, which means less weight at launch and more mass available for scientific instruments and payload. Ion engines open the door to truly deep space exploration. They slash the time for interplanetary flight: although they provide less thrust they can last for years. The ion tortoise will therefore eventually overtake the chemical hare. Moreover, another application of the gentle thrust provided by electric propulsion allows very accurate spacecraft attitude control, a skill that will be useful for scientific missions that require highly precise and undisturbed pointing. Future ESA science missions will rely on ion engines.
SMART-1 will also test new miniaturisation techniques that save space and economise on mass: in space, less mass per instrument enables scientists to have more instruments on board, so more science. The SMART-1 payload consists of a dozen technological and scientific investigations performed by seven instruments weighing only 19 kilograms in total. For example, the X-ray telescope D-CIXS, consists of a cube just 15 centimetres wide and weighing less than 5 kilograms. The ultra-compact electronic camera, AMIE, weighs no more than an amateur’s camera.
New navigation and space-communication techniques will also be tested. An experiment called OBAN, based on images from the miniature camera AMIE and the star trackers, is the first step towards future 'autonomous' spacecraft. In a not-too-distant future, scientific satellites will be able to 'find their way' with a minimum of ground control, just by using stars and other celestial objects to guide themselves along predefined paths.
As for communications, engineers need to develop new and efficient ways to communicate with Earth from deep space, for interplanetary missions that are long or go far. SMART-1 will test both very short radio waves (called Ka band, with the instrument KaTE) and a laser experiment to try to communicate with the Earth using a laser beam, instead of traditional radio frequencies. ESA already has laser links with telecommunications satellites from an optical ground station on Tenerife, in Spain’s Canary Islands. Aiming the beam becomes much more difficult if, like SMART-1, the spacecraft is far away and moving rapidly. Scientists hope that the on-board camera AMIE will see Tenerife aglow with laser light.
For more information, please contact:
ESA Communication Department
Media Relations Office, Paris, France
Tel: +33 (0)15369 7155
Fax: +33 (0)15369 7690 | [
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] | 1,568 |
Economic growth in India has no automatic connection to reducing undernutrition in Indian children and so further reductions in the prevalence of childhood undernutrition are likely to depend on direct investments in health and health-related programs. These are the conclusions of a large study by researchers at the Schools of Public Health at University of Michigan and Harvard University, that is published in this week's PLoS Medicine.
Malavika Subramanyam, S V Subramanian and colleagues collected data from the National Family Health Surveys conducted in India in 1992-93 (28,066 children), 1998-99 (26,121 children) and 2005-06 (23,139 children), which use stratified, representative samples of the population from every state of India. They used the measurementsóweight-for-age, height-for-age, and weight-for-heightóin these surveys to classify individual children's nutritional status as underweight, stunting or wasting, respectively, as per the World Health Organization Child Growth Standards.
The study reports that the prevalence of underweight decreased from 49.1% in 1992-93 to 43.8% in 1998-99 to 40.2% in 2005-06. Stunting prevalence also decreased while the prevalence of wasting decreased only marginally from 24% in 1992-93 to 22% in 2005-06. Meanwhile, during the study period, the Indian economy grew at an annual rate of 7%-9%. Further, there was substantial variation between states in each of the measures of undernutrition, as well as economic growth, and this enabled the authors to examine whether changes in state economic growth were associated with a reduction in the risk of a child being undernourished in a given state. The authors found that state economic growth was not associated with the risk of underweight, stunting, and wasting.
The authors conclude: "We failed to find consistent evidence that economic growth leads to reduction in childhood undernutrition in India." They add, "Direct investments in appropriate health interventions may be necessary to reduce childhood undernutrition in India."
Funding: No direct financial support or funding was obtained to conduct this study. SVS is supported by a National Institutes of Health Career Development Award (NHLBI K25 HL081275), and the Robert Wood John Health Investigator Award in Health Policy Research. MAS was supported by The Richmond Fellowship from the Harvard Center on the Developing Child at the time when majority of the analysis was conducted. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Citation: Subramanyam MA, Kawachi I, Berkman LF, Subramanian SV (2011) Is Economic Growth Associated with Reduction in Child Undernutrition in India? PLoS Med 8(3): e1000424. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000424
IN YOUR COVERAGE PLEASE USE THIS URL TO PROVIDE ACCESS TO THE FREELY AVAILABLE PAPER: http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000424
S. V. Subramanian
Harvard School of Public Health
Department of Society, Human Development and Health
677 Huntington Avenue
KRESGE 7th floor
Boston, MA 02115
United States of America
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system. | [
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] | 754 |
What Your Blood Pressure Says About You
Here's how to get the most from your blood pressure readings.
Medically reviewed by Lindsey Marcellin, MD, MPH
Doctors have been measuring patients’ blood pressure, the force that blood exerts on the inside walls of your vessels — since the first sphygmomanometers (yes, that's what blood pressure cuffs are called) were invented at the beginning of the 20th century.
Doctors are still finding new ways to glean information about your health from these numbers. British researchers recently found differences in blood pressure between the right and left arms might be a sign of vascular disease. Likewise, a difference in blood pressure when you’re lying down vs. standing up may indicate heart problems or blood vessel disease. Doctors can tell that from a painless test that takes only a few minutes.
The Basics: What Does Blood Pressure Mean
The most important thing to know about your blood pressure is whether or not it's high. A blood pressure reading consists of two numbers, with acceptable ranges for each one. The first, or top, number is called the systolic number. That's the pressure inside your arteries when your heart beats. The bottom, or diastolic, number is the pressure between beats. You want those numbers to be below 120 and 80, respectively.
"What high blood pressure means is too much resistance inside your arteries," says Ivan V. Pacold, MD, a cardiology professor at Loyola University's Stritch School of Medicine and director of cardiology at Gottlieb Memorial Hospital in Chicago. "Simply speaking, that causes arterial damage and increases your risk for stroke, heart attack, heart failure, and kidney failure."
The Lowdown on Low Blood Pressure
"In a healthy person, low blood pressure is a sign of good health as long as the systolic pressure is above 80," explains Dr. Pacold. "Very low blood pressure in a person with heart disease could be a sign of heart failure."
One type of low blood pressure that could predict future heart problems is called orthostatic hypotension. In this type of low blood pressure, "there is a drop of 10 to 20 points of blood pressure when a person moves from a sitting or supine (flat) position to a standing position," Pacold says. "It causes a sudden sense of lightheadedness and can be due to a heart that is starting to have trouble compensating."
A recent study on orthostatic hypotension published in the journal Hypertension followed more than 12,000 adults for about 17 years. None of them had heart failure at the start. People who had episodes of orthostatic hypotension during the study period, especially between the ages of 45 to 55, were more likely to develop heart failure by the end.
Blood Pressure Differences Between Arms
Has your doctor ever measured your blood pressure in both arms? "Not a bad idea," says Pacold. "Finding blood pressure differences between one side of the body and the other can be a warning sign for atherosclerosis in the main blood vessel leaving the heart or elsewhere in the body. It is a signal that you need to look further."
Research published in the British medical journal The Lancet found that a blood pressure difference of 10 to 15 points between arms increases the risk for dying from a stroke or from heart disease. Having a difference of 15 points or more was found to double the risk for peripheral artery disease (PAD), a condition that affects more than 12 million Americans. Researchers concluded this after reviewing 20 studies that recorded blood pressure differences between arms.
Getting Blood Pressure Help
You should get your blood pressure checked during your routine doctor visits, or at least once every two years, according to the American Heart Association. "Blood pressure is called the silent killer because there may be no symptoms until damage is already being done," Pacold says. "You can prevent that damage by getting early diagnosis and treatment." Here are some takeaway tips:
- Blood pressure readings from 120 to 139 (systolic) or from 80 to 89 (diastolic) are considered to be pre-hypertension. You may need to have your blood pressure checked more frequently.
- If your blood pressure readings stay at or above 140 and 90 over time, your doctor may start you on a treatment program.
- Any time you have a blood pressure reading of over 180 systolic or over 110 diastolic, check it again. If it is still that high, you need to get emergency blood pressure help right away.
Your blood pressure readings can tell you and your doctor a lot about your current health and may even predict future problems. If you are concerned about PAD or if you have episodes of feeling dizzy when you stand up, talk to your doctor. Checking your blood pressure, both sitting and standing and in both arms, is a great way to learn more about what's going on inside your arteries.
For the latest news and information on living a heart-healthy lifestyle, follow @HeartDiseases on Twitter from the editors of @EverydayHealth. | [
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] | 1,046 |
A Lost Human Race: Neanderthal
Today, it has been definitively verified that
Neanderthal man, who is presented as the "primitive ancestor
of man" by evolutionists, is simply a lost human race.
Trinkets made of bone, which belonged to the Neanderthals.
Neanderthals are human beings who suddenly appeared
100,000 years ago in Europe and disappeared–or were assimilated
by being blended with other races–quietly yet quickly 35,000 years
ago. Their only difference from modern man is their skeleton being
more robust and their cranial capacity slightly bigger.
A comparison made between Neanderthal man and modern human
races. To the far left and second from left are Neanderthal
men. Neanderthals bear the greatest resemblance to Eskimos
who live in cold climates today.
we had seen a Neanderthal in the street today, we would think
him or her to be no different from other people.
Neanderthals are a human race and this fact is
admitted by almost everybody today. Evolutionists have tried very
hard to present them as "a primitive species", yet all
findings indicate that they were no different from a "robust"
man walking on the street today. A prominent authority on the subject,
Erik Trinkaus, a paleoanthropologist from New Mexico University
Estimations based on bone fragments indicate that Neanderthals
were physically stronger than modern man.
Detailed comparisons of Neanderthal skeletal
remains with those of modern humans have shown that there is nothing
in Neanderthal anatomy that conclusively indicates locomotor, manipulative,
intellectual, or linguistic abilities inferior to those of modern
Many contemporary researchers define Neanderthal
man as a sub-species of modern man and call him "Homo sapiens
neandertalensis". The findings testify that Neanderthals buried
their dead, fashioned musical instruments, and had cultural affinities
with the Homo sapiens sapiens living during the same period. To
put it precisely, Neanderthals are a "robust" human race
that simply disappeared in time.
man had thick eyebrow projections just like those of the
Australian natives living today.
||The cranial capacity
of Neanderthals was bigger than that of modern man by
150 cc. This finding refuted the evolutionist claim that
"the brain got bigger over time."
The skull of Neanderthal man differed
slightly from that of modern man.
55- Erik Trinkaus,
"Hard Times Among the Neanderthals", Natural History, Vol 87, December
1978, p. 10; R. L. Holloway, "The Neanderthal Brain: What Was Primitive",
American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement, Vol 12, 1991, | [
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] | 586 |
|THE ROSARY DISSECTED|
|T. L. Frazier
the most emblematic sacramental in Catholicism is the rosary, that string of
beads with a crucifix attached. Televangelist Jimmy Swaggart pictured one on the
dust jacket of his anti-Catholic book, <Catholicism and Christianity>.1
Swaggart wrote, "The rosary (or prayer beads) was introduced by Peter the
Hermit in A.D. 1090. This was copied from the Hindus and Muhammadans [sic]. The
counting of prayers is a pagan practice and is expressly condemned by Christ
Aside from the fact that the rosary consists of prayer beads, Swaggart got nothing right. This is regrettable since such crude misrepresentations frighten away uninformed Christians from a powerful aid to prayer and contemplation.
Tradition links the rosary not to Peter the Hermit but to St. Dominic (1170-1221), who is said to have received it from the Virgin Mary to combat the Albigensian heresy. This legend seems to be derived from the writings of Alan de la Roche (1428-1475), that indefatigable Dominican preacher of the rosary. Modern critical scholarship from Dominicans and others reveals a far more complicated history, though one having nothing to do with Hindus and Muslims.
Medieval monks had a practice of daily praying the 150 psalms. Since lay brothers of the orders were illiterate and couldn't read the psalms, among them arose the practice of reciting the Our Father 150 times. Beads were used to keep track of the prayers. (The word "bede" in Middle English, from which we derive the word "bead," originally meant "prayer.") This practice spread among the laity, and other easily-remembered prayers were added. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the rosary settled into its present form. It now consists of the Apostles' Creed, the Our Father, the Hail Mary, and the Gloria.
The Apostles' Creed appeared first as a second-century Roman baptismal creed, and it took its present form in the 400s. Although this creed wasn't written by the apostles, it's generally agreed it could very well have been of apostolic origin.
The Our Father is prayed on the solitary beads that separate the groups of ten beads (the "decades"). Every Christian is familiar with this prayer, which is found in Matthew 6:9-13. Significantly, it is given in the same passage of Scripture in which Jesus says, "But when you pray, do not use vain repetitions as the heathen do. For they think that they will be heard for their many words" (Matt. 6:7). This is the verse Jimmy Swaggart says condemns the "pagan practice" of "counting prayers." Though Jesus himself gave us the Our Father, some Fundamentalists try to discourage Christians from using it as anything other than a model prayer because they feel that actually praying it would constitute a "vain repetition."
But let's look at the context of the "vain repetitions" verse. Matthew 6:5-6 deal with the prayer practices of the Jews themselves; Jesus derides these as hypocritical. He doesn't condemn repetitive Jewish prayers, of which there were a countless number. For example, the book of Psalms is a collection of hymns and prayers repeatedly used in Jewish celebrations in which Jesus himself participated. The Passover, celebrated by Jesus before his Crucifixion, had fixed prayers that were repeated annually. Following the Last Supper, Jesus went to the Garden of Gethsemane and prayed the same prayer three times in a row (Matt. 26:39-44)—he engaged in repetitive prayer.
In the next pair of verses Jesus warns against the prayer practices of the pagans, who held a magical view of prayer and whose repetitious prayers he <does> condemn. Verse 7 reads, in the King James Version, "[D]o not use vain repetitions [<battalogeo>] as the heathen do." This is a misleading rendering. The Greek word <battalogeo> is better translated as "babbling," and it is so translated in the New International Version. (The Revised Standard Version has "empty phrases.")3 Jesus isn't condemning mere repetition—something he himself engaged in, as did other good Jews—but the babbling of the pagans.
What sort of babbling did the pagans practice? Look at 1 Kings 18:2629, where the pagan prophets on Mount Carmel tried to invoke Baal all day long, repeatedly calling on his name and performing ritual dances: "[They] called on the name of Baal from morning until noon, saying, 'Oh Baal, answer us!' But there was no voice, no one answered. And they leaped about the altar which they had made.... And they cried aloud, and cut themselves after their custom with swords and lances, until the blood gushed out of them. And as midday passed, they raved on until the time of the offering of the [evening] oblation, but there was no voice, no one answered, no one heeded." Once the pagan prophets had given up, Elijah came forward and called on the God of Israel, and immediately his prayer was answered.
The prayers of the pagan prophets were "vain" because, after spending the entire day frantically calling upon him, Baal never responded. He wasn't a real god, unlike the God of Israel, who always answers sincere prayer. Jesus' point in Matthew 6:7 is that we don't need to spend all day leaping over altars, cutting ourselves, and raving to get our heavenly Father's ear. He hears our prayers no matter what type of prayer is offered: lengthy or short, composed or extemporaneous, group or individual, repetitious or unique.
Thus Jesus says in the next verse: "Therefore do not be like them [the pagans]. For your Father knows the things you have need of before you ask him" (Matt. 6:8). This doesn't mean that, since God already knows our needs, we don't have to pray at all. As Jesus taught in the parable of the persistent widow (Luke 18:1-8), we are to be tenacious in prayer, freely and repeatedly (repetitiously) bringing our petition before the seat of grace.
Paul says we are to "pray without ceasing" (1 Thess. 5:17), not "pray reservedly lest we repeat ourselves" (as is inevitable in ceaseless prayer). One of the benefits of the rosary is that it leads naturally to the ceaseless prayer and meditation which Scripture enjoins upon us.
If there should be any lingering doubt that God doesn't look askance on repetition in prayer, note that in Revelation 4:8-11 we find the heavenly host engaging in repetitive prayer ("Holy, holy, holy Lord God Almighty"), said "day and night" before the throne of the Almighty, followed by repetitious antiphons from the elders.
The Hail Mary is the heart of the rosary and is said on each of the ten beads which are grouped together to form a decade, there being fifteen decades totaling 150 Hail Marys- as many Hail Marys as there are psalms. The first part of the prayer is composed of two Bible verses strung together: "Hail Mary full of grace, the Lord is with thee" (Luke 1:28) and "blessed art thou among women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb" (Luke 1:42).
The remainder of the prayer reads, "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen." As she was on earth called the object of divine grace (Luke 1:28) and is now in heaven a glorified saint, Mary is called "holy."
The title "Mother of God" (Greek, <Theotokos>, "God-bearer") is an ancient one. A piece of papyrus found in Egypt and dating to 250-270 invokes the intercession of the <Theotokos>.4 Catholics maintain that the person born of the Virgin Mary is the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the divine Word (Greek, <Logos>), and is therefore God (John 1:1,14). As Jesus is God, humanity and divinity fully united in one Person, the mother of Jesus is therefore the mother (but not the originator or creator) of God; she is the <Theotokos>.5
Many non-Catholics object to the practice of asking the saints in heaven, including the Virgin Mary, to pray for us. Often cited is 1 Timothy 2:5, "For there is one God and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus." Since Jesus is our only mediator, they argue, Mary (or any other saint) shouldn't be asked to pray on our behalf. By praying "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death," Catholics intrude on the sole mediatorship of Christ. But this idea can be held only if one believes that death creates a chasm between Christians on earth and Christians in heaven.
Catholics believe that Christians aren't separated from Christ or each other at death (Rom 8:38-39). The Body of Christ "is one though it has many parts" (1 Cor. 12:12), and Christians don't become amputated from the Body when they go to heaven. Nor are there two Churches, one in heaven and another on earth, separated by death and thus somehow not in communion with each other. The Church is the Bride of Christ (Rev. 21:9ff), and Jesus is a strict monogamist. We reject any idea that separates us from one another and consequently destroys the unity of the Church.
As stated in the Apostles' Creed, Catholics believe in "the communion of saints." This means that since we're all one in Christ, we can ask the saints in heaven to pray for us every bit as much as we can ask our brothers and sisters in the Lord here on earth to pray for us. Since we are specifically commanded to pray for each other (1 Tim. 2:1, Eph. 2:1, Heb. 4:16), and since the word of the Lord "stands firm in the heavens" as well as on earth (Ps. 119:89), we don't violate Scripture by asking for the prayers of the saints in heaven. It is precisely because of Christ's mediatorship that Christians in heaven can pray for those on earth.
We know the saints in heaven are aware of what occurs to us (Heb. 12:1, Luke 15:7) and that they offer prayers (Rev. 5:8-10, 8:3), including praying for God's intervention on the earth (Rev. 6:9-10). Hebrews 12:22-24 tells us we approach not only Jesus, "the mediator of the new covenant," but the heavenly Jerusalem and the "assembly of the first-born enrolled in heaven" and "the spirits of the just made perfect." We don't hesitate to ask them for their prayers because the prayers of the righteous "availeth much" (Jas. 5:16b).
Some object that the saints are dead and that the Bible forbids communication with the dead (Lev. 19:31, 20:6, 27) through mediums and other occultic means (necromancy).
But Catholics do not attempt to get information from spirits, as is done in seances. The Church condemns occult practices. Moreover, the saints in heaven aren't "dead"; they're more alive than you or I: "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob," Jesus quoted from Exodus. "He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. Ye therefore do greatly err" (Mark 12:26-27). If Jesus did not intend the saints on earth to communicate with the saints in heaven, he certainly set a rather poor example in appearing to Peter, James, and John on Mount Tabor (Matt. 17:1-8).
Sometimes Fundamentalists such as Jimmy Swaggart say that praying ten Hail Marys to every Our Father confirms their worst fears about Catholicism: Catholics prefer Mary to God by a margin of ten to one. This assertion is not only offensive to Catholics, but it's logically awry as well. Looking at a King James Bible, does the fact that Paul's name occurs 126 times in the book of Acts compared with only 68 times for Jesus' name imply that the author of Acts thought Paul twice as important as Jesus? Does the fact that the Protestant translation of the book of Esther contains neither the word "God" nor the word "Lord" mean that the author of that book was an atheist? Such statistical "proofs" prove nothing at all. The rosary is a devotion in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary, who, under divine inspiration, herself prophesied that all generations would call her blessed (Luke 1:48). In such devotions Catholics happily fulfill the prophecy, recalling that God blesses us when we bless those whom he has especially favored (Gen. 12:3, 27:29, Num. 24:9).
After the ten Hail Marys, the Gloria is said on the solitary bead separating the decades. It's a doxology that has been used since the Trinitarian controversies of the early Church: "Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit. As it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be, world without end. Amen." It is, like the Apostles' Creed and the Our Father, to be found in most mainline Protestant churches.
Yet there is more to the rosary than "rattling off" prayers. The rosary is a contemplation of the Gospels. With each decade is associated a "mystery," Gospel episode to be meditated upon, the word "mystery" being used in the theological sense of divine revelation. There are fifteen mysteries divided into three groups of five: joyful, sorrowful, and glorious.
The joyful mysteries are the Annunciation (Luke 1:26-38), Mary's visitation to Elizabeth (Luke 1:3956), the Nativity (Luke 2:1-20), the presentation of Jesus in the Temple (Luke 2:22-38), and the finding of Jesus in the Temple (Luke 2:41-52).
The sorrowful mysteries are the agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Luke 22:39-53), the scourging (John 19:1; Is. 53:5), the crowning with thorns (Mark 15:17-20), the way of the cross (Mark 15:20-22), and the Crucifixion (John 19:18-30).
The glorious mysteries comprise: the Resurrection (John 20:1-29), the Ascension (Acts 1:6-12), the descent of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:1-13), the Assumption of Mary (Rev. 12:12), and Mary's coronation in heaven (Rev. 12:1-2, 5).
Note that all of the fifteen mysteries, except for the last two, are explicitly taught in the Bible. We'll close with an examination of the two that are present only by implication.
The bodily Assumption of Mary into heaven at the end of her life is neither explicitly taught nor contradicted by the Bible, though there are precedents (Hebrews 11:5 mentions the assumption of Enoch; 2 Kings 2:113 recounts that of Elijah; Paul admits the possibility of his own bodily assumption in 2 Corinthians 12:2-4). There is no indication that Mary's remains were venerated as relics (a customary practice in the early Church), and the belief in her Assumption is held both in the East (Orthodox) and in the West (Catholic).
Mary is perceived in Catholic thought as the proto-Christian and the symbol of the Church as a whole. Hence her Assumption is seen as a sign of the ultimate destiny of the Church: Christ will come at the end in order to take his Bride into the kingdom and to glorify her (2 Thess. 4:16-17). The belief in the Assumption is affirmed by all Christian communities having historic links with the ancient Church—which our Lord promised to lead into all truth (John 16:12-13; cf. Matt. 16:18, 28:20). The belief is very old as well as widespread, and those who deny this teaching do so without scriptural warrant, for Christians are to follow <all> apostolic traditions, whether or not written in the New Testament (2 Thess. 2:15).
The coronation of Mary in heaven should be understood against the Jewish background of early Christianity. In Judah, partly because of the Fourth Commandment (Ex. 20:12), the mother of the anointed king had a function of considerable importance, and her name is with only two exceptions associated with the accession of the king in the official annals.6 The king's mother bore the powerful and prestigious title of Gebirah7 and received honors of the first order. She had an official place at the court, was mistress of the harem, had enough power to seize complete control over the nation (as did Athaliah in 842 B.C., 2 Kgs. 11:1-3), was sent into exile with the king (as was Nehushta in 597 B.C., Jer. 29:2), and could be deposed (as was King Asa's idolatrous grandmother, Maacah, who first became queen mother during the reign of her son Abijam,1 Kgs. 15:2, 10,13, 2 Chron. 15:16). The <Gebirah> was a monarchical institution and had a throne and a crown.8
As Jesus is the ultimate King of the Jews, fulfilling the messianic prophecy in 2 Samuel 7:10-17, it would be strange indeed if Mary did not have this crown as the ultimate queen mother. The monarchical nature of the kingdom of God, complete with queen mother, may be difficult to appreciate for those who live in a democratic culture, but it was something accepted as natural in early Christendom, as witnessed by the art and literature.
In 1 Kings 1:16, 31 we see Queen Bathsheba petitioning King David, her husband, by bowing "her face to the earth, and [doing] homage to the king, and [saying], 'Let my lord, King David, live forever!'" This was common protocol in the court of an Oriental monarch, though the position of the queen seems to have been somewhat higher in other Near Eastern countries than it was in Judah and Israel (but compare Jezebel in 1 Kings 21:7-11).
Contrast this to the next chapter. In 1 Kings 2:13-20 Solomon, the son of David, has come to the throne. Adonijah approaches "Bathsheba the mother of Solomon" with a request and says, "Please speak to King Solomon, for he will not refuse you." Bathsheba promises to intercede with Solomon on his behalf (compare John 2:1-11, where Mary intercedes with Jesus), not seeing through Adonijah's plot to seize the throne. "Bathsheba therefore went to King Solomon, to speak to him for Adonijah." The use of the title "King Solomon" hints that Solomon acts in his official capacity (cf. verse 23).
Instead of Bathsheba scraping her face on the floor before Solomon as previously she had done before David, King Solomon "rose up to meet her and bowed down to her and sat down on his throne and had a throne set for the king's mother; so she sat at his right hand. Then she said, 'I desire one small petition of you; do not refuse me.' And the king said to her, 'Ask it, my mother, for I will not refuse you'" (vv. 19-20). Solomon wasn't merely being a nice son. It was a custom throughout the ancient world to make the right-hand seat the place of honor and of delegated authority, which is precisely why the New Testament speaks of Christ as being seated at the right hand of the Father. Bathsheba's status in society had changed; she had become the "king's mother."
The Bible teaches that the Old Testament types (such as the Passover lamb, the Flood, Hagar, and Sarah) find their fulfillment in the New Testament (John 1:29, 1 Pet. 3:18-21, Gal. 4:21-31). As Christ is superior to the Passover lamb which foreshadowed him, the fulfillment of the type is always greater than the type itself. Christians have recognized that Jesus Christ, Son of David and King of Israel <par excellence>, is the perfect fulfillment of King Solomon, the original son of David. Christians have also recognized that the Virgin Mary fulfills perfectly the role of Solomon's mother, the original <Gebirah> who foreshadowed the mother of the Messiah.
Catholics believe Jesus rose from his throne in heaven and, like Solomon, came down to meet his mother and elevated her to be with him (the Assumption). He then led her to a throne set up for her at his right hand in a position of authority and special honor (the coronation). Here, like Bathsheba, she intercedes on our behalf as the queen mother of the Church, the spiritual Israel (Rom. 11:17ff, 1 Pet. 2:9). From lowly handmaid of the Lord to <Gebirah> of the kingdom of God: "For he has regarded the lowly state of his maidservant; for behold, henceforth all generations will call me blessed. For he who is mighty has done great things for me.... He has put down the mighty from their thrones and exalted the lowly" (Luke 1:48-49, 52).
Epicetus in the second century said that "if your heart is set upon a crown, make and put on one of roses, for it will make the prettier appearance." "Rosary" comes from the Latin <rosarium>, which means "rose garden" and suggests the presention of a rose wreath to our Lady.
Here is the crowning of the King's Mother (Rev. 12:1) and, more importantly, of the King of Kings himself (Rev. 6:2). It is through persevering in the faith that we hope to be given our own crowns (Rev. 2:10), and no other devotional practice surpasses the rosary in obtaining and strengthening the grace necessary for this end. "Every athlete exercises discipline in every way. They do it to win a perishable crown, but we an imperishable one" (1 Cor. 9:25).
T. L. Frazier writes from the Los Angeles area, where he prays the rosary regularly.
1. Jimmy Swaggart, <Catholicism and Christianity> (Baton Rouge: Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, 1986).
2. Ibid., 160-161.
3. <Battalogeo,> which is a very rare Greek word except in writings dependent on the New Testament, is perhaps connected with the Aramaic word <battal> (idle, useless). <Battal> is used in an Aramaic papyrus from Qumran with the meaning of "without effect." The Sinaitic Syriac manuscript of Matthew renders this verse as "Do not be saying idle things."
4. Papyrus 470 in the John Rylands Library, Manchester, England.
5. If a biblical proof-text is wanted for the title <Theotokos>, one should look at the visitation of Mary to her cousin Elizabeth, who looks at Mary and exclaims, "But why is this granted to me, that the mother of my Lord (Greek: <ha mater tou kyriou mou>) should come to me?" (Luke 1:43). As anyone familiar with the Bible is aware, the title "Lord" is practically synonymous with the God of Israel (Ps. 110:1-4). Indeed, whenever the translators of the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint) found the word "YHWH" (the Tetragrammaton, "Yahweh") in the Hebrew text, they translated it as Lord (kyrios), though kyrios is really the Greek translation of <Adonai>, the Hebrew word for Lord. Thus what Elizabeth exclaimed could be reworded, "But why is this granted to me, that the mother of my God should come to me?"
6. See 1 Kings 14:21; 15:2,10; 22:42; 2 Kings 8:26; 9:6-7,22; 12:1; 14:2; 15:2,33; 18:2; 22:1; 23:31,36; 24:18.
7. Literally "lady" or "mistress," used six times in the Bible and always as the title of a queen, whether the wife (1 Kgs. 11:19) or mother of a king (1 Kgs. 15:13, 2 Kgs. 10:13, 2 Chron. 15:16, Jer. 13:18, 29:2). It ought to be noted that the title is used only once in reference to the wife of a king, and even there it is used of Tahpenes, the queen of Egypt, and not of a queen of Judah, where the title is associated more with the queen mother.
8. Compare Jeremiah 13:18, where the prophet proclaims to the eighteen-year-old Jehoiachin and the queen mother, Nehushta, "Say to the king and to the queen mother, 'Come down from your thrones, for your glorious crowns will fall from your heads.'"
This article was taken from the September, 1994 issue of "This Rock," published by Catholic Answers, P.O. Box 17490, San Diego, CA 92177, (619) 541-1131, $24.00 per year.
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] | 5,561 |
If you have trouble writing or coming up with ideas a story project plan may be just the thing to help you on your way. The very first thing you must decide on is the type of genre you want to write. If you are unsure of what the genres are, here is a good explanation you can study as well as here. Once you have your story genre chosen, you can move on to setting up your story project plan.
1. What do you want to do with your story?
2. What characters do you want to involve?
3. Is there a back story within the plot?
4. Where do you want to go with the story?
5. How do you intend to get there?
These questions may take a lot of consideration and thought on your part. A word of advice, do not answer these questions unless you are in a calm state of mind and have clear thinking.
1. Set up your characters as they come to mind in a document. Label it something to help you remember what it is.
2. Set up the city, state, country, and environment where the story is taking place. This should be done for each character. Remember an environment is your immediate surroundings of which you are in right now.
3. Set up any minor characters that may be involved.
4. Plan to make time to write. (If possible), and choose an environment that is not distracting.
5. Set up a "deadline" for when your story has to be finished.
6. If there is a delay, or a time you cannot write on your scheduled day, simply reschedule. Simple as that.
A story project plan can be implemented into a story outline and chart. The first two sections are best to go into a story outline while story schedule would go into a chart. Or better a time chart. Next you will want to research the towns, provinces, or country where your story is taking place. Suppose you wanted to put your character in Baltimore, MD. Your resources are the Web and the library. You should NEVER write your character in any place of living that you have NEVER been to without RESEARCH first! Once you have gathered all your requirements, you can then start writing. | [
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Collier, John, 1884–1968, American social worker, anthropologist, and author, educated at Columbia and the Collège de France. After holding several positions in community organization and social work training, he became active in Native American affairs in 1922. Collier was editor of the magazine American Indian Life from 1926 until 1933, when he was appointed commissioner of Indian Affairs, a position he held for 12 years. In addition to works in verse, he wrote Indians of the Americas (1947) and On the Gleaming Way (1962, orig. pub. 1949 as Patterns and Ceremonials of the Indians of the Southwest ).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on John Collier from Fact Monster:
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Antianxiety drugs, including the propanediol meprobamate (Miltown or Equanil), and the more recent benzodiazephines—such as diazepam (Valium)—have found wide use in reducing tension and anxiety among individuals with less serious mental disorders, but may lead to addiction if abused. Although they form a chemically diverse group, the physiological effects of each are similar; in small doses they relieve anxiety by reducing muscular tension, and in larger doses they produce sedation, sleep, and anesthesia (see depressant). Antianxiety drugs are the most frequently prescribed pharmaceuticals in the United States.
Sections in this article:
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | [
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Compiled Records for Mid-South ResearchEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
This is a bibliographic essay of compiled records for doing Mid-South Research, which includes Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Most of the compiled records come from published sources. Over the years as the amount of these sources has become too numerous, it became essential to index many of them. As a researcher it is often necessary to utilize these indexes early on in ones research project, especially if the exact location of the individual or families being researched is not known. Indexes of biographical sources might be a good place to start.
Also, as you begin to narrow your search down to your specific area you will want to look at an Index to Biographies in Local Histories in the Library of Congress (Baltimore: Magna Carta Book, 1979). This index contains biographical sketches of 170,000 individuals found in 340 local histories. Unfortunately, including biographical sketches in the histories of the southern states was not as prevalent as seen in the mid- western states, but there are quite a few and this index would be worth a try.
The Southern States Courier (Natchitoches, Louisiana: Courier Publications, 1984-1986) is a periodical exploring the history and records of the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Virginia, and possibly others. Information is extracted from biographies, cemetery records, census, church records, deeds and land records, maps, marriage records, military records, mortuaries, naturalizations, obituaries, post office records, school records, vital records, wills, and other sources. Some family names and persons are featured. These are interspersed within these publications, family histories. There is no index but PERSI discloses the titles of the articles in each issue, referring to which parish and record-types are included. Time period covered is roughly from the 1700’s-1900.
When doing research, there will come a time when it may become necessary to narrow your search to specific records, such as military, ethnic, religious, or occupational. A couple of examples follow:
A good military publication for the south might be Military Bibliography of the Civil War, compiled by C. E. Dornbusch (New York, New York: New York Public Library; distributed by Readex Books, 1971-c1987). It consists of 3 volumes. Volume 1 does not deal with the south, but Volume 2 and Volume 3, originally published in 1967 under title "Regimental publications and personal narratives : southern, border, and western states and territories ; federal troops”, does contain personal narratives from southern soldiers and Union and Confederate biographies. There is an index.
Then if you are looking for compiled records of a certain ethnic group you could use a publication such as Who was Who among the Southern Indians, a Genealogical Notebook, 1698-1907 by Don Martini (Falkner, Mississippi: The author, c1998). It is in alphabetical order by surname. It is a comprehensive guide to the prominent leaders of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek Indian tribes and the relatives/possible relatives of those leaders. The information for each individual varies from as little as a sentence to half a page. This publication is very interesting reading and has some valuable information.
After a place of residence has been established, compiled records specific to an area of interest should be the next step in the research process. Many records are available at the state level as well as the county and township level.
The purpose of the rest of this paper will be to take a look at some of those compiled records. Under each state are examples of historical, military, ethnic, and religious publications which contain compiled records, as well as a few examples of periodicals. By far not complete, this was intended to give the reader a glimpse into the many publications available which contain compiled records.
It is always exciting to find a biography on an individual that is being researched. Although, the mid-south does not have as wonderful collection as the mid-west, there are still good publications available. A good place to start might be Michael Cook’s Kentucky: Index of Biographical Sketches in State, Regional and County Histories, (Evansville, Indiana: Cook Publications, 1986). This compiled record indexes 65 various state, regional and county histories and there are notes on how to use the volume and where to obtain the histories. A list of the codes and their meanings is at the front of the book. There is an alphabetical index, which is easy to use, but it is important to note that for the biographies, the index only lists the names of those who are the subject of the biographical sketches.
There is also, Kentucky Genealogy and Biography, 9 vols. (Owensboro, Ky.: Genealogical Reference, 1969–) is another publication worth taking a look at. These are reprints of the biographical sections of various editions of Kentucky: a History of the State, by W. H. Perrin, et al., published during the 1880s. The biographies are arranged by county. Another reprint of the biographical sections of Perrin’s work was published by the Southern Historical Press and bears the title of the original work, Kentucky: a History of the State. These volumes are facsimiles of the original biographies, with complete name indexes prepared by various individuals. New material was added in 1979.
Lyman Copeland Draper, Draper's Biographical Sketches, Chicago: University of Chicago Library, 1951. Within this publication are many biographies of eminent early residents of Kentucky and nearby states. The Kentucky Papers consist of thirty-seven volumes. Both a subject index and an index to the interview have been published by the Wisconsin Historical Society.
For a county specific publication there is Echo's of the Past, In the Western part of Scott County, Kentucky (Stamping Ground, Kentucky: Stamping Ground Woman's Club, 1975-). Volume one includes a few biographies and Volume 2 contains family lineages.
A History of the Pioneer Families of Missouri-with Numerous Sketches, Anecdotes, Adventures, Etc., and relating the Early Days in Missouri. Also, the Lives of Daniel Boone and the Celebrated Indian Chief Black Hawk by William S. Bryan and Robert Rose. (Baltimore: Clearfield Co., 1996) Most of the sketches are brief, but do contain a lot of genealogical information. Most of the sketches contain wealth of information on their migration pattern.
Missouri: Family Histories and Genealogies, a Bibliography by Donald Hehir (Bowie, Maryland: Heritage Books, 1996). This book contains a comprehensive listing of all printed Missouri genealogies and family histories that have made their way into major library collections across the U.S. Over 1600 Missouri Surnames are arranged alphabetically.
Pioneer Kentuckians with Missouri Cousins by Frances T. Ingmire 2 vols. (Signal Mountain, Tennessee: Mountain Press, n.d.) The two volumes of Missouri records show over 65,000 persons born in Kentucky but who by 1850 are living in Missouri. Contains the following Missouri counties: Adair, Lincoln, Linn, Livingston, McDonald, Macon, Madison, Marion, Mercer, Miller, Pike, Platte, Polk, Gasconade, Pulaske, Putnam, Ralls, Randolph, St. Charles, Ray, Reynolds, Ripley, Schuyler, Saline, Scott, Scotland, Shannon, Shelby, Stoddard and Sullivan.
Missouri also has some interesting publications. One such is L. L. Broadfoot’s Pioneers of the Ozarks (Caldwell: The Caxton printers, 1946). The biographical sketches were written by the Ozark pioneers themselves. Their grammar is somewhat back country, but the stories hold some wonderful tidbits of genealogical and historical information.
An example of a publication specific to an ethnic group is The Italians in Missouri, by G., Schiavo (New York: Arno Press, Inc., 1975, c 1929). It is a “scrapbook” biographical publication. The biographies are small and all come with a picture of the individual. Most of the biographies appear to be of professionals and businessmen.
If it is the early years of North Carolina that the researcher is concerned with, then one publication to look at is one that was compiled by Marilu Burch Smallwood; Some Colonial and Revolutionary Families of North Carolina, 3 vols. (Washington, North Carolina: M.B. Smallwood, 1964-). These volumes provide the names of the husband, wife, date of marriage and county.
For research that requires a wider timeframe, Biographical History of North Carolina History from Colonial Times to the Present, Samuel A’Court Ashe, ed., 10 vols. (Greensboro, North Carolina: C.L. Van Noppen, 1905-1917) is great because it covers a large time period in the history of North Carolina, through biographical sketches of those who lived there. New volumes have been added from time to time and volume 10 has an index.
An example of a wonderful publication for research within a specific ethnic group is German Speaking People West of the Catawba River in North Carolina 1750-1800 and Some Émigrés’ Participation in the Early Settlement of Southeast Missouri, Lorena Shell Eaker, compiler and editor (Franklin, North Carolina: Genealogy Publishing Services, 1994). In the introduction of this book it states, “This is a migrational history of more than six hundred immigrants who pioneered the settlement of the present-day North Carolina Counties of Burke, Catawba, Cleveland, Gaston, Lincoln, and Rutherford.” It is presented in a compiled lineage format and includes an every name index.
For a specific area of research such publications as The Heritage of the Toe River Valley, Avery, Mitchell, and Yancey Counties, 5 vols. (Marceline, Missouri: Walsworth Publishing Co., Inc. 1994) may be helpful. Each of these volumes contains lengthy family biographical sketches. Many of these biographical sketches include a very comprehensive genealogy of the family. There is also an index and the family sketches are done in alphabetical order.
History of South Carolina (Chicago: Lewis Pub. Co., 1920) edited by Yates Snowden, comprises five volumes. Like most history books, the biographies of individuals who paid to be included in the publications are given a page or two to give a brief history of themselves and sometimes their families. Fortunately, there is an index, because the biographies have no certain order to them.
Richard N. Cote, Local and Family History in South Carolina, A Bibliography, (Easley, S. C. Southern Historical Press 1981). At the end there is an alphabetical surname index to many major South Carolina collections. It contains about 7,600 names.
As an example of a more area specific resource, there is Herbert Ravenel Sass’s, The Story of the South Carolina Lowcountry, 3 vols. (West Columbia, S.C.: J.F. Hyer Publishing Co., 1956). The low country included Charleston, and volumes two and three are the biographies of those citizens who played an important part in the growth and development of this particular area. The third volume includes an index, which indexes only those people for whom the biography was written.
There are also many publications of compiled records written for various religious groups. The Brief Baptist Biographies by Robert P Hamby (Greenville, South Carolina: A Press, 1982- ) is one example. This book is divided up into 5 divisions. The third division is titled “Brief Historical Sketches of Twenty-one Baptist Associations from 1707 to 1861 Which Have Made Their Contribution to Western North Carolina." This is a compilation of historical sketches, and there are also biographical sketches found within the other divisions.
Compiled records can also be found in periodicals. For this state there is The South Carolina Magazine of Ancestral Research. Along with abstracted records, included in these periodicals which are done on a quarterly basis, are memoirs of individuals, biographies, and histories of families. There is also a book review section and an index of these articles is available in a book under FHL Call #: 975.7, B2sc.
The Carolina Herald and Newsletter, which is an official publication of the South Carolina Genealogical Society and published quarterly, is another periodical worth searching through. Some of the editions do contain individual biographies and family histories, although there appears to be more abstracted and copied records. There is no indexing.
Leaves From the Family Tree (Easley, South Carolina, 1982) compiled by Penelope Johnson Allen for the “Chattanooga Times Sunday Magazine”, is a collection of family histories, primarily from East Tennessee. Although, it is more area specific, it does include about 100 family histories that are full of wonderful information and many of these histories include photographs. It does include an index and if one is fortunate enough to be researching someone in the east Tennessee area, this would be worth reading.
In a book written by Worth S. Ray, called Tennessee Cousins (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1960) the author has done a wonderful job of writing a history of the some of the counties of Tennessee and the people, by using original sources, and evaluating them. He has written personal histories on many of the individuals who lived there. The use of the index is imperative as the family histories are not in any logical order and are interspersed with abstracted records.
When narrowing your research to specific counties within a state, you will often find compiled records in publications that have been written by genealogical or historical societies. These books were often written for a specific historical event, such as a centennial. A good example of this is, Families and History of Sullivan County, Tennessee Volume One 1779-1992, compiled by the Holston Territory Genealogical Society, 1993. It is a collection of stories submitted by residents, former residents, and those having roots in Sullivan County. The bios run a quarter to half page in length. There is a surname index, and the bios are in alphabetical order. They are a great tool for finding genealogical information.
A researcher can also get very specific. Take for instance Tennessee Convicts: Early Records of the State Penitentiary by Charles A. and Tomye M. Sherrill. This book includes an index of places (vol. 1) and full-name indexes (vols. 1 & 2). Volume 1 covers the years 1831-1850 and volume 2 the years 1850-1870. Volume 1 might be of particular interest since it was transcribed from Volume 45 of the Tennessee State Penitentiary and in this particular volume are detailed descriptions and biographies of 600 inmates from 1831-1842.
Ransom B. True, Biographical Dictionary of Early Virginia, 1607-1660. (Richmond Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, 1984). This record is in alphabetical order by surname and then by given name or title. It gives the name, title, event, date and place of event, source code and page number. There is often more than one event for each name and each event is listed with its source code and page number under the name.
This record is a list of names extracted from various sources for "people who were involved in any capacity with the settlement and development of Virginia from 1607 through the end of 1660"
Encyclopedia of Virginia Biography by Lyon Gardiner Tyler FHL book 975.5 D3tL, 5 vols. (New York: Lewis Historical Pub., 1915). Includes multi-generation family histories. The first three volumes contain a small paragraph of some of the founders, colonial presidents and governors, colonial councilors of state, and burgesses, those elected to political positions and other prominent persons and their involvement in the political climate of Virginia. Contained in some of
Since slavery was well established in Virginia pre Civil War, the use of compiled information regarding these people may be very useful in doing Virginia research. Weevils in the Wheat; Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves, edited by Charles L. Perdue, Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips, is an interesting book. It is a compilation of interviews of ex-slaves from the state of Virginia.
Earl Gregg Swem, Virginia Historical Index, (Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1965). Lists many genealogies that were published in periodicals. It is a 1930 index to some major Virginia periodicals including: Tyler's Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine; William and Mary Quarterly; Virginia Magazine of History and Biography.
R. A. Brock Alonzo and Virgil A. Lewis, Virginia and Virginians, Salt Lake City Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah 1972 [Microfilm of original published: Richmond and Toledo: H. H. Hardesty, 1888] Lists five to ten prominent citizens from each county with early governors and generals. It includes genealogical data abstracted from the 6 volume set, History of Virginia. It is an index to the biographical volumes of that history.
A researcher will find that often when researching in West Virginia they will be consulting Virginia sources; however, there are still some very good publications that deal primarily with those individuals living in West Virginia. A couple of these publications are: Thomas Condit Miller and Hu Maxwell, West Virginia and Its People, 3 vols. (New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Co., 1913). The first volume is devoted to the history of West Virginia and the remaining two volumes are family and personal histories. These histories are usually about one to two pages in length, but the information contained within these personal histories is invaluable. There is an index, but it only names the person for which the personal history was written. Another is James Morton Callahan’s History of West Virginia Old and New and West Virginia Biography, 3 vols. (Chicago and New York: The American Historical Society, Inc., 1923). Again the two last volumes are dedicated to a compilation of biographies. This publication was written later than the previous mentioned book, so it gives you a few more years of information and does contain biographies on quite a few more people.
The West Virginia Encyclopedia, edited by Paul Conley (Charleston, W.V.: West Virginia Publishing Company, 1929) contains mini biographies, only a paragraph in length, about individuals who have made some contribution to the state of West Virginia. These are interspersed throughout the book in alphabetical order. There is only a topical index.
A publication specific to the Jewish population is West Virginia Jewry: Origins and History 1850-1958 by Abraham I. Shinedling, 2 volumes. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: M. Jacob, 1963). This publication contains brief biographies of individuals who lived in the Jewish Communities of West Virginia. These types of ethnic specific sources can be very informative when doing research.
Although the sources cited in this bibliographic essay do not come close to informing the reader of just how many compiled records are available, it has shown that there are many different avenues to take when deciding which records to utilize. It is also important to note that with the use of the Internet, the amount of compiled records will continue to grow. The use of published sources, however, is a necessary tool in genealogical research. As indexing of these records continues, so will the efficiency of using these sources grow. The use of compiled records in genealogical research is now and always will be a must for any conscientious researcher.
- Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Family and Church History Department, Family Search Research Guidance, Statewide Indexes and Collections (Intellectual Reserve, Inc., 1998, 2001) Online <familysearch.org>.
- Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Family and Church History Department, Research Outline (Intellectual Reserve, Inc., 1988, 1997)
- Meyerink, K. L. editor, Printed Sources, A Guide to Published Genealogical Records (Salt Lake City: Ancestry Incorporated, 1998)
- Szucs, L. D., & Luebking, S. H. editors, The Source, a Guidebook of American Genealogy (Salt Lake City: Ancestry Incorporated, 1997)
- The Handybook for Genealogists, United States of America, Tenth Edition (Draper: Everton Publishers, 2002)
- This page was last modified on 28 January 2013, at 14:30.
- This page has been accessed 2,480 times.
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286,
262,
14102,
4406,
1282,
422,
3199,
4237,
13,
3827,
262,
812,
355,
262,
2033,
286,
777,
4237,
468,
1716,
1165,
6409,
11,
340,
2627,
6393,
284,
6376,
867,
286,
606,
13,
1081,
257,
13453,
340,
318,
1690,
3306,
284,
17624,
777,
39199,
1903,
319,
287,
3392,
2267,
1628,
11,
2592,
611,
262,
2748,
4067,
286,
262,
1981,
393,
4172,
852,
30066,
318,
407,
1900,
13,
12901,
274,
286,
3182,
17046,
4237,
1244,
307,
257,
922,
1295,
284,
923,
13,
198,
7583,
11,
355,
345,
2221,
284,
7135,
534,
2989,
866,
284,
534,
2176,
1989,
345,
481,
765,
284,
804,
379,
281,
12901,
284,
8436,
41480,
287,
10714,
5590,
1749,
287,
262,
10074,
286,
3162,
357,
46139,
25,
2944,
2616,
13690,
64,
4897,
11,
13521,
737,
770,
6376,
4909,
3182,
17046,
34035,
286,
16677,
11,
830,
3925,
1043,
287,
28560,
1957,
25985,
13,
8989,
11,
1390,
3182,
17046,
34035,
287,
262,
25985,
286,
262,
8372,
2585,
373,
407,
355,
21854,
355,
1775,
287,
262,
3095,
12,
8830,
2585,
11,
475,
612,
389,
2407,
257,
1178,
290,
428,
6376,
561,
307,
2861,
257,
1949,
13,
198,
464,
8050,
1829,
34268,
357,
45,
963,
270,
420,
956,
11,
13340,
25,
34268,
40865,
11,
12844,
12,
28054,
8,
318,
257,
2278,
605,
13504,
262,
2106,
290,
4406,
286,
262,
1708,
2585,
25,
9266,
11,
14538,
11,
19603,
11,
4744,
11,
7859,
11,
9486,
11,
10278,
11,
11867,
11,
13340,
11,
10769,
11,
13797,
11,
2258,
5913,
11,
9589,
11,
2520,
5913,
11,
6025,
11,
290,
5457,
1854,
13,
6188,
318,
21242,
422,
3182,
41480,
11,
27316,
4406,
11,
21649,
11,
4928,
4406,
11,
23777,
290,
1956,
4406,
11,
8739,
11,
4845,
4406,
11,
2422,
4406,
11,
5596,
84,
3166,
11,
3288,
4582,
11,
909,
34272,
3166,
11,
1281,
2607,
4406,
11,
1524,
4406,
11,
9204,
4406,
11,
49928,
11,
290,
584,
4237,
13,
2773,
1641,
3891,
290,
6506,
389,
8096,
13,
2312,
389,
987,
2777,
20204,
1626,
777,
16125,
11,
1641,
25985,
13,
1318,
318,
645,
6376,
475,
350,
4877,
40,
5862,
4629,
262,
8714,
286,
262,
6685,
287,
1123,
2071,
11,
9759,
284,
543,
28830,
290,
1700,
12,
19199,
389,
3017,
13,
3862,
2278,
5017,
318,
7323,
422,
262,
35665,
447,
247,
82,
12,
48104,
13,
198,
2215,
1804,
2267,
11,
612,
481,
1282,
257,
640,
618,
340,
743,
1716,
3306,
284,
7135,
534,
2989,
284,
2176,
4406,
11,
884,
355,
2422,
11,
9450,
11,
4158,
11,
393,
34266,
13,
317,
3155,
286,
6096,
1061,
25,
198,
32,
922,
2422,
9207,
329,
262,
5366,
1244,
307,
12842,
347,
45689,
286,
262,
7511,
1810,
11,
14102,
416,
327,
13,
412,
13,
360,
1211,
10885,
354,
357,
3791,
1971,
11,
968,
1971,
25,
968,
1971,
5094,
10074,
26,
9387,
416,
797,
671,
87,
13661,
11,
16382,
12,
66,
27301,
737,
632,
10874,
286,
513,
15343,
13,
14701,
352,
857,
407,
1730,
351,
262,
5366,
11,
475,
14701,
362,
290,
14701,
513,
11,
6198,
3199,
287,
15904,
739,
3670,
366,
8081,
9134,
16125,
290,
2614,
26274,
1058,
8372,
11,
4865,
11,
290,
8830,
2585,
290,
16771,
2162,
2717,
6553,
447,
251,
11,
857,
3994,
2614,
26274,
422,
8372,
5795,
290,
4479,
290,
21900,
3182,
41480,
13,
1318,
318,
281,
6376,
13,
198,
6423,
611,
345,
389,
2045,
329,
14102,
4406,
286,
257,
1728,
9450,
1448,
345,
714,
779,
257,
9207,
884,
355,
5338,
373,
5338,
1871,
262,
8050,
12746,
11,
257,
13005,
11794,
605,
5740,
2070,
11,
1467,
4089,
12,
1129,
2998,
416,
2094,
3981,
5362,
357,
37,
971,
1008,
11,
13797,
25,
383,
1772,
11,
269,
21113,
737,
632,
318,
287,
24830,
605,
1502,
416,
40358,
13,
632,
318,
257,
9815,
5698,
284,
262,
9208,
2766,
286,
262,
39476,
11,
31939,
292,
707,
11,
10031,
310,
707,
11,
290,
13509,
3942,
15663,
290,
262,
12772,
14,
79,
4733,
12772,
286,
883,
2766,
13,
383,
1321,
329,
1123,
1981,
17806,
422,
355,
1310,
355,
257,
6827,
284,
2063,
257,
2443,
13,
770,
9207,
318,
845,
3499,
3555,
290,
468,
617,
8119,
1321,
13,
198,
3260,
257,
1295,
286,
11566,
468,
587,
4920,
11,
14102,
4406,
2176,
284,
281,
1989,
286,
1393,
815,
307,
262,
1306,
2239,
287,
262,
2267,
1429,
13,
4650,
4406,
389,
1695,
379,
262,
1181,
1241,
355,
880,
355,
262,
7968,
290,
42823,
1241,
13,
198,
464,
4007,
286,
262,
1334,
286,
428,
3348,
481,
307,
284,
1011,
257,
804,
379,
617,
286,
883,
14102,
4406,
13,
4698,
1123,
1181,
389,
6096,
286,
6754,
11,
2422,
11,
9450,
11,
290,
4158,
16125,
543,
3994,
14102,
4406,
11,
355,
880,
355,
257,
1178,
6096,
286,
2278,
20155,
13,
2750,
1290,
407,
1844,
11,
428,
373,
5292,
284,
1577,
262,
9173,
257,
19350,
656,
262,
867,
16125,
1695,
543,
3994,
14102,
4406,
13,
198,
1026,
318,
1464,
7895,
284,
1064,
257,
26444,
319,
281,
1981,
326,
318,
852,
30066,
13,
4900,
11,
262,
3095,
12,
35782,
857,
407,
423,
355,
7932,
4947,
355,
262,
3095,
12,
7038,
11,
612,
389,
991,
922,
16125,
1695,
13,
317,
922,
1295,
284,
923,
1244,
307,
3899,
8261,
447,
247,
82,
11867,
25,
12901,
286,
8436,
17046,
3661,
316,
2052,
287,
1812,
11,
15994,
290,
3418,
5590,
1749,
11,
357,
15200,
504,
4244,
11,
10278,
25,
8261,
40865,
11,
12113,
737,
770,
14102,
1700,
39199,
6135,
2972,
1181,
11,
7915,
290,
7968,
25985,
290,
612,
389,
4710,
319,
703,
284,
779,
262,
6115,
290,
810,
284,
7330,
262,
25985,
13,
317,
1351,
286,
262,
12416,
290,
511,
26368,
318,
379,
262,
2166,
286,
262,
1492,
13,
1318,
318,
281,
24830,
605,
6376,
11,
543,
318,
2562,
284,
779,
11,
475,
340,
318,
1593,
284,
3465,
326,
329,
262,
3182,
41480,
11,
262,
6376,
691,
8341,
262,
3891,
286,
883,
508,
389,
262,
2426,
286,
262,
3182,
17046,
34035,
13,
198,
1858,
318,
635,
11,
11867,
13005,
48909,
290,
8436,
4867,
11,
860,
2322,
82,
13,
357,
46,
86,
641,
21513,
11,
11118,
11207,
13005,
11794,
605,
20984,
11,
16450,
1906,
8,
318,
1194,
9207,
2861,
2263,
257,
804,
379,
13,
2312,
389,
302,
17190,
286,
262,
3182,
17046,
9004,
286,
2972,
23713,
286,
11867,
25,
257,
7443,
286,
262,
1812,
11,
416,
370,
13,
367,
13,
2448,
12769,
11,
2123,
435,
1539,
3199,
1141,
262,
34865,
82,
13,
383,
3182,
41480,
389,
14921,
416,
7968,
13,
6023,
26589,
286,
262,
3182,
17046,
9004,
286,
2448,
12769,
447,
247,
82,
670,
373,
3199,
416,
262,
8050,
23121,
4332,
290,
13062,
262,
3670,
286,
262,
2656,
670,
11,
11867,
25,
257,
7443,
286,
262,
1812,
13,
2312,
15343,
389,
1777,
14323,
2915,
286,
262,
2656,
3182,
41480,
11,
351,
1844,
1438,
39199,
5597,
416,
2972,
3925,
13,
968,
2587,
373,
2087,
287,
13521,
13,
198,
31633,
805,
6955,
8822,
48575,
11,
48575,
338,
8436,
17046,
3661,
316,
2052,
11,
4842,
25,
2059,
286,
4842,
10074,
11,
27937,
13,
12511,
428,
9207,
389,
867,
3182,
41480,
286,
37820,
1903,
5085,
286,
11867,
290,
6716,
2585,
13,
383,
11867,
27420,
3473,
286,
12277,
12,
26548,
15343,
13,
5747,
257,
2426,
6376,
290,
281,
6376,
284,
262,
2720,
423,
587,
3199,
416,
262,
9279,
23121,
7023,
13,
198,
1890,
257,
7968,
2176,
9207,
612,
318,
21455,
338,
286,
262,
11303,
11,
554,
262,
4885,
636,
286,
4746,
3418,
11,
11867,
357,
1273,
37843,
13706,
11,
11867,
25,
520,
37843,
13706,
14381,
338,
6289,
11,
15231,
12,
737,
14701,
530,
3407,
257,
1178,
3182,
41480,
290,
14701,
362,
4909,
1641,
1627,
1095,
13,
198,
32,
7443,
286,
262,
31437,
25813,
286,
11565,
12,
4480,
45261,
3661,
316,
2052,
11,
317,
710,
10210,
6421,
11,
15640,
11,
17906,
66,
1539,
290,
11270,
262,
12556,
12579,
287,
11565,
13,
4418,
11,
262,
18965,
286,
7806,
44317,
290,
262,
28921,
515,
3942,
5953,
2619,
26698,
416,
3977,
311,
13,
17857,
290,
5199,
8049,
13,
357,
46139,
25,
11459,
3245,
1766,
1539,
8235,
8,
4042,
286,
262,
34035,
389,
4506,
11,
475,
466,
3994,
257,
1256,
286,
9779,
11794,
605,
1321,
13,
4042,
286,
262,
34035,
3994,
5129,
286,
1321,
319,
511,
13472,
3912,
13,
198,
17140,
10300,
25,
7884,
5590,
1749,
290,
13005,
11794,
444,
11,
257,
347,
45689,
416,
3759,
679,
71,
343,
357,
39961,
494,
11,
10769,
25,
18518,
13661,
11,
8235,
737,
770,
1492,
4909,
257,
9815,
13487,
286,
477,
10398,
11565,
9779,
11794,
444,
290,
1641,
25985,
326,
423,
925,
511,
835,
656,
1688,
5888,
17268,
1973,
262,
471,
13,
50,
13,
3827,
26143,
11565,
311,
700,
1047,
389,
14921,
24830,
1146,
13,
198,
47,
7935,
263,
8758,
1347,
1547,
351,
11565,
32644,
416,
27025,
309,
13,
17589,
47004,
362,
2322,
82,
13,
357,
11712,
282,
9638,
11,
11287,
25,
9638,
4332,
11,
299,
13,
67,
2014,
383,
734,
15343,
286,
11565,
4406,
905,
625,
6135,
11,
830,
6506,
4642,
287,
11867,
475,
508,
416,
35745,
389,
2877,
287,
11565,
13,
49850,
262,
1708,
11565,
14683,
25,
1215,
958,
11,
12406,
11,
406,
3732,
11,
47717,
11,
14115,
11,
4100,
261,
11,
14909,
11,
32473,
11,
38146,
11,
7920,
11,
29539,
11,
32715,
660,
11,
49292,
11,
14345,
1102,
671,
11,
21624,
292,
365,
11,
5930,
7402,
11,
371,
5691,
11,
39845,
11,
520,
13,
7516,
11,
7760,
11,
21995,
11,
29496,
1636,
11,
3059,
4669,
1754,
11,
4849,
500,
11,
4746,
11,
8838,
11,
28108,
11,
35053,
11,
520,
5088,
446,
290,
18501,
13,
198,
17140,
10300,
635,
468,
617,
3499,
16125,
13,
1881,
884,
318,
406,
13,
406,
13,
9765,
5898,
447,
247,
82,
27507,
364,
286,
262,
18024,
5558,
357,
34,
1940,
4053,
25,
383,
6488,
22874,
34654,
11,
22717,
737,
383,
3182,
17046,
34035,
547,
3194,
416,
262,
18024,
668,
40547,
2405,
13,
5334,
23491,
318,
6454,
736,
1499,
11,
475,
262,
3923,
1745,
617,
7932,
29770,
9895,
286,
9779,
11794,
605,
290,
6754,
1321,
13,
198,
2025,
1672,
286,
257,
9207,
2176,
284,
281,
9450,
1448,
318,
383,
41720,
287,
11565,
11,
416,
402,
1539,
3059,
544,
13038,
357,
3791,
1971,
25,
943,
3919,
4332,
11,
3457,
1539,
15231,
11,
269,
31883,
737,
632,
318,
257,
564,
250,
1416,
2416,
2070,
447,
251,
3182,
17046,
9207,
13,
383,
3182,
41480,
389,
1402,
290,
477,
1282,
351,
257,
4286,
286,
262,
1981,
13,
4042,
286,
262,
3182,
41480,
1656,
284,
307,
286,
11153,
290,
34643,
13,
198,
1532,
340,
318,
262,
1903,
812,
286,
2258,
5913,
326,
262,
13453,
318,
5213,
351,
11,
788,
530,
9207,
284,
804,
379,
318,
530,
326,
373,
14102,
416,
1526,
346,
84,
347,
2575,
10452,
3822,
26,
2773,
37726,
290,
28105,
25813,
286,
2258,
5913,
11,
513,
2322,
82,
13,
357,
17402,
11,
2258,
5913,
25,
337,
13,
33,
13,
10452,
3822,
11,
17575,
12,
737,
2312,
15343,
2148,
262,
3891,
286,
262,
5229,
11,
3656,
11,
3128,
286,
4845,
290,
7968,
13,
198,
1890,
2267,
326,
4433,
257,
10595,
41352,
11,
8436,
17046,
7443,
286,
2258,
5913,
7443,
422,
37726,
3782,
284,
262,
21662,
11,
17100,
317,
447,
247,
36699,
36318,
11,
1225,
1539,
838,
2322,
82,
13,
357,
38,
5681,
21513,
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513,
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13,
34,
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13,
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1766,
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33,
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13,
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5085,
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13,
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651,
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13,
7214,
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25,
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8,
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812,
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12,
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362,
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812,
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632,
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11,
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2723,
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2443,
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5610,
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1,
198,
4834,
25497,
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35193,
12790,
7274,
14886,
376,
6581,
1492,
860,
2425,
13,
20,
360,
18,
83,
43,
11,
642,
2322,
82,
13,
357,
3791,
1971,
25,
10174,
23121,
8525,
1539,
32062,
737,
29581,
5021,
12,
20158,
1641,
25985,
13,
383,
717,
1115,
15343,
3994,
257,
1402,
7322,
286,
617,
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22202,
11,
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26824,
11,
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6745,
669,
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11,
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15601,
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11,
883,
7018,
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1964,
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13,
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1990,
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34744,
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12,
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11,
318,
281,
3499,
1492,
13,
632,
318,
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23340,
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9299,
286,
409,
12,
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3080,
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36,
7063,
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2451,
368,
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547,
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20155,
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15533,
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25,
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26,
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5335,
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8436,
4867,
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49,
13,
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13,
20501,
978,
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16310,
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2254,
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25,
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13,
367,
13,
6912,
9673,
11,
49584,
60,
44968,
1936,
284,
3478,
9208,
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422,
1123,
7968,
351,
1903,
26824,
290,
26770,
13,
632,
3407,
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605,
1366,
12531,
276,
422,
262,
718,
6115,
900,
11,
7443,
286,
6025,
13,
632,
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281,
6376,
284,
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3182,
17046,
15343,
286,
326,
2106,
13,
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32,
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481,
1064,
326,
1690,
618,
24114,
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484,
481,
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26,
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612,
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617,
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922,
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326,
1730,
7525,
351,
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3925,
2877,
287,
2688,
6025,
13,
317,
3155,
286,
777,
16125,
389,
25,
5658,
9724,
270,
7920,
290,
11256,
28276,
11,
2688,
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] | 4,401 |
Your skin in the largest organ of your body, one of your first lines of defense from illness and can be a window into undiagnosed medical problems in your body. Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the U. S. affecting almost one in eight Americans.
Regular examination of the skin by both you and your doctor increases the chance of finding skin cancer early. Most skin cancer that appear in the skin can be seen by the naked eye. However there is a long period of time when the cancer grows beneath the top layer of skin but does not grow into the deeper skin layers. This period of slow growth allows time for skin cancer to be found early. Skin cancer may be completely cured if the tumor is found before it spreads deeper. Monthly self-examination of the skin may help find changes that should be reported to a doctor. Regular skin checks by a doctor are important for people who have already had skin cancer.
Beginning in 2005 Dr. Aaron Hartman began attending advanced dermatologic training courses sponsored by training centers including the University of Florida and the University of Miami in the diagnosis and treatment of skin disorders. This additional training includes over 600 hours of studies and didactic time. In addition he has also received training in advanced skin surgical procedures and techniques. During your office visit, if needed, he can perform a full body skin exam, any needed biopsies and address your skin concerns.
For information on performing a self skin exams and making your own personal Body Mole Map, download the following: BodyMoleMap.pdf
For a comprehensive online skin cancer resource please visit Skin Cancer Net.
For more information about specific skin disorders please visit the American Academy of Dermatology’s A-Z informational site. | [
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] | 354 |
Earlier chapters have presented all the key elements of an observer programme. This final chapter gives a brief overview on how to put all the elements together. Three aspects are considered: design, implementation and maintenance.
There are two main sets of influences that condition the framework of a programme.
Policy decisions (and complementary decisions at management, science, MCS/compliance and observer operations levels) - possibly reflected through the fishery management plan that lays down programme objectives.
The situation (or environment) within which the programme must function, i.e. the factors that will shape the programme strategy and ultimately define its success or failure.
Decisions that underlie an observer programme were outlined in the Introduction, and programme objectives were discussed in Chapter 1. It is important to define objectives in a way that is easy to understand, but which is sufficiently comprehensive to meet the needs of observer data users. Over-ambitious objectives may lead to disappointment within and outside of the observer programme.
Once the objectives have been defined, they must continually be assessed in terms of the functional environment of the programme. This involves attention to the following components.
a) Physical environment
Conditions of the area covered - e.g. temperate or tropical location of ports.
b) Biological environment
For example, the key species, by-catch and predictions of catch rates.
c) Fishing activity
The resource users e.g. vessel nationality, size of vessel, fishing methods.
d) Owner organization
Background information on the government FMA that will be home to the programme.
e) Other data collection programmes
Any other programmes that collect data for fisheries management.
f) The potential observers
Consider skills, abilities, professionalism and qualifications.
g) National level policies and objectives
Consider wider political, social and economic policies that may influence the programme, e.g. the need to address national employment problems, including gender or empowerment questions.
h) International level
Is the fishery sector party to any international or regional agreements that may influence the scope of the programme?
i) Legal instruments
What legal instruments exist, both informal and formal, such as acts, regulations, tribal rights, etc.?
l) Financing options
Where will the programme finance come from? If from donor support, how will donor objectives influence the strategy of the programme? If from industry, should joint management be considered?
Who will care about the programme? Draw up a list of all the possible stakeholders and consider current links and historic problems between them, and gauge their interest in the programme.
Assessment of the functional environment helps to clarify programme prospects and problems. These can be further clarified through SWOT analysis (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat analysis). SWOT analysis looks at all the aspects of the programme in relation to the required outputs and simply asks logical questions about the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (Table 16). SWOT analysis serves as a kind of reality check. Are threats too big to overcome or can they be overcome by opportunities? If the threats are considered too big, then should programme objectives be reconsidered?
The analysis might contribute to a background paper that defines the intentions and plans for the programme for circulation among potential stakeholders for feedback. A possible structure of a background paper would include:
Name of programme, background and objectives
Situation analysis and overall strategy
Proposed organization and delivery
How to address sustainability
This paper can also serve as a basis for securing donor assistance to the programme. Following feedback from stakeholders, decisions can be made on its feasibility or on any programme re-design.
Table 16 How to make a SWOT analysis
What are your advantages and
Consider this from your own point of view and from the point of view of the people you deal with. Be realistic.
What could be improved?
Again this should be considered from both an internal and external perspective. Do other people perceive weaknesses that you don't see? Do your colleagues do any better? It is best to be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible.
What good changes do you face?
Useful opportunities can come from such things as:
Changes in technology on both a broad
and narrow scale
What obstacles do you face?
Carrying out this analysis will often be illuminating - both in terms of pointing out what needs to be done, and in putting problems into perspective. Make a risk analysis by defining what could go wrong.
If the chances for a successful programme are deemed good, a project will be necessary in order to implement it. Project duration might be anywhere from one to five years, depending on the scale and scope of the programme to be established.
Planning is vital, and a project logical framework (logframe) approach should be used. A pilot phase, incorporating also pilot work on a sampling strategy (Section 4.5), should first be implemented. Trials during this phase will be used to establish work plans, working practices, codes of conduct, training manuals and guides, and consideration of employment options and other administrative systems for the programme. The pilot phase might run for any amount of time, but usually a period of 12 months should be sufficient to complete trial work.
Evaluation and revision of the project will occur in light of the lessons learnt during the pilot phase. This may require adjusting the objectives in relation to the initial mandate of the programme and what is practically achievable. Monitoring and evaluation as described in Chapter 3 should continue during the full project set-up phase and as the programme matures.
It will always be necessary to verify that the programme is producing quality data outputs to fulfil its objectives, that the objectives are still in tune with the management system for the fishery, and that an observer programme is still the best way to achieve these objectives.
Observer programme managers will always need to assure all stakeholders that the programme remains sustainable. This will require a dynamic and flexible approach to allow the programme to adapt to changing circumstances. This flexibility combined with contact with stakeholders, annual planning, target setting, annual review and feedback will help to assure sustainability.
The ownership of the programme will also have a major impact on sustainability; a good programme will have a broad ownership network. That means that the scientists, compliance officers, managers, industry and observers will all feel that the programme is theirs.
Realistic budgeting is also required for sustainability. The aim should always be to provide value for money, and in this respect every programme needs to find a balance between what it produces as outputs and the personnel and technology it employs. High-tech solutions may be right for one programme but not for another, but they are only tools to enable observers to do their work.
Outputs are what the programme will ultimately be judged on. Information quality and timeliness must almost become the motto of the programme, and every effort should be made to uphold it.
Finally, observers are always at the centre of every observer programme, and they will require recognition and reward when they have done a good job. Life at sea is often difficult, and support and feedback from the shore staff is vital to maintain morale and a sense of purpose in what can easily become a very monotonous existence. Knowing that they are part of a bigger picture and that their contribution is important and appreciated will motivate observers to achieve excellent results and to keep going under what can be very arduous conditions.
The ownership of the programme will also have a major impact on sustainability; a good programme will have a broad ownership network.
Your observers matter, treat them well (S.L. Davies). | [
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] | [
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] | 1,548 |
|No.4 October 2008|
|Crop Prospects and Food Situation|
North African countries have been seriously affected by high international cereal prices due to their high dependence on imports. Governments have implemented a series of measures aimed at offsetting the sharp increase in world prices, including the waiving of tariffs, price controls and subsidies, which have put a considerable strain on public finances. In Algeria for example the bread subsidy system is estimated to cost the Government about USD 50 million each month, while in Egypt total expenditure on subsidies (including food and energy subsidies) in fiscal year 2006/07 (July-June) was estimated to be 56 percent higher than in 2006/07. In spite of these measures high inflation continues to undermine purchasing power and limit access to food across the subregion. In Egypt, the most affected country, the year-on-year rate of inflation in urban areas reached 23.6 percent in August 2008 up from 6.9 percent in December 2007, driven mainly by price increases in the food sector where the year-on-year rate of inflation jumped from 8.6 percent in December 2007 to 30.9 percent percent in August 2008. The inflation rate for the country as a whole is much higher, estimated at 25.6 percent. Similarly, in Morocco and Tunisia, inflation remains relatively high although a slight decrease was observed in August. This year’s increased wheat production in the subregion, notably in Morocco and Egypt, is expected to ease the effects of rising international commodity prices on access to food in these countries.
Harvesting of the winter grains (mainly wheat and barley), which make up the bulk of the subregion's cereal crop, has been completed. FAO’s latest estimates put the subregion’s aggregate output of wheat (the main crop) at 15.6 million tonnes, 16 percent up from the previous year's drought-reduced level, while that of barley is put at some 3.16 million tonnes, about 8 percent up from 2007. In Egypt, the largest producer of the subregion, 2008 wheat output is about 9 percent up from last year’s average crop. In Algeria, the wheat crop is also estimated above average by about 7 percent. In Morocco, cereal production recovered significantly from last year's drought-reduced crop, although output remained below average. By contrast, in Tunisia in spite of Government incentives to farmers to increase production, wheat output declined about half, mainly as a consequence of insufficient soil moisture at planting and subsequent erratic rains in the main growing areas.
High and rising food prices continue to affect consumers’ purchasing power and access to food across the subregion in spite of the various measures taken by governments. Prices of imported rice have shown the highest increases. In Senegal, where rice is one of the major staple foods, the price in Dakar in July 2008 was more than double its level a year earlier. The situation is not better for domestically produced millet, the major staple in countries like Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso, as prices in August in Niamey, Bamako and Ouagadougou were about 39, 28 and 46 respectively above their levels a year ago . Cereal prices usually increase during the lean season when availability is limited and demand high, but they are also influenced this year by the exceptionally high levels of international commodity prices. Latest data show, however, that coarse grain prices have started declining in September in some countries, reflecting the arrival of new crop supplies from this year’s harvests in the markets. In Accra ( Ghana) for instance, the price of maize declined by 20 percent in September compared to August. Slight price decreases were also reported in several areas in Niger. Improved food supply is expected to lower prices further after widespread harvesting begins in October across the subregion.
In addition to measures taken by governments to support immediate food availability and access of the vulnerable to emergency food assistance, productivity enhancing safety nets have been provided in several countries, in most cases in the framework of large agricultural development initiatives. For instance, the target of Senegal’s Great Offensive for Food and Abundance (GOANA) is to more than double rice production to 500 000 tonnes this year. About 34 000 tonnes of subsidised fertilizer have been distributed as of late August according to the Ministry of Agriculture. Similarly, nearly 117 000 tonnes of fertilizer have been sold at subsidized prices in the framework of the Government of Mali’s “rice initiative” whose aim is to increase the country’s rice production by 50 percent in 2008/09. Several other Governments have launched similar programmes in recent months, which included inputs distribution to farmers. Although there are very few yield and area data available now to assess the impact of these programmes, early forecasts point to substantial increases in areas planted to food crops. According to the results of the mid-term assessment carried out by the Government of Mali in August, the area planted with rice increased by over 53 percent compared to last year. The coarse grains area is also estimated to have increased significantly. Similar trends are anticipated in other countries. Moreover, since the beginning of the growing season rains and soil moisture have been generally adequate to allow satisfactory development of crops. Indeed, rains were so abundant in some cases that localized flooding was reported in August in several countries. In particular, precipitation has been sufficient and well distributed in Nigeria, the largest producer of the subregion.
In short, overall early crop prospects are favourable in Western Africa and the current tight food situation is expected to ease somewhat from October onwards, provided favourable weather conditions continue through October.
In Cameroon and the Central African Republic, harvesting of the first maize crop is nearly complete in southern parts, while the later maturing cereal crops are generally developing satisfactorily in northern areas. Rains and soil moisture have been generally adequate since the beginning of the cropping season, allowing satisfactory development of crops. Larger domestic crops in 2008 would ease the impact of rising international commodity prices. In the Central African Republic, however, agricultural recovery continues to be hampered by persistent civil unrest and inadequate availability of agricultural inputs, notably in northern parts where nearly 300 000 people have reportedly been uprooted from their homes over the past two years. Continuing insecurity in both Chad and the Darfur region of Sudan threaten to further destabilize the situation in northern parts of the country.
The harvesting of the 2008 main season cereal crops has been concluded in Somalia and Uganda, while it is well underway in Kenya and Tanzania. In Ethiopia the harvest of the secondary “belg” crop has been recently completed. The harvest of the main 2008 cereal crops in Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, sown earlier in the year, will start in few weeks’ time.
Successive seasons of poor rainfall in parts of Kenya and Ethiopia and inadequate rainfall from April to June 2008 in Somalia, has led to the failure of seasonal crop production, deterioration of pastures and low availability of drinking water. September rains in southern Somalia and western Kenya have eased conditions but more rainfall is needed for water supplies and pastures to recovery.
In Eritrea, the 2008 main “Kiremti” season cereal harvest will start soon. While poor rains in June had delayed the start of the season in both the traditional and mechanized sectors of Gash Barka, Debub and Maekel regions, about normal rains in July had a positive impact on the vegetation growth. However, satellite imagery indicates a vegetation index lower than average in North Red Sea region, reflecting below-average rains during the first months of the year. Thus, despite an increase in the area sown, the aggregate output of cereals, mainly sorghum and millet, is expected to be similar to last year’s crop. Notwithstanding significant increases in the last few years, domestic cereal production is inadequate to cover the requirements and large quantities of cereals have to be imported.
In Ethiopia, The poor secondary season “belg” rains led to delayed plantings and partial failure of the crop that was recently harvested, particularly in lowlands of Oromiya, Somali and SNNP regions. Although this crop accounts for only a small portion of the total national cereal production, in Amhara and Tigray regions, where output is severely reduced, a large number of people depend on this crop for about half of their annual food consumption.
After a late start to the current main “meher” season rains, precipitation began to increase in July improving crops and pasture conditions. However, notwithstanding the continued rains in August and early September, deficits remain in localized areas in Tigray and Afar. To the south, in the northern areas of Oromiya and Somali regions, unusual early September rains have benefited pastures and drinking water supplies.
In Kenya, the long rains maize season in the grain basket started well in April but the rains were irregular up to mid-June, followed by a dry spell before they resumed in July. Those farmers who could afford the use of adequate fertilizer are expecting a good crop but, on average, maize output from the grain basket is expected to be lower than the previous season’s as a result of erratic rainfall, reduced area, rising prices of fuel and agricultural inputs and the high cost of labour. In addition, in January, most farmers were displaced following the civil unrest and those not affected were able to cultivate only a portion of their farm due to the increased cost of agricultural inputs. The Ministry of Agriculture has estimated the long-rains maize production this year at 2.25 million tonnes, 11 percent lower than in the 2007/08 season. The output from the short-rains maize crop to be sown soon - should rains start on time and be adequate for the rest of the season – is forecast at an average level of 360 000 tonnes. In an effort to increase cereal production the Government has initiated a number of projects which include diversification of crops, intervention in the input supply with provision of seeds, tractors for hire and a credit facility for the farmers. In addition, the Government has recently announced to have set aside about USD 140 million to subsidize the imports of fertilizers, the cost of which increased considerably immediately after the post-election violence earlier in the year.
In Somalia, the main “gu” season cereal crop, recently harvested, has largely failed as a result of a late start and poor performance of the rains in most parts of the country. According to the Somalia Food Security Analysis Unit (FSAU), the 2008 Gu cereal production, estimated at 85 000 tonnes, is about 42 percent below the post-war (1995-2007) average and follows two below-average seasons (Gu 2007 and Deyr 2007/08).
The overall poor performance of the Gu rains has also contributed to a deepening drought and water crisis in pastoral areas. Light rains in early June led to a replenishment of water resources but arrived too late to benefit the crop. Subsequent heavy rains have caused some flooding in Mogadishu. Dry conditions have prevailed also in the central pastoral regions of Galagadud and Hiran as well as in several pastoral areas of the north.
In Sudan, prospects for the main sorghum and millet crops to be harvested towards the end of the year are uncertain due to delayed onset of the rains. After a below-normal rainfall in July, precipitation began to increase in August. These rains had mixed consequences: caused floods in parts of Kassala State in the east and in parts of Aweil, East Twic, and Nassir, but alleviate persistent dryness in Upper Nile and Jonglei states and improved pasture conditions in Kapoeta. The area planted for the current season is reported to be average and the availability of agricultural inputs is reported as normal to above normal. Rains during the remainder of the season will be critical for the final outcome of the crops.
In the United Republic of Tanzania, the harvesting of maize is complete in the southern lowlands, but continues in the bimodal and unimodal growing areas. Reflecting normal rains, the output is expected to be slightly higher than last year and some 18 percent more than the average of the past five years. The good harvest is expected to meet national food requirements, putting downward pressure on wholesale cereal prices, which are already reported to have declined.
In Uganda, harvesting of the main coarse grain crops is near completion. Normal rains in most of the country’s growing areas point to a normal crop and livestock production. In contrast, severely reduced outputs, for the second consecutive year, are expected in the poor Karamoja region where many farmers have not planted their crops due to delayed and erratic March-September rains.
Food security in the subregion continues to worsen as a result of crop failures, trade disruptions, high food and non-food prices, conflicts, and inadequate availability of food, water and pasture. In several countries, needs continue to rise while food aid pipelines face shortages. As a result, a high level of food insecurity is reported in large areas of a number of countries.
In Djibouti, four consecutive poor rainy seasons, high staple food prices, soaring inflation and lack of adequate Government and donor resources, led to significant reductions in poor household food consumption in both rural and urban areas. Some 340 000 people, nearly half of the population, are reported to be currently in need of assistance. Limited food availability and access have resulted in mass migration of households to urban areas, rising level of child malnutrition and increased livestock mortality. In addition, urban and rural populations are facing severe water shortages which, in urban areas have resulted in water rationing. The most vulnerable and food-insecure people are in the north-west and south-east, where households depend heavily on livestock for food and income.
In response to the emergency, WFP started the distribution of food rations to 55 000 people in rural pastoral areas. Other interventions urgently needed to prevent a further deterioration in the food security conditions include: food distribution to cover all 155 000 rural residents in need; restocking and asset-building programmes; resources to increase the number of feeding distribution centres countrywide and, in urban areas, a voucher or cash-for-work programme and intensive water delivery by tanker.
In Eritrea, the current high food prices and inflation continue to affect a large number of vulnerable people while new and continuing regional tension could lead to further massive displacement and humanitarian needs. Disease outbreaks including cholera and malaria remain a concern. This condition will be further aggravated by the inadequate safe water sources and sanitation facilities and other endemic diseases, such as yellow fever and meningitis.
In Ethiopia, poor secondary season "belg" rains and a late start to the current main "meher" season rains have created a rather alarming food situation. More than 10 million people have been affected by the drought which, between January and May, has hit large sections of southern, central, western and north-eastern Ethiopia. The drought led to the failure of a harvest that has left 4.6 million people needing emergency food aid and 5.7 million in drought-affected areas requiring other handouts such as additional cash or food transfers. On 22 September 2008,WFPlaunched an appeal to the international donor communities for USD 460 million to feed 9.6 million people affected by drought, rising food prices and conflict. About one-fourth of the people in need live in the arid and troubled Somali regions in the east where has not rained for three years.
Large numbers of livestock have died and unusual migrations in search of water and pasture are reported in several parts of the country, particularly in the Somali region. By contrast, western Ethiopia has experienced abundant and well distributed rains since the season started in late March. WFP reports some improvement in the nutritional situation in parts of southern Oromiya and SNNPR due to a combination of food aid interventions and the start of green harvest of maize, potato and haricot beans. Livestock conditions have also reportedly improved in most areas. However, the supply situation remains critical in most areas. Gode, Zafder, Korahe, Warder and Liben zones in Somali region continue to report critical water and food shortages. Increased level of migration, reduced daily food intake, poor livestock conditions and subsequent mortalities are also reported. A recent report released by the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) indicates that the food inflation rate in August was 46.9 percent, an increase of 28.3 percent compared to the food inflation rate in August 2007, but lower than the previous three months of this year. By contrast, the country’s overall level of inflation rate has been steadily increasing over the past six months to reach in August 33.6 percent – more than double the rate in August 2007- from 29.6 percent in July. In an effort to reduce the impact of the high food inflation rate on poor people, the Government decided to cancel the value-added and turnover taxes on food grains and flour - which constitute more than half of the country’s consumption. The Government has also set up measures which include provision of direct and indirect subsidies, and has spent ETB 372 million (USD 38 million) to subsidize wheat and ETB 3.52 billion (USD 366 million) to subsidize fuel.
In Kenya, according to a recent national food security assessment prepared by the Kenya Food Security Steering Group (KFSSG), the food supply situation of more than 5 million people in urban slums and rural areas will deteriorate further in the coming six months if external support is not granted. In rural areas the people in need are estimated at 1.38 million and the slum-dwellers are between 3.5 to 4.1 million. The worst affected are the people living in the pastoral areas of the Northern and Rift Valley regions such as Turkana, Mandera, Samburu, Baringo, Marsabit, Wajir, Moyale and Garissa. Other areas affected include the agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural areas and Tana River in the eastern and coastal parts of the country.
According to the KFSSG report, the current food insecurity is mainly due to the poor performance of the long-rains season compounded by the spread of the Peste de Petits Ruminants (PPR) livestock disease, sharp increases in food and non-food prices, and escalating conflicts over water and pasture in drought-affected areas in northern Kenya.
In Somalia, the evolving humanitarian disaster is one of the worst in world. The scale, magnitude and speed at which the crisis is deteriorating are alarming and profound. Within the first six months of this year the number of people requiring emergency livelihood and humanitarian support increased 77 percent, from 1.83 million to 3.25 million, affecting 43 percent of the entire population of the country. The rapidly deteriorating humanitarian situation is due to a combination of several issues which include: increasing food prices, a significant devaluation of the Somali Shilling, disruption of internal markets and internal trade, massive displacement (currently estimated by FSAU at more than 1.1 million), and mounting civil insecurity. Moreover, the extreme current food insecurity is being exacerbated by reduced humanitarian access which - at a time of sharply increased requirements in the last few months - has held back response actions. In the southern and central regions, where almost three-quarters of the people in need of vital humanitarian aid are present, armed groups attack aid workers, severely restraining the extent and range of humanitarian activities. Urban and rural households in these areas have already utilized most coping mechanism to react to the current crisis caused by crop failure - as a result of below-normal April-June rains - high food and fuel prices, and continued unrest.
In Sudan, households in the eastern parts of the south remain highly food insecure due to food shortages as a result of crop losses, isolation from markets, and insecurity. Following armed conflict on 13 and 14 May 2008, an estimated 50 000 people fled from Abyei. Most of these people moved into households of relatives and friends, leading to 40 000 more people from the host communities being vulnerable and bringing the total number of people in need of relief assistance to 72 300. Displacements and loss of livelihoods are expected to continue in the western region of Darfur. Overall, the conflict affected and displaced populations and vulnerable residents in Darfur, returnees in South Sudan, in the East and Three Areas, and refugees in the East have been identified by WFP as the primary groups requiring international assistance due to the continuing conflict in Darfur and the post-conflict settlement problems in other areas of the country. The requirements of 5.9 million people most adversely affected have been estimated at 677 990 tonnes of food.
In Uganda, according to a report of the Ministry of Disaster Preparedness released in mid-September, many areas of the country in the next two months could be hit by heavy rainfall. The report indicates that the epicentre of the rainfall is expected to be in eastern Uganda where 3.5 million people are recovering after last year’s floods that destroyed their crops. Should the rains materialize, this would have a negative impact on the highly food insecure district of Karamoja where more than 700 000 people are food insecure and in need of emergency food aid as a result of prolonged insecurity, falling livestock prices, a severe attack of honeydew on sorghum, flood damage in 2007 and high cost of agricultural inputs. Compared to 2004 the current price of a 50 kg bag of nitrogen has risen three times. The Government has provided some farm equipment and seeds to farmers, but the population still needs food relief to bridge supplies up to the next harvest. Recent surveys indicate acute malnutrition at over 15 percent in Moroto and Nakapiripirit districts. Adequate food stocks and market supplies are ensuring constant food security in other bimodal areas of the country.
The prices of main staples throughout the subregion continue to be well above the long-term average. However, prices have started to decline in Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania and parts of Uganda in response to increased availability from new crop supplies and the effects of government measures adopted to improve domestic availability.
In Eritrea, prices for food in Asmara have steadily increased since July 2007 reflecting the general rises in international markets. The retail price of wheat flour in July 2008, quoted at USD 1 821 per tonne was more than double the price prevailing a year earlier. In Ethiopia, grain prices continued to increase in 2008 after weakening slightly at the end of 2007. Since food prices in Ethiopia have continued to increase despite successive bumper harvests, it is unlikely that prices will decline after the “meher” harvest, which will start soon. Thus, there are other factors, in addition to supply and demand forces, that contribute to the price rises in Ethiopia. Some of the reasons include: high liquidity in the economy, high fuel prices, an inadequate grain market system and price speculation. The price of wheat in Addis Ababa in July increased to USD 643 per tonne from USD 623 per tonne in June. In the same market, white maize was quoted in July at USD 563 per tonne compared to USD 536 per tonne a month earlier
In Kenya, the price of maize in August in the Nairobi market, quoted at USD 319 per tonne, was some 16 percent lower than the peak of USD 379 reached in May this year. Similarly, the price of maize in the Mombasa market in August declined to USD 329 per tonne compared with the peak of USD 363 per tonne in June this year. In Somalia, poor consecutive harvests, growing demand from IDPs, increased civil insecurity, rising price of fuel and international food commodities, and market disruptions resulted in a sharp increases in food prices. Recently, the price of imported sorghum and imported brown rice was reported to have increased five times and four times, respectively, compared to the prices prevailing a year earlier. In Sudan, the wholesale price of wheat in Khartoum, which fluctuated between USD 541.56 per tonne and USD 733.68 per tonne in the period October 2007 and February 2008, had increased to USD 766.79 per tonne in April; in June declined to USD 604.78 per tonne, to rise again to USD 752.41 per tonne in July. In southern Sudan, sorghum prices have increased in response to seasonal shortage of cereals, growing demand for IDPs, insecurity and high cost of transportation linked to the rainy season. These price trends are likely to continue until the green harvest of crops starts.
In the United Republic of Tanzania, the price of staple commodities is declining steadily in response to increased domestic stocks, following the maize harvest in the southern lowlands, and the continued export ban. However, prices are still above the five-year average primarily due to high fuel and transportation costs. Wholesale price of maize in Dar-es-Salaam declined from the peak of USD 335 per tonne in January 2008 to USD 239 per tonne in August. In Uganda, despite a harvested average crop, the retail price of maize in Kampala, after a decline in June to USD 259 per tonne, has risen again to USD 295 per tonne in August. However, in other maize producing areas, such as Arua, maize prices are reported to be lower than both last year’s levels and the long-term average.
The revised estimate of 2008 total cereal production (including forecasts for small amounts of wheat output of the current secondary season in a few countries) shows that the subregion harvested a record level of cereals. This, however, is primarily due to a significant increase in maize and other cereal harvest in South Africa. Excluding South Africa the aggregate output of the other countries was down compared to last year, although it remained above the five-year average (see Figures 6 and 7). A recovery in output from the previous poor year also in Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana and Mozambique did not offset reduced crops in Zambia, Malawi, Angola and Zimbabwe. Production of maize, the main staple crop in the subregion, is estimated at 20.2 million tonnes in 2008, some 28 percent higher than the less than satisfactory outcome of the previous year.
In South Africa, by far the largest producer of the subregion, the 2008 maize and total cereal harvests show 70 percent and 56 percent increases, respectively, compared to the drought affected harvests of the previous year.
According to FAO, in spite of the bumper crop in the subregion the cereal import requirement is estimated up slightly in the 2008/09 marketing year compared to 2007/08. Excluding South Africa, the maize and total cereal import requirements of the subregion are estimated to rise steeply by 43 percent and 13 percent, respectively (see Figures 8 and 9). As a result of the significant drop in per capita domestic cereal availability combined with significant reduction in commercial import capacity due to the high food and fuel prices, demand on food aid, especially for maize, is estimated to increase substantially.
As far as the speed at which the imports are acquired in the subregion is concerned, it seems that import of maize, whose export price from South Africa has remained relatively stable, has arrived (or is contracted) at a faster rate this year compared to the same time last year (see Table 5). By contrast, given that the international prices of wheat and rice have risen much more this year compared to the last, the import acquisition of these cereals has occurred at a slower pace.
Prices of the main cereal maize, in US dollar terms, remain higher at the start of this new marketing year than at the same time last year due to strong international and regional demand in most countries in Southern Africa , except in South Africa, where following a bumper harvest, the price of maize has weakened somewhat. In Malawi, prices continued to rise in recent months, largely attributed to private traders’ speculation on markets; the spike in the price in April 2008 seems to have been an exaggerated reaction of the market due to the uncertain and conflicting early forecast of the 2008 harvest. In Mozambique, prices in all regions have increased due to rising transportation costs, strong demand by local millers and the lack of government food reserves.
In Madagascar, the national average price of rice this year is higher than the corresponding months last year. The post-harvest rice price has started to go up in June, earlier than usual. The price of imported rice, although increased over the same period but without the significant dip during the post harvest period as observed for the local rice.
Harvesting of the main rice crop is completed or drawing to a close in the subregion. Given the incentive of attractive prices and following good precipitation throughout the season across most of the subregion, FAO forecasts the 2008 aggregate output of rice at 403.3 million tonnes, 7.1 million tonnes above the previous year’s record. The major increase is expected from Bangladesh, India, China, Indonesia, Viet Nam, and the Philippines. In China (Mainland), the 2008 paddy output is expected to reach another record at 187.3 million tonnes, compared to the 185.5 record of the previous year. The Government announced in September an increase in the minimum support price to CNY 1 580 per tonne for Indica rice (middle and late) and CNY 1 640 per tonne for Japonica rice, up by CNY 140 per tonne, respectively. In India, the 2008 southwest monsoon was close to the long-term average until the middle of September. The region-wise distribution of rains, too, has been satisfactory for agriculture. The 2008 milled rice output is tentatively forecast at 98 million tonnes, compared to the 96.4 million tonnes of last year.
Harvesting of 2008 winter wheat was completed throughout the subregion. FAO estimates a good season as a whole with the 2008 aggregate output of wheat at 215 million tonnes, 3.5 million tonnes above the previous year. However, the production situation was mixed at the country level. Good crops are estimated in China and India, but very bad harvests are reported in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan.
In China (Mainland), the 2008 aggregate wheat output is estimated at a record 112.5 million tonnes, 2.4 percent above the previous record set last year, reflecting Government support and favourable weather. Similarly a good wheat crop was collected in India, with the 2008 output estimated at a record 78.0 million tonnes, the highest in the last 8 years and 2.2 million tonnes above the previous record set last year, as a result of favourable weather and increased inputs available during the main growing season. This production is expected to be adequate for the domestic demand in 2008/09 after large imports in the past two years. The country imported some 6.7 million tonnes of wheat in 2006/07 (April/March) and then some 2 million tonnes in 2007/08. In contrast to the record production in China and India, the 2008 wheat crop registered a significant reduction in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Pakistan’s wheat output in 2008 is now estimated at 21 million tonnes, 1.5 million tonnes lower than last year, as a result of reduced area due to sowing delays, less availability of irrigation water, substandard seeds, and high fertilizer prices. The 2008 wheat output in the Islamic Republic of Iran is estimated to fall by some 5 million tonnes to 10 million tonnes from last year’s record because of dry conditions.
Cyclone Nargis struck Myanmar on 2 and 3 May 2008 with winds up to 200 km per hour, sweeping through the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) delta region and the country’s main city and former capital. The adverse impact of the cyclone on household food security has been significant with many families having lost their food stocks. With scarce employment opportunities and the next harvest to take place only in November, there is an urgent need to provide relief food until households can recover their livelihoods. A joint FAO/WFP team will visit the country in October to assess the 2008/09 crop and food supply situation and needs for food aid and agricultural assistance. The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea continues to suffer chronic food insecurity, high malnutrition rates and economic problems, and remains reliant on external food assistance to meet the needs of its 23 million people. The WFP/FAO Rapid Food Security Assessment (RFSA) conducted in June 2008 confirmed a significant deterioration in food security in most parts of the country. Harvesting of rice, the most important cereal in the country, is underway. The poor, especially those living in urban areas, have also been affected by the soaring food and fuel prices. Nepal faces a precarious food situation as a result of crop failure due to drought and recent floods in parts of the country. In August, tens of thousands of people in eastern Nepal have been displaced due to a breach in the banks of the Koshi River which flooded the area. Since 19 September, the incessant downpours in western Nepal have triggered floods and landslides that have claimed at least 38 lives and left around 90 missing. In the affected districts of the Far Western and Mid-Western regions 180 000 people have been reportedly displaced. Despite a bumper crop this season expected in Sri Lanka, the country’s food security situation continues to be affected by the resurgence of civil conflict, as well as rising cereal prices. Since the beginning of 2008, more than 7 000 people have been reportedly killed in fighting and the security situation has deteriorated. Rice and wheat flour prices in June 2008 in Colombo city increased by 67 percent and 75 percent, respectively, compared to the same period in 2007.
An earthquake of magnitude 8 on 12 May rocked the south-western province of Sichuan in China, the worst in 30 years. Recent figures indicate that over 69 000 people were killed, more than 374 000 people injured and over 18 457 are still missing. Some 4.5 million families lost their homes in the earthquake. Some 1 million urban households have moved into transitional houses and most of the 3.5 million rural families have reportedly rebuilt their transitional homes through their own efforts with Government subsidy. Typhoon Fengshen in the Philippines on 18 June 2008 compounded the effects of the southwest monsoon, triggering landslides, flooding and storm surges, bringing severe damage to infrastructure and agriculture. Latest figures from the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) indicate the more then 4 million people were directly affected, some 81 000 houses completely destroyed and over 326 000 damaged.
Based on a recent FAO assessment, the overall food supply situation in Timor-Leste is satisfactory. Crop production is expected to be better compared to last year, reflecting relatively good weather conditions and high market prices. Imported rice is available widely throughout the country. The Government is expected to import more rice and continue to provide the subsidy for the transportation cost for the districts. However, the insecurity situation needs to be monitored in Timor-Leste, due to country’s high dependence on cereal imports, social instability, and the high unemployment rate. Wheat and barley are the main crops cultivated during the winter period in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Harvesting of wheat was complete in August and the 2008 wheat output is estimated to have fallen by some 5 million tonnes from last year’s record to 10 million tonnes, the lowest in the last six years, as a result of drought conditions in the coutry as well as crop damage due to winter frost. With this reduced production, wheat imports in 2008/09 (April/March) may rise to 5 million tonnes. This would represent the largest level of imports in six years during which time the country remained largely self-sufficient in wheat. In Bangladesh, large-scale humanitarian relief operations are still ongoing to assist the 1.5 million people most affected by Cyclone Sidr, which hit up to 30 districts on 15 November. The reduction in 2007 paddy production and rising food prices are significantly impacting the food security of the vulnerable population in both urban and rural areas.
Prices of staple foods remain high and volatile in several countries in Asia (figures 12 and 13). In Sri Lanka, rice prices declined with the good 2008 paddy harvest in March but by August were almost twice their level of a year earlier. Similarly, in Nepal, the rice price declined from its peak in March following the harvesting of the main season paddy crop, but subsequently increased from May and by September was 85 percent above the same period last year. In Pakistan prices have risen sharply and were very volatile since February 2008. In Bangladesh, the rice price declined from its peak in May following a record main season paddy crop, but subsequently increased.
In Iraq, generally unfavourable weather for most of the growing season led to drastically reduced 2008 winter grain production and created new uncertainties about the safety of drinking water. The aggregate output of wheat and barley crops is estimated at 1.9 million tonnes, some 40 percent lower than the average level in 2007 and the smallest crop in recent history. Thus, imports of wheat in the year ending in June 2009, are anticipated to increase to about 3.8 million tonnes, against 3.6 million tonnes estimated for the previous year. Many Iraqi refugees in Jordan and Syrian Arab Republic have decided to return to their homes encouraged by the improved security situation and financial incentives offered by the Government to help them resettle, particularly in Baghdad. The incentives are mostly for travel expenses and for financial help and compensation for those whose properties were damaged during their absence. The Iraqi Ministry of Health continues to fight an outbreak of cholera that had spread in late August resulting in casualties in central and southern areas.
In the Syrian Arab Republic, poor and irregular rains during the 2007/08 growing season have threatened the food security of farmers and herders in the affected areas and seriously jeopardized their livelihoods and nutritional status. A recent UN Inter-Agency (FAO, WFP, WHO, UNICEF and IOM) Drought Impact Assessment Mission has reported that, this year, the average yield of wheat, barley, lentil and chickpeas dropped by some 32 percent in the irrigated areas and as much as 89.9 percent in the rain-fed areas. The total wheat production in 2008 was estimated at 2.0 million tonnes, half the poor crop harvested last year and below average for the third consecutive year. As a result of inadequate pastures herders sold their animals for 60-70 percent below the normal prices and in many areas they even exhausted their herds. The Government has responded by distributing feed on loan to be repaid next season, as well as providing free veterinary assistance and vaccines. Moreover, the Government distributed food rations to 27 000 families. Reduced availability of wheat and barley has contributed to further increases in prices of food items in the market. This has adversely affected household incomes and purchasing power of the people particularly in the drought-affected areas. The Mission has estimated at some 1 million the food insecure people in north-eastern Syria where also availability of drinking water has considerably decreased. The situation is not expected to improve until the spring of 2009 when the crops now being sown will be harvested. Considering that the needed assistance is beyond government capacity and resources, the Inter-Agency Mission has launched an appeal for USD 20.23 million to address the emergency humanitarian needs and prevent further negative impacts on about 1 million drought-affected people for a period of six months (October 2008-March 2009).
The Government of Yemen has recently appealed to the international community for funds to provide humanitarian assistance to internally displaced people (IDPs) affected by the four-year conflict in the northern governorate of Saada as well as affected areas in Amran. In addition, the appeal also addresses the rehabilitation of infrastructure and houses damaged in the conflict. Out of an initial requirement for USD 190 million, the Government has contributed USD 55 million. The rest represents the gap that should be filled by the donor community. WFP in Yemen has recently launched a USD 30 million emergency programme to offset the high prices of food staples that are hitting food insecure people. The objective of the operation is to mitigate the impact of high food prices and reduce acute malnutrition. The programme addresses the needs of some 700 000 people, with the focus on children between two and five and pregnant/lactating women. The output from the 2008 sorghum and millet crops, now being harvested, is estimated at 630 000 tonnes and 129 000 tonnes, respectively. Overall favourable weather, adequate availability of agricultural inputs and above-average plantings, led to a 2008 production higher than both last year and the average for the previous five years. Imports of cereals in 2009 – mostly wheat - are forecast to increase slightly to 3.1 million tonnes.
In Afghanistan, the 2008 cereal harvest is officially estimated at 3.8 million tonnes, well below average and one-third less than in 2007 mostly reflecting unfavourable weather at both planting time and during the growing season. Wheat output is estimated at only 2.6 million tonnes (2007:4.3 million tonnes).
As a result, the cereal import requirement in 2008/09 is estimated at 2.3 million tonnes more than double the almost 1 million tonnes imported in 2007/08. Wheat imports account for 2.2 million tonnes. The commercial import capacity is estimated at 1.5 million tonnes leaving 0.7 million tonnes to be mobilized with assistance. In recognition of the severity of the grain production shortfall, the Government and the United Nations have appealed to the world community to donate USD 400 million to cover the sizeable wheat import and food aid needs of approximately 4.5 million affected Afghans, as well as to prepare for the next winter cropping season beginning this month.
A bitterly cold winter, below-normal precipitation and shortages of irrigation water have adversely affected crop yields in southern parts of central Asia. The 2008 harvests are well below average in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. In the case of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, this is the second poor harvest in succession. In Kazakhstan the 2008 cereal harvest is provisionally forecast at 17 million tonnes, 3 million tonnes less than last year’s near record but still above average. The ban on wheat exports, introduced on 15 April, 2008 has been lifted with effect on 1 September. This should assist the neighbouring drought affected countries to mobilize their wheat import needs. However, purchasing power, rather than supply of grains, is the limiting factor in the food security situation in this region. Uzbekistan was also affected by the drought but to a lesser extent. The harvest is officially reported to be over 6 million tonnes, about average but less than last year. By contrast growing conditions in the Caucasus have been satisfactory this year and Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia have good harvests for the second year in succession.
The aggregate output of cereals in the region is 29.9 million tonnes, about average but 4 million tonnes less than production in 2007. Output of wheat is provisionally estimated at 24.4 million tonnes, 3.1 million tonnes less than last year. Production of coarse grains, at 4.8 million tonnes, is also less (5.7 million tonnes in 2007). Output of rice is estimated to be close to last year’s level.
The 2008 aggregate cereal output of the subregion is forecast by FAO at 41.5 million tonnes, about 800 000 tonnes more than the previous year’s record level and above the average of the last five years. In Mexico, harvesting of the 2008 main rain-fed summer coarse grain crops, accounting for some 75 percent of the annual production, is expected to start from late October in the states of Guanajuato, Mexico, Jalisco and Puebla. Seasonal production is expected to be very similar to the record level obtained in 2007 as a consequence of widespread use of better seed varieties and higher sowing density that improved average yields. In addition, the country is receiving normal to above-normal monsoon rains that maintained favourable soil moisture levels across the main producing areas. The same positive situation is reported in the case of sorghum crop with a record output at 6.2 million tonnes. Land is being prepared for planting the important winter wheat crop for harvest in 2009 in the almost fully irrigated areas of north-western states.
In Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama, harvesting of the 2008 first season maize crop is well underway and planting of the second season crops, especially beans, has already begun. In these countries, 2008 aggregate maize output is provisionally estimated at about 3.5 million tonnes, some 10 percent above the good level of 2007, as a result of the various governmental programmes to support local production against the rise of international food prices.
In the Caribbean, the islands of Hispaniola, Jamaica and Cuba were hit by four tropical storms (named Fay, Gustav, Hanna and Ike) in less than four weeks, between mid-August and mid-September, which caused severe damages to urban and rural infrastructures and losses of human lives. In Haiti, where about 850 000 people have been affected and more than 400 people died, early assessments of food situation report damages to summer season crops still to be harvested, such as maize and beans, and to banana plantations, especially in south and south-east regions and in the Artibonite valley. Practically the same crops have been affected in central and southern provinces of the Dominican Republic. In Jamaica, the Ministry of Agriculture has reported severe damage to banana plantations, especially in the eastern parishes of St. Mary, St. Thomas and Portland where losses are estimated at about 70-85 percent of the existing crop. In Cuba, major agricultural losses are reported in the Isla de la Juventud and the western province of Pinar del Rio, but also in the eastern provinces of Holguín and Las Tunas. Staple crops as plantains, cassava, rice, maize and sugar cane crops have been seriously affected and the damage caused by hurricane Ike alone is officially estimated at about 490 000 tonnes of staple food. In addition, about half a million chickens have been lost. In all Caribbean countries, there is high concern for the next two months until the end of the hurricane season because food vulnerability has increased dramatically, soils are widely saturated and even only limited amounts of rainfall can have very negative consequences on local livelihoods and food supply.
In most countries of the subregion, the price of rice continues its upward trend, which started at the beginning of 2007 (figure 14). As of August 2008, the price of rice was between 25 and 90 percent up compared to earlier months, while prices of wheat and maize have showed a slight decrease since July. The situation is expected to adversely affect food access of the poorest households who are highly dependent on purchased food.
Harvesting of the 2008 winter wheat crop has recently started in centre-south states of Brazil and in Paraguay and will continue until November. By the end of October, harvesting is expected to start in the important growing areas of Argentina and Uruguay. Aggregate wheat production for the subregion is tentatively forecast at 21 million tonnes, about 1.5 million tonnes below the average of the last five years. The aggregate planted area is reported at a low level of 8.2 million hectares, largely as a consequence of the prolonged drought that affected Argentina since May. The most affected departments are Córdoba, southern Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, Chaco and La Pampa, where cumulative precipitation from May to September was the lowest in the last forty years. As a result of the very limited soil moisture, planting operations have been delayed and planted area is estimated at 4.6 million hectares, the lowest area since 1996. In addition, dryness and frequent freezing temperatures are preventing a uniform germination and proper establishment of crops in the most affected areas, with negative consequences on yields that, in some cases, may drop up to 40 percent compared to previous year. However in south-eastern Buenos Aires department, the largest wheat producing region, yield prospects are still favourable due to near to above normal precipitations in August. On the contrary, in Brazil, good weather conditions in main producing states of Parana and Rio Grande do Sul and a widespread increase in planted area (up to 30 percent in Parana) as a response to high international prices are positively influencing current production that is expected to reach 5.4 million tonnes, the largest wheat crop since 2004.
Harvesting of the 2008 second season maize crop has been completed in August and the 2008 aggregate production (first and second season) is estimated at a record 89.4 million tonnes, some 6 percent above the previous record set last year. As in 2007, this good output is due to an increase in the area planted in response to high international prices, coupled with excellent weather conditions during the growing season that boosted yields to record levels. In particular, the 2008 aggregate maize output in Brazil, the main producer in the subregion, is officially estimated at 58.6 million tonnes, about 13 percent above the record level obtained in 2007 and 33 percent above last five years average.
Planting of the important 2009 summer maize crop has started in southern countries of the subregion and will be concluded by mid-October. In Argentina, official planting intentions point to an area of about 2.7 million hectares, some 15 percent less than last year as a consequence of relatively high prices of inputs, low internal prices and export limits imposed by the government that may induce a shift toward more profitable crops such as soybean and sunflower. Moreover, if current dry weather conditions persist in key growing areas, the total planted area may be further reduced. Better precipitations are also needed in central Brazil and Uruguay, where soil moisture is not yet ideal for planting 2009 summer season secondary cereal crops.
The United States’ 2008 wheat output is officially estimated to have increased by about 21 percent from last year to 68 million tonnes. A sharp expansion of planted area and favourable weather contributed to raise output well above the average of the past five years. As of early October, planting of the winter wheat crop for harvest in 2009 was reported to be almost complete in some of the southern states and about 60 percent complete over the country as a whole, which is about average for this stage of the season. Planting conditions throughout are reported to be generally favourable. However, with a significant improvement in the global wheat supply situation estimated in 2008/09, wheat prices have been on the decline since June. Additionally, input costs are expected to remain high or increase for the next production season, thus, wheat production is expected to be a less attractive prospect for producers in 2009 than it has been this year and the area planted is expected to decline from the high level in 2007/08. With regard to coarse grains, as of early October, the progress of the maize harvest was well behind average because of this season’s slow pace of maturation. However, the crop remains in good to excellent conditions, and is mostly beyond the point where early frosts could have any significant impact on yields. This year’s maize output is now officially forecast at 306.7 million tonnes, about 8 percent below the record high last year.
In Canada, a cool rainy summer slowed crop development but was favourable for boosting yields. As a result, harvest results are reported to be better than expected earlier in the season. Official estimates in early October put the total wheat output at 27.3 million tonnes, about 36 percent up from last year’s reduced crop. Prospects for this year’s coarse grain crops (mainly barley, maize and oats)have similarly improved over the past weeks, but output is, nevertheless, forecast to be below last year’s level at 26.1 million tonnes after a reduction in maize area.
The forecast for the European Union’s aggregate cereal output in 2008 has been raised significantly since the previous report in July, to 309 million tonnes, almost 19 percent up from the aggregate output of the 27 countries in the previous year. Planted area increased significantly from the previous year, especially in the EU15 countries where the 10 percent compulsory set-aside was removed, while average yields also improved greatly, particularly in the eastern countries, reflecting generally favourable weather conditions. Of the total output, wheat is now estimated to account for about 148 million tonnes, 23 percent up from 2007. However, excessive wetness in parts this year has had an adverse affect on wheat quality, reducing the average protein content, which will result in a higher proportion than normal being destined for feed use. The aggregate output of coarse grains is now seen at almost 158 million tonnes, nearly 15 percent up from last year’s reduced level.
In the Balkan region among the non-EU countries, the 2008 cereal harvest outcome was also satisfactory and output recovered well from the drought' reduced level of 2007. In Serbia, good yields have partially offset a reduction in the area sown to wheat and output is estimated at over 2.1 million tonnes. This would be more than enough to cover domestic needs and could leave a small surplus available for export. Output of maize is forecast to rise from 4 to 6.5 million tonnes which, if materialized could leave an exportable surplus of about 1.5 million tonnes.
Growing conditions for both wheat and spring coarse grains have been good and output far exceeds the drought reduced crops of 2007. In Serbia, cereal output could exceed 9 million tonnes, 19 percent above average, despite a reduction in the area sown to wheat. Output includes 2 million tonnes of wheat and the balance is coarse grains. In Croatia the harvest of cereals is expected to recover to an about average 2.8 million tonnes, including 0.6 million tonnes of wheat; maize production is expected to reach 2 million tonnes. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, cereal output is estimated at 1.1 million tonnes, 6 percent above average despite a reduction in the area sown.
The winter cereal planting for crops to be harvested in 2009 is already well underway in the main northern/western producing countries. Planting got off to a slow start in some northern/western countries because of rainy weather in early September, but conditions improved towards the end of the month allowing fieldwork to progress rapidly. In the southeast, some good rainfall in mid-September, although hampering the still ongoing 2007 harvests was beneficial in improving soil moisture levels for the upcoming winter grain planting after a dry harvesting period. At this early stage, the outcome of the winter grain planting season remains uncertain. However, the current scenario of weakening cereal prices, together with increasing input costs, firmly points to a decline in the winter grain area in the 27 member countries for next year's harvest.
In the European CIS, growing conditions have been very favourable and all countries have achieved good to record harvests. In Belarus, the 2008 grain harvest is officially estimated about 8.3 million tonnes. Cereal output in Moldova recovered to a bumper 2.9 million tonnes compared to about 800 000 tonnes in the drought affected 2007. Both the Russian Federation and Ukraine have harvested record crops. In the Russian Federation FAO’s provisional estimate is nearly 95 million tonnes, but some analysts are forecasting 100 million or more tonnes. FAO’s estimate includes 57 million tonnes of wheat and 37 million tonnes of coarse grains. Output in the Ukraine is forecast to reach 47 million tonnes compared to last year’s drought reduced 27.6 million tonnes. As a result of these good harvests, cereal production in the region increased by over 30 percent and cereal prices have fallen significantly. Both the Russian Federation and Ukraine have substantial exportable surpluses of wheat and coarse grains. In fact, exports are likely to be limited by infrastructure constraints and stocks in the subregion are expected to rise.
Winter crop planting is underway in Ukraine; some 8.8 million hectares are expected to be sown.
The prospects for the 2008 winter cereal crops in Australia have deteriorated over the past two months, largely reflecting the impact of dry weather in southwestern parts of New South Wales. However, the prospects for the coming harvest remain much better than last year when the country suffered widespread drought. The latest official estimate of September put wheat output in 2008 at about 22.5 million tonnes, already down from earlier forecast, but more recent indications in early October point to further losses that may bring the final output down to between 21 to 22 million tonnes. Nevertheless, this level of output will still be well up from the reduced crop of 13 million tonnes in 2007. The early outlook for the minor summer grain crop for harvest in 2009 (mainly sorghum and maize) to be planted in the coming weeks points to a decline in area. There is likely to be less fallow land available for summer cropping in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales as a result of the increased area currently sown to winter crops. Assuming a return to average yields from the records achieved in the 2007/08 season, sorghum production in 2008/09 is forecast to decline to slightly less than 2 million tonnes.
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319,
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287,
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11,
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900,
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13,
1081,
287,
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11,
428,
922,
5072,
318,
2233,
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2620,
287,
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287,
2882,
284,
1029,
3230,
4536,
11,
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351,
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3403,
1141,
262,
3957,
1622,
326,
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19299,
284,
1700,
2974,
13,
554,
1948,
11,
262,
3648,
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49235,
5072,
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11,
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9920,
287,
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7618,
13,
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11,
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287,
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290,
4747,
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13,
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286,
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307,
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416,
3095,
12,
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13,
554,
16519,
11,
1743,
26630,
14953,
966,
284,
281,
1989,
286,
546,
362,
13,
22,
1510,
43025,
11,
617,
1315,
1411,
1342,
621,
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614,
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286,
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286,
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11,
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326,
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257,
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3812,
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884,
355,
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290,
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25547,
13,
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11,
611,
1459,
5894,
6193,
3403,
21160,
287,
1994,
3957,
3006,
11,
262,
2472,
18969,
1989,
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307,
2252,
5322,
13,
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18812,
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389,
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2622,
287,
4318,
7595,
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318,
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13,
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2310,
1411,
422,
938,
614,
284,
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1510,
26840,
13,
317,
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7118,
286,
18969,
1989,
290,
37742,
6193,
8639,
284,
5298,
5072,
880,
2029,
262,
2811,
286,
262,
1613,
1936,
812,
13,
1081,
286,
1903,
3267,
11,
26630,
286,
262,
7374,
17135,
13833,
329,
13222,
287,
3717,
373,
2098,
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] | 11,743 |
Go ahead and punch me in the face for being such a dweeb, but seeing Terrence Mallick’s Tree of Life really did have a fairly profound effect on my relationship with Mother Nature. It was apparent pretty much from the moment I walked out of the theater; something about the director’s vision just put me a bit more in tune with the natural world--especially, for some reason, birds. It’s kind of like the arrow in the FedEx logo: Once you start paying attention to birds, you can’t stop seeing them. But unlike the shipping company’s satisfying but straightforward visual gag, birds reward your attention over time with their incredible diversity. This graphic shows how all those dazzling species came to be.
The chart was created in conjunction with a groundbreaking new paper outlining avian evolution, published recently by an international team of biologists in the journal Nature. Using fossil records and DNA data, the group traced the speciation of all 9,993 species of birds known to man in unprecedented detail. Essentially, the dense circle you’re looking at is one of the most epic family trees ever created. Dr. Gavin Thomas, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Sheffield, in England, was responsible for making the graphic, so I turned to him for a little help in decoding it.
You can think of the radial display like a typical top-down family tree, just wrapped up like a burrito to fit in as much data as possible. Each gray, concentric ring, Thomas explained, represents an interval of 20 million years, so the ancestor found in the circle’s center is roughly 110 million years old.
The colors correspond to the rate of speciation: Red indicates a high rate, green is moderate, and dark blue shows species that were slowest to mutate. Look at the Paleognaths at roughly 3 o’clock; they have a "fairly direct path to the centre," Dr. Thomas points out, meaning there are "relatively few speciation events" separating the 100-million-year-old birds from the ones living today. Among other species, the Paleognath superorder includes ostriches, which seem like a not-so-distant relative of dinosaurs, so that all checks out. Just below that you’ll find cardinals, conebills, and tanagers, all of which, in contrast, are products of far more significant speciation.
The team’s exhaustive work has already yielded some surprising insights. Whereas it was generally thought that biodiversity, in recent history, was slowing down across the board, speciation in birds is actually speeding up. Dr. Arne Mooers, a biologist from Simon Fraser University in Canada and one of the paper’s co-authors, speculated about the phenomenon in a statement. "Perhaps birds are special," he says. "Maybe they’re so good at getting around they can escape local competition from relatives and start anew elsewhere, producing bursts of new species at different times and in different parts of the globe."
It seems like a reasonable theory. Now can’t we get a bit closer the bull’s-eye to see where the dinos fit into all this?
[Hat tip: Yale News] | [
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] | 676 |
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The kid was skating all over the place. Down the stairs, down the rails, over onto the fountain...just everywhere. I'm not surprised that he crashed. He never wanted to wear the protective equipment. I guess that he got what he deserved...one broken wrist and a broken arm too."
As a first responder, you will treat many patients who have suffered various types of open or closed painful, swollen or deformed extremities. It is important that you recognize the signs and symptoms of injuries of the musculoskeletal system. Proper care given at the scene can prevent additional injury or disability.
The skeleton has 206 bones and provides support and form for the body. It also protects the body's vital organs. The skull protects the brain, the spinal column protects the spinal cord, the ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs, and the pelvis protects the organs of the lower abdomen.
The four primary functions of the skeletal system are to provide support, protect the body, assist in body movement and produce red blood cells. Because muscles and bones work together to produce movement, they are often called the musculoskeletal system. This movement occurs at joints, the contact points between bones that are next to one another. The joints are held together by ligaments, thick bands that arise from one bone, span the joint and insert into the adjacent bone.
A vital but often overlooked function of the skeletal system is the production of red blood cells. Red blood cells are made primarily in the spaces inside the bone called the marrow.
There are three major types of musculoskeletal injuries: fractures, dislocations and sprains. It is often difficult to distinguish one type of extremity injury from the other. All three types are serious and all extremity injuries must be identified so they can receive appropriate medical treatment. Since we are often not sure of the type of exact injury, we now are using new terminology to describe an injured extremity as "painful, swollen and deformed."
A fracture is a broken bone. Fractures can be caused by a variety of mechanisms but a significant force is almost always required. Fractures are generally classified as either closed or open. Closed fractures are more common. In the case of a closed fracture, the bone is broken but does not cause a break in the skin.
In an open fracture, the bone is broken and the overlying skin is lacerated. The open wound can be caused by penetrating objects, such as a bullet, or by the fractured bone end protruding through the skin. The open fracture is contaminated by dirt and bacteria; this contamination may lead to infection. Every fracture injures adjacent soft tissues, resulting in bleeding at the fracture site. Fractures also can injure adjacent nerves and blood vessels, causing severe nerve injury and excessive bleeding. Open fractures result in more bleeding than do closed fractures.
A dislocation is a disruption of the joint that tears the supporting ligaments. The bone ends that make up the joint separate completely from each other and lock in one position. Any attempted motion of a dislocated joint is very painful. Because many nerves and blood vessels lie near joints, a dislocation also can damage these structures.
A sprain is a joint injury in which the joint is partially, temporarily dislocated, and some of the supporting ligaments are either stretched or torn. It can be thought of as a partial dislocation. The following are the primary signs and symptoms of extremity injuries:
- Pain at the injury site.
- An open wound.
- Swelling and discoloration (bruising).
- The patient's inability or unwillingness to move the part.
- Tenderness at the injury site.
There are three essential steps involved in examining all persons with limb injuries:
- General overall assessment of the patient.
- Examination of the injured part.
- Evaluation of the circulation and sensation in the injured limb. | [
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] | 849 |
Posted on August 9, 2012 by mazecontroller
Each of the previous editions of Legend of the Five Rings was connected to a specific time period. The first edition was set before the events of the CCG. The second edition bumped the timeline to the Time of the Void. The third edition came out current with the CCG story at the time. The fourth edition opted to be timeless to allow fans to use whatever time period they wanted. This left a lot of the game’s history out of the core book. This makes the fourth edition versatile, but left out a lot of the player created history and backstory. Imperial Histories was created to fill that void.
Imperial Histories is a guide to various points in the history of Rokugan. Many of the periods have been seen in other sourcebooks or editions. Some have been referred to in historical accounts. And a few are brand new to the book. Each of these is set ups as a campaign possibility with new rules, new schools and, in some cases, modifications to the existing rules for different eras of the Empire. This book is aimed at GMs looking for campaign ideas or fans wanting historical information in one place.
Imperial Histories is available in hardcover and PDF. The book follows the same art and layout style as the Legend of the Five Rings core book. Most of the artwork is from the more recent sets of the CCG with the chapters broken up by two page spreads. Appropriate art is used where available. The book includes a sidebar talking about the time periods that don’t use accurate art. There is an index in the back. Unlike the core book PDF, neither the table of contents nor the index are hyperlinked. There are one or two repeats of art from the core book but the majority of pieces are new to the RPG line.
The chapters each detail a different period in Rokugan history. It starts with the Dawn of the Empire, when the kami walked the earth. The book also details more famous elements of history such as the first two arcs of the CCG. The Day of Thunder is when many fans of Legend of the Five Rings came into the game. It was followed by the Spirit Wars and the Four Winds saga. Each of these gets a chapter. The book rounds out with two alternate timelines. The Heroes of Rokugan illustrates a living campaign that’s been going on for years. One Thousand Years of Darkness takes place in a world where Fu Leng, the Lord of the Shadowlands was not defeated on the Day of Thunder and rules over the Emerald Empire.
Each chapter ends with mechanics relevant to the chapter. This usually means new schools, different schools or rules modifications. There are a few settings that involve gaijin, which add rules for things like firearms and non-Eastern weaponry. The rules for playing a gaijin essentially boil down to: don’t. Full rules might appear in a later book but the authors make an argument that there are plenty of other fantasy games on the market that cover that ground well.
The most compelling chapter is One Thousand Years of Darkness. This dark setting is one the fans have been waiting for. The timeline puts the players as part of the rag-tag rebels still fighting against the dark Emperor Fu Leng. This game of samurai already thrives on tough choices between duty and honor. This setting makes those choices even tougher. Fans of horror will love being desperate demon slayers as well as dark intrigues to try and save an Empire that might not be worth saving anymore.
One of the chapters not in the book is the current CCG storyline. Other storyline updates have filled entire books. Fans looking to see how the current timeline is shaping up will be disappointed. AEG has plans for a second book like this next year. Rather than just updating characters and storylines, these books could be a gateway for fans of the RPG to keep up with the CCG and fans of the CCG to try out the RPG. These camps have been separated for far too long. Not telling the ongoing story here is a missed opportunity.
The Heroes of Rokugan chapter misses in a few areas. It reads like someone’s campaign that already happened rather than a jumping off point for a new campaign. The story has some interesting elements and characters but doesn’t feel ready to run out of the book like the others. The same information can be picked up for free on the campaign website. Having it here seems like a bit of padding, especially when there are a lot of other time periods that could have fit in the book.
GMs looking for material to mine will have a lot to choose from. Things from the alternate timelines could easily make themselves seen in home games. Historical schools could be reskinned or used to make an NPC unique. There’s a ton of material here to put into any game regardless of the setting. Each chapter also has enough material for the basis of a campaign. GMs looking to run Legend of the Five Rings after a campaign or too will find the information here very useful.
Bottom Line: A great book for GMs looking for a time to set their new Legend of The Five Rings campaign.
Review by Rob Weiland | [
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] | 1,078 |
One in six Americans will get sick from food poisoning this year. That’s about 48 million people. Most of them will recover without any lasting effects from their illness. For some, however, the effects can be devastating and even deadly.
Here are some serious effects associated with several common types of food poisoning.
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) is a serious illness that usually occurs when an infection in the digestive system produces toxic substances that destroy red blood cells, causing kidney injury. HUS may occur after infection with some kinds of E. coli bacteria.
HUS is most common in children. In fact, it is the most common cause of acute kidney failure in children.
A small number of persons with Shigella or Salmonella infection develop pain in their joints, irritation of the eyes, and painful urination. This is called reactive arthritis. It can last for months or years, and can lead to chronic arthritis, which is difficult to treat. Persons with Campylobacter infections may also develop chronic arthritis.
Brain and nerve damage
A Listeria infection can lead to meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain. If a newborn infant is infected with Listeria, long-term consequences may include mental retardation, seizures, paralysis, blindness, or deafness.
Guillain-Barré syndrome is a disorder that affects the nerves of the body. This occurs when a person's immune system attacks the body's own nerves. It can result in paralysis that lasts several weeks and usually requires intensive care. As many as 40 percent of Guillain-Barré syndrome cases in this country may be triggered by an infection with Campylobacter.
In the United States, approximately 3,000 people die each year of illnesses associated with food poisoning. Five types of organisms account for 88 percent of the deaths for which the cause is known: Salmonella, Toxoplasma, Listeria, norovirus, and Campylobacter.
Other types of foodborne illness may cause death as well. For example, some Vibrio infections (usually associated with eating raw shellfish) may infect the bloodstream and cause a severe, life-threatening illness. About half of these infections are fatal, and death can occur within two days. | [
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] | 476 |
Enough is Enough
“Enough should be the central concept in economics,” writes Herman Daly, a Global Footprint Network advisor and one of the founders of ecological economics, in the forward to the fascinating new book, “Enough is Enough: Building a Sustainable Economy in a World of Finite Resources.”
The book challenges the dominant thesis of contemporary economics: Growth at any cost. Authors Rob Dietz and Dan O’Neill start from the observation that the world economy, as it is currently run, is causing long-term environmental, societal and economic damage. They go on to map out alternative paths toward a steady-state economy (an economy with stable or mildly fluctuating size), one that prioritizes human well-being above growth and places economic activity squarely within ecological limits.
The authors argue compellingly that Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a rather poor indicator of progress, ignoring significant aspects of human flourishing as well as externalizing costs such as air pollution or soil degradation. Several alternatives indicators to GDP are taking off. Among those mentioned in the book are the European Commission’s Beyond GDP initiative, the OECD’s Better Life Initiative, the Ecological Footprint, the Genuine Progress Indicator, the U.K.‘s Sustainable Development Indicators, the Happy Planet Index, and the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress launched by French President Nicolas Sarkozy.
Indeed, the Ecological Footprint is one tool for helping nations move beyond the narrow GDP-focus that is helping to exacerbate the trends of ecological overshoot over the past few decades. As the authors say, “‘We manage what we measure’ is a cliché often uttered in business boardrooms, but it rings true. You could also say that we ‘mismanage what we mismeasure.’” Insofar as we are not measuring our demand on and capacity to provide ecological resources, we are mismanaging not only our economies, but our future.
Dietz is editor of Daly News and was the first director of CASSE (Center for the Advancement of the Steady State Economy); O’Neill is lecturer in ecological economics at the University of Leeds and the chief economist at CASSE. | [
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] | 466 |
This report card is the third in a series that started in 2009 as part of the programme Making the Forest Sector Transparent, funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID), implemented in seven countries (Cameroon, Ecuador, Ghana, Guatemala, Liberia, Peru, DRC), and coordinated by Global Witness. As for the previous report cards, the methodology focused on data collection and analysis.
Data collection took two months. It was mainly desk-based work through extensive searches on the Internet, review of recent documents and telephone conversations with some key informers (for example, local NGOs and community leaders). Desk work was complemented by information requests to public authorities, as well as individual interviews with stakeholders who are directly affected by issues that require clarification from official sources.
Due to the experience of collecting information over the previous years, changes within each indicator could be highlighted. The main difficulty was that most official websites visited had not been updated, hence the need to do some cross-checking to find the required information. At the same time, this is an indicator of a lack of effective transparency among relevant institutions. Data analysis consisted in highlighting the main research results, including those with a major impact on transparency in the context of Cameroon's forest sector. | [
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] | 253 |
When you think of allergic reactions, you probably envision itchy eyes and a runny nose. But an allergic reaction can occur in the esophagus ? your food pipe ? as well. Symptoms happen when your immune system produces too many white blood cells in reaction to an allergy-causing substance. The white blood cells involved are called eosinophils.
The condition is called eosinophilic esophagitis, or EE or EoE. It affects between one and four of every 10,000 people in the U.S.
Symptoms of EoE vary from person to person and may include:
Acid reflux that doesn?t respond well to medication
Trouble eating and swallowing food
Food getting stuck in the throat
Having to drink a lot of fluid to finish a meal
Feeling too full to continue eating halfway through a meal
Stunted growth or poor weight gain in children
Who?s at risk
The disease affects both children and adults, but is more common in men. People with asthma and food or environmental allergies have a much greater chance of developing it.
Your doctor will take your medical history and will likely want to test you for allergies. He or she will probably do an endoscopy. This is an outpatient procedure that involves passing a thin, flexible scope with a camera through your mouth to look at your esophagus. The doctor will check for physical signs of inflammation and an increased number of eosinophils. To confirm the diagnosis, your health provider will likely need to take a biopsy, or tissue sample, from your esophagus.
For treatment, you will need to work closely with an allergist and a gastroenterologist, a specialist in digestive disorders. They?ll help you figure out what substances or foods to avoid. No specific medications can cure EoE, although certain steroids may help to reduce the swelling in your esophagus.
You can best manage EoE by learning what substances cause your allergic reaction and avoiding them. In many cases, the allergens come from food. With your medical team, you can develop an action plan to change your diet accordingly.
It?s also important to know that the reactions related to EoE might take days or weeks to develop. Keep this in mind when beginning a food elimination plan. It might take some time after avoiding a particular food to determine whether that strategy worked.
When to call the doctor
Call your doctor if you have EoE and notice any of these symptoms: | [
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] | 522 |
Second-hand smoke is no longer just a threat if you live with or stand close to someone smoking a cigarette. Harmful particles are making their way into the air at large, making it a larger pollution concern than some people initially thought.
The Kentucky Center for Smoke-free Policy (KCSP) conducted a research study of the air quality in Rowan County, Kentucky, and found that city dwellers outside Morehead were at risk for being exposed to harmful levels of second-hand smoke, though Morehead, which recently implemented smoke-free laws, had smoke levels six to seven times lower than the surrounding area, The Morehead News reports.
Beyond implementing far-reaching legislation, there are a few simple steps people can take (such as avoiding congested thoroughfares) to avoid pollution. We can exercise a much greater amount of control over indoor spaces, however, by installing a high-quality air purifying system.
FreshAirPro offers a range of top-rated, best-selling brands that implement the most sophisticated technologies available on the market today. Many of their machines combine a minimum of a HEPA filter as well as activated carbon to both filter particles and remove harmful chemicals and odors from the air. | [
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] | 249 |
A Discussion on Bellini's St. Francis in the Desert
The Frick Collection's "St. Francis in the Desert" (c. 1475-78) by Giovanni Bellini ranks among the most important Italian Renaissance paintings in America. We invite the public to listen-in as a group of invited scholars discuss the painting from the perspective of the Franciscan order, which traces its origins to St. Francis of Assisi. Susannah Rutherglen, independent scholar and former Andrew W. Mellon Curatorial Fellow at the Frick, offers an introduction to the painting and an overview of the March 2010 technical study of the work performed by conservators at The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fr. Michael Cusato, adjunct professor at St. Mary's Seminary in Baltimore, MD, and former director of the Franciscan Institute at St. Bonaventure University in New York, discusses late medieval Franciscanism in Italy in relation to Bellini's painting. | [
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] | 198 |
Fire and Invasive Plants -- Combustibility of Native and Invasive Exotic Plants
Alison C. Dibble, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, 686 Government Rd., Bradley, ME 04411
William A. Patterson III, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003
Robert H. White, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI 53705-2398
The ease with which a plant fuel catches fire – its combustibility, or flammability, might differ between native plants versus invasive exotic plants that overtake their habitat. By comparing combustibility in these two groups of plants, we are seeking to improve the effectiveness of prescribed fire and the assessment of fire hazards in the Northeastern U.S. Risk of wildfire could be greater in the wildland-urban interface if invasive plants are dense and have higher combustibility than the native species. Conversely, a fire-prone ecosystem invaded by exotics might have less frequent fire return and lower severity, with consequences for fire-dependent species, e.g., federally endangered Karner Blue butterfly and its host plant, a native lupine of pitch pine forests.
With support from the Joint Fire Science Program (JFSP) we, with Mark J. Ducey
of University of New Hampshire, are modifying the Rothermel fuel models to
better represent conditions in the Northeast. Heat content is a missing link,
especially regarding common shrubs and herbs, and some invasive exotic plants.
These combustibility data can be used in BEHAVE Plus, FARSITE, and the
Emissions Production Model (EPM) so that models better represent the local
vegetation, and will added to the Fuel Characteristic Classification System
(Cushon et al 2002), which is a clearinghouse of fuels information.
We sampled flammability of plants in a cone calorimeter (ASTM 2002, see Fig. 1)
to quantify effective heat of combustion (HOC) as a measure of heat content in
dried (60°C), unground leaves and twigs. We compared 14 invasives, 12 of
which are exotic, to 13 native species which might be displaced in disturbed
habitats. Based on five replicates per species, we found a range from 6-17
Mj/kg, which is overall lower than for green and dry plant fuels from
California and Colorado.
|Fig. 1 Cone calorimeter apparatus used to measure heat content in oven dried, unground leaves and twigs of 27 native and exotic plants that grow in the Northeastern U.S.|
Highest average heat content was in speckled alder. Among shrubs and vines, it was relatively high in highbush blueberry, purple nightshade, common barberry, and Japanese honeysuckle, and lowest in smooth buckthorn and Oriental bittersweet. Among six herbs, rough-stemmed goldenrod had the highest heat content while Japanese stiltgrass and Japanese knotweed were lowest. Quaking aspen had higher heat content than invasive trees, while Norway maple and apple were lower than the others.
Overall, invasive plants tended to have lower heat content than native species (Fig. 2).
|Fig. 2. Notched box plot summarizing effective heat of combustion in six tree species, half of which are invasive in northeastern North America and half native. Because the notched portions of the two boxes do not overlap on the horizontal plane, the groups are significantly different.|
When broken out as a subset, three invasive trees (black locust -- Robinia
pseudoacacia, which is native only as far north as Pennsylvania; apple
-- Malus sp., and Norway maple -- Acer platanoides) are
significantly LESS flammable than three native trees (Fig. 2).
Our sample is small. In January 2003 Dibble, Ducey and White applied to the JFSP
to conduct a nation-wide combustibility survey of native and invasive exotic
We conclude that (1) use of fire to control undesirable vegetation can be more effective if a species-by-species approach is taken to meet management objectives in a particular stand; (2) flammability also involves leaf surface to volume ratio and moisture content (which is being measured in another study), and these should be quantified to improve modeling fire behavior; and (3) comparison of combustibility data from other regions will increase our understanding of fuels in the Northeast.
ASTM International. 2002. Standard test method for heat and visible smoke
release rates for materials and products using an oxygen consumption
calorimeter. Designation E 1354-02. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
Cushon, G. H., R. D. Ottmar, D. V. Sandberg, J. A. Greenough and J. L. Key. In
press. Fuel characteristic classification: characterizing wildland fuelbeds in
the United States. In A. Brennan, et. al. (eds.) National Congress on Fire
Ecology, Prevention and Management Proceedings, No. 1. Tall Timbers Research
Station, Tallahassee, FL. http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/jfsp/fcc/FCCpaper.pdf
Richburg, J. A., A. C. Dibble, and W. A. Patterson III. 2001. Woody invasive species and their role in altering fire regimes of the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states. Pp. 104-111 in K.E.M. Galley and T. P. Wilson (eds.). Proceedings of the Invasive Species Workshop: the Role of Fire in the Control and Spread of Invasive Species. Fire Conference 2000: the First National Congress on Fire Ecology, Prevention and Management. Misc. Publ. No. 11, Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.(Top) | [
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Welcome to our world of fun trivia quizzes and quiz games:
Studies Have Shown...
"What do the results of the latest study really prove? This quiz explores the techniques used to avoid inferring too much from scientific studies and tests."
15 Points Per Correct Answer - No time limit
I'll bet you've noticed the resemblance between the surface of a shelled walnut and the surface of a human brain. Perhaps, then, you won't be surprised to learn that in THREE separate surveys, 100% of HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL FunTrivia quiz takers reported using WALNUTS before taking quizzes!!!
Which of the following could be inferred with certainty from these survey results?
None of these.
Eating walnuts before taking quizzes improved the performance of the participants in my survey.
Eating walnuts before taking quizzes will improve your quiz performance.
The respondents to my survey believed that eating walnuts improved their performance.
During World War I, tin helmets replaced cloth helmets. Contrary to expectation, the number of injuries increased. Which of the following could be inferred with certainty from the facts presented?
The number of injuries increased after tin helmets were introduced.
Soldiers wearing tin helmets were more likely to suffer fatal injury than those wearing cloth helmets.
Tin helmets provided protection that was inferior to cloth helmets.
All of these.
Helmet laws for motorcyclists are controversial. Some years following the repeal of Louisiana's motorcycle helmet law, the journal "Academic Emergency Medicine" (Volume 9, Number 5 418-419, 2002) reported on changes in accident statistics. Which of the following unequivocally indicates an increased risk as a result of not wearing a helmet?
Unhelmeted fatalities increased from 8.4 to 29.0 per year after the law was repealed.
Unhelmeted motorcyclists were found to have a significantly higher incidence per collision of head injury and fatality.
After repeal of the helmet law, helmet use decreased from 79% to 46%, and fatalities in all patients increased from 3.4% to 5.2%.
All of these
I demonstrated that 100% of highly successful FunTrivia quiz-takers consumed walnuts prior to quizzes. Having been criticized for not having a control group, I undertook to make a comparison using historical controls. I analyzed an equal number of quiz-takers afflicted with chronically low quiz performance and could find no evidence that any of them reported eating walnuts prior to taking quizzes. Which of the following would NOT be a valid criticism of my study methods?
I failed to disclose the specifics of my methods for determining walnut use in the study and control groups and could be hiding an ascertainment error/bias.
I failed to specify the number of study participants.
Retrospective studies never prove cause and effect.
My study was retrospective, and retrospective studies never provide statistically valid, useful results.
Randomized, controlled, double-blinded studies are the gold standard for medical investigation. In 2001, a group of neurologists was asked to help investigate the importance of a component of this method during a study of a treatment for multiple sclerosis. These neurologists were asked to evaluate subjects but were told before doing the evaluation whether or not the subjects had received placebo or the proposed intervention. Which aspect of randomized, controlled, double blinded studies was being omitted for these neurologist to allow that particular aspect to be studied?
None of these
According to the coronary risk calculator provided at the NIH website, the risk of a coronary event for a 35 year old non-smoking woman with normal blood pressure, normal HDL cholesterol and a total cholesterol of 300 is 1% for ten years. Assuming that 200 such women were treated for ten years with cholesterol lowering drugs that reduced the risk of coronary events by 50%, how many coronary events would we expect to prevent in a ten year period?
A 35-year-old woman dentist is offered a free cardiac treadmill at a dental convention. Before accepting the offer she calculates her expected coronary risk and finds it to be 1%. Assuming a 20% false positive rate and a 10% false negative rate, what would her risk of coronary artery disease be should she be found to have an abnormal cardiac stress test?
David G. Myers' "Exploring Psychology" states, "There is a highly significant tendency for first-born individuals within a family to have higher average scores (on tests of intelligence) than their later-born siblings." Assuming Dr. Myers is speaking of statistical significance, what can we infer about intelligence test scores of first-born as opposed to later born siblings?
The difference in test scores is highly unlikely to be explained on the basis of chance variation of statistical samples.
The difference in test scores is large in magnitude and highly unlikely to be related to chance.
The difference is large in magnitude.
The difference in test scores results in highly significant differences in school performance.
"Web MD", an Internet medical information provider, ran a report on February 4, 2003 that was headlined "Selenium May Fight Prostate Damage" and "Supplementation May Reduce Prostate Cancer Risk". The study, however, was not performed on humans but on elderly, male beagles. The results of this study can be applied with complete confidence to which of the following groups?
All of these
Elderly male humans
Elderly male beagles
Any age and species of dog
I have decided to make a spring water extract of walnuts that I call "Quizzlenut" available in the United States for improving quiz taking health. (Remember, I have performed three surveys showing that walnuts improve quiz-taking performance!) Will the US Food and Drug Administration analyze either my product to verify its contents or my claims for the product before it is marketed?
Copyright, FunTrivia.com. All Rights Reserved.
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] | 1,219 |
Baden Mennonite Church (Baden, Ontario, Canada)
The Baden Mennonite congregation began services in 1913 and formally organized in 1945. The first building was occupied in 1913. Peter Moyer is considered the founding leader of the group. The congregation originated through the outreach of Peter Moyer, with the vision of a mission church for use by both the Amish and Mennonite conferences of Ontario.
The responsibility for Sunday school and preaching was shared by both groups at first; in 1920 the Rural Mission Board of the Ontario Conference appointed four ministers to serve in turn, and this practice continued until 1930, after which one minister was made responsible for the work. In 1940 it was agreed that the Sunday-school staff should be supplied by the First Mennonite Church of Kitchener. This led to growth; Sunday-school attendance, which in the 1930s varied from 40 to 20, now increased to 60 and 80. In the autumn of 1945, the congregation was organized and became a member of the Mennonite Conference of Ontario. Membership in 1954 was 62. A summer Bible school was started in 1934, which enrolled over 300. The ministers who served after 1930 were Noah S. Hunsberger, Newton S. Weber, James Martin, Urie Bender, Elmer Grove, David Groh and Lester Bauman.
The Baden Mennonite merged with Geiger Mennonite in 1966 and the united congregation became known as Wilmot Mennonite Church in 1977 and held services at the latter site. The building in Baden served as the church's fellowship hall until it was destroyed by fire on 14 April 2000. The building had also been used for worship by the West Hills Mennonite Fellowship until the fire.
Burkholder, L.J. A Brief History of the Mennonites in Ontario. Kitchener, ON: Mennonite Conference of Ontario,1935: 62.
Cressman, Kenneth. "The Development of the Conservative Mennonite Church of Ontario." Unpublished paper, 1976, 70 pp.
Cressman, Kenneth. "A Descriptive Analysis of the Conservative Mennonite Schisms in Ontario, 1956-1979." Unpublished paper, 1979, 92 pp. MAO.
Fretz, J.C. "History of Baden Church," ca. 1955, 1 p. MAO.
Mennonite Reporter (3 Oct. 1977): 13.
Pavey, Brent. "Fire destroys building of two congregations." Canadian Mennonite 4 (12 June 2000).
Adapted by permission of Herald Press, Harrisonburg, Virginia, and Waterloo, Ontario, from Mennonite Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, p. 209. All rights reserved. For information on ordering the encyclopedia visit the Herald Press website.
©1996-2013 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved.
MLA style: Fretz, Joseph C., Marlene Epp and Sam Steiner. "Baden Mennonite Church (Baden, Ontario, Canada)." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. April 2009. Web. 18 May 2013. http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/B34ME.html.
APA style: Fretz, Joseph C., Marlene Epp and Sam Steiner. (April 2009). Baden Mennonite Church (Baden, Ontario, Canada). Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 18 May 2013, from http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/B34ME.html. | [
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] | 755 |
The Great Barrier Reef is one of the world’s natural wonders. It is a place where people from all over the world flock to, in order to dive or snorkel in the waters that surround it and marvel at the vast array of colours and sea life that live there. One would expect a place as diverse and important as this to be protected, however the Great Barrier Reef is in danger from rapid industrialisation and under threat from the building of large ports, dredging, dumping and a 7,000 carrier ship highway.
There is nothing better than a vacation in a hot and sunny climate over summer, especially one which involves the beach and tanning lotion. However, this idyllic scene can become painfully interrupted by a sharp sting from an elusive marine culprit!
The last known rhinoceroses in Mozambique have been wiped out by poachers. It has emerged that this was made possible due to the fact that these poachers were working alongside the rangers that were tasked with protecting them.
Shark embryos are apparently as deadly as the older members of their family can be. It has been discovered that shark embryos eat their littermates in the womb, with the largest embryo eating all but one of its siblings.
The Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary (KPWS) is the largest protected area in Cambodia, located in the Northern Plains of the country close to the Thai border. This area is characterised by a low population density and very limited agricultural presence, which provides an ideal setting for the natural habitat that consists of deciduous forests and grassland savannahs with some scattered semi-evergreen forest galleries.
The Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Melaky Region, Madagascar. It centres in two geological formations, which are quite remarkable to behold. This collection of limestone formations is known as the ‘Stone Forest’. | [
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] | 395 |
Garden Talk: February 4, 2013
From NGA Editors
2013 Espoma Environmental Stewardship Award
Environmental stewardship begins at home. One way to do this is to incorporate sustainable, ecologically sound practices into the gardening and landscaping you do. Creating and maintaining an environmentally-friendly landscape, garden, or outdoor living space benefits you, your family, the community, and all the life that shares the environment with you.
Espoma, the pioneer in natural gardening solutions, and the National Gardening Association want to recognize and reward the efforts of gardeners who are working to protect and improve the environment. That's why we've created the Environmental Stewardship Award. This year we'll select five home gardeners and one retailer from across the country who are using the most effective, interesting, and innovative practices to help protect the environment and make their corner of the world a better place. Tell us how you work to protect and improve the environment on your own home grounds.
To learn more about the Espoma Environmental Stewardship Award and to apply, go to: 2013 EESA.
Harvest a Harvest Moon
You won't have to wait for a harvest moon in the sky to pluck one from your garden -- a 'Harvest Moon' watermelon, that is! A 2013 All-America Selections (AAS) Vegetable Award Winner, this is the first ever hybrid, triploid seedless watermelon to garner this distinction.
Similar to the seeded heirloom variety 'Moon and Stars', with the same deep green rind speckled with yellow dots, this seedless hybrid is earlier ripening, higher yielding, and, according to many, better tasting than its old-time kin. Its short, healthy vines produce elongated round, medium-size fruits weighing 18-20 pounds, with sweet, crisp, pinkish-red flesh. Ready in 80-100 days from transplant, each vine produces 4-5 fruits, on average.
Like other seedless watermelon varieties, 'Harvest Moon' is best started from seed indoors in peat pots about four weeks before planting out, using bottom heat to aid germination. Set hardened off seedlings in the garden once the soil is warm and the danger of frost is past. Included in the seed packet will be seeds of a diploid, seeded watermelon variety to provide the necessary pollinator vines; plant one diploid for every three triploids. If you start with purchased seedlings, be sure to buy a suitable pollinator variety as well.
AAS winners are new garden seed varieties that have been selected by AAS judges for superior garden performance in impartial, judged trials across the country.
To read find out more about Harvest Moon watermelon, go to: AAS.
Linking Neighborhoods and Childhood Obesity
We've probably all heard the real estate maxim, ″Location, location, location!″ Well, it turns out to be true for more than just housing values. It also plays a role in the problem of childhood obesity. Two recent studies, published in the American Journal of Preventative Medicine and described online on the Science News website, found that children living in neighborhoods lacking green spaces like parks that afford opportunities for physical activity and that were without ready access to a grocery store were about twice as likely to be obese as children living in areas that afforded these amenities.
In one study, researchers from the University of British Columbia in Vancouver rated the built environment in hundreds of neighborhoods in the San Diego and Seattle areas on the number and quality of their parks, their general ″walkability,″ and whether they had easy access to a grocery store selling fresh fruits and vegetables. They then evaluated 681 children randomly selected from among these neighborhoods, correlating their health information with their neighborhood amenity score, while taking into account differences in factors such as sex, race, ethnicity, household income, and the body mass index of parents. They determined that children living in neighborhoods with high physical activity and nutrition scores were 59 percent less likely to be obese than similar children in neighborhoods with low scores.
This research points out the vital importance of encouraging not only easy access to stores selling healthful food in urban neighborhoods, but the development of green spaces like safe parks, playgrounds, and school and community gardens with pedestrian-friendly ways to reach them. Says researcher Lawrence Frank, an urban planner and public health researcher who conducted this study along with colleagues, ″We've engineered out of our communities the ability to travel on foot to things nearby. If we want to reverse the obesity epidemic, we need to reverse the way we're building our communities.″
To read more about the link between neighborhoods and obesity, go to: Science News.
Producing Perfect Pepper Transplants
Peppers, whether hot or sweet, are not the easiest crop to grow in many parts of the country. They sulk in cold, yet if it gets too hot, with temperatures above 90 degrees F, they may not set fruit. Starting your own transplants from seed can also be tricky.
Fortunately, the folks at Johnny's Selected Seeds in Albion, Maine have had lots of experience growing peppers in a challenging climate, and they share their tips for growing successful pepper transplants on their website. While their advice is targeted at market growers, it contains lots of useful information for home gardeners as well.
Their most important piece of advice -- get your timing right. Your aim is to have your pepper seedlings ready to go into the garden as soon as the soil and air are warm and the danger of frost is past. For most gardeners, this translates to two weeks after the last expected spring frost date for your area. This means starting seeds indoors eight weeks before your set-out date.
Bottom heat is essential for good germination, says Johnny's. With 80-90 degree bottom heat, seeds will germinate in seven to eight days. Without this boost, germination is slower and more erratic, with fewer seeds germinating. If you start your seeds in flats, transplant to individual cells or pots when they get their first set of true leaves. Be sure seedlings don't get rootbound, are regularly fertilized, and let the soil dry out between waterings. And of course, seedlings need adequate light; for most home gardeners this means growing under fluorescent lights. In about eight weeks your peppers will be 6-8 inches tall, possibly with buds but no flowers, ready to be hardened off and set out in the garden, weather permitting.
To read all of their tips for growing successful pepper transplants, go to: Johnny's Selected Seeds. | [
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] | 1,361 |
The New England aster (Aster novae-angliae) is a bushy perennial that produces beautiful masses of daisylike blooms in the fall. Delicate ½- to 1-inch flowers feature pink or purple ray florets, either with contrasting yellow or complementing pink disc florets. Native to prairie regions of the United States and Canada, the species can grow 5 to 6 feet, but many cultivated varieties take a more compact, fuller form. The flowers are a popular attraction for butterflies and bees, since they're one of the few food sources that's likely to survive a moderate frost.
Common name: New England aster
Botanical name: Aster novae-angliae
Plant type: Herbaceous perennial
Height: 5 feet
Zones: 4 to 8
- Sun: Full sun or part shade.
- Soil: Well-cultivated, fertile, moist soil.
- Moisture: Grows best with regular watering, but established plants with protection from afternoon sun tolerate some dryness.
- Mulch: Apply 1 to 2 inches of organic mulch around plants to preserve soil moisture and prevent weeds.
- Fertilizer: Apply balanced organic or slow-release plant food in spring. Excessive nitrogen will promote leggy, floppy growth and fewer flowers.
- Pruning: Cut back by half before July 1 to encourage greater flower production and bushier, more compact growth.
Diseases and pests
- Aster yellows, verticillium wilt, powdery mildew, gray mold, leaf spot, and stem cankers may occur.
- Insect pests include aphids, mites, slugs and snails, nematodes, and rosy blister galls.
- Propagate species from seed.
- Divide cultivars in early spring or fall.
- ‘Andenken an Alma Potschke', (often shortened to ‘Alma Potschke'), pictured here, has rose-pink flowers and is more compact than the species. Grows 4 feet tall. Zones 4 to 8.
- ‘Barr's Pink' has semi-double, rose-pink flowers with reddish disc florets tipped in yellow. Grows 4½ feet tall. Zones 4 to 8.
- ‘Purple Dome' is a dwarf cultivar that grows 18 inches tall. It has a mounding form with dense semi-double, purple flowers. Zones 4 to 8.
- The species and most cultivars require staking if not cut back
- Divide plants every 2 to 3 years to maintain vigorous growth and prolific blooming.
- Makes a great fall container plant. This aster is also an excellent, long-lasting cut flower.
- The native species may be invasive in certain conditions, but most cultivated varieties are better behaved in the garden.
All in the family
- Aster is derived from Greek, referring to the starlike appearance of the flowers, and is part of a genus comprised of approximately 250 annuals, biennials, perennials, and wood sub-shrubs. Most common and popular cultivated species include:
- Frikart's aster (Aster x frikartii), an upright perennial with dark purple ray florets and yellow disk florets. Zones 5 to 8.
- New York aster, or Michaelmas daisy (A. novi-belgii), a clump-forming perennial with purple, white, or pink rays and yellow or pink discs. Zones 4 to 8.
- Italian aster (A. amellus), a clump-forming perennial with lilac-blue or lavender rays and yellow discs. Zones 5 to 8.
- Though most sources refer to the genus as Aster, some sources indicate that most North American natives and popular garden asters (including A. novae-angliae) have been reclassified into the genus Symphiotrichus, a move referred to as the "aster disaster" by one plant taxonomist.
(Text by Robert Weaver, photo courtesy of Bailey Nurseries, www.baileynurseries.com) | [
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] | 870 |
Born in the lab
In early summer of 1965, a University of Florida assistant coach sat down with a team of university physicians and asked them to determine why so many of his players were being affected by heat and heat related illnesses.
The researchers - Dr. Robert Cade, Dr. Dana Shires, Dr. H. James Free and Dr. Alejandro de Quesada - soon discovered two key factors that were causing the Gator players to 'wilt': the fluids and electrolytes the players lost through sweat were not being replaced, and the large amounts of carbohydrates the players' bodies used for energy were not being replenished.
The researchers then took their findings into the lab, and scientifically formulated a new, precisely balanced carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage that would adequately replace the key components lost by Gator players through sweating and exercise. They called their concoction 'Gatorade'.
Proven on the field
Soon after the researchers introduced their Gatorade formula to the team, the Gators began winning... outlasting a number of heavily favored opponents in the withering heat and finishing the season at 7-4.
The team's success progressed even more during the 1966 season, with the Gators finishing at 9–2 and winning the Orange Bowl for the first time ever in the history of the school. Word about Gatorade began to spread outside of the state of Florida, and both the University of Richmond and Miami of Ohio, began ordering batches of Gatorade for their football teams. Orders from other college football programs across the country soon followed, as playing without Gatorade on your sidelines began to be likened to playing with just ten men on the field.
Today, Gatorade can be found on the sidelines of more than 70 Division I colleges as the official sports drink of their men's and women's intercollegiate sports.
From the Orange Bowl to the Super Bowl
In the summer of 1969, Coach Ray Graves of the Florida Gators suggested to the Kansas City Chiefs that they use Gatorade to combat the staggering effects of a blistering Missouri sun during training camp. The Chiefs were so impressed with the "Gator coach's aid" that they kept it on their sidelines throughout the entire season… which concluded with a stunning victory over the heavily favored Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV.
In the years that followed, more and more NFL teams began placing Gatorade on the sidelines of their games and practices, and in 1983, Gatorade became the official sports drink of the NFL-a title it holds to this day.
Furthering the science of victory
Two decades after Dr. Cade and his team worked diligently to develop the optimum hydration formula that would become Gatorade, the Gatorade Sports Science Institute was founded in Barrington, Illinois, to conduct scientific research in the areas of exercise science, hydration, and sport nutrition. Three years later, the lab would be expanded to provide advanced testing for athletes and new Gatorade products and flavors and develop education materials for sports health professionals around the world. Gatorade is now also the official sports drink of the NBA, AVP, and PGA, Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, and numerous other elite and professional organizations and teams.
Hydration at 180 mph
In 2001, after determining that professional race car drivers were not staying adequately hydrated throughout the course of their races, Gatorade and GSSI begin working with auto racing organizations to develop a hydration tool that could withstand 130-degree temperatures and keep drivers hydrated safely throughout the course of a race. The result of their research was the development of GIDS, the Gatorade In-Car Drinking System, which is now considered an essential piece of racing equipment.
Rising to new challenges
After years of careful research by the staff at GSSI into the needs of athletes engaged in high-demand training and competition, Gatorade launched the Gatorade Performance Series, an elite line of sports nutrition products, in 2001. These products include Gatorade Energy Drink, Gatorade Energy Bar, and the Gatorade Nutrition Shake.
Four years later, after studying endurance athletes, GSSI developed the Gatorade Endurance Formula. Featuring a higher concentration of sodium-the key electrolyte found in Original Thirst Quencher-and four other electrolytes lost in sweat, Gatorade Endurance Formula is quickly becoming a mainstay on race courses the world over.
Today & tomorrow
Gatorade and GSSI continue to search for and study new and innovative ways to help athletes improve performance by facilitating proper hydration and nutrition. From the lab testing of athletes, to new flavor and delivery system development, to the publication and distribution of scientific research, the Gatorade Company and the GSSI perpetually strive to advance their collective mission of enabling athletes to always perform at their peak. | [
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How does Amazon’s founder spend his down time? Catching up on email in the middle of the Atlantic while monitoring the progress of his crew recovering historic space artifacts from the bottom of the ocean.
Jeff Bezos reports this morning that his Bezos Expeditions has recovered significant pieces of two F-1 rocket engines that were used to launch rockets into space on the landmark Apollo missions, before plunging into the ocean.
Bezos said previously that he believed the engines were from the historic Apollo 11 mission that landed the first humans on the Moon in 1969 — but he specifically didn’t say Apollo 11 in his post this morning, and there is a risk that the engines were from a different Apollo mission.
He writes, “Many of the original serial numbers are missing or partially missing, which is going to make mission identification difficult. We might see more during restoration. The objects themselves are gorgeous.”
Bezos adds, “We’re bringing home enough major components to fashion displays of two flown F-1 engines.”
That’s good news for the Seattle region. The engines are the property of NASA, but the agency previously indicated its willingness to let the Museum of Flight in Seattle — Bezos’ hometown aerospace museum — display one of the engines if the Smithsonian declined, or if two engines were recovered.
How did they do it? With robots, of course. Here is Bezos waxing poetic about the technology, and the setting.
The technology used for the recovery is in its own way as otherworldly as the Apollo technology itself. The Remotely Operated Vehicles worked at a depth of more than 14,000 feet, tethered to our ship with fiber optics for data and electric cables transmitting power at more than 4,000 volts. We on the team were often struck by poetic echoes of the lunar missions. The buoyancy of the ROVs looks every bit like microgravity. The blackness of the horizon. The gray and colorless ocean floor. Only the occasional deep sea fish broke the illusion.
Bezos has a deep interest in space, dating back to watching the Apollo mission as a kid, and he has his own commercial space venture, Blue Origin. He concludes with shout-outs to NASA and members of the recovery crew: “While I spent a reasonable chunk of time in my cabin emailing and working,” he says, “it didn’t keep me from getting to know the team.”
Read his full post here. Here’s a video from Bezos Expeditions. | [
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Old Historical Documents and Records Colonial English Search Examples:
|Modern Spelling||Colonial Spellings||Suggested Search|
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- adjoining - adjoyning
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- rails - rayls
- Examples of irregular vowel usage:
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Colonial Documents & Records Search Notes:
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] | 1,222 |
A new type of white blood cell has been identified that activates a killing immune response to an external source—providing a new potential target for vaccines for conditions such as cancer or hepatitis B. Publishing in the journal Immunity, a team of researchers from Newcastle University in collaboration with A*STAR’s Singapore Immunology Network describe a new human tissue dendritic cell (DC) with cross-presenting function.
Most cells are only able to present antigens from within themselves, and so will only elicit an immune response if they are infected themselves. Only a specialized subset of dendritic cells is able to generate a response to an external source of antigen, for example bacteria, vaccines, and tumors.
The identity of human tissue DCs that are capable of presenting external antigen to activate the cell-killing response by T cells—a process termed cross-presentation—has remained a mystery. Their discovery, as revealed by this research, will help scientists to design better targeted vaccine strategies to treat cancer and infections.
“These are the cells we need to be targeting for anticancer vaccines,” says Muzlifah Haniffa, M.D., Ph.D., a Wellcome Trust Intermediate Fellow and senior clinical lecturer at Newcastle University. “Our discovery offers an accessible, easily targetable system that makes the most of the natural ability of the cell.”
The researchers also showed for the first time that dendritic cell subsets are conserved between species and have in effect created a map, facilitating the translation of mouse studies to the human immune system.
The researchers isolated the dendritic cells from human blood and skin and from mouse blood, lung, and liver. Using gene expression analysis, they identified gene signatures for each human dendritic cell subset. Mouse orthologues of these genes were identified, and a computational analysis was performed to match subsets across species.This provides scientists for the first time with an accurate model to compare DCs between species.
“These gene signatures are available in a public repository accessible for all researchers to benefit from the data,” says Dr. Haniffa. “It will allow detailed knowledge of individual human dendritic cell subsets to enable specific targeting of these cells for therapeutic strategy.” | [
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] | 467 |
of lakes dot the marshy Arctic tundra regions. Now, in the latest addition to
the growing body of evidence that global warming is significantly affecting
the Arctic, two recent studies suggest that thawing permafrost is the cause
of two seemingly contradictory observations both rapidly growing and
rapidly shrinking lakes.
Thawing permafrost is altering the lakes that dominate Arctic landscapes, such as this one in western Siberia. Courtesy of Laurence C. Smith.
The first study is a historical analysis of changes to 10,000 Siberian lakes over the past 30 years, a period of warming air and soil temperatures. Using satellite images, Laurence Smith, a geographer at the University of California, Los Angeles, and colleagues found that, since the early 1970s, 125 Siberian lakes vanished completely, and those that remain averaged a 6 percent loss in surface area, a total of 930 square kilometers.
They report in the June 3 Science that the spatial pattern of lake disappearance suggests that the lakes drained away when the permafrost below them thawed, allowing the lake water to seep down into the groundwater. However, the team also found that lakes in northwestern Siberia actually grew by 12 percent, and 50 new lakes formed. Both of the rapid changes are due to warming, they say, and if the warming trend continues, the northern lakes will eventually shrink as well.
These two processes are similar, in that were witnessing permafrost degradation in both regions, says co-author Larry Hinzman, a hydrologist at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks, who in previous studies documented shrinking lakes in southern Alaska. In the warmer, southern areas, we get groundwater infiltration, but in the northern areas, where the permafrost is thicker and colder, its going to take much, much longer for that to occur. So instead of seeing lakes shrinking there, were seeing lakes growing.
That finding is consistent with the second study, which focused on a set of unusually oriented, rapidly growing lakes in northern Alaska, an area of continuous permafrost. Jon Pelletier, a geomorphologist at the University of Arizona in Tucson, reports in the June 30 Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface that the odd alignment of the lakes is caused not by wind direction but by permafrost melting faster at the downhill end of the lake, which has shallower banks.
Since the 1950s, scientists have attributed the odd alignment of the egg-shaped lakes to winds blowing perpendicularly to the long axes of the lakes, which then set up currents that caused waves to break at the northwest and southeast ends, thus preferentially eroding them. The prevailing wind direction idea has been around so long that we dont even think about it, Smith says, but Jons [Pelletier] work is challenging that. Its a very interesting paper.
Wind-driven erosion occurs in the Great Lakes, but at rates of about a meter a year. The Alaskan oriented thaw lakes grow at rates of 5 meters or more per year. Pelletier says this rate difference suggests a different process is at work.
According to the model, the direction and speed of growth depend on where and how quickly the permafrost thaws, which is determined by two factors: how the water table intersects the slope of the landscape and how fast the summer temperature increases. If the permafrost thaws abruptly, the shorter, downhill bank is more likely to thaw first. The soggy soil slumps into the water, and the perimeter of the lake is enlarged. Its not just the [global] warming trend, but also how quickly the warming takes place in the summertime, Pelletier says.
Hinzman says that the lakes are just one part of the Arctic water cycle, which has seen an increasing number of perturbations in recent years. The whole hydrologic cycle is changing and this is just one component of that.
Understanding how the hydrologic cycle is changing is important, Hinzman says, because the amount of freshwater runoff into the Arctic Ocean impacts global ocean circulation and the amount of sea ice, thus affecting climate worldwide. If global warming continues to the point where permafrost goes away, there will be fewer lakes, Smith says. And a drier, less marshy Arctic could alter weather patterns and ecosystems, researchers say, affecting everything from the subsistence lifestyle of native people to the hazard of fire on the tundra.
Geotimes contributing writer
Back to top | [
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] | 922 |
Formed in 1997, Global Fund grantee Woman of Tomorrow (Femme de Demain) works with women who have been "forgotten," who live on land that has been so over-farmed it is depleted of nutrients.
Many of them are heads of households, widows, teen mothers or young girls orphaned by AIDS. They cannot read, and are subject to fraudulent levies and taxes when they take their goods to market.
To combat such bleak conditions, the group trains women in basic literacy, accounting and pricing. To address the over-dependence on agriculture, especially during the dry season, a 2001 Global Fund grant of $7,000 supported their efforts to teach women other ways to earn a living. The group also teaches women about their human rights, explaining that a woman who becomes economically empowered, but remains oppressed within her home may be even more miserable than she was before.
Recent events in Togo have made the group's work even more challenging. In February 2005, Togo's 18-year dictatorship ended with the death of President Gnassingbé Eyadéma. Ensuing actions led to the instatement of his son, Faure Gnassingbé, as president and involved reports of electoral fraud, violent clashes and roughly 30,000 people fleeing the country. These events forced Women of Tomorrow to temporarily suspend its activities for four months.
Want to Change the World? | [
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] | 291 |
Updated: March 8, 2013 3:25 AM EST
AP PHOTOS: Images from Japan's nuclear disasterThe Associated Press
Two years after a powerful earthquake and tsunami wrecked Japan's Fukushima Dai-Ichi nuclear plant, many towns nearby remain abandoned, too affected by radiation for residents to return for more than short visits.
About 160,000 people were displaced by the nuclear disaster, and even some areas outside the 20-kilometer (12-mile) zone that initially was completely off-limits are too contaminated to be cleaned up in the foreseeable future. In others, work is proceeding on cleaning soil, leaves, grass and buildings to help reduce radiation to safer levels.
It remains unclear how effective the cleanup will be or how many people will eventually return to their homes, given fears over potential risks from the radiation and the lack of jobs in an area that depended mainly on farming, fishing and work at the now defunct nuclear plant.
For now, the area is mostly deserted, the fields and homes overgrown with weeds.
Here's a gallery of images from abandoned towns in the area around the crippled nuclear plant.
|AP PHOTOS: Images from Japan's nuclear disaster " data-url="http://www.goerie.com/article/20131303080563" data-count="horizontal" data-via="goerie">Tweet| | [
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] | 279 |
Travel to Northern India: Konarak
The Sun Temple at Konarak is a superlative in a country of superlatives. Built, it appears, in the 13th century, it was abandoned after the Muslim invasion of Orissa early in the 16th. Composed largely of khondalite, a gneiss that weathers easily, without maintenance the temple began to fall apart. Approximately half of it was gone when European visitors arrived for the first time in the 19th century. Shortly after 1900, serious conservation efforts were made to stabilize what remained. That lesser half, amounting to no more than the entrance porch or jagamohana of the vanished sanctuary or rekha is one of India's most spectacular sights.
This is the straight-on approach. The surviving porch of the temple is the triangular mass behind this bhoga-mandapa or Hall of Offering.
It's hard to imagine a more densely decorated surface.
We'll ascend the platform. The roof is missing; it may have echoed the huge roof of the porch.
From the top, you can see across the intervening ground to the stairs rising to the entrance of the temple. The entrance, sorry to say, was blocked with rock and sand in the 19th century for fear that the whole thing would otherwise topple. People who saw it before it was filled report that the interior was very simple, with corbelled stones stepping inwards on all sides to form a roughly pyramidal shape, corresponding to the elaborate external profile of the building.
A king named Narasimha probably built the temple, but his motivation remains unclear. To mark a recovery from illness? It must have been something serious, because a Muslim chronicler at Akbar's Court, Abu'l-Fazl, reported that the temple cost 12 years of tax revenue from the province. A recent author writes that this was the "dazzling dream of an ambitious and mighty king, secular to the core and with immense zest for life, who wanted an edifice which would outrival the works of his forbears and immortalize his name." (Debala Mitra, Konarak, 1968 .)
A closer view. The masonry blocks were laid without mortar, though there was a coat of lime plaster.
The top of the porch, seen from the south. There's a complex vocabulary for these towers. The step-like layers, for example, are called pidhas.
The structure simulates a temple cart riding on a dozen wheels.
Another angle. The wheels were invisible until conservation work after 1900 cleared away a layer of beach sand that rose to the top of the platform.
Seven horses pull the temple, which is dedicated to Surya, the sun god. The image is of the cart rising from the sea, now receded about a mile from what was the temple's beach-front location. A "petrified procession," some have called it.
Perhaps their long burial in sand helped preserve the details of the wheels.
A closer view.
Detail, down to the cotter pin. The temple has hundreds of sexual images.
Side view, from the south.
The view here is from the southwest and shows the stump that remains of the sanctuary that rose to a height half-again as high as the porch. (This assumes that the sanctuary was actually built. Parts of it certainly were, because fragments survived until a storm of 1848.) To see something comparable to what existed here, see the pictures of Puri or, on a smaller scale, the temples at Bhubaneshwar. "There is, so far as I know, no roof in India where the same play of light and shade is obtained with an equal amount of richness and constructive propriety as in this instance, nor one that sits so gracefully of the base that supports it." (Fergusson, II, 107)
A niche on the north side of the sanctuary carries a statue made of chlorite.
It's Surya, a form of Vishnu; flanking his knees (and mostly missing from this image) are two adoring dawn maidens.
The decoration also includes mythical animals, in this case a leogryph (the Sanskrit name is simply vyala, "lion,") atop an elephant.
Another leogryph on the right; on the left, a pious nagni, a female naga with a human head, snake body, and hooded cobras behind. In the center is a maithuna, decorously or perhaps just very literally translated as a "loving couple."
The arrangements (and positions) vary.
A couple with a niche to themselves.
Another wheel detail.
An elephant, masterfully soft.
Another elephant, this one preparing to hurl a demon.
Lions atop elephants at the entrance steps through which we passed earlier.
Colossal fragmentary lion.
This is the ceiling at the entrance to the temple. The iron bars are original, apparently made by beating a bundle of hot bars into a mass. Similar beams were used at the top of the corbelled ceiling in the interior of the porch. Originally, a stone architrave hid them. It's been removed and put in a nearby museum, after 19th Century efforts to transport it to Calcutta foundered on logistics.
A photograph of the partially collapsed interior of the temple before it was filled with a layer of rock pressed flush against the walls, then filled tight with sand, which was finally poured down a 6-inch shaft drilled at the peak. Since then, fears of water accumulating in the mass have led to pressure-grouting of the exterior stones.
Not impressed? But look inside.
Here's that massive architrave, carved from the same chlorite used in the statue of Surya. It was removed from the temple before 1838 by the local Raja of Khurda, who wanted to use it for his palace. Before he could do so, orders came from the British government to cease and desist. The British then attempted to move the stone to a museum in Calcutta, but it was too massive and so stayed here. It portrays the nava-grahas, or nine planetary gods. From left to right, Surya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Brihaspati (Jupiter), Sukra (Venus), and Sani (Saturn). At the far right are Rahu and Ketu, invisible planets at war with the earth and sun.
Surya, smiling with a lotus flower in each hand
Rahu. He carries crescents because he is associated with lunar eclipses.
Despite the sea's retreat from the site, there's plenty of sand still around.
And relics, whether of the destroyed sanctuary or of other buildings once standing in the neighborhood.
What you didn't want to see! Konarak is a popular place unless you come early.
* Australia's Northern Territory * Austria * Bangladesh * Belgium * Brazil (Manaus) * Burma / Myanmar * Cambodia (Angkor) * Canada (B.C.) * China * Czech Republic * Egypt * France * Germany * Greece * Hungary * India: Themes * Northern India * Peninsular India * Indonesia * Israel * Italy * Japan * Jerusalem * Jordan * Kenya * Laos * Kosovo * Malaysia * Mexico * Morocco * Mozambique * Namibia * Netherlands * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Philippines * Poland * Portugal * Singapore * South Africa * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Syria * Tanzania * Thailand * Trinidad * Turkey * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * U.S.: East * U.S.: West * U.S.: Oklahoma * Uzbekistan * Vietnam * West Bank * Yemen * Zimbabwe * | [
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] | 1,623 |
The Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) Brochure
U.S. General Services Administration
Office of Governmentwide Policy
Committee Management Secretariat
Washington, DC 20417
Advisory committees have played an important role in shaping programs and policies of the federal government from the earliest days of the Republic. Since President George Washington sought the advice of such a committee during the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, the contributions made by these groups have been impressive and diverse.
Today, an average of 1,000 advisory committees with more than 60,000 members advise the President and the Executive Branch on such issues as the disposal of high-level nuclear waste, the depletion of atmospheric ozone, the national fight against Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), efforts to rid the Nation of illegal drugs, to improve schools, highways, and housing, and on other major programs.
Through enactment of the Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) of 1972 (Public Law 92-463), the U.S. Congress formally recognized the merits of seeking the advice and assistance of our nation's citizens. At the same time, the Congress also sought to assure that advisory committees:
- Provide advice that is relevant, objective, and open to the public;
- Act promptly to complete their work; and
- Comply with reasonable cost controls and record keeping requirements.
Role of Federal Advisory Committees
With the expertise from advisory committee members, federal officials and the nation have access to information and advice on a broad range of issues affecting federal policies and programs. The public, in return, is afforded an opportunity to provide input into a process that may form the basis for government decisions.
Federal Agency Responsibility
Each federal agency that sponsors advisory committees must adhere to the requirements established by the FACA, as well as regulations promulgated by the U.S. General Services Administration’s (GSA) Committee Management Secretariat. GSA has had the responsibility for overseeing the FACA since 1977.
GSA's Role Under the FACA
With approximately 1,000 advisory committees in existence at any given time, special attention is required to assure compliance with the FACA, the Freedom of Information Act, and related regulations, as well as to encourage effective and efficient use of committee resources.
While executive branch departments and agencies are responsible for continually reviewing committee performance and compliance in these areas, the General Services Administration was designated by the President in 1977 to monitor committee activities government-wide. As part of this responsibility, GSA:
- Conducts annual reviews of advisory committee activities and accomplishments;
- Responds to requests from agencies on establishing new committees or the renewal of existing groups; and
- Maintains a FACA database on the internet from which advisory committee information may be obtained.
Together, GSA and the federal community work to eliminate the overlap or duplication of advisory bodies, terminate unnecessary or inactive committees, and develop committee management regulations, guidelines, and training in response to requirements of the Executive Branch and Congress.
Complying with FACA
Any advisory group, with limited exceptions, that is established or utilized by a federal agency and that has at least one member who is not a federal employee, must comply with the FACA. To find out if a group comes under the FACA, contact the sponsoring agency's Committee Management Officer. The GSA Committee Management Secretariat is an additional resource (see the last section "For More Information...").
Requirements for Establishing and Managing Advisory Committees
Under the Federal Advisory Committee Act, advisory committees can be created only when they are essential to the performance of a duty or responsibility conveyed upon the executive branch by law or Presidential Directive. Before committees can be set up, high-level officials within the sponsoring agency must review and approve the request. Once a committee is approved, a charter is prepared outlining the committee's mission and specific duties and forwarded to GSA's Committee Management Secretariat for final review. Following a required public notification period, and the filing of the charter with Congress, the committee may begin operation.
Committee Management Officer and Designated Federal Officer
The Federal Advisory Committee Act also provides that each agency sponsoring a federal advisory committee must appoint a Committee Management Officer to oversee the administration of the Act's requirements.
In addition, a Designated Federal Officer must be assigned to each committee to:
- Ensure compliance with FACA, and any other applicable laws and regulations;
- Call, attend, and adjourn committee meetings;
- Approve agendas;
- Maintain required records on costs and membership;
- Ensure efficient operations;
- Maintain records for availability to the public; and
- Provide copies of committee reports to the Committee Management Officer for forwarding to the Library of Congress.
Expiration of a Committee's Charter
Unless the renewal of a committee charter is justified under the FACA, the charter automatically expires after a two-year period (or as otherwise provided by law).
Advisory Committee Members
Federal advisory committee members are drawn from nearly every occupational and industry group and geographical section of the United States and its territories. The FACA requires that committee memberships be "fairly balanced in terms of the points of view represented and the functions to be performed."
As a result, members of specific committees often have both the expertise and professional skills that parallel the program responsibilities of their sponsoring agencies. In balancing committee memberships, agencies are expected to consider a cross-section of those directly affected, interested, and qualified, as appropriate to the nature and function of the advisory committee.
Appointing Committee Members
Agency officials, members of Congress, the general public, or professional societies or current and former committee members may nominate potential candidates for membership on a committee.
Selection of committee members is made based on the FACA's requirements and the potential member's background and qualifications. Final selection is made by the president or heads of departments or agencies.
Prior to accepting an appointment with a federal advisory committee, each prospective member should clarify his/her role, obligations, duties, allowable expenses, compensation limitations, and any ethics requirements with their committee’s Designated Federal Officer and/or Committee Management Officer, as appropriate.
Federal Ethics and Conflict of Interest Laws
Agency officials must provide prospective advisory committee members with information regarding any applicable standards of conduct-including those imposed by federal conflict of interest statutes. In some instances, members may be subject to special limitations during the course of their service on an advisory committee. For some members, these restrictions also may apply (for limited periods) after their committee assignments have ended.
Some agencies may impose additional administrative requirements as well. To avoid potential conflicts, each advisory committee member should assure that he or she receives adequate information from the sponsoring agency and completes any required appointment papers and disclosure forms prior to service on a committee.
Oral briefings and other explanatory material may be obtained through the sponsoring agency's Committee Management Officer, Designated Agency Ethics Official, or from the Office of Government Ethics, which has government-wide jurisdiction on federal ethics issues.
Limits on Membership Terms
Each agency may set limits (unless provided by law or Presidential Directive) on the lengths of terms for serving on advisory committees to allow for new membership.
Open Access to Committee Meetings and Operations
Under the provisions of the Federal Advisory Committee Act, federal agencies sponsoring advisory committees must:
- Arrange meetings that are reasonably accessible and at convenient locations and times;
- Publish adequate advance notice of meetings in the Federal Register;
- Open advisory committee meetings to the public (with some exceptions-see the section on "Government in the Sunshine Act" below);
- Make available for public inspection, subject to the Freedom of Information Act, papers and records, including detailed minutes of each meeting; and
- Maintain records of expenditures.
Government in the Sunshine Act
Advisory committee meetings may be closed or partially closed to the public based upon provisions of the Government in the Sunshine Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-409). Examples of meetings that may be closed under the FACA are:
- Those including discussions of classified information;
- Reviews of proprietary data submitted in support of Federal grant applications; and
- Deliberations involving considerations of personnel privacy.
For more information on the requirements of the Federal Advisory Committee Act, contact the General Services Administration's Committee Management Secretariat at [email protected] or via the internet at:
Examples of materials available on the Committee Management Secretariat website are:
- Federal Advisory Committee Act
- GSA Final Rule on Federal Advisory Committee Management
- Guidance documents
- Access to the Federal Advisory Committee Act database
- Information on the Federal Advisory Committee Act Training course.
Other materials, such as samples of nominating letters and committee reports, are available from each sponsoring agency. | [
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] | 1,797 |
British consumers love cheese, milk and yoghurt, but to keep the cows producing all that milk, they need to keep calving. This works out fine for female calves, but not so great for young bulls. As the offspring of dairy herds such as Guernsey, Ayrshire and Friesians, these bull calves do not tend to grow up to make good beef, and their fate has been a varied and, at times, inhumane one.
Until 1990, when the British government banned transporting animals in close-confinement crates, many of the bull calves were exported, mostly to the Netherlands, where animal welfare standards are lower than they are here.
Then it became common practice to slaughter and dispose of male calves at just a day or two old. Carol Yesson, a Stop Calf Exports Campaign Officer at Compassion in World Farming, says that an estimated 7,000 to 9,000 male calves are destroyed in the UK each month. And this year, as close-confinement crates were banned throughout the rest of the EU, we are back to exporting up to 3,000 a week. "But we fear that may double if Defra don't take action to stop calf exports," says Yesson. "Most of the calves exported end up in the Netherlands and Belgium where the barren, group-housing system is commonplace. And some animals undertake incredibly long journeys, of up to 100 hours, to Spain and Italy. A Compassion in World Farming report published in May 2007 with Bristol University showed that death and disease following transport can be high and that for a two-week-old calf, transportation is incredibly stressful and causes undue suffering."
Molly Dineen's recent documentary - The Lie of the Land - highlighted Britain's un-joined-up farming practices. One scene follows a Cornish knackerman driving around in his truck, picking up all these day-old calves (this is known candidly, if gruesomely, as "the flesh run"), often having to shoot them as well. He gets paid about £3 per animal. At one point, a farmer leaves him two quid and a packet of fudge to destroy just about the healthiest, most doe-eyed brown calf I have ever seen. Meanwhile, according to the Meat and Livestock Commission, we import 95% of the 2,000 tonnes of veal we eat every year from the continent. I am certainly not blaming our farmers, who do tough jobs, but clearly this system has been failing.
Helen Browning, an organic livestock farmer, and food and farming director of the Soil Association, says, "Historically, for most dairy farmers, male calves are seen as having no useful function - but due to the increasing demand for veal, as well as more and more people wanting to buy British, things are changing."
Abroad, traditionally, veal calves are kept in close individual pens, a tragedy in itself as cows are social animals that need to touch and have eye contact with other members of the herd. To keep their meat as pale as possible they are kept in the dark, fed only milk (not solids, which they need to grow strong) and are anaemic, with no iron or minerals in their diet. "Welfare standards on the continent are just not as high as ours," says Browning, whose veal calves, by contrast, are allowed to roam free in the summer months, and are given hay and oats to eat in their communal sheds through the winter. They are often even settled with surrogate mothers - cows who are retired from the dairy - and generally have a pretty good time of it until they're about six months old and their number's up.
Although Browning, whose produce is available online (helenbrowningorganics.co.uk), has big growth plans for the future, at the moment she is only producing about 40 veal calves a year, which isn't going to meet any nationwide run on domestic veal. But help is coming from the award-winning Ginger Pig farm and butchers. Proprietor Tim Wilson says, "We're working on it - literally building the sheds as we speak." He goes on to warn, however, that because of the increase in demand for goat's milk, the same wasteful cycle could occur with them. "There are farms just down the road from me killing [and disposing of] the kids at a day or two old, then down at Smithfield's you see imported French milk-fed billy goats." Here we go again.
For veal, though, it does seem that change is a-hoof. British meat now accounts for around 60% of the veal that Waitrose sells (escalopes currently retailing at £23 per kilo). But so far it doesn't seem to be trickling down to the market and the restaurants. My local and very good butcher John Stenton says that veal is the only imported meat he stocks. "We sell very little veal, and it's all Dutch. I used to have a source in Cornwall but they dried up. You just can't seem to get hold of welfare-reared meat in the UK." Danny Lidgate of London uber-butchers, Lidgates, has had a little more luck. "We get some British veal, but milk-fed Dutch veal tends to be a higher standard because it's produced on a bigger scale and it's more readily available. However, we have just started selling British organic veal which is starting to become more available. It is very popular, good quality and slightly redder than the imported meat."
For Rose Gray of the River Cafe, it's a question of quality. "In the past, we've used both French and Dutch veal," she says, "but I've never come across a British veal good enough to use in our restaurant. It just has no flavour, no texture and not enough fat - the fat is important. Maybe [quality British veal] is out there, but I've never tasted it."
Having cooked and eaten Browning's veal, I find it has more flavour than the usual pale version; all the delicateness of its continental counterpart and is just as tender. I believe that, ethics aside, when it comes to animals, taste is defined by life: what it ate and how it moved. As happy calves move around, they grow muscle, and giving them a balanced diet provides their bodies with what they need to get stronger - as nature intended. These differences produce a meat with a pinker tinge to it, which is known in the industry as "rose veal".
Despite my name (Allegra), there's no Italian blood in my body, but my love of Italian food is written on my bones. Along with garlic, tomatoes, parmesan and a bunch of other super-special Italian cookery staples, veal sits at the high table of Italian ingredients; I adore this unique flesh in all of the many dishes it appears in, such as vitello tonnato and involtini of spinach, mozzarella and grilled aubergines, saltimbocca alla romana (pan fried with parma ham and sage), scaloppine al burro e salvia (escalope cooked with butter and sage) and costoletta alla milanese (pan-fried in breadcrumbs). I have even cited osso buco (shin steak, including the bone and marrow, braised very slowly with vegetables, tomatoes, white wine and herbs) as being my death row meal.
· Allegra McEvedy is co-founder of the fast-food chain Leon. Her cookbook is published by Kyle Cathie at £19.99. To order a copy for £18.99 with free UK p&p, call 0870 836 0875 or go to guardian.co.uk/bookshop.
Ask Allegra at blogs.guardian.co.uk/food
Our resident chef answers your culinary dilemmas live online, tomorrow at 2pm | [
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] | 1,670 |
Alice and Bob in I/O Land
[Click here to start]
This lecture is also available in
one big HTML file
Table of contents
Alice, Bob And Their Race To Disk-Haven
Alice's Adventures In Wonderland - A Partial Recap
Alice's Adventures In Wonderland - A Partial Recap - Cont.
Meet Alice - the 16KB "write" that could
Alice goes down the Rabbit hole
Alice wants to pass through the small door
Little Alice joins the (page-cached) Caucus race
Little Alice going down the (disk) elevator
Little Alice grows again - the I/O scheduler dance
Example of "iostat" output
Big Alice plays the disk Crockett - the basic elevator algorithm
Original Alice Stands to Trial - ERR_SUCCESS or ERR_IO?
Mad Hatter testifies - the small bio-s joining in
Original Alice wakes up from her write-full dream
Ecila - the "read" that came back from the cold
Through The Looking Glass - A Partial Recap
Through The Looking Glass - A Partial Recap - Cont.
Ecila passes through the looking glass
Ecila meets the red queen and (page-cachely) runs nowhere
What's in my cache?
Ecila meets the White Knight and goes to gather herself
Ecila and Humpty Dumpty have a great elevated fall
Ecila meets Twiddledee and Twiddledum - and sends them ahead
Tuning device-level read-ahead
Ecila comes back through the mirror
File-Systems and meta-data I/O
Directory hierarchy traversal and the dentry cache
Checking dentry-cache statistics
File control blocks and the inode cache
Checking inode-cache statistics
File Blocks And File Extents
File Blocks And File Extents - Cont.
Bob - the raw-"write"-er
Bob goes into I/O land
To cache or not to cache - that is the D(irect) question
What if Bob was sync(ing) harder?
boB - the reader from the "raw"
boB goes catching some rie
boB the cached Vs. boB the direct
Alice and Bob go picking an elevator
The "noop" elevator - quick and noisy
The "CFQ" elevator - "no room! no room! (at the tea party)"
I/O Priority Using "ionice"
The "deadline" elevator - "I'm late! I'm late! I'm late!"
The "anticipatory" elevator - "If you build it - they will come"
I/O and the court of law
Cartman (from South-park) looking for his father...
Why is it so hard to perform per-process I/O accounting
/proc/<pid>/io and iotop
The Linux I/O law of fatherhood
Originally written by | [
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] | 623 |
Broken or knocked out tooth
The dentist's term for a knocked out tooth is "avulsed."
Teeth - broken; Tooth - knocked out
A permanent tooth that is knocked out can sometimes be reimplanted. In most cases, only permanent, adult teeth are reimplanted into the mouth. Baby teeth are usually left out.
Immediately contact your dentist when a tooth is broken or knocked out. If you can find the tooth after the accident or injury, bring it with you when you seek medical help.
Tooth accidents are commonly caused by:
- Accidental falls
- Sports-related trauma
- Car accidents
- Biting on hard food
Save any tooth that has been knocked out for possible reimplantation. Bring it to your dentist as soon as possible. The longer you wait, the less chance there is for successful reimplantation. Handle the tooth only by the crown (chewing edge).
Use one of the following options to transport the tooth:
- Try to replace the tooth in the socket, to the level of adjacent teeth. Bite down gently on gauze or a wet tea bag to help keep it in place. The surrounding teeth can be used as anchors. Care must be taken not to swallow the tooth.
- If the tooth cannot be replaced in the socket, place it in a container and cover with a small amount of whole milk or saliva. The tooth can also be carried between lower lip and lower gum or under the tongue.
- A tooth-saving storage device (Save-a-Tooth, EMT Tooth Saver) may be available at your dentist's office. Such a kit contains a travel case and fluid solution. Consider buying one for your home first aid kit.
For additional first aid, follow these steps:
- Apply a cold compress to the mouth and gums for pain.
- Apply direct pressure, using gauze, to control bleeding.
- Get dental help immediately. The sooner dental attention is received, the better the chances are for successful reimplantation.
Teeth that have been badly fractured may expose nerve tissue inside the tooth. In this case, immediate attention is needed to avoid infection, abscess, and pain.
Simple chips or fractures may be tended to on a nonemergency basis, but should still be fixed to avoid sharp edges that can cut the lips or tongue, and for cosmetic reasons.
- Do NOT handle the roots of the tooth. Handle only the chewing edge -- the crown portion of the tooth.
- Do NOT scrape the root of the tooth to remove dirt.
- Do NOT brush or clean the tooth with alcohol or peroxide.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
See a dentist immediately if:
- A permanent tooth has been knocked out.
- A tooth has been partially fractured, and pain and swelling results.
In the case of simple tooth fractures, a nonemergency dental appointment can be made.
After a major accident, if you are not able to bring your upper and lower teeth together, the jaw may be broken. This requires immediate attention. You may call a dentist, but also seek help at a hospital.
- Wear a mouth guard when playing any contact sport.
- Avoid fights.
- Avoid hard foods, such as bones, stale bread, and tough bagels.
- Always wear a seatbelt.
Roberts JR, Hedges JR, eds. Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders; 2004.
Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, eds. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2002.
Jack D. Rosenberg, DDS, Advanced Dental Care, Palm Beach Gardens, FL. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, M.D., MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997-
A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited. | [
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] | 916 |
A person may need emergency treatment after a suicide attempt. They may need first aid,
People who try to commit suicide may need to stay in a hospital for treatment and to reduce the risk of future attempts. Therapy is one of the most important parts of treatment.
The condition that may have caused the suicide attempt should be treated. This includes:
- Bipolar disorder
- Borderline personality disorder
- Drug or alcohol dependence
- Major depression
People who are at risk for suicidal behavior may not get treated for many reasons, including:
- They believe nothing will help
- They do not want to tell anyone they have problems
- They think it is a sign of weakness to ask for help
- They do not know where to go for help
If you or someone you know is thinking about suicide, there are numbers that you can call from anywhere in the United States, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week: 1-800-SUICIDE or 1-800-999-9999.
As with any other type of emergency, call the local emergency number (such as 911) right away if someone you know has attempted suicide. Do not leave the person alone, even after you have called for help.
Always take suicide attempts and threats seriously. About one-third of people who try to commit suicide will try again within 1 year. About 10% of people who threaten or try to commit suicide will eventually kill themselves.
The person needs mental health care right away. Do not dismiss the person as just trying to get attention.
Complications depend on the type of suicide attempt.
Calling your health care provider
Call a health care provider right away if you or someone you know is having thoughts of suicide.
Review Date: 03/07/2011
Reviewed By: Linda J. Vorvick, MD, Medical Director, MEDEX Northwest Division of Physician Assistant Studies, Unviersity of Washington, School of Medicine; and David B. Merrill, MD, Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. | [
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] | 453 |
Cloud computing as commonly defined is when a business gives its data, applications, storage and computational power to a cloud computing provider and accesses those resources via the public Internet. It's been a godsend for many organizations, most notably small enterprises that can save enormously on infrastructure costs and have access to highly skilled I.T. expertise that they couldn't afford otherwise. Salesforce.com and Amazon.com have quickly become giants in the "public" cloud service sector thanks to the convenience and low start-up costs for their services. International Data Corp., a technology research firm, estimates in a recently released report that the cloud software market reached $22.9 billion in 2011, a 31 percent year-over-year growth increase. The market is expected to reach $67.3 billion by 2016 at a compound annual growth rate of 24 percent. IDC also estimates that small businesses-defined as those with 100 or fewer employees-spent $3.5 billion on cloud technologies in 2011, or about 7 percent of the $53 billion the small business segment spent overall on I.T. expenditures.
That enthusiasm for remotely hosted services and low-cost infrastructure is shared by the health care industry, but not necessarily in the same way, or to the same degree, as industries such as construction or retail.
KLAS Enterprises, a Utah-based health care I.T. research firm, polled nearly 100 provider organizations for a 2011 "perception" study of cloud computing. Right off the bat, Erik Westerlind, the report author, had to sift through how respondents-of which nearly 70 percent were C-level executives-defined cloud computing.
"We ran into a lot of cases where executives would tell us that yes, they use the cloud because they're having their electronic health record remotely hosted by Cerner, for example," he says. "But those types of services are not really how "The Cloud" is typically defined outside this market-yes, they're remotely hosted, but the applications are running via direct connections to Cerner's data center, and all their information is housed in one place, Kansas City."
Some of the confusion about how to define cloud services is due to the "cloud washing" going on-rebranding application service provider or application hosting services as "cloud" solutions.
"True" cloud service is virtualized, elastic, scalable, metered out and resides on pooled or shared resources on the Web. Respondents mentioned every one of these attributes, but only a few mentioned them all, according to the KLAS report.
The health care execs most commonly used two attributes-an application was remotely hosted, and it was available via the Web-to define the cloud.
The bottom line is that interest in the cloud is strong in health care, but neither KLAS nor other industry experts expect a stampede of providers to a public cloud environment where their data is stored and accessible via the public Web.
Not surprisingly, data security and privacy, and lack of control, are the top concerns of health care execs. And while health care is-has to be-downright obsessive about security and privacy, those concerns are not exclusive to the industry. The IDC report and other cloud research finds the top drawback for adopting cloud services is data security.
"One hospital CIO summed it up pretty neatly-he noted that he has to go before his board of directors every year and attest to them that the hospital is compliant with HIPAA regulations, one requirement being that he certifies that he knows where its data resides," Westerlind says. "In a public cloud that data could be anywhere in the world. That pretty much sums up why many are taking a cautious approach to public cloud services."
But then again, interest is high in cloud computing, and 55 percent of respondents to the KLAS survey are currently deploying some part of their I.T. environment in the cloud, where the definition was the delivery of storage solutions, software solutions, or both over the Web.
At this point, much of the industry's interest is focused on creating private clouds that enable providers to keep control of their data by either storing it on virtual servers they own, or putting it on dedicated virtual servers owned by trusted third parties.
A lot of the future of health care cloud computing hinges on trust. While much has been made of the reluctance of health care organizations to use the cloud, another roadblock has been the lack of cloud service providers willing to take on the burden of handling health care data, says Jeffrey White, a principal at Pittsburgh-based Aspen Advisors, a health care consultancy.
"There's been a reluctance on the part of cloud platform providers to sign HIPAA business associate agreements, which has really hampered the development of truly cloud-based services in the market," White says.
As a result, many organizations are using hosting services from established health I.T. vendors, which provides some but not all of the benefits of a Web-based cloud environment. However, the cloud is coming, thanks in part to the health care industry's increased focus on collaboration and consumerism.
Dignity Health provides a good example of how and why cloud computing is starting to carve out a health care space.
Dignity Health is massive, encompassing more than 40 hospitals, operating in 17 states, and with 60,000 providers working at its facilities. Not surprisingly, the health system has a large and skilled I.T. department and a massive technological infrastructure. But while it has the internal capability to meet pretty much any data demand thrown at it, Dignity Health is putting more and more information on a cloud platform managed by a third party, says Scott Whyte, the vice president of I.T. connectivity.
The impetus behind most of its cloud efforts is the need to collaborate with more and more business partners and provide additional services to physicians and patients. And those various projects need to be done yesterday.
"We're forming an accountable care organization and getting more involved with independent physicians, and everything has to happen fast because we're dealing with aggressive timelines, either because they're regulatory timelines or we have competitive pressures," Whyte says. "While we have the resources to do this internally, our cloud services partner brings a lot to the table-they can spin up data center capacity very quickly, and they have very skilled human resources that augment our own staff."
In addition, that partner, Phoenix-based ClearDATA Networks Inc., serves only the health care market, and consequently is steeped in the sometimes esoteric health security and privacy requirements required, Whyte says.
And while it might not matter in every case and to all providers, the cloud services also enable Dignity to expand its I.T. environment using operating expenses instead of capital outlays for more servers and other infrastructure, he adds.
Dignity Health also has found that many of its new partners, be they competing hospitals, or insurers or independent physicians, want to have all the collaborative data stored in "neutral" territory separated from their larger infrastructures, Whyte says.
Not only are there competitive reasons to want to ensure the data is on neutral ground, but it also means there are fewer legal and compliance hoops to jump through to share the necessary data, which enables the organizations to speed up the development timelines.
One example is the physician metric reports being used for the emerging ACO, Whyte says. "That's an application that is really well-suited for a Web-based cloud environment: we need to share data among partners and make it widely accessible to physicians using all different types of devices to access it."
Cloud computing at Dignity will grow, but likely won't encompass its core legacy systems, Whyte says. "We are not fork-lifting legacy applications to the cloud: We use Cerner Corp.'s hosting services for our EHR, and we have no plans to move our core financials [from Lawson Corp.] to a cloud environment. We are using the cloud for the new types of collaborative applications we need to offer."
Collaboration doesn't necessarily have to be external, either.
As health systems continue to grow through consolidation and buying up physician practices, the management of internal data needed for collaborative efforts is getting more complex.
Jonathan Teich, M.D., the chief medical information officer at Elsevier Corp. and a practicing physician at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, says the use of cloud platforms for knowledge is far less daunting than the idea of changing the entire computing paradigm.
Elsevier, an Amsterdam-based provider of clinical decision support information, plans to soon make a new service generally available that enables health systems to manage and maintain their clinical order sets via a cloud service.
"Health systems with hundreds or thousands of order sets have a hard time having local staff maintain them, and many are widely dispersed, which makes it more difficult to collaborate," Teich says.
That idea of fork-lifting core applications into a cloud environment is a task that many providers seem unwilling to tackle at this point. Much of that big legacy technology, as White from Aspen Advisors points out, is built of proprietary architectures that are not well-suited to transition into a cloud environment.
Not only that, but most cloud providers at this point can't guarantee the reliability and service levels health care organizations require for those applications. "When it comes to core systems, providers have invested heavily in the infrastructure around them, including investments in virtualizing their servers and to provide a level of redundancy, that they're uncertain they can get from a cloud platform. If you look across different industries, including the financial sector, you're seeing cloud adoption, but they're not running their businesses over the cloud."
Dan Riskin, M.D., CEO of Menlo Park, Calif.-based Health Fidelity and consulting assistant professor at Stanford University, says that his is one of a new wave of health care cloud companies providing a low-cost bridge to convert data into knowledge.
Health Fidelity uses natural language processing technology-which incorporates the Medical Language Encoding and Extraction system from Columbia University-to identify and encode clinical information in caregiver narratives to standard code sets, such as ICD-9 and 10, CPT-4 and LOINC.
The company works with solution providers to standardize all that unstructured data in feeds from providers for use in analytics, revenue cycle and compliance efforts. "Even with the all the efforts at making health care all about discrete data, around 80 percent of the clinical information is unstructured in clinical notes," he says.
Mining the mountain of unstructured data takes a lot of computational power. Cloud platforms, Riskin says, are ideally suited for the task.
"Analytics requires processing power and expertise, and cloud computing is proving in health care and other markets that it can deliver faster and cheaper than internal resources," he says. "What we and other start-ups in this space are doing is bypassing the manual processes of data collection and standardization that take such an enormous amount of time and resources to perform."
In Riskin's mind, new health I.T. start-ups, many of which are using cloud computing platforms, are the ones that can work with the data holders in the market-the hospitals, practices and health information exchanges among them-and find ways to embed new knowledge into care processes.
"What the country bet on, and is paying for, is that if the industry can digitize its information, it could make it rapidly useful for those innovative approaches to improve care." Riskin says. "That simply isn't going to happen if health systems and hospitals are trying to use internal resources to mine their Big Data. Cloud computing platforms enable processing power to be spun up, and adjustments to be made on the fly. "When I think about the power and flexibility of cloud computing, I'm frankly shocked that we're still having multi-million dollar, on-site installs." | [
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] | 2,456 |
Patients have a hard time understanding the differences between screening tests and diagnostic tests. The most misunderstandings or misconceptions that seem to arise during pregnancy revolve around screening for aneuploidy (fetal chromosomal abnormalities). Even for providers, this can be a complex and confusing issue that can be difficult and time-consuming to explain to patients and, therefore, often is not given the attention it deserves.
Screening tests are used to provide presumptive identification of an unrecognized or unexpected disease or defect. They are usually designed to be relatively rapid and widely applicable to the population at large. They are not diagnostic, often are associated with what are perceived to be high ‘false positive’ rates, and are meant to have follow-up if ‘abnormal.’ Although, only a small percentage of the ‘abnormal’ tests are usually found to confirm the diagnosis of the abnormality in follow-up, the wide net that is cast by a good screening test does not often miss the opportunity to make the diagnosis either. In the case of aneuploidy, there are several relatively noninvasive approaches for evaluating the fetus ‘at risk’ without putting the fetus at risk by the screening process itself.
Many patients are put off by the screening tests for aneuploidy during pregnancy and the most common reasons cited when they are asked are: “The false positive rates are too high” (which I have found, interestingly enough, often means to them that they think they will be asked to make hard decisions regarding the pregnancy based on the screening test alone and don’t want to take the chance of terminating a normal baby); “I wouldn’t do anything about it anyway”; “I will take what I get and I don’t want to worry about it the whole pregnancy”; and, “My doctor told me that it wasn’t a very good test” (usually related to provider bias or misunderstanding regarding ‘false positive rates’).
Although I wish it wasn’t so, point in fact is that not all pregnancies are perfect; and, these screening tests can help detect completely unexpected aneuploid fetuses in young women who are at ‘low risk’ based on age alone, and also help to guide the ‘at risk’ woman in her decisions regarding the need for invasive diagnostic studies that could, potentially, put the pregnancy at risk by the procedure alone. Indeed, what I have learned in the two years that we have been offering “combined first trimester screening” (the topic for the next post) to ‘at risk’ women, is that most women end up with reassuring results, and sleep better as a consequence, and our number of invasive diagnostic procedures have declined dramatically with no increase in the number of chromosomally abnormal babies missed in women with ‘advanced maternal age.’ I have also learned over the years that some patients know they need to know (and need to be given the opportunity to find out); some patients don’t know they need to know (and benefit from unbiased counseling regarding the value and pitfalls of screening); and many (most?) don’t know what they would do with the information until after they find out.
If you haven’t gotten the message thus far, I believe that ALL pregnant women should be offered aneuploidy screening and I believe more would accept it if they got better counseling. The bottom line is that aneuploidy screening is recommended as a ‘standard of care.’ From the provider’s standpoint, there is proven liability associated with not offering it, not offering it in an unbiased fashion, and with inadequate documentation of informed consent and refusal. The greatest benefit to the patient is that in the vast majority of patients, it can reduce the ‘risk’ and therefore the anxiety related to possibly having an abnormal baby; reduce the need for invasive diagnostic procedures in many cases; and, in situations in which an aneuploid fetus is detected, it can provide time for preparation for the baby, or allow for timely decision-making for those who choose not to continue their pregnancies…. | [
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] | 871 |
As a preschooler, your child should have a healthy attitude toward eating. Ideally, by this age she no longer uses eating—or not eating—to demonstrate defiance, nor does she confuse food with love or affection. Generally (although almost certainly not always), she’ll now view eating as a natural response to hunger and meals as a pleasant social experience.
Despite your preschooler’s general enthusiasm for eating, she still may have very specific preferences in food, some of which may vary from day to day. Your child may gobble down a particular food one day, and then push away the plate with the same food the next day. She may ask for a certain food for several days in a row, and then insist that she doesn’t like it anymore. As irritating as it may be to have her turn up her nose at a dish she devoured the day before, it’s normal behavior for a preschooler, and best not to make an issue of it. Let her eat the other foods on her plate or select something else to eat. As long as she chooses foods that aren’t overly sugary, fatty, or salty, don’t object. However, encourage her to try new foods by offering her very small amounts to taste, not by insisting that she eat a full portion of an unfamiliar food.
As a parent, your job is to make sure that your preschooler has nutritious food choices at every meal. If she has healthy options on the dining room table, let her make the decision of what (and how much) to eat. If she’s a picky eater—resisting eating vegetables, for example—don’t get discouraged or frustrated. Keep giving them to her even if she repeatedly turns up her nose at the sight of them. Before long, she may change her mind, developing a taste for foods that she once ignored. This is the period of time that healthy snacking and healthy habits get reinforced and/or established.
Remember, meals don’t need to be elaborate to be nutritious. If you have only a few minutes to prepare a meal, try a turkey sandwich, a serving of green beans, an apple, and a glass of nonfat or low-fat milk. A simple lunch like this takes less time to prepare than driving through a fast-food restaurant, and it is much healthier.
Television advertising, incidentally, can be a serious obstacle to your preschooler’s good nutrition. Some studies show that children who watch over twenty-two hours of TV per week (over three hours of screen time a day) have a greater tendency to become obese. Children this age are extremely receptive to ads for candy and other sugary sweets, especially after they’ve visited other homes where these foods are served. Obesity is a growing problem among children in America. For this reason, you need to be aware of your youngster’s eating habits, at home and away, and monitor them to make sure she’s eating as healthy as possible. | [
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Bullying is any behavior person(s) exhibit that intends to harm or distress a targeted person(s) consistently.
The types of bullying are: Physical - Verbal - Cyber - Relational (Social Aggression)
Your child feels sad about attending school - Refusal to go to school - Loss of personal items such as toys, clothing or lunch money - Child may appear withdrawn or anxious -Change in sleeping and/or eating habits - Complaints of headache and/or stomach ache - Frequent visits to Health Office
If you suspect your child is involved in bullying behavior, please consider the following: Discuss your concerns with your child, school, or social worker - Determine if your child has been having any particular problems with other children - Assess if your child is experiencing difficulties in other areas - Assist your child in understanding the serious nature and consequences of bullying behavior - Share your concerns with your child's teacher or any other significant adult (example teacher, coaches, scout-leaders etc.)
Ignore or walk away - tell the person to stop and then walk away - Warn that you will get help from an adult and then walk away - Get help. Tell an adult what has happened
Bullies keep bullying because of inaction. Make sure your child communicates their concerns to a trusted adult. Also, if they see bullying happening and they feel comfortable doing so, they should firmly state that those actions are inappropriate. | [
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December 22, 2006
Growing New Limbs the Zebrafish Way
A zebrafish tail fin one day after amputation is shown on the left. The image on the right shows that by ten days post amputation, the tail fin has regenerated.
A lost tail fin can really slow down a zebrafish - at least for a week or so, until it grows a new one. Now scientists have shown that they can turn on or block this regeneration in zebrafish with the flip of a molecular switch. Understanding how the fish's cells coordinate the regrowth of the structurally complex fin can help scientists understand the process of regeneration, providing clues that may aid in the development of new clinical therapies, such as renewing cardiac tissue after heart disease.
The scientists said that not only will their findings advance research aimed at regenerating tissues and organs, but the discoveries could also lead to improved therapies for bone marrow transplants to restore the hematopoetic system in cancer patients.
“In studying injury or inflammation in any context, investigators should explore whether Wnt signaling is involved. These experiments suggest that Wnt signaling is a universal component of regenerative pathways in animals.”
Randall T. Moon
The researchers' findings were published online December 22, 2006, as a Development ePress article, which is posted in advance of print publication in the journal Development. The senior author was Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator Randall Moon at the Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine of the University of Washington School of Medicine, and the joint first authors were Cristi Stoick-Cooper and Gilbert Weidinger, who designed and carried out the experiments in the Moon laboratory.
Using tail fin regeneration in the zebrafish as a model system, the researchers discovered that a major cellular signaling pathway, called the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, is central to activating the complex machinery of limb regeneration. This pathway is known to play a major role in regulating stem cells in embryonic development and adult tissue maintenance. Malfunctions in the pathway have been proven to lead to cancers, as well as being linked to bone density diseases and neurodegenerative diseases.
The Wnt/ß-catenin pathway comprises a large group of proteins that are activated when the signaling molecule Wnt binds to the pathway's cell surface receptors. This activation increases the levels of ß-catenin - a master regulator of multiple genes - that reach the cell nucleus.
The researchers also found that a related Wnt protein, called wnt5b, inhibited regeneration. Wntb5 governs a signaling pathway that is independent of ß-catenin. So, Wnt proteins can turn on more than one signaling pathway, and both are involved in regeneration, though with opposite roles.
“It was previously known that Wnt pathway components were expressed during regeneration, but nobody had really explored whether the pathways were indeed activated,” said Moon. “And nobody had separated the two pathways and looked at their effects individually.”
In their experiments, Stoick-Cooper and Weidinger genetically manipulated the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway in the fish and measured how that manipulation affected the fish's ability to regrow an amputated tail fin.
Using a fluorescent “reporter” gene that revealed Wnt/ß-catenin pathway activation by glowing like a firefly, the scientists showed that the pathway was clearly switched on during regeneration, just in the area of the body that was regenerating. Similarly, they saw that the pathway was activated during regeneration of zebrafish heart and mouse liver, which they said suggests that the pathway may function in regeneration across species. They further noted that the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway was activated during the formation of the undifferentiated cells that proliferate to regenerate the tail fin.
They next genetically engineered fish in which they could switch off the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway by exposing the fish to warm water. Doing so, they found, completely blocked regeneration. They could also accelerate regeneration by enhancing Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. The researchers noted that this is a significant finding for the new field of regenerative medicine, in which a means of enhancing regeneration is an invaluable tool.
In contrast, when they engineered fish to activate the wnt5b gene in response to warm water, regeneration was inhibited. The opposite is true in fish with a mutation in the wnt5b gene, in which they found that regeneration was augmented. This is what one would expect, Moon noted, since the loss of a functional inhibitor is a double negative -- meaning that regeneration should be accelerated.
“These experiments showed that there is a completely novel and unexpected mechanism that antagonizes the regenerative process,” said Moon. “There had been other studies indicating that wnt5b-like genes could block the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, but no one had examined whether this antagonism occurs in the context of the normal regenerative process.”
“Cristi and Gilbert's experiments rigorously establish through genetic approaches that the Wnt pathways are functionally important in regeneration,” he said. “More generally, they show that in studying injury or inflammation in any context, investigators should explore whether Wnt signaling is involved. These experiments suggest that Wnt signaling is a universal component of regenerative pathways in animals,” he said.
According to Moon, the findings by Stoick-Cooper and Weidinger will have clinical implications for tissue regeneration, as well as for encouraging growth of stem cells. Stem cells are immature, undifferentiated cells that are capable of maturing into a variety of mature cell types.
“Wnt/ß-catenin signaling plays an important positive role in the differentiation of stem cells and progenitor cells that are required for regeneration,” he said. “It agrees with previous studies in which our laboratory showed in animals that activating this pathway increases the success of transplants of blood-forming hematopoietic stem cells. Such transplants in cancer patients whose immune systems have been destroyed by radiation or chemotherapy are invaluable as therapy; and sometimes they fail because they transplanted cells do not engraft into the bone marrow. We believe that enhancing the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway will increase the success rate of such hematopoietic stem cell transplants,” he said.
In other clinically-related studies, Moon and his colleagues are exploring whether activating the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway can enhance differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into cardiac cells that could be used to treat heart disease
Moon and his colleagues are also exploring how the myriad different kinds of cells involved in regeneration respond to Wnt-activating signals and, in collaboration with HHMI investigator Leonard I. Zon at Children's Hospital, Boston, how injury switches on Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. The researchers are optimistic that Wnt signaling will be an important therapeutic target in the growing field of regenerative medicine.
Image: Laboratory of Randall Moon | [
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] | 1,469 |
On this day in 1863, Union General Ulysses S. Grant breaks the siege of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in stunning fashion by routing the Confederates under General Braxton Bragg at Missionary Ridge.
For two months following the Battle of Chattanooga, the Confederates had kept the Union army bottled up inside a tight semicircle around Chattanooga. When Grant arrived in October, however, he immediately reversed the defensive posture of his army. After opening a supply line by driving the Confederates away from the Tennessee River in late October, Grant prepared for a major offensive in late November. It was launched on November 23 when he sent General George Thomas to probe the center of the Confederate line. This simple plan turned into a complete victory, and the Rebels retreated higher up Missionary Ridge. On November 24, the Yankees captured Lookout Mountain on the extreme right of the Union lines, and this set the stage for the Battle of Missionary Ridge.
The attack took place in three parts. On the Union left, General William T. Sherman attacked troops under Patrick Cleburne at Tunnel Hill, an extension of Missionary Ridge. In difficult fighting, Cleburne managed to hold the hill. On the other end of the Union lines, General Joseph Hooker was advancing slowly from Lookout Mountain, and his force had little impact on the battle. It was at the center that the Union achieved its greatest success. The soldiers on both sides received confusing orders. Some Union troops thought they were only supposed to take the rifle pits at the base of the ridge, while others understood that they were to advance to the top. Some of the Confederates heard that they were to hold the pits, while others thought they were to retreat to the top of Missionary Ridge. Furthermore, poor placement of Confederate trenches on the top of the ridge made it difficult to fire at the advancing Union troops without hitting their own men, who were retreating from the rifle pits. The result was that the attack on the Confederate center turned into a major Union victory. After the center collapsed, the Confederate troops retreated on November 26, and Bragg pulled his troops away from Chattanooga. He resigned shortly thereafter, having lost the confidence of his army.
The Confederates suffered some 6,600 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the Union lost around 5,800. Grant missed an opportunity to destroy the Confederate army when he chose not to pursue the retreating Rebels, but Chattanooga was secured. Sherman resumed the attack in the spring after Grant was promoted to general in chief of all Federal forces. | [
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] | 514 |
In the streets of Prague and in the United Nations headquarters in New York City, Czechs protest against the Soviet invasion of their nation. The protests served to highlight the brutality of the Soviet action and to rally worldwide condemnation of the Soviet Union.
On August 21, 1968, more than 200,000 troops of the Warsaw Pact crossed into Czechoslovakia in response to democratic and free market reforms being instituted by Czech Communist Party General Secretary Alexander Dubcek. Negotiations between Dubcek and Soviet bloc leaders failed to convince the Czech leader to back away from his reformist platform. The military intervention on August 21 indicated that the Soviets believed that Dubcek was going too far and needed to be restrained. On August 22, thousands of Czechs gathered in central Prague to protest the Soviet action and demand the withdrawal of foreign troops. Although it was designed to be a peaceful protest, violence often flared and several protesters were killed on August 22 and in the days to come. At the United Nations, the Czech delegation passionately declared that the Soviet invasion was illegal and threatened the sovereignty of their nation. They called on the U.N.'s Security Council to take action. The Council voted 10 to 2 to condemn Russia's invasion; predictably, the Soviet Union vetoed the resolution.
The 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia severely damaged the Soviet government's reputation around the world, and even brought forth condemnation from communist parties in nations such as China and France. Nonetheless, Dubcek was pushed from power in April 1969 and the Czech Communist Party adopted a tough line toward any dissent. The "Prague Spring" of 1968, when hopes for reform bloomed, would serve as a symbol for the so-called "Velvet Revolution" of 1989. In that year, Czech dissidents were able to break the Communist Party's stranglehold on their nation's politics by electing Vaclav Havel, the first noncommunist president in 40 years. | [
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] | 389 |
Holly’s Wastewater Treatment Plant”s (WWTP) primary responsibility is to safely transport and treat wastewater before returning it to the area waterway. The goal of wastewater treatment in any community is to eliminate disease-causing bacteria and to protect the environment for human and aquatic life. Before modern methods of wastewater treatment were introduced, the spread of life-threatening diseases was common in most communities across the country. Holly’s WWTP is to ensure that our streams, rivers and lakes are free from disease-causing bacteria and viruses that are harmful to the public health.
As we have learned more about the importance of protecting our natural resources, wastewater treatment has become an obvious defense against water pollution. Wastewater treatment has been called the “last line of defense” against water pollution.
Holly Wastewater Treatment Plant
Awards & Recognition
1987 – Award of Excellence – US Environmental Protection Agency for Outstanding Operation and Maintenance of the Water Pollution Facility
1989 – Award of Excellence – US Environmental Protection Agency for Outstanding Operation and Maintenance of the Water Pollution Facility
1990 – National 2nd place Award from the US Environmental Protection Agency for Outstanding Industrial Pretreatment Program
1991 – Wastewater Utility of the Year from Michigan Rural Water Association | [
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An excerpt from www.HouseOfNames.com archives copyright © 2000 - 2013
Where did the Italian Ciccaroni family come from? What is the Italian Ciccaroni family crest and coat of arms? When did the Ciccaroni family first arrive in the United States? Where did the various branches of the family go? What is the Ciccaroni family history?The surname Ciccaroni came from the personal name Cicco, which is found in southern Italy and the Venetian region as a popular and affectionate form of the name Francesco.
In comparison with other European surnames, Italian surnames have a surprising number of forms. They reflect the regional variations and the many dialects of the Italian language, each with its own distinctive features. For example, in Northern Italy the typical Italian surname suffix is "i", whereas in Southern Italy it is "o". Additionally, spelling changes frequently occurred because medieval scribes and church officials often spelled names as they sounded rather than according to any specific spelling rules. The spelling variations in the name Ciccaroni include Cicco, Cicchi, De Cicco, D'Accico, Daccico, Cicchello, Cicchelli, Cicchella, Ciccarello, Ciccarelli, Ciccarella, Ciccariello, Cicchetto, Cicchetti, Cicchitto, Cicchino, Cicchini, Ciccolo, Ciccolino, Ciccolini, Coccolone, Coccoloni, Ciccolella, Ciccotto, Ciccotti, Ciccotta, Cicconi, Ciccone, Ciccaglione, Ciccaglioni, Ciccalotti, Ciccarese, Ciccaresi, Ciccarino, Ciccarini, Ciccarone, Ciccaroni, Cichetti, Cicutto, Cicala, Cicconetti, Cicalotti, Ciceri, Cicero, Cicera, Cicinelli, Cicogna, Ciconi and many more.
First found in Piedmont. Earliest records date back to the year 1112, when Pompeo Cicala was a valiant soldier in the city of Genoa.
This web page shows only a small excerpt of our Ciccaroni research. Another 262 words(19 lines of text) covering the years 1493, 1623, 1673, 1686, 1751, 1780, and 1804 are included under the topic Early Ciccaroni History in all our PDF Extended History products.
Another 162 words(12 lines of text) are included under the topic Early Ciccaroni Notables in all our PDF Extended History products.
Early North American records indicate many people bearing the name Ciccaroni were among those contributors: Liberato Diciocco, age 27, who arrived at New York on Dec. 20, 1882, aboard the "Italia"; Bernardo Cichero, who arrived in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1855.
The Ciccaroni Family Crest was acquired from the Houseofnames.com archives. The Ciccaroni Family Crest was drawn according to heraldic standards based on published blazons. We generally include the oldest published family crest once associated with each surname.
This page was last modified on 14 January 2011 at 09:59.
houseofnames.com is an internet property owned by Swyrich Corporation. | [
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] | 692 |
One of the most common uses of Flash memory is for the basic input/output system of your computer, commonly known as the BIOS (pronounced "bye-ose"). On virtually every computer available, the BIOS makes sure all the other chips, hard drives, ports and CPU function together.
Every desktop and laptop computer in common use today contains a microprocessor as its central processing unit. The microprocessor is the hardware component. To get its work done, the microprocessor executes a set of instructions known as software (see How Microprocessors Work for details). You are probably very familiar with two different types of software:
- The operating system - The operating system provides a set of services for the applications running on your computer, and it also provides the fundamental user interface for your computer. Windows 98 and Linux are examples of operating systems. (See How Operating Systems Work for lots of details.)
- The applications - Applications are pieces of software that are programmed to perform specific tasks. On your computer right now you probably have a browser application, a word processing application, an e-mail application and so on. You can also buy new applications and install them.
It turns out that the BIOS is the third type of software your computer needs to operate successfully. In this article, you'll learn all about BIOS -- what it does, how to configure it and what to do if your BIOS needs updating. | [
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] | 284 |
The EDUSS Solution consists of five individual tools that provide you with a complete homeschool curriculum solution covering math, English grammar, comprehension, vocabulary and phonics reading.
Gap Scan Technology: The EDUSS Gap Scan Technology is the intelligent multi-dimensional assessment engine that has the ability to not only identify your child’s level of knowledge but also their foundational level of understanding. The engine will also expose your child to various learning styles to facilitate the best learning style for your child.
Automated Differentiated Diagnostic Assessment: Most often, learning gaps only become evident sometime after they occur. The EDUSS diagnostic assessment is designed to search for and identify these learning gaps by using the Gap Scan Technology, even if they occurred earlier in your child’s learning career. This forms the basis for the individualized learning plan for your child.
Gap Recovery Plan: On the basis of information gleaned in the comprehensive diagnostic assessment, the Solution generates a learning plan that is specifically designed to meet the individual child’s needs. It is not a one size fits all. Each child begins his/her learning program at the level of proficiency identified in the assessment in each and every strand assessed.
Personal Instructor: The personal instruction module of the Solution provides fully narrated step-by-step instruction in any topic of need to the student. Because different students learn differently, EDUSS has been careful to design this instructional module to meet the needs of different learning styles.
Student Management System: The EDUSS Student Manager System provides real-time monitoring and mapping through one integrated reporting interface making it easy for you to track and monitor the activity of each of your children individually. Real-time information helps you make instructional decisions and/or adjustments. Complete reports are available at any time for every component of your child’s learning Cycle: Assessment, Tutorial, Progress Made, Practice Results, Homework Results, and Quiz/Test Results. | [
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] | 392 |
Research Study Types
There are many different types of research studies, and each has distinct strengths and weaknesses. In general, randomized trials and cohort studies provide the best information when looking at the link between a certain factor (like diet) and a health outcome (like heart disease).
These are studies done in laboratories on cells, tissue, or animals. Laboratories provide strictly controlled conditions and are often the genesis of scientific ideas that go on to have a broad impact on human health. However, laboratory studies are only a starting point. Animals or cells are no substitute for humans.
These studies look at the characteristics of one group of people who already have a certain health outcome (the cases) and compare them to a similar group of people who do not have the outcome (the controls). While case-control studies can be done quickly and relatively cheaply, they aren’t ideal for studying diet because they gather information from the past. People with illnesses often recall past behaviors differently from those without illness. This opens such studies to potential inaccuracy and bias in the information they gather.
These studies follow large groups of people over a long period of time. Researchers regularly gather information from the people in the study on a wide variety of variables (like meat intake, physical activity level, and weight). Once a specified amount of time has elapsed, the characteristics of people in the group are compared to test specific hypotheses (like the link between carotenoids and glaucoma, or meat intake and prostate cancer).
Though time-consuming and expensive, cohort studies generally provide more reliable information than case-control studies because they don’t rely on information from the past. Cohort studies gather the information all along and before anyone develops the disease being studied. As a group, these types of studies have provided valuable information about the link between lifestyle factors and disease. Two of the largest and longest-running cohort studies of diet are the Harvard-based Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study.
Like cohort studies, these studies follow a group of people over time. However, with randomized trials, the researchers actually intervene to see how a specific behavior change or treatment, for example, affects a health outcome. They are called “randomized trials” because people in the study are randomly assigned either to receive or not receive the intervention. This randomization helps researchers hone in on the true effect the intervention has on the health outcome.
However, randomized trials also have drawbacks, especially when it comes to diet. While they are good at looking at topics like vitamin supplements and cancer, when the change in diet is more involved than say taking a vitamin pill, participants begin to have trouble keeping to their prescribed diets. Such involved interventions can also become very expensive.
Read an example of how different types of studies shaped health recommendations about fiber and colon cancer.
The aim of the Harvard School of Public Health Nutrition Source is to provide timely information on diet and nutrition for clinicians, allied health professionals, and the public. The contents of this Web site are not intended to offer personal medical advice. You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this Web site. The information does not mention brand names, nor does it endorse any particular products. | [
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Census of Population and Housing [United States], 1970: Fifth-Count Tallies: Sample Data for School Districts (ICPSR 3524)
Principal Investigator(s): United States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census
Summary: These Fifth-Count Tallies by school district were created from the assembled and edited 20-percent, 15-percent, and 5-percent Samples portions of the 1970 Census of Population and Housing. (more info)
These data are available only to users at ICPSR member institutions. Because you are not logged in, we cannot verify that you will be able to download the data.
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. CENSUS OF POPULATION AND HOUSING [UNITED STATES], 1970: FIFTH-COUNT TALLIES: SAMPLE DATA FOR SCHOOL DISTRICTS. ICPSR version. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept of Commerce, Bureau of the Census [producer], 1970. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2003. doi:10.3886/ICPSR03524.v1
Persistent URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR03524.v1
Scope of Study
Summary: These Fifth-Count Tallies by school district were created from the assembled and edited 20-percent, 15-percent, and 5-percent Samples portions of the 1970 Census of Population and Housing.
Geographic Coverage: United States
Date of Collection:
Universe: All persons and housing units in the United States.
Data Types: census/enumeration data
Data Collection Notes:
(1) The logical record for the School District file consists of 120 characters of geographical identification followed by 26 16-character tally fields and 878 8-character tally fields followed by 96 characters of padding. The file is sorted within state in ascending sequence of 5-digit school district codes. Where school districts cross county lines, school district total and county component records appear separately. In these cases, the school district total record precedes its county component records, which are sorted by 1970 FIPS county code. School districts with populations of less than 1,000 persons are combined in the code category 99999. (2) The codebook and data collection instrument are provided as a Portable Document Format (PDF) file. The PDF file format was developed by Adobe Systems Incorporated and can be accessed using PDF reader software, such as the Adobe Acrobat Reader. Information on how to obtain a copy of the Acrobat Reader is provided on the ICPSR Web site.
Original ICPSR Release: 2003-01-02
Use any of the notification links to add this study to your RSS feed; you will then receive notification if the study is substantively updated.
- Citations exports are provided above.
Export Study-level metadata (does not include variable-level metadata)
If you're looking for collection-level metadata rather than an individual metadata record, please visit our Metadata Records page. | [
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Hyped Arsenic Bacteria Research 'Should Not Have Been Published'
by Brian Thomas, M.S. *
NASA recently issued a series of press releases and arranged a press conference to promote research claiming that life was possible in outer space.1, 2 However, the research drew heavy criticism from scientists around the world, and the interest-generating tactics that the space agency employed have been called into question.
The study, which appeared in the journal Science, focused on microbes found in a California lake, not in materials from space.3 The study's authors concluded that certain bacteria could actually incorporate the element arsenic—a well-known poison—into the structure of their DNA molecules. However, critics quickly noted that the testing procedure was flawed. The research results could have come from arsenic that was on or near the DNA, but not in it. It would have been quite simple for the researchers to have "washed" the DNA and then searched for the arsenic in a clean sample of pure DNA—but they didn't.
In addition, "it turns out the NASA scientists were feeding the bacteria salts which they freely admit were contaminated with a tiny amount of phosphate," science writer Carl Zimmer wrote for the online news magazine Slate. This could have supplied the phosphorous the bacteria needed, rather than having it completely replaced by arsenic. The University of Colorado's Shelley Copley added, "This paper should not have been published."4
The report in Science did not address the additional conundrum that DNA has physical size constraints on its elemental building blocks. Arsenic atoms are much larger than those of phosphorus and would undoubtedly yield warped and misshapen DNA that would be inaccessible to the many DNA-binding proteins upon which cellular life depends.
The NASA authors have so far refused to engage these issues, pointing to the more proper scientific procedure of publishing in a peer-reviewed journal. Critical letters to Science are currently in the mail.4
In the meantime, other scientists are not staying silent. Jonathan Eisen, University of California, Davis genomicist and Academic Editor of the online science journal PLoS Biology, called the NASA authors' lack of response "absurd." He told Slate, "They carried out science by press release and press conference. Whether they were right or not in their claims, they are now hypocritical if they say that the only response should be in the scientific literature."4
These events have a familiar tone. When media hyped the fossil primate "Ida" as a "missing link" in human evolution, rebuttals appeared in journals and news stories. Analysis of the details showed that the claim had absolutely no substance. Ida was merely an extinct variety of lemur.5,6,7
The same can be said of NASA's 1996 work-up of a meteorite, which supposedly contained intact fossils of Martian bacteria.8 A subsequent report from earlier this month, not accompanied by a press conference, demonstrated how these kinds of "fossil" markings are made by ozone gas interacting with minerals.9
ICR News has reported that the practice of doing "science" by press release serves an agenda other than presenting scientific data. For instance, since science could not show that the much-hyped "Ardi" was a human ancestor, that message was instead broadcast through the press.10 And since NASA needed federal funding at the time, the agency promoted the Martian germs.
So, did a press conference substitute for quality science when NASA proclaimed its arsenic bacteria find? Perhaps the government agency needs more public support again. At any rate, these cases and others show that the science often does not match the headlines, and it pays for readers to dig a little deeper.
- Brown, D. and C. Weselby. NASA-Funded Research Discovers Life Built With Toxic Chemical. NASA Feature. Posted on nasa.gov December 2, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Brown, D. and C. Weselby. NASA Sets News Conference on Astrobiology Discovery; Science Journal Has Embargoed Details Until 2 p.m. EST On Dec. 2. NASA press release, November 29, 2010.
- Wolfe-Simon, F. et al. A Bacterium That Can Grow by Using Arsenic Instead of Phosphorus. Science. Published onlineDecember 2, 2010.
- Zimmer, C. "This Paper Should Not Have Been Published"; Scientists see fatal flaws in the NASA study of arsenic-based life. Slate. Posted on slate.com December 7, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. New Fossil Hype Fits Old Pattern. ICR News. Posted on icr.org May 27, 2009, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. 2009. The Ida Fossil: A Clever Campaign for a Lackluster "Link." Acts & Facts. 38 (7): 17
- Thomas, B. More Scientists Say 'Ida' Is Not a Missing Link. ICR News. Posted on icr.org March 19, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. Meteor Crystals Spark Latest 'Life on Mars' Hype. ICR News. Posted on icr.org December 15, 2009, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Choi, C. Q. Martian Meteorite Not Evidence of Extraterrestrials, Scientists Say. Space.com. Posted on space.com December 2, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. Scientists Back off Ardi Claims. ICR News. Posted on icr.org December 4, 2009, accessed December 9, 2010.
* Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research.
Article posted on December 17, 2010. | [
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] | 1,185 |
First-Hand:The Foundation of Digital Television: the origins of the 4:2:2 component digital standard
Contributed by Stanley Baron, IEEE Life Fellow
By the late 1970's, the application of digital technology in television production was widespread. A number of digital television products had become available for use in professional television production. These included graphics generators, recursive filters (noise reducers), time base correctors and synchronizers, standards converters, amongst others.
However, each manufacturer had adopted a unique digital interface, and this meant that these digital devices when formed into a workable production system had to be interfaced at the analog level, thereby forfeiting many of the advantages of digital processing.
Most broadcasters in Europe and Asia employed television systems based on 625/50 scanning (625 lines per picture, repeated 50 fields per second), with the PAL color encoding system used in much of Western Europe, Australia, and Asia, while France, the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China used variations of the SECAM color encoding system. There were differences in luminance bandwidth: 5.0 MHz for B/G PAL, 5.5 MHz for PAL in the UK and nominally 6 MHz for SECAM. There were also legacy monochrome systems, such as 405/50 scanning in the UK and the 819/50 system in France. The color television system that was dominate in the Americas, Japan, and South Korea was based on 525/60 scanning, 4.2 MHz luminance bandwidth, and the NTSC color standard.
NTSC and PAL color coding are both linear processes. Therefore, analog signals in the NSTC format could be mixed and edited during studio processing, provided that color sub carrier phase relationships were maintained. The same was true for production facilities based on the PAL system. In analog NTSC and PAL studios it was normal to code video to composite form as early as possible in the signal chain so that each signal required only one wire for distribution rather than the three needed for RGB or YUV component signals. The poor stability of analog circuitry meant that matching separate channel RGB or YUV component signals was impractical except in very limited areas. SECAM employed frequency modulated coding of the color information, which did not allow any processing of composite signals, so the very robust SECAM composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. Some SECAM broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in PAL and recoding to SECAM for transmission.
The international community recognized that the world community would be best served if there could be an agreement on a single production or studio digital interface standard regardless of which color standard (525 line NTSC, 625 line PAL, or 625 line SECAM) was employed for transmission. The cost of implementation of digital technology was seen as directly connected to the production volume; the higher the volume, the lower the cost to the end user, in this case, the broadcasting community.
Work on determining a suitable standard was organized by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPTE) on behalf of the 525/60 broadcasting community and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) on behalf of the 625/50 broadcasting community.
In 1982, the international community reached agreement on a common 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard. This standard as documented in SMPTE 125, several EBU Recommendations, and ITU-R Recommendation 601 was the first international standard adopted for interfacing equipment directly in the digital domain avoiding the need to first restore the signal to an analog format.
The interface standard was designed so that the basic parameter values provided would work equally well in both 525 line/60 Hz and 625 line/50 Hz television production environments. The standard was developed in a remarkably short time, considering its pioneering scope, as the world wide television community recognized the urgent need for a solid basis for the development of an all digital television production system. A component-based (Y, R-Y, B-Y) system based on a luminance (Y) sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz was first proposed in February 1980; the world television community essentially agreed to proceed on a component based system in September 1980 at the IBC; a group of manufacturers supplied devices incorporating the proposed interface at a SMPTE sponsored test demonstration in San Francisco in February 1981; most parameter values were essentially agreed to by March 1981; and the ITU-R (then CCIR) Plenary Assembly adopted the standard in February 1982.
What follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard's origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how the 4:2:2 standard led to today's digital high definition production standards and digital broadcasting standards.
It is understood that digital processing of any signal requires that the sample locations be clearly defined in time and space and, for television, processing is simplified if the samples are aligned so that they are line, field, and frame position repetitive yielding an orthogonal (rectangular grid) sampling pattern.
While the NTSC system color sub carrier frequency (fsc) was an integer sub multiple of the horizontal line frequency (fH) [fsc = (m/n) x fH] lending itself to orthogonal sampling, the PAL system color sub carrier employed a field frequency off set and the SECAM color system employed frequency modulation of the color subcarrier, which made sampling the color information, contained within those systems a more difficult challenge. Further, since some European nations had adopted various forms of the PAL 625 line/50Hz composite color television standard as their broadcast standard and other European nations had adopted various forms of the SECAM 625 line/50Hz composite color television standard, the European community's search for a common digital interface standard implied that a system that was independent of the color coding technique used for transmission would be required.
Developments within the European community
In September 1972, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) formed Working Party C, chaired by Peter Rainger to investigate the subject of coding television systems. In 1977, based on the work of Working Party C, the EBU issued a document recommending that the European community consider a component television production standard, since a component signal could be encoded as either a PAL or SECAM composite signal just prior to transmission.
At a meeting in Montreux, Switzerland in the spring of 1979, the EBU reached agreement with production equipment manufacturers that the future of digital program production in Europe would be best served by component coding rather than composite coding, and the EBU established a research and development program among its members to determine appropriate parameter values. This launched an extensive program of work within the EBU on digital video coding for program production. The work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across Europe and within a reorganized EBU committee structure including: Working Party V on New Systems and Services chaired by Peter Rainger; subgroup V1 chaired by Yves Guinet, which assumed the tasks originally assigned to Working Party C; and a specialist supporting committee V1 VID (Vision) chaired by Howard Jones. David Wood, representing the EBU Technical Center, served as the secretariat of all of the EBU committees concerned with digital video coding.
In 1979, EBU VI VID proposed a single three channel (Y, R-Y, B-Y) component standard. The system stipulated a 12.0 MHz luminance (Y) channel sampling frequency and provided for each of the color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y) to be sampled at 4.0 MHz. The relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted sometimes as (12:4:4) and sometimes as (3:1:1). The proposal, based on the results of subjective quality evaluations, suggested these values were adequate to transparently deliver 625/50i picture quality.
The EBU Technical Committee endorsed this conclusion at a meeting in April 1980, and instructed its technical groups: V, V1, and V1 VID to support this effort.
SMPTE organized for the task at hand
Three SMPTE committees were charged with addressing various aspects of world wide digital standards. The first group, organized in late 1974, was the Digital Study Group chaired by Charles Ginsburg. The Study Group was charged with investigating all issues concerning the application of digital technology to television. The second group was a Task Force on Component Digital Coding with Frank Davidoff as chairman. This Task Force, which began work in February 1980, was charged with developing a recommendation for a single worldwide digital interface standard. While membership in SMPTE committees is generally open to any interested and affected party, the membership of the Task Force had been limited to recognized experts in the field. The third group was the Working Group on Digital Video Standards. This Working Group was charged with documenting recommendations developed by the Study Group or the Task Force and generating appropriate standards, recommended practices, and engineering guidelines.
In March 1977, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) began development of a digital television interface standard. The work was assigned by SMPTE's Committee on New Technology chaired by Fred Remley to the Working Group on Digital Video Standards chaired by Dr. Robert Hopkins.
By 1979, the Working Group on Digital Video Standards was completing development of a digital interface standard for NTSC television production. Given the state of the art at the time and the desire to develop a standard based on the most efficient mechanism, the Working Group created a standard that allowed the NTSC television video signal to be sampled as a single composite color television signal. It was agreed after a long debate on the merits of three times sub carrier (3fsc) versus four times sub carrier (4fsc) sampling that the Composite Digital Television Standard would require the composite television signal with its luminance channel and color sub carrier to be sampled at four times the color sub carrier frequency (4fsc) or 14.31818... MHz.
During the last quarter of 1979, agreement was reached on a set of parameter values, and the drafting of the Composite Digital Television Standard was considered completed. It defined a signal sampled at 4fsc with 8 bit samples. This standard seemed to resolve the problem of providing a direct digital interface for production facilities utilizing the NTSC standard.
By 1980, the Committee on New Technology was being chaired by Hopkins and the Working Group on Digital Video Standards was being chaired by Ken Davies.
Responding to communications with the EBU and so as not to prejudice the efforts being made to reach agreement on a world wide component standard, in January 1980, Hopkins put the finished work on the NTSC Composite Digital Television Standard temporarily aside so that any minor modifications to the document that would serve to meet possible world wide applications could be incorporated before final approval. Since copies of the document were bound in red binders, the standard was referred to as the "Red Book".
Seeking a Common Reference
The agenda of the January 1980 meeting of SMPTE's Digital Study Group included a discussion on a world wide digital television interface standard. At that meeting, the Study Group considered the report of the European community, and members of the EBU working parties had been invited to attend. Although I was not a member of the Study Group, I was also invited to attend the meeting.
It was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using Red, Blue, and Green (R, G, B) was the simplest three component representation, a more efficient component representation, but one that is more complex, is to provide a luminance or gray scale channel (Y) and two color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y). The R-Y and B-Y components take advantage of the characteristics of the human visual system which is less sensitive to high resolution information for color than for luminance. This allows for the use of a lower number of samples to represent the color difference signals without observable losses in the restored images. Color difference components (noted as I, Q or U, V or Dr, Db) were already in use in the NTSC, PAL, and SECAM systems to reduce the bandwidth required to support color information.
Members of the NTSC community present at the January 1980 Study Group meeting believed that the EBU V1 VID proposed 12.0 MHz, (3:1:1) set of parameters would not meet the needs for NTSC television post production particularly with respect to chroma keying, then becoming an important tool. In addition, it was argued that: (1) the sampling frequency was too low (too close to the Nyquist point) for use in a production environment where multiple generations of edits were required to accommodate special effects, chroma keying, etc., and (2) a 12.0 MHz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in NTSC (at 12.0 MHz, there would be 762.666... pixels per line).
The NTSC community offered for consideration a single three channel component standard based on (Y, R-Y, B-Y). This system stipulated a 4fsc (14.318 MHz) luminance sampling frequency equal to 910 x fH525, where fH525 is the NTSC horizontal line frequency. The proposal further provided for each of the color difference components to be sampled at 2fsc or 7.159 MHz. This relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted as (4:2:2). Adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the “single wire” NTSC composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a component video standard.
Representatives of the European television community present at the January 1980 Study Group meeting pointed to some potential difficulties with this proposal. The objections included: (1) that the sampling frequency was too high for use in practical digital recording at the time, and (2) a 14.318 MHz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in a 625 line system (at 14.318 MHz, there would be 916.36... pixels per line).
During the January 1980 Study Group meeting discussion, I asked why the parties involved had not considered a sampling frequency that was a multiple of the 4.5 MHz sound carrier, since the horizontal line frequencies of both the 525 line and 625 line systems had an integer relationship to 4.5 MHz.
The original definition of the NTSC color system established a relationship between the sound carrier frequency (fs) and the horizontal line frequency (fH525) as fH525 = fs/286 = 15734.265... Hz, had further defined the vertical field rate fV525 = (fH525 x 2)/525 = 59.94006 Hz, and defined the color sub carrier (fsc) = (fH525 x 455)/2 = 3.579545.... MHz. Therefore, all the frequency components of the NTSC system could be derived as integer sub multiples of the sound carrier.
The 625 line system defined the horizontal line frequency (fH625) = 15625 Hz and the vertical field rate fV625 = (fH625 x 2)/625 = 50 Hz. It was noted from the beginning that the relationship between fs and the horizontal line frequency (fH625) could be expressed as fH625 = fs/288. Therefore, any sampling frequency that was an integer multiple of 4.5 MHz (fs) would produce samples in either the 525 line or 625 line systems that were orthogonal.
I was asked to submit a paper to the Study Group and the Task Force describing the relationship. The assignment was to cover two topics. The first topic was how the 625 line/50Hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14.318 MHz. The second topic was to explain the relationship between the horizontal frequencies of the 525 line and 625 line systems and 4.5 MHz.
This resulted in my authoring a series of papers written between February and April 1980 addressed to the SMPTE Task Force explaining why 13.5 MHz should be considered the choice for a common luminance sampling frequency. The series of papers was intended to serve as a tutorial with each of the papers expanding on the points previously raised. A few weeks after I submitted the first paper, I was invited to be a member of the SMPTE Task Force. During the next few months, I responded to questions about the proposal, and I was asked to draft a standards document.
Crunching the numbers
The first paper I addressed to the Task Force was dated 11 February 1980. This paper pointed to the fact that since the horizontal line frequency of the 525 line system (fH525 had been defined as 4.5 MHz/286 (or 2.25 MHz/143), and the horizontal line frequency of the 625 line system (fH625) was equal to 4.5 MHz/288 (or 2.25 MHz/144), any sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4.5 MHz/2 could be synchronized to both systems.
Since it would be desirable to sample color difference signals at less than the sampling rate of the luminance signal, then a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 2.25 MHz would be appropriate for use with the color difference components (R-Y, B-Y) while a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4.5 MHz would be appropriate for use with the luminance component (Y).
Since the European community had argued that the (Y) sampling frequency must be lower than 14.318 MHz and the NTSC countries had argued that the (Y) sampling frequency must be higher than 12.00 MHz, my paper and cover letter dated 11 February 1980 suggested consideration of 3 x 4.5 MHz or 13.5 MHz as the common luminance (Y) channel sampling frequency (858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13.5 MHz).
My series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system based on (Y, R-Y, B-Y) and a luminance/color sampling relationship of (4:2:2), with the color signals sampled at 6.75 MHz. In order for the system to facilitate standards conversion and picture manipulation (such as that used in electronic special effects and graphics generators), both the luminance and color difference samples should be orthogonal. The desire to be able to trans code between component and composite digital systems implied a number of samples per active line that was divisible by four.
The February 1980 note further suggested that the number of samples per active line period should be greater than 715.5 to accommodate all of the world wide community standards active line periods. While the number of pixels per active line equal to 720 samples per line was not suggested until my next note, (720 is the number found in Rec. 601 and SMPTE 125), 720 is the first value that “works.” 716 is the first number greater than 715.5 that is divisible by 4 (716 = 4 x 179), but does not lend itself to standards conversion between 525 line component and composite color systems or provide sufficiently small pixel groupings to facilitate special effects or data compression algorithms. </p>
Additional arguments in support of 720 were provided in notes I generated prior to IBC'80 in September. Note that 720 equals 6! [6! (6 factorial) = 6x5x4x3x2x1] = 24 x 32 x 5. This allows for many small factors, important for finding an economical solution to conversion between the 525 line component and composite color standards and for image manipulation in special effects and analysis of blocks of pixels for data compression. The composite 525 line digital standard had provided for 768 samples per active line. 768 = 28 x 3. The relationship between 768 and 720 can be described as 768/720 = (28 x 3)/(24 x 32 x 5) = (24)/(3 x 5) = 16/15. A set of 16 samples in the NTSC composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the NTSC component standard.
Proof of Performance
At the September 1980 IBC conference, international consensus became focused on the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system. However, both the 12.0 MHz and 14.318 MHz systems retained some support for a variety of practical considerations. Discussions within the Working Group on Digital Video Standards indicated that consensus could not be achieved without the introduction of convincing evidence.
SMPTE proposed to hold a “Component Coded Digital Video Demonstration” in San Francisco in February 1981 organized by and under the direction of the Working Group on Digital Video Standards to evaluate component coded systems. A series of practical tests/demonstrations were organized to examine the merits of various proposals with respect to picture quality, production effects, recording capability and practical interfacing, and to establish an informed basis for decision making.
The EBU had scheduled a series of demonstrations in January 1981 for the same purpose. SMPTE invited the EBU to hold its February meeting of the Bureau of the EBU Technical Committee in San Francisco to be followed by a joint meeting to discuss the results of the tests. It was agreed that demonstrations would be conducted at three different sampling frequencies (near 12.0 MHz, 13.5 MHz, and 14.318 MHz) and at various levels of performance.
From 2nd through the 6th of February 1981 (approximately, one year from the date of the original 13.5 MHz proposal), SMPTE conducted demonstrations at KPIX Television, Studio N facilities in San Francisco in which a number of companies participated. Each participating sponsor developed equipment with the digital interface built to the specifications provided. The demonstration was intended to provide proof of performance and to allow the international community to come to an agreement.
'The demonstration organizing committee had to improvise many special interfaces and interconnections, as well as create a range of test objects, test signals, critical observation criteria, and a scoring and analysis system and methodology.
The demonstrations were supported with equipment and personnel by many of the companies that were pioneers in the development of digital television and included: ABC Television, Ampex Corporation, Barco, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, CBS Technology Center, Digital Video Systems, Dynair, Inc., KPIX Westinghouse Broadcasting, Leitch Video Ltd., Marconi Electronics, RCA Corporation and RCA Laboratories, Sony Corporation, Tektronix Inc., Thomson CSF, VG Electronics Ltd., and VGR Corporation. I participated in the demonstrations as a member of SMPTE's Working Group on Digital Video Standards, providing a Vidifont electronic graphics generator whose interface conformed to the new standard.
Developing an agreement
The San Francisco demonstrations proved the viability of the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) proposal. At a meeting in January 1981, the EBU had considered a set of parameters based on a 13.0 MHz (4:2:2) system. Additional research conducted by EBU members had shown that a (4:2:2) arrangement was needed in order to cope with picture processing requirements, such as chroma key, and the EBU members believed a 13.0 MHz system appeared to be the most economic system that provided adequate picture processing. Members of the EBU and SMPTE committees met at a joint meeting chaired by Peter Rainger in March 1981 and agreed to propose the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) standard as the world wide standard. By autumn 1981, NHK in Japan led by Mr. Tadokoro, had performed its own independent evaluations and concurred that the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) standard offered the optimum solution.
A number of points were generally agreed upon and formed the basis of a new world wide standard. They included:
- The existing colorimetry of EBU (for PAL and SECAM) and of NTSC would be retained for 625 line and 525 line signals respectively, as matrixing to a common colorimetry was considered overly burdensome;
- An 8 bit per sample representation would be defined initially, being within the state of the art, but a 10 bit per sample representation would also be specified since it was required for many production applications;
- The range of the signal to be included should include head room (above white level) and foot room (below black level) to allow for production overshoots;
- The line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems (NTSC, PAL, and SECAM) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping;
- A bit parallel, sample multiplexed interface (e.g. transmitting R-Y, Y, B-Y, Y, R-Y, ...) was practical, but in the long term, a fully bit and word serial system would be desirable;
- The gross data rate should be recordable within the capacity of digital tape recorders then in the development stages by Ampex, Bosch, RCA, and Sony.
The standard, as documented, provided for each digital sample to consist of at least 8 bits, with 10 allowed. The values for the black and white levels were defined, as was the range of the color signal. (R-Y) and (B-Y) became CR [=0.713 (R-Y)] and CB [=0.564 (B-Y)]. While the original note dated February 1980 addressed to the Task Force proposed a code of 252(base10) =(1111 1100) for ‘white’ at 100 IRE and a code of 72 (base10) =(0100 1000) for ‘black’ at 0 IRE to allow capture of the sync levels, agreement was reached to better utilize the range of codes to capture the grey scale values with more precision and provide more overhead. ‘White’ was to be represented by an eight bit code of 240(base10) =(1111 0000) and ‘black’ was to be represented by an eight bit code 16 (base10) =(0001 0000). The original codes for defining the beginning and the end of picture lines and picture area were discussed, modified, and agreed upon, as well as synchronizing coding for line, field, and frame, each coding sequence being unique and not occurring in the video signal.SMPTE and EBU organized an effort over the next few months to familiarize the remainder of the world wide television community with the advantages offered by the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system and the reasoning behind its set of parameters. Members of the SMPTE Task Force traveled to Europe and to the Far East. Members of the EBU committees traveled to the, then, Eastern European block nations and to the members of the OTI, the organization of the South American broadcasters. The objective of these tours was to build a consensus prior to the upcoming discussion at the ITU in the autumn of 1981. The success of this effort could serve as a model to be followed in developing future agreements.
I was asked to draft a SMPTE standard document that listed the parameter values for a 13.5 MHz system for consideration by the SMPTE Working Group. Since copies of the document were bound in a green binder prior to final acceptance by SMPTE, the standard was referred to as the “Green Book”.
In April 1981, the draft of the standard titled “Coding Parameters for a Digital Video Interface between Studio Equipment for 525 line, 60 field Operation” was distributed to a wider audience for comment. This updated draft reflected the status of the standard after the tests in San Francisco and agreements reached at the joint EBU/SMPTE meeting in March 1981. The EBU community later requested a subtle change to the value of ‘white’ in the luminance channel, and it assumed the value of 235(base10). This change was approved in August 1981.
After review and some modification as noted above to accommodate European concerns, the “Green Book” was adopted as SMPTE Standard 125.
ITU/R Recommendation 601
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) generated an EBU Standard containing a companion set of parameter values. The SMPTE 125 and EBU documents were then submitted to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The ITU, a treaty organization within the United Nations, is responsible for international agreements on communications. The ITU Radio Communications Bureau (ITU-R/CCIR) is concerned with wireless communications, including allocation and use of the radio frequency spectrum. The ITU also provides technical standards, which are called “Recommendations.”
Within the ITU, the development of the Recommendation defining the parameter values of the 13.5 MHz (4:2:2) system fell under the responsibility of ITU-R Study Group 11 on Television. The chair of Study Group 11, Prof. Mark I. Krivocheev, assigned the drafting of the document to a special committee established for that purpose and chaired by David Wood of the EBU. The document describing the digital parameters contained in the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system was approved for adoption as document 11/1027 at ITU-R/CCIR meetings in Geneva in September and October 1981. A revised version, document 11/1027 Rev.1, dated 17 February 1982, and titled “Draft Rec. AA/11 (Mod F): Encoding parameters of digital television for studios” was adopted by the ITU-R/CCIR Plenary Assembly in February 1982. It described the digital interface standard for transfer of video information between equipment designed for use in either 525 line or 625 line conventional color television facilities. Upon approval by the Plenary Assembly, document 11/1027 Rev.1 became CCIR Recommendation 601.
The Foundation for HDTV and Digital Television Broadcasting Services
The 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard allowed for a scale of economy and reliability that was unprecedented by providing a standard that enabled the design and manufacture of equipment that could operate in both 525 line/60Hz and 625 line/50Hz production environments. The 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard permitted equipment supplied by different manufacturers to exchange video and embedded audio and data streams and/or to record and playback those streams directly in the digital domain without having to be restored to an analog signal. This meant that the number of different processes and/or generations of recordings could be increased without the noticeable degradation of the information experienced with equipment based on analog technology. A few years after the adoption of the 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard, all digital production facilities were shown to be practical.
A few years later when the ITU defined “HDTV,” the Recommendation stipulated: “the horizontal resolution for HDTV as being twice that of conventional television systems” described in Rec. 601and a picture aspect ratio of 16:9. A 16:9 aspect ratio picture requires one-third more pixels per active line than a 4:3 aspect ratio picture. Rec. 601 provided 720 samples per active line for the luminance channel and 360 samples for each of the color difference signals. Starting with 720, doubling the resolution to 1440, and adjusting the count for a 16:9 aspect ratio leads to the 1920 samples per active line defined as the basis for HDTV. Accommodating the Hollywood and computer communities' request for “square pixels” meant that the number of lines should be 1920 x (9/16) = 1080.
Progressive scan systems at 1280 pixels per line and 720 lines per frame are also a member of the “720 pixel” family. 720 pixels x 4/3 (resolution improvement) x 4/3 (16:9 aspect ratio adjustment) = 1280. Accommodating the Hollywood and computer communities' request for square pixels meant that the number of lines should be 1280 x (9/16) = 720.
The original 720 pixel per active line structure became the basis of a family of structures (the 720 pixel family) that was adopted for MPEG based systems including both conventional television and HDTV systems. Therefore, most digital television systems, including digital video tape systems and DVD recordings are derived from the format described in the original 4:2:2 standard.
The existence of a common digital component standard for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz environments as documented in SMPTE 125 and ITU Recommendation 601 provided a path for television production facilities to migrate to the digital domain. The appearance of high quality, fully digital production facilities providing digital video, audio, and metadata streams and the successful development of digital compression and modulation schemes allowed for the introduction of digital television broadcast services.
In its 1982-1983 award cycle, the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences recognized the 4:2:2 Component Digital Standard based on 13.5 MHz (Y) sampling with 720 samples per line with three EMMY awards:
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) was recognized: “For achieving a European agreement on a component digital video studio specification based on demonstrated quality studies and their willingness to subsequently compromise on a world wide standard.”
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) was recognized: “For providing the international forum to achieve a compromise of national committee positions on a digital video standard and to achieve agreement within the 1978-1982 period.”
The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) was recognized: “For their early recognition of the need for a digital video standard, their acceptance of the EBU proposed component requirement, and for the development of the hierarchy and line lock 13.5 MHz demonstrated specification, which provided the basis for a world standard.”
This narrative is intended to acknowledge the early work on digital component coded television carried out over several years by hundreds of individuals, organizations, and administrations throughout the world. It is not possible in a limited space to list all of the individuals or organizations involved, but by casting a spotlight on the results of their work since the 1960's and its significance, the intent is to honor them - all.
Individuals interested in the specific details of digital television standards and picture formats (i.e. 1080p, 720p, etc.) should inquire at www.smpte.org. SMPTE is the technical standards development organization (SDO) for motion picture film and television production.
- ↑ This article builds on a prior article by Stanley Baron and David Wood; simultaneously published in the SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal, September 2005, pp. 327 334 as “The Foundations of Digital Television: the origins of the 4:2:2 DTV standard" and in the EBU Technical Review, October 2005, as "Rec. 601 the origins of the 4:2:2 DTV standard.”
- ↑ Guinet, Yves; “Evolution of the EBU's position in respect of the digital coding of television”, EBU Review Technical, June 1981, pp.111 117.
- ↑ Davies, Kenneth; “SMPTE Demonstrations of Component Coded Digital Video, San Francisco, 1981”, SMPTE Journal, October 1981, pp.923 925.
- ↑ Fink, Donald; “Television Engineering Handbook”, McGraw Hill [New York, 1957], p.7 4.
- ↑ Baron, S.; “Sampling Frequency Compatibility”, SMPTE Digital Study Group, January 1980, revised and submitted to the SMPTE Task Force on Digital Video Standards, 11 February 1980. Later published in SMPTE Handbook, “4:2:2 Digital Video: Background and Implementation”, SMPTE, 1989, ISBN 0 940690 16, pp.20 23.
- ↑ Weiss, Merrill &amp;amp; Marconi, Ron; “Putting Together the SMPTE Demonstrations of Component Coded Digital Video, San Francisco, 1981”, SMPTE Journal, October 1981, pp.926 938.
- ↑ Davidoff, Frank; “Digital Television Coding Standards”, IEE Proceedings, 129, Pt.A., No.7, September 1982, pp.403 412.
- ↑ Nasse, D., Grimaldi, J.L., and Cayet, A; “An Experimental All Digital Television Center”, SMPTE Journal, January 1986, pp. 13 19.
- ↑ ITU Report 801, “The Present State of High Definition Television”, Part 3, “General Considerations of HDTV Systems”, Section 4.3, “Horizontal Sampling”. | [
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9672,
262,
8861,
6198,
8686,
284,
14594,
3615,
327,
26,
290,
257,
15670,
6493,
5583,
569,
16,
32247,
357,
44206,
8,
44170,
416,
8442,
5437,
13,
3271,
5326,
11,
10200,
262,
412,
19499,
20671,
3337,
11,
4983,
355,
262,
3200,
21621,
286,
477,
286,
262,
412,
19499,
17460,
5213,
351,
4875,
2008,
19617,
13,
198,
818,
13521,
11,
412,
19499,
13889,
32247,
5150,
257,
2060,
1115,
6518,
357,
56,
11,
371,
12,
56,
11,
347,
12,
56,
8,
7515,
3210,
13,
383,
1080,
22111,
4817,
257,
1105,
13,
15,
19805,
29763,
590,
357,
56,
8,
6518,
19232,
8373,
290,
2810,
329,
1123,
286,
262,
3124,
3580,
10425,
357,
49,
12,
56,
290,
347,
12,
56,
8,
284,
307,
35846,
379,
604,
13,
15,
19805,
13,
383,
2776,
1022,
262,
29763,
590,
290,
3124,
3580,
10425,
373,
4367,
3360,
355,
357,
1065,
25,
19,
25,
19,
8,
290,
3360,
355,
357,
18,
25,
16,
25,
16,
737,
383,
6961,
11,
1912,
319,
262,
2482,
286,
19088,
3081,
34109,
11,
5220,
777,
3815,
547,
12872,
284,
13245,
306,
5203,
48868,
14,
1120,
72,
4286,
3081,
13,
198,
464,
412,
19499,
20671,
4606,
17441,
428,
7664,
379,
257,
3249,
287,
3035,
7169,
11,
290,
17767,
663,
6276,
2628,
25,
569,
11,
569,
16,
11,
290,
569,
16,
32247,
284,
1104,
428,
3626,
13,
198,
50,
7378,
9328,
8389,
329,
262,
4876,
379,
1021,
198,
12510,
311,
7378,
9328,
17460,
547,
5047,
351,
13593,
2972,
7612,
286,
995,
3094,
4875,
5423,
13,
383,
717,
1448,
11,
8389,
287,
2739,
16489,
11,
373,
262,
10231,
12481,
4912,
44170,
416,
7516,
39083,
7423,
13,
383,
12481,
4912,
373,
5047,
351,
10240,
477,
2428,
9305,
262,
3586,
286,
4875,
3037,
284,
5581,
13,
383,
1218,
1448,
373,
257,
15941,
5221,
319,
35100,
10231,
327,
7656,
351,
5278,
3271,
2364,
355,
8900,
13,
770,
15941,
5221,
11,
543,
2540,
670,
287,
3945,
7169,
11,
373,
5047,
351,
5922,
257,
15602,
329,
257,
2060,
8688,
4875,
7071,
3210,
13,
2893,
9931,
287,
311,
7378,
9328,
17460,
318,
4143,
1280,
284,
597,
4609,
290,
5676,
2151,
11,
262,
9931,
286,
262,
15941,
5221,
550,
587,
3614,
284,
8018,
6154,
287,
262,
2214,
13,
383,
2368,
1448,
373,
262,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
13,
770,
14594,
4912,
373,
5047,
351,
33045,
10763,
4166,
416,
262,
12481,
4912,
393,
262,
15941,
5221,
290,
15453,
5035,
5423,
11,
7151,
6593,
11,
290,
8705,
9949,
13,
198,
818,
2805,
15589,
11,
262,
7023,
286,
20843,
17741,
290,
21516,
27170,
357,
50,
7378,
9328,
8,
2540,
2478,
286,
257,
4875,
5581,
7071,
3210,
13,
383,
670,
373,
8686,
416,
311,
7378,
9328,
338,
4606,
319,
968,
8987,
44170,
416,
8559,
3982,
1636,
284,
262,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
44170,
416,
1583,
13,
5199,
21183,
13,
198,
3886,
13521,
11,
262,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
373,
14339,
2478,
286,
257,
4875,
7071,
3210,
329,
43754,
34,
5581,
3227,
13,
11259,
262,
1181,
286,
262,
1242,
379,
262,
640,
290,
262,
6227,
284,
1205,
257,
3210,
1912,
319,
262,
749,
6942,
9030,
11,
262,
14594,
4912,
2727,
257,
3210,
326,
3142,
262,
43754,
34,
5581,
2008,
6737,
284,
307,
35846,
355,
257,
2060,
24185,
3124,
5581,
6737,
13,
632,
373,
4987,
706,
257,
890,
4384,
319,
262,
21692,
286,
1115,
1661,
850,
11920,
357,
18,
69,
1416,
8,
9051,
1440,
1661,
850,
11920,
357,
19,
69,
1416,
8,
19232,
326,
262,
49355,
10231,
21516,
8997,
561,
2421,
262,
24185,
5581,
6737,
351,
663,
29763,
590,
6518,
290,
3124,
850,
11920,
284,
307,
35846,
379,
1440,
1661,
262,
3124,
850,
11920,
8373,
357,
19,
69,
1416,
8,
393,
1478,
13,
36042,
1507,
986,
19805,
13,
198,
7191,
262,
938,
3860,
286,
13521,
11,
4381,
373,
4251,
319,
257,
900,
286,
11507,
3815,
11,
290,
262,
26931,
286,
262,
49355,
10231,
21516,
8997,
373,
3177,
5668,
13,
632,
5447,
257,
6737,
35846,
379,
604,
69,
1416,
351,
807,
1643,
8405,
13,
770,
3210,
3947,
284,
10568,
262,
1917,
286,
4955,
257,
1277,
4875,
7071,
329,
3227,
7291,
25137,
262,
43754,
34,
3210,
13,
198,
3886,
7169,
11,
262,
4606,
319,
968,
8987,
373,
852,
44170,
416,
21183,
290,
262,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
373,
852,
44170,
416,
7148,
26618,
13,
198,
19309,
42703,
284,
8062,
351,
262,
412,
19499,
290,
523,
355,
407,
284,
20226,
262,
4040,
852,
925,
284,
3151,
4381,
319,
257,
995,
3094,
7515,
3210,
11,
287,
3269,
7169,
11,
21183,
1234,
262,
5201,
670,
319,
262,
43754,
34,
49355,
10231,
21516,
8997,
13413,
7263,
523,
326,
597,
4159,
19008,
284,
262,
3188,
326,
561,
4691,
284,
1826,
1744,
995,
3094,
5479,
714,
307,
16560,
878,
2457,
7546,
13,
4619,
9088,
286,
262,
3188,
547,
5421,
287,
2266,
11007,
364,
11,
262,
3210,
373,
6412,
284,
355,
262,
366,
7738,
4897,
1911,
198,
4653,
18754,
257,
8070,
20984,
198,
464,
8666,
286,
262,
3269,
7169,
3249,
286,
311,
7378,
9328,
338,
10231,
12481,
4912,
3017,
257,
5114,
319,
257,
995,
3094,
4875,
5581,
7071,
3210,
13,
1629,
326,
3249,
11,
262,
12481,
4912,
3177,
262,
989,
286,
262,
3427,
2055,
11,
290,
1866,
286,
262,
412,
19499,
1762,
4671,
550,
587,
9392,
284,
5262,
13,
4900,
314,
373,
407,
257,
2888,
286,
262,
12481,
4912,
11,
314,
373,
635,
9392,
284,
5262,
262,
3249,
13,
198,
1026,
373,
8018,
326,
981,
257,
1115,
3124,
10552,
286,
262,
5581,
6737,
1262,
2297,
11,
4518,
11,
290,
3469,
357,
49,
11,
402,
11,
347,
8,
373,
262,
24043,
1115,
7515,
10552,
11,
257,
517,
6942,
7515,
10552,
11,
475,
530,
326,
318,
517,
3716,
11,
318,
284,
2148,
257,
29763,
590,
393,
12768,
5046,
6518,
357,
56,
8,
290,
734,
3124,
3580,
10425,
357,
49,
12,
56,
290,
347,
12,
56,
737,
383,
371,
12,
56,
290,
347,
12,
56,
6805,
1011,
4621,
286,
262,
9695,
286,
262,
1692,
5874,
1080,
543,
318,
1342,
8564,
284,
1029,
6323,
1321,
329,
3124,
621,
329,
29763,
590,
13,
770,
3578,
329,
262,
779,
286,
257,
2793,
1271,
286,
8405,
284,
2380,
262,
3124,
3580,
10425,
1231,
42550,
9089,
287,
262,
15032,
4263,
13,
5315,
3580,
6805,
357,
1662,
276,
355,
314,
11,
1195,
393,
471,
11,
569,
393,
1583,
11,
360,
65,
8,
547,
1541,
287,
779,
287,
262,
43754,
34,
11,
40795,
11,
290,
10729,
2390,
3341,
284,
4646,
262,
19484,
2672,
284,
1104,
3124,
1321,
13,
198,
25341,
286,
262,
43754,
34,
2055,
1944,
379,
262,
3269,
7169,
12481,
4912,
3249,
4762,
326,
262,
412,
19499,
569,
16,
32247,
5150,
1105,
13,
15,
19805,
11,
357,
18,
25,
16,
25,
16,
8,
900,
286,
10007,
561,
407,
1826,
262,
2476,
329,
43754,
34,
5581,
1281,
3227,
3573,
351,
2461,
284,
15358,
64,
885,
1112,
11,
788,
5033,
281,
1593,
2891,
13,
554,
3090,
11,
340,
373,
7189,
326,
25,
357,
16,
8,
262,
19232,
8373,
373,
1165,
1877,
357,
18820,
1969,
284,
262,
17735,
30062,
966,
8,
329,
779,
287,
257,
3227,
2858,
810,
3294,
10439,
286,
31671,
547,
2672,
284,
15550,
2041,
3048,
11,
15358,
64,
885,
1112,
11,
3503,
1539,
290,
357,
17,
8,
257,
1105,
13,
15,
19805,
19232,
1080,
561,
407,
4439,
281,
29617,
519,
20996,
7177,
286,
8405,
287,
43754,
34,
357,
265,
1105,
13,
15,
19805,
11,
612,
561,
307,
767,
5237,
13,
27310,
986,
17848,
583,
1627,
737,
198,
464,
43754,
34,
2055,
4438,
329,
9110,
257,
2060,
1115,
6518,
7515,
3210,
1912,
319,
357,
56,
11,
371,
12,
56,
11,
347,
12,
56,
737,
770,
1080,
22111,
4817,
257,
604,
69,
1416,
357,
1415,
13,
36042,
19805,
8,
29763,
590,
19232,
8373,
4961,
284,
860,
940,
2124,
277,
39,
39088,
11,
810,
277,
39,
39088,
318,
262,
43754,
34,
16021,
1627,
8373,
13,
383,
6961,
2252,
2810,
329,
1123,
286,
262,
3124,
3580,
6805,
284,
307,
35846,
379,
362,
69,
1416,
393,
767,
13,
19707,
19805,
13,
770,
2776,
1022,
262,
29763,
590,
290,
3124,
3580,
10425,
373,
4367,
355,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
737,
1215,
404,
889,
604,
69,
1416,
355,
262,
29763,
590,
19232,
8373,
561,
15570,
1007,
19617,
286,
2008,
6264,
1262,
262,
564,
250,
29762,
6503,
447,
251,
43754,
34,
24185,
3210,
351,
8034,
5022,
364,
290,
12857,
5112,
1912,
319,
257,
7515,
2008,
3210,
13,
198,
40171,
2929,
286,
262,
3427,
5581,
2055,
1944,
379,
262,
3269,
7169,
12481,
4912,
3249,
6235,
284,
617,
2785,
13156,
351,
428,
6961,
13,
383,
21954,
3017,
25,
357,
16,
8,
326,
262,
19232,
8373,
373,
1165,
1029,
329,
779,
287,
8472,
4875,
8296,
379,
262,
640,
11,
290,
357,
17,
8,
257,
1478,
13,
36042,
19805,
19232,
1080,
561,
407,
4439,
281,
29617,
519,
20996,
7177,
286,
8405,
287,
257,
48868,
1627,
1080,
357,
265,
1478,
13,
36042,
19805,
11,
612,
561,
307,
860,
1433,
13,
2623,
986,
17848,
583,
1627,
737,
198,
7191,
262,
3269,
7169,
12481,
4912,
3249,
5114,
11,
314,
1965,
1521,
262,
4671,
2950,
550,
407,
3177,
257,
19232,
8373,
326,
373,
257,
3294,
286,
262,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
2128,
11920,
11,
1201,
262,
16021,
1627,
19998,
286,
1111,
262,
45719,
1627,
290,
48868,
1627,
3341,
550,
281,
18253,
2776,
284,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
13,
198,
464,
2656,
6770,
286,
262,
43754,
34,
3124,
1080,
4920,
257,
2776,
1022,
262,
2128,
11920,
8373,
357,
9501,
8,
290,
262,
16021,
1627,
8373,
357,
69,
39,
39088,
8,
355,
277,
39,
39088,
796,
43458,
14,
27033,
796,
23313,
2682,
13,
22980,
986,
26109,
11,
550,
2252,
5447,
262,
11723,
2214,
2494,
277,
53,
39088,
796,
357,
69,
39,
39088,
2124,
362,
20679,
39088,
796,
7863,
13,
5824,
28041,
26109,
11,
290,
5447,
262,
3124,
850,
11920,
357,
69,
1416,
8,
796,
357,
69,
39,
39088,
2124,
46839,
20679,
17,
796,
513,
13,
3553,
3865,
2231,
1106,
19805,
13,
8447,
11,
477,
262,
8373,
6805,
286,
262,
43754,
34,
1080,
714,
307,
10944,
355,
18253,
850,
5021,
2374,
286,
262,
2128,
11920,
13,
220,
198,
464,
48868,
1627,
1080,
5447,
262,
16021,
1627,
8373,
357,
69,
39,
26704,
8,
796,
23871,
1495,
26109,
290,
262,
11723,
2214,
2494,
277,
53,
26704,
796,
357,
69,
39,
26704,
2124,
362,
20679,
26704,
796,
2026,
26109,
13,
632,
373,
4367,
422,
262,
3726,
326,
262,
2776,
1022,
43458,
290,
262,
16021,
1627,
8373,
357,
69,
39,
26704,
8,
714,
307,
6241,
355,
277,
39,
26704,
796,
43458,
14,
25270,
13,
8447,
11,
597,
19232,
8373,
326,
373,
281,
18253,
3294,
286,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
357,
9501,
8,
561,
4439,
8405,
287,
2035,
262,
45719,
1627,
393,
48868,
1627,
3341,
326,
547,
29617,
519,
20996,
13,
198,
40,
373,
1965,
284,
9199,
257,
3348,
284,
262,
12481,
4912,
290,
262,
15941,
5221,
12059,
262,
2776,
13,
383,
16237,
373,
284,
3002,
734,
10233,
13,
383,
717,
7243,
373,
703,
262,
48868,
1627,
14,
1120,
7399,
2055,
1244,
9240,
379,
257,
19232,
8373,
1969,
284,
1478,
13,
36042,
19805,
13,
383,
1218,
7243,
373,
284,
4727,
262,
2776,
1022,
262,
16021,
19998,
286,
262,
45719,
1627,
290,
48868,
1627,
3341,
290,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
13,
198,
1212,
8724,
287,
616,
1772,
278,
257,
2168,
286,
9473,
3194,
1022,
3945,
290,
3035,
7169,
9469,
284,
262,
311,
7378,
9328,
15941,
5221,
11170,
1521,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
815,
307,
3177,
262,
3572,
329,
257,
2219,
29763,
590,
19232,
8373,
13,
383,
2168,
286,
9473,
373,
5292,
284,
4691,
355,
257,
11808,
351,
1123,
286,
262,
9473,
11581,
319,
262,
2173,
4271,
4376,
13,
317,
1178,
2745,
706,
314,
8948,
262,
717,
3348,
11,
314,
373,
9392,
284,
307,
257,
2888,
286,
262,
311,
7378,
9328,
15941,
5221,
13,
5856,
262,
1306,
1178,
1933,
11,
314,
7082,
284,
2683,
546,
262,
6961,
11,
290,
314,
373,
1965,
284,
4538,
257,
5423,
3188,
13,
198,
49384,
278,
262,
3146,
198,
464,
717,
3348,
314,
9469,
284,
262,
15941,
5221,
373,
14567,
1367,
3945,
7169,
13,
770,
3348,
6235,
284,
262,
1109,
326,
1201,
262,
16021,
1627,
8373,
286,
262,
45719,
1627,
1080,
357,
69,
39,
39088,
550,
587,
5447,
355,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
14,
27033,
357,
273,
362,
13,
1495,
19805,
14,
21139,
828,
290,
262,
16021,
1627,
8373,
286,
262,
48868,
1627,
1080,
357,
69,
39,
26704,
8,
373,
4961,
284,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
14,
25270,
357,
273,
362,
13,
1495,
19805,
14,
18444,
828,
597,
19232,
8373,
326,
373,
257,
3294,
286,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
14,
17,
714,
307,
47192,
284,
1111,
3341,
13,
198,
6385,
340,
561,
307,
18763,
284,
6291,
3124,
3580,
10425,
379,
1342,
621,
262,
19232,
2494,
286,
262,
29763,
590,
6737,
11,
788,
257,
19232,
8373,
326,
373,
257,
3294,
286,
362,
13,
1495,
19805,
561,
307,
5035,
329,
779,
351,
262,
3124,
3580,
6805,
357,
49,
12,
56,
11,
347,
12,
56,
8,
981,
257,
19232,
8373,
326,
373,
257,
3294,
286,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
561,
307,
5035,
329,
779,
351,
262,
29763,
590,
7515,
357,
56,
737,
198,
6385,
262,
3427,
2055,
550,
7189,
326,
262,
357,
56,
8,
19232,
8373,
1276,
307,
2793,
621,
1478,
13,
36042,
19805,
290,
262,
43754,
34,
2678,
550,
7189,
326,
262,
357,
56,
8,
19232,
8373,
1276,
307,
2440,
621,
1105,
13,
405,
19805,
11,
616,
3348,
290,
3002,
3850,
14567,
1367,
3945,
7169,
5220,
9110,
286,
513,
2124,
604,
13,
20,
19805,
393,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
355,
262,
2219,
29763,
590,
357,
56,
8,
6518,
19232,
8373,
357,
23,
3365,
1661,
262,
45719,
1627,
16021,
1627,
8373,
2494,
290,
807,
2414,
1661,
262,
48868,
1627,
2494,
1111,
4961,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
737,
198,
3666,
2168,
286,
9473,
5220,
12695,
286,
257,
7515,
3124,
1080,
1912,
319,
357,
56,
11,
371,
12,
56,
11,
347,
12,
56,
8,
290,
257,
29763,
590,
14,
8043,
19232,
2776,
286,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
828,
351,
262,
3124,
10425,
35846,
379,
718,
13,
2425,
19805,
13,
554,
1502,
329,
262,
1080,
284,
15570,
5423,
11315,
290,
4286,
17512,
357,
10508,
355,
326,
973,
287,
7914,
2041,
3048,
290,
9382,
27298,
828,
1111,
262,
29763,
590,
290,
3124,
3580,
8405,
815,
307,
29617,
519,
20996,
13,
383,
6227,
284,
307,
1498,
284,
1007,
2438,
1022,
7515,
290,
24185,
4875,
3341,
17142,
257,
1271,
286,
8405,
583,
4075,
1627,
326,
373,
2659,
12843,
416,
1440,
13,
198,
464,
3945,
7169,
3465,
2252,
5220,
326,
262,
1271,
286,
8405,
583,
4075,
1627,
2278,
815,
307,
3744,
621,
767,
1314,
13,
20,
284,
15550,
477,
286,
262,
995,
3094,
2055,
5423,
4075,
1627,
9574,
13,
2893,
262,
1271,
286,
17848,
583,
4075,
1627,
4961,
284,
26250,
8405,
583,
1627,
373,
407,
5220,
1566,
616,
1306,
3465,
11,
357,
23906,
318,
262,
1271,
1043,
287,
3311,
13,
49231,
290,
311,
7378,
9328,
13151,
828,
26250,
318,
262,
717,
1988,
326,
564,
250,
5225,
13,
447,
251,
767,
1433,
318,
262,
717,
1271,
3744,
621,
767,
1314,
13,
20,
326,
318,
2659,
12843,
416,
604,
357,
22,
1433,
796,
604,
2124,
27228,
828,
475,
857,
407,
22096,
2346,
284,
5423,
11315,
1022,
45719,
1627,
7515,
290,
24185,
3124,
3341,
393,
2148,
17338,
1402,
17465,
1448,
654,
284,
15570,
2041,
3048,
393,
1366,
19794,
16113,
13,
7359,
79,
29,
198,
17699,
7159,
287,
1104,
286,
26250,
547,
2810,
287,
4710,
314,
7560,
3161,
284,
314,
2749,
6,
1795,
287,
2693,
13,
5740,
326,
26250,
21767,
718,
0,
685,
21,
0,
357,
21,
1109,
5132,
8,
796,
718,
87,
20,
87,
19,
87,
18,
87,
17,
87,
16,
60,
796,
1987,
2124,
3933,
2124,
642,
13,
770,
3578,
329,
867,
1402,
5087,
11,
1593,
329,
4917,
281,
40590,
4610,
284,
11315,
1022,
262,
45719,
1627,
7515,
290,
24185,
3124,
5423,
290,
329,
2939,
17512,
287,
2041,
3048,
290,
3781,
286,
7021,
286,
17848,
329,
1366,
19794,
13,
383,
24185,
45719,
1627,
4875,
3210,
550,
2810,
329,
46720,
8405,
583,
4075,
1627,
13,
46720,
796,
2579,
2124,
513,
13,
383,
2776,
1022,
46720,
290,
26250,
460,
307,
3417,
355,
46720,
14,
23906,
796,
357,
2078,
2124,
513,
20679,
7,
1731,
2124,
3933,
2124,
642,
8,
796,
357,
1731,
20679,
7,
18,
2124,
642,
8,
796,
1467,
14,
1314,
13,
317,
900,
286,
1467,
8405,
287,
262,
43754,
34,
24185,
3210,
714,
307,
973,
284,
15284,
257,
900,
286,
1315,
8405,
287,
262,
43754,
34,
7515,
3210,
13,
198,
44683,
286,
15193,
198,
2953,
262,
2693,
7169,
314,
2749,
4495,
11,
3230,
11529,
2627,
5670,
319,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
1080,
13,
2102,
11,
1111,
262,
1105,
13,
15,
19805,
290,
1478,
13,
36042,
19805,
3341,
17383,
617,
1104,
329,
257,
4996,
286,
8472,
18506,
13,
8444,
21585,
1626,
262,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
8203,
326,
11529,
714,
407,
307,
8793,
1231,
262,
9793,
286,
17101,
2370,
13,
198,
50,
7378,
9328,
5150,
284,
1745,
257,
564,
250,
21950,
327,
9043,
10231,
7623,
7814,
12401,
447,
251,
287,
2986,
6033,
287,
3945,
14745,
8389,
416,
290,
739,
262,
4571,
286,
262,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
284,
13446,
7515,
30817,
3341,
13,
317,
2168,
286,
8472,
5254,
14,
26567,
2536,
602,
547,
8389,
284,
10716,
262,
21692,
286,
2972,
11628,
351,
2461,
284,
4286,
3081,
11,
3227,
3048,
11,
8296,
12971,
290,
8472,
9556,
4092,
11,
290,
284,
4474,
281,
7981,
4308,
329,
2551,
1642,
13,
198,
464,
412,
19499,
550,
7530,
257,
2168,
286,
18721,
287,
3269,
14745,
329,
262,
976,
4007,
13,
311,
7378,
9328,
9392,
262,
412,
19499,
284,
1745,
663,
3945,
3249,
286,
262,
9840,
286,
262,
412,
19499,
20671,
4606,
287,
2986,
6033,
284,
307,
3940,
416,
257,
6466,
3249,
284,
2112,
262,
2482,
286,
262,
5254,
13,
632,
373,
4987,
326,
18721,
561,
307,
5952,
379,
1115,
1180,
19232,
19998,
357,
40093,
1105,
13,
15,
19805,
11,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
290,
1478,
13,
36042,
19805,
8,
290,
379,
2972,
2974,
286,
2854,
13,
198,
4863,
362,
358,
832,
262,
718,
400,
286,
3945,
14745,
357,
47498,
11,
530,
614,
422,
262,
3128,
286,
262,
2656,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
6961,
828,
311,
7378,
9328,
5952,
18721,
379,
45814,
10426,
21516,
11,
11733,
399,
7291,
287,
2986,
6033,
287,
543,
257,
1271,
286,
2706,
14888,
13,
5501,
11983,
17487,
4166,
5112,
351,
262,
4875,
7071,
3170,
284,
262,
20640,
2810,
13,
383,
13646,
373,
5292,
284,
2148,
6617,
286,
2854,
290,
284,
1249,
262,
3230,
2055,
284,
1282,
284,
281,
4381,
13,
198,
6,
464,
13646,
16924,
5583,
550,
284,
37080,
786,
867,
2041,
20314,
290,
987,
8443,
507,
11,
355,
880,
355,
2251,
257,
2837,
286,
1332,
5563,
11,
1332,
10425,
11,
4688,
13432,
9987,
11,
290,
257,
9689,
290,
3781,
1080,
290,
20411,
13,
198,
464,
18721,
547,
4855,
351,
5112,
290,
8213,
416,
867,
286,
262,
2706,
326,
547,
40547,
287,
262,
2478,
286,
4875,
5581,
290,
3017,
25,
9738,
21516,
11,
1703,
24900,
10501,
11,
2409,
1073,
11,
5398,
32250,
10501,
11,
11133,
8987,
3337,
11,
10231,
7623,
11998,
11,
39530,
958,
11,
3457,
1539,
45814,
10426,
2688,
278,
4803,
32250,
11,
1004,
2007,
7623,
12052,
1539,
1526,
45774,
27828,
11,
371,
8141,
10501,
290,
371,
8141,
46779,
11,
10184,
10501,
11,
33516,
83,
1313,
844,
3457,
1539,
32425,
9429,
37,
11,
34627,
27828,
12052,
1539,
290,
569,
10761,
10501,
13,
314,
14888,
287,
262,
18721,
355,
257,
2888,
286,
311,
7378,
9328,
338,
14594,
4912,
319,
10231,
7623,
20130,
11,
4955,
257,
38965,
361,
756,
7914,
9382,
17301,
3025,
7071,
369,
12214,
284,
262,
649,
3210,
13,
198,
19246,
278,
281,
4381,
198,
464,
2986,
6033,
18721,
8302,
262,
32141,
286,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
6961,
13,
1629,
257,
3249,
287,
3269,
14745,
11,
262,
412,
19499,
550,
3177,
257,
900,
286,
10007,
1912,
319,
257,
1511,
13,
15,
19805,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
1080,
13,
15891,
2267,
5952,
416,
412,
19499,
1866,
550,
3402,
326,
257,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
13888,
373,
2622,
287,
1502,
284,
19271,
351,
4286,
7587,
5359,
11,
884,
355,
15358,
64,
1994,
11,
290,
262,
412,
19499,
1866,
4762,
257,
1511,
13,
15,
19805,
1080,
4120,
284,
307,
262,
749,
3034,
1080,
326,
2810,
12872,
4286,
7587,
13,
12688,
286,
262,
412,
19499,
290,
311,
7378,
9328,
17460,
1138,
379,
257,
6466,
3249,
44170,
416,
5613,
7567,
3889,
287,
2805,
14745,
290,
4987,
284,
18077,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
3210,
355,
262,
995,
3094,
3210,
13,
2750,
23608,
14745,
11,
24451,
42,
287,
2869,
2957,
416,
1770,
13,
50077,
482,
16522,
11,
550,
6157,
663,
898,
4795,
34109,
290,
1673,
12808,
326,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
3210,
4438,
262,
39475,
4610,
13,
198,
32,
1271,
286,
2173,
547,
4143,
4987,
2402,
290,
7042,
262,
4308,
286,
257,
649,
995,
3094,
3210,
13,
1119,
3017,
25,
198,
12,
383,
4683,
3124,
320,
11973,
286,
412,
19499,
357,
1640,
40795,
290,
10729,
2390,
8,
290,
286,
43754,
34,
561,
307,
17383,
329,
48868,
1627,
290,
45719,
1627,
10425,
8148,
11,
355,
17593,
278,
284,
257,
2219,
3124,
320,
11973,
373,
3177,
17698,
27127,
462,
26,
198,
12,
1052,
807,
1643,
583,
6291,
10552,
561,
307,
5447,
7317,
11,
852,
1626,
262,
1181,
286,
262,
1242,
11,
475,
257,
838,
1643,
583,
6291,
10552,
561,
635,
307,
7368,
1201,
340,
373,
2672,
329,
867,
3227,
5479,
26,
198,
12,
383,
2837,
286,
262,
6737,
284,
307,
3017,
815,
2291,
1182,
2119,
357,
29370,
2330,
1241,
8,
290,
2366,
2119,
357,
35993,
2042,
1241,
8,
284,
1249,
329,
3227,
625,
1477,
13880,
26,
198,
12,
383,
1627,
4129,
284,
307,
35846,
815,
307,
6454,
10595,
621,
883,
286,
262,
15075,
3341,
357,
45,
4694,
34,
11,
40795,
11,
290,
10729,
2390,
8,
739,
9110,
284,
42353,
12201,
4286,
13015,
290,
284,
3368,
4286,
6763,
2105,
26,
198,
12,
317,
1643,
10730,
11,
6291,
3294,
87,
276,
7071,
357,
68,
13,
70,
13,
39573,
371,
12,
56,
11,
575,
11,
347,
12,
56,
11,
575,
11,
371,
12,
56,
11,
2644,
8,
373,
8472,
11,
475,
287,
262,
890,
3381,
11,
257,
3938,
1643,
290,
1573,
11389,
1080,
561,
307,
18763,
26,
198,
12,
383,
10319,
1366,
2494,
815,
307,
1700,
540,
1626,
262,
5339,
286,
4875,
9154,
1700,
364,
788,
287,
262,
2478,
9539,
416,
1703,
24900,
11,
14548,
354,
11,
371,
8141,
11,
290,
10184,
13,
198,
464,
3210,
11,
355,
12395,
11,
2810,
329,
1123,
4875,
6291,
284,
3473,
286,
379,
1551,
807,
10340,
11,
351,
838,
3142,
13,
383,
3815,
329,
262,
2042,
290,
2330,
2974,
547,
5447,
11,
355,
373,
262,
2837,
286,
262,
3124,
6737,
13,
357,
49,
12,
56,
8,
290,
357,
33,
12,
56,
8,
2627,
8740,
685,
28,
15,
13,
50055,
357,
49,
12,
56,
15437,
290,
10078,
685,
28,
15,
13,
20,
2414,
357,
33,
12,
56,
25295,
2893,
262,
2656,
3465,
14567,
3945,
7169,
9469,
284,
262,
15941,
5221,
5150,
257,
2438,
286,
25264,
7,
8692,
940,
8,
796,
7,
26259,
36566,
8,
329,
564,
246,
11186,
447,
247,
379,
1802,
314,
2200,
290,
257,
2438,
286,
7724,
357,
8692,
940,
8,
796,
7,
39103,
8576,
8,
329,
564,
246,
13424,
447,
247,
379,
657,
314,
2200,
284,
1249,
8006,
286,
262,
17510,
2974,
11,
4381,
373,
4251,
284,
1365,
17624,
262,
2837,
286,
12416,
284,
8006,
262,
13791,
5046,
3815,
351,
517,
15440,
290,
2148,
517,
16965,
13,
564,
246,
12256,
447,
247,
373,
284,
307,
7997,
416,
281,
3624,
1643,
2438,
286,
14956,
7,
8692,
940,
8,
796,
7,
26259,
17643,
8,
290,
564,
246,
13424,
447,
247,
373,
284,
307,
7997,
416,
281,
3624,
1643,
2438,
1467,
357,
8692,
940,
8,
796,
7,
18005,
17643,
737,
383,
2656,
12416,
329,
16215,
262,
3726,
290,
262,
886,
286,
4286,
3951,
290,
4286,
1989,
547,
6693,
11,
9518,
11,
290,
4987,
2402,
11,
355,
880,
355,
18305,
2890,
19617,
329,
1627,
11,
2214,
11,
290,
5739,
11,
1123,
19617,
8379,
852,
3748,
290,
407,
14963,
287,
262,
2008,
6737,
13,
50,
7378,
9328,
290,
412,
19499,
8389,
281,
3626,
625,
262,
1306,
1178,
1933,
284,
5385,
1096,
262,
17675,
286,
262,
995,
3094,
5581,
2055,
351,
262,
13391,
4438,
416,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
1080,
290,
262,
14607,
2157,
663,
900,
286,
10007,
13,
12688,
286,
262,
311,
7378,
9328,
15941,
5221,
14113,
284,
2031,
290,
284,
262,
6755,
3687,
13,
12688,
286,
262,
412,
19499,
17460,
14113,
284,
262,
11,
788,
11,
8345,
3427,
2512,
7027,
290,
284,
262,
1866,
286,
262,
21676,
40,
11,
262,
4009,
286,
262,
2520,
1605,
38716,
13,
383,
9432,
286,
777,
21284,
373,
284,
1382,
257,
11529,
3161,
284,
262,
7865,
5114,
379,
262,
7283,
52,
287,
262,
23608,
286,
14745,
13,
383,
1943,
286,
428,
3626,
714,
4691,
355,
257,
2746,
284,
307,
3940,
287,
5922,
2003,
11704,
13,
198,
40,
373,
1965,
284,
4538,
257,
311,
7378,
9328,
3210,
3188,
326,
5610,
262,
11507,
3815,
329,
257,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
1080,
329,
9110,
416,
262,
311,
7378,
9328,
14594,
4912,
13,
4619,
9088,
286,
262,
3188,
547,
5421,
287,
257,
4077,
275,
5540,
3161,
284,
2457,
13427,
416,
311,
7378,
9328,
11,
262,
3210,
373,
6412,
284,
355,
262,
564,
250,
13719,
4897,
447,
251,
13,
198,
818,
3035,
14745,
11,
262,
4538,
286,
262,
3210,
11946,
564,
250,
34,
7656,
40117,
329,
257,
10231,
7623,
26491,
1022,
11733,
22412,
329,
45719,
1627,
11,
3126,
2214,
14680,
447,
251,
373,
9387,
284,
257,
10595,
5386,
329,
2912,
13,
770,
6153,
4538,
12548,
262,
3722,
286,
262,
3210,
706,
262,
5254,
287,
2986,
6033,
290,
11704,
4251,
379,
262,
6466,
412,
19499,
14,
50,
7378,
9328,
3249,
287,
2805,
14745,
13,
383,
412,
19499,
2055,
1568,
9167,
257,
11800,
1487,
284,
262,
1988,
286,
564,
246,
11186,
447,
247,
287,
262,
29763,
590,
6518,
11,
290,
340,
9672,
262,
1988,
286,
28878,
7,
8692,
940,
737,
770,
1487,
373,
6325,
287,
2932,
14745,
13,
198,
3260,
2423,
290,
617,
17613,
355,
4367,
2029,
284,
15550,
3427,
4786,
11,
262,
564,
250,
13719,
4897,
447,
251,
373,
8197,
355,
311,
7378,
9328,
8997,
13151,
13,
198,
2043,
52,
14,
49,
30361,
341,
49231,
198,
464,
3427,
32250,
4479,
357,
36,
19499,
8,
7560,
281,
412,
19499,
8997,
7268,
257,
15185,
900,
286,
11507,
3815,
13,
383,
311,
7378,
9328,
13151,
290,
412,
19499,
4963,
547,
788,
8948,
284,
262,
4037,
48667,
4479,
357,
2043,
52,
737,
383,
7283,
52,
11,
257,
15775,
4009,
1626,
262,
1578,
7973,
11,
318,
4497,
329,
3230,
11704,
319,
8062,
13,
383,
7283,
52,
8829,
14620,
9840,
357,
2043,
52,
12,
49,
14,
4093,
4663,
8,
318,
5213,
351,
12521,
8062,
11,
1390,
20157,
290,
779,
286,
262,
5243,
8373,
10958,
13,
383,
7283,
52,
635,
3769,
6276,
5423,
11,
543,
389,
1444,
564,
250,
41248,
602,
13,
447,
251,
198,
22005,
262,
7283,
52,
11,
262,
2478,
286,
262,
30361,
341,
16215,
262,
11507,
3815,
286,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
1080,
3214,
739,
262,
5798,
286,
7283,
52,
12,
49,
12481,
4912,
1367,
319,
21516,
13,
383,
5118,
286,
12481,
4912,
1367,
11,
4415,
13,
2940,
314,
13,
509,
15104,
30848,
1990,
11,
8686,
262,
26931,
286,
262,
3188,
284,
257,
2041,
5583,
4920,
329,
326,
4007,
290,
44170,
416,
3271,
5326,
286,
262,
412,
19499,
13,
383,
3188,
12059,
262,
4875,
10007,
7763,
287,
262,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
11,
357,
19,
25,
17,
25,
17,
8,
1080,
373,
6325,
329,
12695,
355,
3188,
1367,
14,
40403,
379,
7283,
52,
12,
49,
14,
4093,
4663,
8292,
287,
20552,
287,
2693,
290,
3267,
14745,
13,
317,
15556,
2196,
11,
3188,
1367,
14,
40403,
5416,
13,
16,
11,
14567,
1596,
3945,
14489,
11,
290,
11946,
564,
250,
37741,
3311,
13,
15923,
14,
1157,
357,
5841,
376,
2599,
14711,
7656,
10007,
286,
4875,
5581,
329,
20747,
447,
251,
373,
8197,
416,
262,
7283,
52,
12,
49,
14,
4093,
4663,
1345,
21629,
10006,
287,
3945,
14489,
13,
632,
3417,
262,
4875,
7071,
3210,
329,
4351,
286,
2008,
1321,
1022,
5112,
3562,
329,
779,
287,
2035,
45719,
1627,
393,
48868,
1627,
10224,
3124,
5581,
7291,
13,
14438,
7546,
416,
262,
1345,
21629,
10006,
11,
3188,
1367,
14,
40403,
5416,
13,
16,
2627,
12624,
4663,
30361,
341,
49231,
13,
198,
464,
5693,
329,
5572,
6849,
290,
10231,
21516,
32250,
6168,
198,
464,
604,
25,
17,
25,
17,
35100,
10231,
21516,
8997,
3142,
329,
257,
5046,
286,
3773,
290,
17843,
326,
373,
13029,
416,
4955,
257,
3210,
326,
9343,
262,
1486,
290,
6161,
286,
5112,
326,
714,
8076,
287,
1111,
45719,
1627,
14,
1899,
7399,
290,
48868,
1627,
14,
1120,
7399,
3227,
12493,
13,
383,
604,
25,
17,
25,
17,
35100,
10231,
21516,
8997,
10431,
5112,
14275,
416,
1180,
11372,
284,
5163,
2008,
290,
14553,
6597,
290,
1366,
15190,
290,
14,
273,
284,
1700,
290,
16388,
883,
15190,
3264,
287,
262,
4875,
7386,
1231,
1719,
284,
307,
15032,
284,
281,
15075,
6737,
13,
770,
4001,
326,
262,
1271,
286,
1180,
7767,
290,
14,
273,
10439,
286,
18813,
714,
307,
3220,
1231,
262,
19787,
27486,
286,
262,
1321,
5924,
351,
5112,
1912,
319,
15075,
3037,
13,
317,
1178,
812,
706,
262,
12695,
286,
262,
604,
25,
17,
25,
17,
35100,
10231,
21516,
8997,
11,
477,
4875,
3227,
7291,
547,
3402,
284,
307,
8472,
13,
198,
32,
1178,
812,
1568,
618,
262,
7283,
52,
5447,
564,
250,
10227,
6849,
11,
447,
251,
262,
30361,
341,
22111,
4817,
25,
564,
250,
1169,
16021,
6323,
329,
5572,
6849,
355,
852,
5403,
326,
286,
10224,
5581,
3341,
447,
251,
3417,
287,
3311,
13,
49231,
392,
257,
4286,
4843,
8064,
286,
1467,
25,
24,
13,
317,
1467,
25,
24,
4843,
8064,
4286,
4433,
530,
12,
17089,
517,
17848,
583,
4075,
1627,
621,
257,
604,
25,
18,
4843,
8064,
4286,
13,
3311,
13,
49231,
2810,
26250,
8405,
583,
4075,
1627,
329,
262,
29763,
590,
6518,
290,
11470,
8405,
329,
1123,
286,
262,
3124,
3580,
10425,
13,
17962,
351,
26250,
11,
26862,
262,
6323,
284,
49557,
11,
290,
22000,
262,
954,
329,
257,
1467,
25,
24,
4843,
8064,
5983,
284,
262,
14062,
8405,
583,
4075,
1627,
5447,
355,
262,
4308,
329,
5572,
6849,
13,
6366,
8641,
803,
262,
8502,
290,
3644,
5348,
6,
2581,
329,
564,
250,
23415,
17848,
447,
251,
4001,
326,
262,
1271,
286,
3951,
815,
307,
14062,
2124,
357,
24,
14,
1433,
8,
796,
17729,
13,
198,
2964,
19741,
9367,
3341,
379,
37674,
17848,
583,
1627,
290,
26250,
3951,
583,
5739,
389,
635,
257,
2888,
286,
262,
564,
250,
23906,
17465,
447,
251,
1641,
13,
26250,
17848,
2124,
604,
14,
18,
357,
29268,
9025,
8,
2124,
604,
14,
18,
357,
1433,
25,
24,
4843,
8064,
15068,
8,
796,
37674,
13,
6366,
8641,
803,
262,
8502,
290,
3644,
5348,
6,
2581,
329,
6616,
17848,
4001,
326,
262,
1271,
286,
3951,
815,
307,
37674,
2124,
357,
24,
14,
1433,
8,
796,
26250,
13,
198,
464,
2656,
26250,
17465,
583,
4075,
1627,
4645,
2627,
262,
4308,
286,
257,
1641,
286,
8573,
357,
1169,
26250,
17465,
1641,
8,
326,
373,
8197,
329,
41203,
1912,
3341,
1390,
1111,
10224,
5581,
290,
5572,
6849,
3341,
13,
8447,
11,
749,
4875,
5581,
3341,
11,
1390,
4875,
2008,
9154,
3341,
290,
12490,
18813,
389,
10944,
422,
262,
5794,
3417,
287,
262,
2656,
604,
25,
17,
25,
17,
3210,
13,
198,
464,
6224,
286,
257,
2219,
4875,
7515,
3210,
329,
1111,
2026,
26109,
290,
3126,
26109,
12493,
355,
12395,
287,
311,
7378,
9328,
13151,
290,
7283,
52,
30361,
341,
49231,
2810,
257,
3108,
329,
5581,
3227,
7291,
284,
32492,
284,
262,
4875,
7386,
13,
383,
5585,
286,
1029,
3081,
11,
3938,
4875,
3227,
7291,
4955,
4875,
2008,
11,
6597,
11,
290,
20150,
15190,
290,
262,
4388,
2478,
286,
4875,
19794,
290,
39007,
16546,
3142,
329,
262,
9793,
286,
4875,
5581,
7025,
2594,
13,
198,
818,
663,
14489,
12,
29279,
5764,
6772,
11,
262,
2351,
8581,
286,
21516,
11536,
290,
13473,
8018,
262,
604,
25,
17,
25,
17,
35100,
10231,
8997,
1912,
319,
1511,
13,
20,
19805,
357,
56,
8,
19232,
351,
26250,
8405,
583,
1627,
351,
1115,
412,
12038,
56,
13304,
25,
198,
464,
3427,
32250,
4479,
357,
36,
19499,
8,
373,
8018,
25,
564,
250,
1890,
16937,
257,
3427,
4381,
319,
257,
7515,
4875,
2008,
8034,
20855,
1912,
319,
9555,
3081,
3640,
290,
511,
16826,
284,
12412,
13110,
319,
257,
995,
3094,
3210,
13,
447,
251,
198,
464,
4037,
48667,
4479,
357,
2043,
52,
8,
373,
8018,
25,
564,
250,
1890,
4955,
262,
3230,
10041,
284,
4620,
257,
13110,
286,
2260,
5583,
6116,
319,
257,
4875,
2008,
3210,
290,
284,
4620,
4381,
1626,
262,
15524,
12,
30763,
2278,
13,
447,
251,
198,
464,
7023,
286,
20843,
17741,
290,
21516,
27170,
357,
50,
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] | 7,616 |
Frank B. Jewett
Frank B. Jewett: Biography
Born: 5 September 1879
Died: 18 November 1949
Frank B. Jewett was born on 5 September 1879 in Pasadena, CA, and graduated from the Throop Institute of Technology (later known as the California Institute of Technology) in 1898. He did graduate work at the University of Chicago, IL, where he received the doctoral degree in physics in 1902. He then accepted a teaching position at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, where he remained until 1904, when he joined the Mechanical Department of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) in Boston, MA. Initially, he assisted George A. Campbell in research related to telephonic transmission. He then succeeded Campbell as director of the transmission research group in 1906. In 1907, the Mechanical Department merged with the Engineering Department of Western Electric, located in New York City, as part of a corporate reorganization. Jewett moved to New York, where he became a research manager under J. J. Carty, the chief engineer of AT&T.
By 1912, AT&T was diversifying its research to include radio communication and electronic tubes. Jewett was among the AT&T engineers who witnessed a demonstration of the triode amplifier early in 1912, and he was instrumental in recruiting H. D. Arnold and others to develop the vacuum tube and its applications to telecommunications. Jewett led the engineering effort at AT&T that resulted in completion of the first transcontinental telephone line in time for the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, CA, in 1915. That same year, AT&T engineers under Jewett demonstrated transatlantic radio telephony using a vacuum-tube transmitter. He was given a commission with the rank of major in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War I.
In October 1917, Jewett presented a paper on the subject of industrial research at an AIEE meeting in Philadelphia, PA. He stated that the war already was "exerting an enormous, stimulating influence on the extension of industrial research." He discussed some differences and some connections between the research done in an industrial environment and the "pure science" research at universities. He observed that contemporary industrial researchers had progressed beyond "the era of the cut and try method." Jewett argued that industrial and academic research laboratories were "very closely associated and must grow together and with the same relative vigor if the best interests of civilization are to be served." He cautioned, however, that schools should not "attempt to enter too largely into the realm of industrial research" or they would run the risk of creating "an atmosphere highly prejudicial to the broad training of men or to pure scientific research." Conversely, he noted that "the industrial research organization is not equipped to undertake the general work of the university either in the training of men or the conduction of pure research, nor can it afford to do so." He concluded that industrial research was "destined to grow enormously, provided an adequate supply of capable and highly trained investigators can be secured."
As part of an effort to make the industrial research environment more attractive to college-educated people he recruited, Jewett implemented a change in policy by encouraging his research staff to present and publish professional papers about their work. He assigned one individual to digest and report on the latest developments in science to the research engineers at Bell. As an example of the new policy, Jewett and a colleague, B. Gherardi, presented a joint paper on "telephone repeaters" at a joint meeting of the AIEE and the Institute of Radio Engineers in October 1919. In the paper, they reviewed the history of research and development on telephone amplifiers and asserted that "a complete solution of the problem was made possible only by the existence of a great unified engineering and research department, such as that maintained by the Bell System." They concluded that the successful application of the electron tube as a telephone repeater amounted to a "revolution in the entire scheme of telephone transmission."
The Bell Telephone Laboratories were established in 1925 with a staff of approximately 3600 and with Jewett as president, a position he held until 1940. His style of research management has been characterized by historian G. Wise as "endothermic," in contrast to the "exothermic" management style of W. R. Whitney of the General Electric Research Laboratory. The exothermic manager was "like a chemical reaction that gives off energy to its surroundings," whereas the endothermic research managers "could draw energy from their institutional surroundings." As an endothermic prototype, Jewett seemed more comfortable in the committee room, on the telephone, or behind the desk than on the lecture platform or roaming the halls of the laboratory.
Jewett was president of the AIEE from 1922 to 1923 and of the National Academy of Sciences from 1939 to 1947. He served on the National Defense Research Committee beginning in 1940 and conducted a survey of the capabilities of industrial research facilities throughout the country in preparation for the war effort. He also was chairman of the Board of Directors of Bell Laboratories from 1940 to 1944. In 1928 the AIEE awarded Jewett the Edison Medal "For his contributions to the art of electric communication." He died on 18 November 1949, in Summit, NJ, at age 70. | [
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] | 1,077 |
Important research issues in West Africa are consistent with ILRI’s global livestock development challenges especially the overarching issues of sustainable intensification of crop livestock systems and sustainability/vulnerability in pastoral areas, with other challenges – market opportunities, use and conservation of animal genetic resources, (re-)emerging diseases and animal health related to these. Local as well as regional policy dimensions impact on a number of these aspects, targeting and innovation approaches play a critical supporting role in the region. Climate change – both targeting (identifying hotspots) and adaptation – will be important in West Africa especially in arid areas. Major outcomes to be addressed in West Africa are summarized here:
The major significance of mixed crop livestock systems in the region, in terms of numbers of people (an estimated 454 million by 2050!) and animals means that issues of sustainable intensification are critical here. For sustainable intensification of mixed crop-livestock systems research will focus on:
- (1) feed (especially interface with crop production) and natural resource management and
- 2) market opportunities – addressing specific value chains and covering institutional and food safety dimensions
(1) addressing institutional, feed and environmental management dimensions of new market opportunities;
(2) institutional, measurement and incentive issues related to new opportunities for ecosystem stewardship
The market dimensions of intensifying crop livestock systems are significant and there is a lot of scope for research on market chains, potentially linked to specialized production aspects in different ecological zones, in feed systems and crop-livestock intensification and in institutional arrangements. There is a lot of regional interest in markets, including issues such as harmonizing policies and regulations. As markets develop, issues of SPS and risk assessment become important.
Animal health is a priority, both for mixed and agropastoral systems. Recent work on emerging diseases includes USAID and World Bank engagement with ILRI in implementing artificial insemination (AI) surveillance and response studies in Nigeria and Ghana. There is currently no research on vaccines in West Africa but we recognize that this is an area in which West African priorities and institutions could be engaged, taking advantage of the Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BecA) Hub platform. In that regard, the work being done ILRI Biotechnology Theme on the development of CBPP and PPR could of interest to partners such as African Agricultural Technology Foundation (CORAF) and Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO).
Assessments that provide information on land and water requirements in relation to feed needs are also beginning as is work on trade offs in biomass use.
A cornerstone of ILRI research efforts in West Africa over the next several years will be a broad-based program on endemic livestock funded by Global Environment Facility (GEF) and linked to a livestock development program funded by the African Development Bank, regional project on sustainable management of endemic ruminant livestock (PROGEBE). The project addresses simultaneously genetics and breeding, market development, natural resource management and policy and knowledge management. With the advent of the Global Environment Facility project, present research in West Africa focuses around two “hubs” one in Nigeria and one in Mali. As a result, ILRI is now well positioned to systematically develop its priorities, partners and research funding needs in a coordinated way that allows the integration of different research components to deliver practical development solutions.
The two hubs in Nigeria and Mali are ideally suited to address the priority outcomes, with both in good proximity to crop-livestock and pastoral systems but presenting different institutional settings. Now is an opportune time to approach the region’s challenges in a systematic way and ILRI can contribute towards the current vacuum in the region with regard to agenda setting, particularly in the livestock sector in collaboration with key partners such as CORAF. In this respect, ILRI proposes to initiate a process along the lines of the “champions model” used in southern Africa that will enable consultations with national, regional and international partners to understand and respond to the priorities. | [
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] | 818 |
Now, as to this nonsense about secession, let me quote an impeccable authority:
“As an American citizen, I take great pride in my country, her prosperity and her institutions, and would defend any state if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than the dissolution of the Union. It would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and I am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. I hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. Secession is nothing but revolution.”
The letter was written on Jan. 23, 1861, from an Army officer in Fort Mason, Texas, to his son. The recipient was Custis Lee. His father was Col. Robert E. Lee.
Before the year had ended, Col. Lee became Gen. Robert E. Lee, commander of the redoubtable Army of Northern Virginia, which he led in an epic struggle aimed at dismembering the Union. Yet, he believed that secession was unconstitutional.
“The framers of our Constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securities, if it were intended to be broken by every member of the Confederacy at will,” he wrote to his son. “It is intended for perpetual union, so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government (not a compact) which can only be dissolved by revolution or by the consent of all the people in convention assembled.”
Lee could conscientiously take up arms in behalf of secession only by appealing to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Independence, which appealed, not to statutory law but to “the laws of Nature and of Nature’s God.” It referred to “unalienable rights” under these higher laws, and declared that
“... Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government.”
The Declaration of Independence was written to justify secession from the British Empire. It was an extra-legal declaration, since the laws of the British Empire did not permit British colonies to leave the empire unilaterally.
In declaring the right of secession under “the laws of Nature and of Nature’s God,” the authors of the Declaration issued a caveat:
“Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.”
The South of Lee’s generation concluded that the cause of preserving its way of life, including the institution of slavery, was more than “light and transient,” and therefore justified the expenditure of 650,000 lives in a civil war.
The trigger for that bloodbath was the election of Abraham Lincoln as 16th president of the United States.
The re-election of Barack Obama in 2012 has apparently convinced a minority of those who voted against him that the cause of opposing him is worth plunging the nation into another secessionist crisis. Or maybe they’re just being frivolous.
The White House issued an invitation to petition the administration for action on whatever issues they desired and promised to consider the proposals if enough signatures were acquired. Last time I checked, secessionist petitions were being circulated in 20 states.
If you’re worried about the dissolution of the Union, let me provide a measure of comfort: Wofford stands a better chance of making it to the finals in college football’s Bowl Championship Series than those petitions have of delivering their respective states from the Union.
The simple truth is that secession is beyond the gift of the Obama administration. The U.S. Constitution just does not allow for secession. I’ve heard all the arguments to the contrary, but they were all answered pretty conclusively at Appomattox Court House,on April 9, 1865.
Modern-day secessionists claim that states have a right to secede under the 10th Amendment, which guarantees to states all rights not delegated to the federal government.
But the 10th Amendment was adopted several years after the Constitution went into effect.
That document prescribed a clear-cut procedure for admitting new states to enter the Union, but none for their withdrawal. The framers obviously decided against providing a way out of the Union.
When New Yorkers, in their ratification convention, proposed a provision allowing for secession, Virginia’s James Madison — often called the Father of the Constitution — asserted that “the Constitution requires an adoption in toto, and for ever.”
Did the 10th Amendment negate that statement?
The Supreme Court, as recently as 1931, ruled that the amendment “added nothing to the (Constitution) as originally ratified.”
But yes, there is a way for a state to secede. It could secede through a constitutional amendment that could either set up a procedure for secession, just as the original Constitution set up a procedure for entry. Or it could provide for the secession of an individual state.
Such an amendment would require approval by a two-thirds majority of each house of Congress, then ratification by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states.
If you like to bet long odds, put your money on Wofford to win the national college football championship. | [
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] | 1,155 |
Cavendish, Henry, 1731–1810, English physicist and chemist, b. Nice. He was the son of Lord Charles Cavendish and grandson of the 2d duke of Devonshire. He was a recluse, and most of his writings were published posthumously. His great contributions to science resulted from his many accurate experiments in various fields. His conclusions were remarkably original. His chief researches were on heat, in which he determined the specific heats for a number of substances (although these heat constants were not recognized or so called until later); on the composition of air; on the nature and properties of a gas that he isolated and described as "inflammable air" and that Lavoisier later named hydrogen; and on the composition of water, which he demonstrated to consist of oxygen and his "inflammable air." In his Electrical Researches (1879) he anticipated some of the discoveries of Coulomb and Faraday. His experiments to determine the density of the earth led him to state it as 5.48 times that of water. His Scientific Papers were collected in two volumes ( Electrical Researches and Chemical and Dynamical ) in 1921.
See biography by A. J. Berry (1960); J. G. Crowther, Scientists of the Industrial Revolution (1963).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on Henry Cavendish from Infoplease:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Physics: Biographies | [
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Mars has a striking red appearance, and in its most favorable position for viewing, when it is opposite the sun, it is twice as bright as Sirius, the brightest star. Mars has a diameter of 4,200 mi (6,800 km), just over half the diameter of the earth, and its mass is only 11% of the earth's mass. The planet has a very thin atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide (95%) with some nitrogen, argon, oxygen, and other gases. Mars has an extreme day-to-night temperature range, resulting from its thin atmosphere, from about 80°F (27°C) at noon to about - 100°F ( - 73°C) at midnight; however, the high daytime temperatures are confined to less than 3 ft (1 m) above the surface.Surface Features
A network of linelike markings first studied in detail (1877) by G. V. Schiaparelli was referred to by him as canali, the Italian word meaning "channels" or "grooves." Percival Lowell, then a leading authority on Mars, created a long-lasting controversy by accepting these "canals" to be the work of intelligent beings. Under the best viewing conditions, however, these features are seen to be smaller, unconnected features. The greater part of the surface area of Mars appears to be a vast desert, dull red or orange in color. This color may be due to various oxides in the surface composition, particularly those of iron. About one fourth to one third of the surface is composed of darker areas whose nature is still uncertain. Shortly after its perihelion Mars has planetwide dust storms that can obscure all its surface details.
Photographs sent back by the Mariner 4 space probe show the surface of Mars to be pitted with a number of large craters, much like the surface of Earth's moon. In 1971 the Mariner 9 space probe discovered a huge canyon, Valles Marineris. Completely dwarfing the Grand Canyon in Arizona, this canyon stretches for 2,500 mi (4,000 km) and at some places is 125 mi (200 km) across and 2 mi (3 km) deep. Mars also has numerous enormous volcanoes—including Olympus Mons (c.370 mi/600 km in diameter and 16 mi/26 km tall), the largest in the solar system—and lava plains. In 1976 the Viking spacecraft landed on Mars and studied sites at Chryse and Utopia. They recorded a desert environment with a reddish surface and a reddish atmosphere. Experiments analyzed soil samples for evidence of microorganisms or other forms of life; none was found, but a reinterpretation (2010) of the results in light of data collected later suggests that organic compounds may have been present. In 1997, Mars Pathfinder landed on Mars and sent a small rover, Sojourner, to take soil samples and pictures. Among the data returned were more than 16,000 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. Mars Global Surveyor, which also reached Mars in 1997 and remained operational until 2006, returned images produced by its systematic mapping of the surface. The European Space Agency's Mars Express space probe went into orbit around Mars in late 2003 and sent the Beagle 2 lander to the surface, but contact was not established with the lander. In addition to studying Mars itself, the orbiter has also studied Mars's moons. The American rovers Spirit and Opportunity landed successfully in early 2004 and have explored the Martian landscape ( Spirit's last transmission was in 2010). In 2008 NASA's Phoenix lander touched down in the planet's north polar region; it conducted studies for five months. Curiosity, another NASA rover, landed on Mars near its equator in 2012.
Analysis of space probes' data indicates that Mars appears to lack active plate tectonics at present; there is no evidence of recent lateral motion of the surface. With no plate motion, hot spots under the crust stay in a fixed position relative to the surface; this, along with the lower surface gravity, may be the explanation for the giant volcanoes. However, there is no evidence of current volcanic activity.
There is evidence of erosion caused by floods and small river systems as well as evidence of ancient lakebeds. The possible identification of rounded pebbles and cobbles on the ground, and sockets and pebbles in some rocks, suggests conglomerates that formed in running water during a warmer past some 2–4 billion years ago, when liquid water was stable and there was water on the surface, possibly even large lakes or oceans. Rovers have identified minerals believed to have formed in the presence of liquid water. There is also evidence of flooding that occurred less than several million years ago, most likely as the result of the release of water from aquifers deep underground or the melting of ice. However, other evidence suggests that the water would have been extremely salty and acidic. Data received beginning in 2002 from the Mars Odyssey space probe suggests that there is water in sand dunes found in the northern hemisphere, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which went into orbit around the planet in 2006, collected radar data that indicates the presence of large subsurface ice deposits in the mid-northern latitudes of Mars. Most of the known water on Mars, however, lies in a frozen layer under the planet's large polar ice caps, which themselves consist of water ice and dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide); the lander Phoenix found and observed frozen water beneath the soil surface in the north polar region in 2008.
Because the axis of rotation is tilted about 25° to the plane of revolution, Mars experiences seasons somewhat similar to those of the earth. One of the most apparent seasonal changes is the growing or shrinking of white areas near the poles known as polar caps. These polar caps, which are are composed of water ice and dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide). During the Martian summer the polar cap in that hemisphere shrinks and the dark regions grow darker; in winter the polar cap grows again and the dark regions become paler. The seasonal portion of the ice cap is dry ice. When the ice cap is seasonally warmed, geyserlike jets of carbon dioxide gas mixed with dust and sand erupt from the ice.
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The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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] | 1,349 |
Recreating the Wright Stuff
A full-scale replica of the historic 1903 Wright Flyer was constructed and delivered to NASA's Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, Calif., for wind-tunnel testing during the spring of 1999. During the tests, engineers studied the biplane's stability, control, and handling at speeds up to 27 knots (30 mph) in the wind tunnel. The data obtained was used to build a second Wright Flyer, which was to be flown flown at Kitty Hawk, N.C., on Dec. 17, 2003, on the 100th anniversary of the first flight. Bad weather prevented pilot Kevin Kochersberger from completing the reenactment.
Constructed by a team of volunteers from the Los Angeles section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), using plans provided by the Smithsonian, the replica features a 40-foot, 4-inch wingspan reinforced with piano wire, cotton wing coverings, spruce propellers, and a double rudder. The second Flyer, with some modifications for safety, was built by the team of volunteers from the AIAA.
Although others had created “flying machines” before them that could barely lift off the ground and were incapable of true flight, the Wright brothers painstakingly worked four years to construct the first power-driven, human-carrying craft that was heavier than air and capable of controlled, sustained flight. After many trials and setbacks, the former bicycle mechanics from Dayton, Ohio, flew into history in their double-winged craft on Dec. 17, 1903, with Orville at the controls and Wilbur running alongside him. The era of the air age began, and the world was never the same. Their invention would create a new industry and revolutionize transportation, commerce, and communication throughout the globe.
In December 1998, President Clinton signed into law the Centennial of Flight Commemoration Act, which established a commission to coordinate the celebration in 2003 of the 100th anniversary of the Wright Brothers' first flight.
Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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] | 450 |
Ideally, everyone should be able to study Kabbalah. Kabbalah is the inner wisdom of creation revealed to us by God in order to bring us closer to Him. Clearly, God desires that all human beings come as close to Him as possible. Thus, Kabbalah is important for all people.
That said, it is important to clarify that each of us has to study Kabbalah at his own individual level, which, contrary to common misconceptions, may have nothing to do with age, gender, or any other imagined limitation.
Since Kabbalah is part of Jewish tradition, it is often mistakenly assumed that it has no pertinence to non-Jews. However, much of Kabbalah is pertinent to all human beings, since the study of Kabbalah arouses in all students the desire to worship One God, as commanded in the Torah to all mankind.
The Torah anticipates that every human being become a righteous servant of the One God of Israel, exclusively. For a non-Jew, this means to become a Righteous Gentile, unless he desires to proceed even further and to convert to Judaism. Much of the Kabbalah is pertinent to the consciousness of Righteous Gentiles. Kabbalah and Chassidut arouse one to the true worship of God, a commandment relevant to all mankind. In order to worship, one has to be conscious of and to experience the emotions of love and fear of God, two of the six constant commandments of the heart. In order to experience these emotions, one has to have meditative content and input. Chassidut teaches that non-Jews should also meditate on those truths and depths of reality of Divine Providence in the world that will arouse their hearts to serve the One God of Israel. These sections of the Kabbalah are prerequisites for non Jews to come close to God.
The levels of Divine Light that are pertinent for non-Jews to study are the explicitly immanent levels of Divinity. This is the influx of Divine energy that is present in the creative process. God's Infinite Light is absolutely transcendent. The ultimate purpose of Chassidut is to bring transcendence into the perspective of immanence. Until Mashiach comes, though, this is still relatively a state of Jewish consciousness. Thus, a non-Jew should learn in Kabbalah those secrets of creation that help him to appreciate and become aware of God's immanent light in creation. This draws him closer to God and augments his desire to serve Him.
Clearly, in order for non-Jews to study Kabbalah--which, after all, is an intrinsic expression of Jewish faith--they have to identify with receiving this wisdom through the channel of the Torah and the Jewish People, and commit themselves to worship the One God of Israel and live in accordance with the seven commandments given by Him to Noah for all peoples.
Please refer to our section on the Seven Noahide commandments and Kabbalah for non-Jews.
Even though there is an opinion that one should not begin to study Kabbalah until the age of 40, the great masters of Kabbalah and Chassidut did not agree with this opinion. Some of the greatest teachers of Kabbalah--including the Ari, Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (also known as the Ramchal), and Rebbe Nachman of Breslov--did not live to the age of 40! From an early age they began to study Kabbalah. In the Zohar we find that a sign of the coming of the Mashiach is when children will study and discuss Kabbalah.
Chassidut reveals to us the drama of God’s creation of the universe. It is like a game of hide-and-seek. In this Divinely inspired game, God conceals Himself, but He desires that we seek Him. He promises us that if we seek Him with all our heart and soul, we will ultimately find Him.
The seeking is the study of Kabbalah. It can begin from the first moment that a person realizes that there is more to this world than what meets the eye, and this can be at a very early stage of life.
The reason that some authorities have warned against studying Kabbalah at too early an age was that there were instances in Jewish history, even relatively recently, when most negative phenomena resulted from the misrepresentation and misuse of Kabbalah. For example, approximately 350 years ago, a misguided Jew, Shabbetai Tzvi, proclaimed himself the Messiah, basing himself on misinterpretations of Kabbalah. Before he was proven a fraud, he had wrought great material and spiritual suffering upon a significant portion of European Jewry.
This is one of the reasons that the Ba'al Shem Tov revealed a new dimension of Kabbalah--Chassidut. Chassidut expresses Kabbalah in a way that is accessible to every soul and that excludes all possibility of misinterpretation. Thus, it is highly recommended to study Kabbalah within the framework of Chassidut. When Kabbalah is studied within this framework there is no danger. If there is no danger, there is also no age barrier or other limitation on the study of the inner dimension of Torah.
Indeed, the study of the inner dimension of Torah--Kabbalah and Chassidut helps all people to fulfill the "duties of the heart"--the six constant commandments mandated by the Torah, which include the faith in God's Omnipresence and Providence over all, and love and awe of God.
These commandments are relevant to men, women and children. Indeed, these commandments are key in the education of children, as they relate to the foundation of one's rectified state of consciousness.
True experiences of faith, love, and awe depend upon the meditative process, as explained by Maimonides--the great Jewish philosopher and author of Mishneh Torah ("Review of the Torah"). This experience comes with the study of the inner dimension of the Torah. Even though Maimonides lived before the revelation of the Zohar, it was clear to him that one has to try to access the secrets of creation. This is what strengthens one's faith in God and arouses in the heart the emotions of love and awe.
Thus, if Kabbalah and Chassidut are studied for the sake of fulfilling "the duties of the heart," there is no difference between men and women, for these commandments are equally pertinent to all.
The study of the more technical sides of Kabbalah may not immediately produce the emotions of love and awe in the heart. However, the same cannot be said of the study of Chassidic works. The Tanya, for example, brings down to earth the abstract and often impenetrable formulae of classical Kabbalah and translates them into the terms of ordinary human experience. Indeed, the explicit purpose of the Chassidic works is to arouse in the heart the emotions of love and awe.
Of course, any subject must be studied at the level or degree of comprehension of the individual student. There are endless levels of understanding. One has to begin at the level relevant to him, and proceed from there. | [
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] | 1,528 |
A slender boy of 14 moves slowly across the room. His full head of long red hair bounces as he walks. His mind is racing. He sits at the oak table near the window of the vast room.
On the table is a box; a box that glows with flashing lights and a screen. Printed on the screen is less than 100 words. At the top of the box is a single word printed in a playful font. Under the word is another box ready for the boy’s command.
The boy smiles as he realizes that before him is all the knowledge of the world. Sitting before him is almost every idea and thought that mankind has ever put onto paper, stone, papyrus, film, video, or in bytes.
He is about to use Google.
We all have amazing access to amazing knowledge. The trick is to find what you want in the billions of pages indexed and cataloged by Google. Forget the haystack. The search for information is like looking for a particular needle in four states, given the available data.
Finding stuff on the web is a skill that we can all gain from.
I pick on Google here as it is, by far, the most popular search engine. Other search tools have similar functionality.
The Google search box is much more than a place to enter the subject of your search. Here are some of the non-traditional search features of the Google box:
Calculator – Type 8*12 in the box and hit the enter key. Up comes the answer. The box is a powerful financial and scientific calculator.
Currency Conversion – Type 3,500 euros to dollars to learn the premium your client’s French office is being charged.
Conversion of Measures – Enter 4 cups to oz. The answer will be at the top of the results page.
Dictionary – Unsure of the definition of a word? Type define: pontification.
Spell Checker – Just type the word as close as you can get it, and let Google provide you with options.
Package Tracking – You can track packages by typing the tracking number for your UPS, Fedex, or USPS package into the search box.
Weather Reporter – Type the word weather, then a city name, and up comes the latest weather report.
Zip Code Look Up – Enter zip and the city name to learn the various zip codes in a city.
Airline Flight Tracker – Enter the airline and the flight number to learn the current arrival and departure times of the flight.
World Clock – Type What time is it in Detroit to learn the current time at any location.
Fact Provider – Try Albert Einstein was born in *. The asterisk is a wildcard and lets Google fill in the blank.
Refining a search is the best way to get what you want from your Google search. Typing “insurance” will get you 348,000,000 results. Typing Auto Insurance brings it down to 82 million. Auto insurance Boston MA gets you a list of agents in Boston.
Using Auto Insurance Boston MA -Nationwide gives you all the results where the word “Nationwide” does not appear. (Sorry Nationwide). The dash followed by a word tells Google to remove results with that word on the page.
Perhaps more useful for this audience would be a search for a Microsoft compatible application forms for directors’ and officers’ insurance. Google directors’ officers’ application filetype:doc. The inclusion of the term “filetype:” followed by the file extension, “doc” tells Google to only search for files stored on the Internet that end in the extension “.doc.”
Putting a search phrase in quotation marks tells Google to only search for that exact phrase. “Business Income Insurance Exclusions” will only return results where those four words are placed in the exact phrase. “Business Income Insurance” Exclusions will result in all documents where the phrase business income insurance is included with the word exclusions someplace in the text.
Google has an advanced search feature that can be useful in narrowing search. Just click the phrase “advanced search” on the Google home page.
Google has a separate section for book searches. Google Google Books and you will be brought to the page. Here you can do text searches within the 10,000,000 books Google has indexed (so far). Searching “Standard Fire Policy” in Google book search brings up insurance history from books written in the 1890s, 1900s, and current times.
Have you found a site on the topic you like? Enter related:www.site.com and you will see sites that Google thinks are similar to the site you entered.
Want to search the site you are on? Enter site:www.site.com the phrase you want searched and Google will search only that site.
How about learning who has linked to your Web site? Enter linked:www.yoursitenamehere.com and google search will find any site that has a link to your site.
Another often overlooked search tool is the right-click. In many web browsers, highlighting a word and right-clicking your mouse will bring up a menu that includes “Google the-term-you-highlighted.” Selecting that option brings you immediately to the Google search page for the term.
Go forth and effectively search.
Simmonds, CPCU, ARM, CMC is a consultant, speaker, writer, and mentor. He can be found at www.ScottSimmonds.com. | [
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] | 1,152 |
| ||Minding Your Mind || |
Psychiatric Treatment for Preschoolers
Last reviewed and revised on June 17, 2011
By Michael Craig Miller, M.D.
Harvard Medical School
The number of medications prescribed to children ages two to four to treat psychiatric disorders increased dramatically after the early 1990s.
A Delicate Balance
As any parent can attest, the preschool years are a time of tremendous brain development. Between the ages of two and five, children learn to talk, develop hand and eye coordination, and learn how to interact with others.
Brain changes underlie these developments. The number of synapses (connections between brain cells) and neurotransmitter receptors reach their peak at age three, while the brain's metabolic rate peaks between ages three and four.
Clinicians and parents thus face a delicate balancing act when it comes to treating psychiatric disorders, especially in the youngest children. There are risks associated with giving medications, because we don't know exactly what effects psychiatric drugs may have on the developing brain. But there can also be significant risk from not giving medications, because mental disorders also have a negative effect on brain development.
Mental disorders can lead to impaired peer and family relationships and poor school performance. Untreated childhood problems may give way to continuing mental health problems when the child when he or she grows up. And there is evidence that many lifelong psychiatric disorders begin early. A Harvard study published in 2005 estimated that half of all disorders that meet standard criteria for a diagnosis start by age 14.
There is no simple way to tell normal variations in temperament or development from the beginnings of a mental health problem. In practical terms, a child's problems may require medication to ease suffering and help him or her develop normally. Medications may be worth trying especially if non-drug treatments haven't been effective. But it is worth emphasizing that these decisions are almost always very difficult to make in the youngest children.
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Guidance for Three Disorders
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Experts recommend a thorough evaluation to define the problem. This requires reports from parents, teachers and child care providers so that the clinician can assess the child's symptoms in multiple settings. Parents can be taught the best ways to help their children. Whether a child needs medication or not, he or she will probably do better if the parents become comfortable with skills for setting limits and rewarding positive behavior. If parent guidance and psychotherapy are not sufficient to control symptoms, a trial of methylphenidate (Ritalin) or another related drug for six months may be considered. After six months, the doctor can stop the medication to see if the child still needs it, either for controlling symptoms or improving functioning in school. Numerous other medications are available if methylphenidate does not work.
Anxiety disorders (separation anxiety, selective mutism, specific phobia)
In addition to making their own observations, clinicians will have an easier time defining the problem if they can get information from parents, teachers and other caregivers. Sometimes formal rating scales and questionnaires are used during the evaluation. The clinician should also remain alert to co-existing problems, like depression or behavior problems. Available research suggests that psychotherapy may teach a child to better control behavior while also improving self-esteem. So, a course of at least 12 weeks is usually the first intervention to try. If psychotherapy does not provide relief and anxiety symptoms continue to impair the child's functioning, a low dose of fluoxetine (Prozac) or a similar drug can be considered. After six to nine months, the clinician may be able to taper and then stop medication.
Developmental disorders, such as Autism
These children should have formal intelligence tests, plus tests of hearing and language skills. Useful evaluation instruments are the Childhood Autism Rating Scale and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist. Before thinking about medication, a team of helpers may be necessary to coach a child to improve language skills, enhance social development, and reduce repetitive behavior and aggression. Medication may eventually be necessary for children who have severe behavioral problems that interfere with functioning. As with anxiety disorders, the clinician can assess if medication is still needed after six to nine months.
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Maximize Help and Minimize Harm
Here are some useful principles to guide the evaluation and treatment of any problem that comes up in a young child.
- Address diagnostic challenges. Preschoolers vary in terms of development, personality, and communication skills. Diagnostic criteria for adults and older children may not be relevant to preschoolers. When possible, a diagnosis should be made after several visits with the child and only after multiple sources have provided information about the child's progress (the child, parents, teachers, other clinicians).
- Track symptoms and impairment. Before starting any treatment, the clinician and family should work together to define symptoms and any functional impairment, so these can be tracked over time. This will help in assessing whether a particular treatment is working.
- Try psychotherapy first. Various types of psychological interventions are worth trying first, and for a sufficient time, before adding a medication to the mix.
- Once medication has been started, monitor the response. If a child's symptoms do not improve after trying medication, stop the medication. Even when a medication works, plan on discontinuing it for a time to see if the drug is still necessary. (A child's ongoing brain development may correct the underlying problem.) Avoid adding medications to alleviate side effects of other medications.
- Clinicians should invite parents to stay involved. Parents are important partners in care. If parents need help in handling stress, learning better parenting skills or dealing with their own mental health issues, they should be referred to an appropriate practitioner.
When a child has significant mental or behavior trouble, it places a strain on them, the parents, siblings and classmates. Basic principles don't necessarily make life easy. But taking a systematic approach will improve the chances your child will avoid unnecessary troubles, and have the best chance to get needed help.
Back to top
Michael Craig Miller, M.D. is editor-in-chief of the Harvard Mental Health Letter and an assistant professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Miller has an active clinical practice and has been on staff at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center for more than 25 years. | [
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] | 1,290 |
The pain from kidney stones can be very severe. So it could easily cause you to feel hot, sweaty and flushed. But simply passing a kidney stone should not cause a fever.
When someone is passing a stone or has a stone that is hung up along the urinary tract with a documented fever, my first concern is infection in the kidney (pyelonephritis).
Urine that is either all or partly blocked from flowing freely from the kidney, through the ureter, into the bladder and out the urethra is more prone to bacterial infection. That infection is harder to clear because the normal flushing action is disrupted.
Antibiotics alone may not be enough. A specialist (urologist) will evaluate the situation with a CT scan and/or a kidney ultrasound. Then he or she will decide if something must be done immediately to drain the infection.
Here are potential options:
- A tube is placed in the kidney to drain the infection.
- The stone is removed by going in through the urethra, through the bladder, and into the ureter containing the stone. The stone is pulled out. This is performed in the operating room.
- The stone could be broken into small pieces with shock waves (lithotripsy). | [
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] | 262 |
- Development & Aid
- Economy & Trade
- Human Rights
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Saturday, May 18, 2013
- The old adage ‘nature is the great equaliser’ no longer holds true in countries like Sri Lanka, where the poor bear the brunt of extreme weather events.
Gamhevage Dayananda, a farmer from the remote village of Pansalgolla in Sri Lanka’s north-central Polonnaruwa district, can attest to this reality, as he and his fellow farmers struggle to survive alternating periods of drought and flooding.
Unexpectedly heavy rains in February 2011 forced engineers to open the sluice gates of large irrigation tanks in the area, flooding hectare upon hectare of farmland, including Dayananda’s modest plot.
He lost his entire rice harvest, no small setback for his family of four who depend on this crop for their very survival.
This year, Dayananda found himself facing another crisis when drought destroyed his crop and put him at risk of falling deeper into debt.
“One season it’s all rain, next it’s all sun,” Dayananda told IPS. “There is nothing in moderation, it is all in extremes.”
The trend of extreme weather events alternating year after year is unlikely to change, according to W L Sumathipala, former head of the climate change unit at the Ministry of Environment, adding that Sri Lanka is at the receiving end of changing climate patterns.
Last year’s annual report for the United Nations Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) noted, “Climate-related emergencies, such as those linked to drought, floods, and storms, expose the poor and most vulnerable to hazards that have lasting consequences for the health, livelihoods, and well-being of people who have the least capacity to cope with and mitigate the effects of natural disasters.”
Currently about 8.9 percent of this South Asian island nation’s 21 million people live below the poverty line.
Of these, according to Abha Joshi-Ghani, head of the World Bank’s Urban Development and Local Government Unit, “the poor in urban areas are likely to be affected more by the changing climate patterns. They are the most vulnerable because they live in sensitive areas, on precarious land where no one else will settle.”
The British-based charity Homeless International estimates that 12 percent of Sri Lanka’s urban population of about three million can be found in slums.
Defence and Urban Development Secretary Gotabaya Rajapaksa was recently quoted as saying that shanty dwellers in the capital Colombo can be found “mostly on government lands”.
“Many of them are on the reservations set aside around the lakes, canals, roadways, and railway tracks,” he added.
The biggest threat to this population is the flash flood. Since 2007, the nation’s capital – along with other parts of the western region – has already been submerged more than two dozen times.
Some areas end up under water after just 30 minutes of heavy rain, as was experienced during the third week of October.This situation can be traced in part to the capital’s compromised drainage capacity. But increasingly heavy downpours over the years have made matters worse, particularly since there are no signs this trend will let up anytime soon.
In its Second National Communication on Climate Change 2012, the environment ministry says that Colombo and the rest of the western plains can only expect more wet days ahead, with “intense” periods of rain.
By contrast, rice farmers are probably going to have to deal with long dry spells for some time to come. According to the environment ministry, the agrarian areas in parts of the east and northern provinces, including Polonnaruwa, will not only get less rain than they need, they will also experience higher temperatures.
The Central Bank estimates that a 0.5-degree Celsius rise in temperatures could reduce rice yields by around five percent.
Thus it should come as no surprise that an Asian Development Bank report last year identified climate change as the “greatest threat to food security”.
Local sustainable development expert Riza Yehiya also warned, “Food security fluctuations due to climate change will be accompanied by unsteady energy security, modern society’s greatest prerequisite (next to food and water).”
“The combined effects of this triumvirate – water, food, and energy insecurity – will render poorer sections of society extremely vulnerable unless social security for this sector is beefed up as part of the climate change mitigation programme.”
Last April, farmers in Polonnaruwa took to the streets after irrigation engineers stopped providing water because of the drought. At the time, the farmers said more than 16,000 hectares of paddy fields feeding off the Parakarama Samudarya irrigation tank were already in danger of going completely dry.
After being hit by floods in the early part of 2011, which destroyed over 16,000 hectares of paddy fields and roughly ten percent of the early harvest, rice farmers in the north and north-central regions are now facing the opposite end of that spectrum.
Severe drought during the first nine months of 2012 affected 1.3 million people, a rapid assessment by the World Food Programme (WFP) found.
Experts have estimated that close to 29 percent of an estimated harvest of 1.1 million metric tones will be lost, while 76,000 hectares, or 19 percent of the planted crop has already been destroyed.
“Preliminary findings indicate substantial livelihood impact on a broad spectrum of the population and a deterioration of food security,” according to the WFP Global Food Security Update for October.
Muttukrishna Sarvananthan, a prominent economist, believes that unemployment could be as high as 20 percent in some parts of the Northern Province, though no government data exists to support this view.
*This story was produced as part of IPS Asia-Pacific’s ‘Climate Change: A Reporting Lens from Asia’ series. | [
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A lot of the Irish Workhouses fell into ruin or were burned down in the years after the Famine, but one of the few remaining can be found in the town of Carrick-on-Shannon.
Today, it operates as a geriatric hospital called St.Patrick’s and this year, from the 3rd-5th of May, it will revisit the haunting past of its workhouse days by offering 30 self-sponsored participants the chance to stay overnight in the rooms of the original whitewashed attic as part of The Famine Attic Experience.
Between the years of 1845 and 1854, a devastating two million people were forced to emigrate from Ireland in search of a better life. For those that remained, the last resort was to enter a Workhouse but with the onset of the Famine, entire families had no other choice but to do so.
The Irish Workhouse Centre in Portumna, Co. Galway writes that, as an inmate of a workhouse, individuals would be packed into crowded sleeping places with straw beds and ragged coverings with only a tub for urination. Disease was rampant and deaths were so frequent that corpses were carried away on special carts every day only to be thrown into mass graves on the grounds of the workhouse
The Famine Attic Experience will be commemorated with a ‘Survivors Cairn’ and a Society of Friends (Quaker) themed supper afterwards. | [
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] | 300 |
Sure it’s fun to use 3D printers to make small tool pieces, toys, robots and other gadgets. But have you thought that one day a machine that traces its lineage to an office appliance would ultimately print the building you work in?
Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars has designed a one-piece building which will be built with a 3D printer. Ruijssenaars, from the Universe Architecture in Amsterdam, is working to with mathematician and artist Rinus Roelofs on the project. They aim to have the building called Landscape House, printed by 2014, according to www.3ders.org
Image from Universe Architecture
Units of the building will be printed in pieces as large as 6x9 metres using a massive 3D printer called by D-Shape, which was designed by Italian inventor Enrico Dini, chairman of the United Kingdom-based firm Monolite UK Ltd.
Video: 3D printers enter the consumer market
AutoCAD and on-demand 3D printing
3D printing technology has been around for several years. Back in 2008, Autodesk Inc. added on-demand 3D printing to its AutoCAD design tool. More recently small 3D printers aimed at consumers have entering the market.
As the new machines become more mainstream, we wonder if they would be saddled by the same issue that plague current desktop and office printers – expensive toner.
Read the whole story here | [
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] | 304 |
- 1. A royal seat, or chair of state. The king sits "upon the throne of his kingdom" (Deut. xvii. 18). Pharaoh delegated full power toJoseph to rule over Egypt; "only in the throne will I be greater than thou" (Gen. xli. 40). The royal throne is sometimes designated as "the throne of the kings" (Jer. lii. 32). The most magnificent throne was that of Solomon (see Jew. Encyc. xi. 441 et seq.; J. S. Kolbo made a model of Solomon's throne and exhibited it in New York city in 1888). The throne, like the crown, was a symbol of sovereign power and dignity. It was also the tribunal, the "throne of judgment" (Prov. xx. 8), where the king decided matters of law and disputes among his subjects. Thus "throne" is synonymous with "justice."
- 2. The Throne, the abode of God, known as "Kisse ha-Kabod" (the Throne of Glory), from which God manifests His majesty and glory. Micaiah "saw the Lord sitting on his throne, and all the hosts of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left" (I Kings xxii. 19; compare the vision of Isaiah [vi. 1] with that of Ezekiel [x. 1]). The throne of God is Heaven (Isa. lxvi. 1); in future it will be Jerusalem (Jer. iii. 17), and even the Sanctuary (Jer. xvii. 12). Thus the idea of the majestic manifestation of God gradually crystallized in the cabalistic expression "koaḥ ha-ẓimẓum" (the power of concentration). God's Throne is the symbol of righteousness; "justice and judgment are the habitation of thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15 [A. V. 14]).
The Throne of Glory is an important feature in the Cabala. It is placed at the highest point of the universe (Ḥag. 12b); and is of the same color as the sky—purple-blue, like the "sapphire stone" which Ezekiel saw and which had previously been perceived by the Israelites (Ex. xxiv. 10; Soṭah 17a). Like the Torah, it was created before the world (Pes. 54a). R. Eliezer said that the souls of the righteous are concealed under the Throne (Shab. 152b). When Moses ascended to heaven to receive the Torah the angels objected, whereupon God told him to hold on to the Throne and defend his action (Shab. 88b). It is asserted that the likeness of Jacob is engraved on the Throne of Glory (Zohar, Wayiggash, p. 211a). For the throne of Elijah see Elijah's Chair. | [
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] | 604 |
Can You Protect
In the 3rd century, when Rome dominated Europe, it was able to deploy 50 legions throughout the empire, securing even the furthermost areas. By the following century the empire had lost much of its muscle, however, and Rome's forces had diminished to just 25 legions. Emperor Constantine's problem: How to station legions in sufficient strength to protect the most forward positions of the empire without abandoning the core--namely Rome. He devised a new defensive strategy to cope with Rome's reduced power.
The problem is not "solved" in a mathematical sense, but a set of rules exists that defines when a solution is acceptable. Once you understand the rules, you can attempt to see if you can improve on Constantine's choice of deployment.
A region, then, may be thought of as either secured or securable. It is considered to be secured if it has one or more pebbles placed in it already. It is considered securable if a pebble can be deployed to that region in a single step. At any shift or movement from a region, two pebbles must initially be present together before one of them can be launched. That is, a pebble can only be deployed if it moves from an adjacent region where there is already another pebble to help launch it. This is analogous to the island hopping strategy pursued by General MacArthur in World War II in the Pacific theater--where movement only followed the chain of islands (secured areas).
Now that you know the rules, the challenge is to place just four pebbles in the eight regions of the empire.
Here is another alternative, not necessarily better than Constantine's strategy, but it gives you an idea of possibilities. We will place one pebble in Gaul, two in Rome, and one in Constantinople. Britain can now be reached in two steps (a pebble from Rome to Gaul and a pebble from Gaul to Britain), better for Britain than before. However, Asia Minor is now not reachable in one step, but two (from Rome to Constantinople and Constantinople to Asia Minor). All the rest of the empire is reachable in just one step. It is not clear that this is better than Constantine's strategy. Although the number of steps to the worst-off nodes has been reduced to two, the number of regions more than one step away has gone from one to two.
Can you improve on Constantine's solution?
If you can keep the number of nodes that can't be reached in one step to just one, and can reduce the maximum number of steps to reach that node to a number less than four, then you have done better than Constantine. Of course, you hit the jackpot if you can make all regions either initially secure or reachable in one step, given the rules.
I will tell you that it is possible to do better than Constantine, but I won't tell you how. If you do have success at allocating the pebbles, you should think about the consequences of a second war occurring somewhere in the empire. Of the situations you create, which would be better in the event of a second war at one of the unsecured regions? The answer, which I mailed in early February, is in a sealed envelope in the desk drawer of editor Sue De Pasquale. She has agreed to publish it in the next issue of the Johns Hopkins Magazine.
A final footnote
RETURN TO APRIL 1997 TABLE OF CONTENTS. | [
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] | 712 |
Work began on the Saint Louis Municipal Bridge in 1909. Piers were built, and steel was ordered. The three main steel spans were in place by 1912. At that time, funding ran out, and three successive bonding issues failed to pass during elections. As a result, the bridge sat without the approaches being built. The only part that was finished was the 6-foot wide walkway, which hung off the downstream side of the structure (it has since been removed, but the brackets that supported the walkway are still in place and visible in one of the photos below). Several hundred people a day crossed the bridge on foot. Funding kicked in again after several years, and the roadway on the upper deck was competed. Now known as the Free Bridge, it opened to auto traffic in 1917. The city and the TRRA were still feuding, so the TRRA put a de facto boycott on the bridge. It was not until 1928 that an agreement was reached, and trains started to use the lower deck. The bridge was in full operation by 1931.
Despite being a city owned "Free Bridge", a small toll was added in 1932. The money was used for depression relief. The bridge was renamed the General Douglas MacArthur Bridge in 1942 after the famous general. The bridge was designated as the route for US-66 from 1929 to 1935, having taken over that role from the McKinley Bridge, and then giving it up to the Chain Of Rocks Bridge. It was designated City US-66 from 1936 to 1955.
By 1981, the upper deck roadway had deteriorated to the point that it had to be closed. Later, a section of the upper deck was removed for safety reasons. The roadway remains closed today, with the approaches on the Illinois side being long bypassed by the tangle of freeways and ramps in the area. In 2006, more work was being done to the roadway, perhaps the remainder is being removed.
The City of Saint Louis is not interested in running railroad bridges, so in 1989, the MacArthur and Eads bridges were swapped between the city and the TRRA. The idea was that the TRRA would run the MacArthur as a railroad bridge, while the city would rebuild and operate the dual use Eads bridge.
The photo above is looking south along Leonor K. Sullivan Blvd, which runs along the riverfront in front of the Gateway Arch. The image below is a vintage postcard featuring the bridge when it was known as the Municipal Bridge prior to 1942. Given that the upper deck is in use in this postcard, it is probably an early 1930's view. | [
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] | 527 |
Newars' festivals start from Gathanmugah and ends in Sithi Nakhah. Therefore Gathan Mugah is also known as Kayahmacha Nakhah ( the son festival) and Sithi Nakhah is also known as Mhayamacha Nakhah (the daughter festival) in Newar culture. No festival is observed in between Sithinakhah and Gathan Mukhah as the farmers are busy in the their work at that time. The festivals celebrated by the Newars are related with their places and lives. Thus through the festivals observed by the Newars, one can know many things about them.
Gathan Mugah (August)
It is festival of cleaning. Since farmers are busy in farming in rainy season, they do not get time to clean their house and even take bath and wash their clothes.Thus as their work finish by Gathan Mugah, they take bath, wash their clothes and clean house in Gathan Mugah. On this very day, girls throw all their playing dolls. Every corner of a house is cleaned and incense is burnt to kill insects. Chahray angu (a ring made of metal alloys) is wore on this occasion. In evening, effigies of Gathan Mugah are made from green reeds. They are dragged out of the town and burnt there.
Gunla Dharma (August-September)
Gunla is a month according to Nepal Era, which falls in the middle of monsoon (August). This month is considered as holy Buddhist month. Day in day out , whatever the weather may be , devotees visit buddhist monasteries, courtyards and shrines every early morning by playing Gunla Bajan. Gunla Bajan includes Dhah and Naykhin accompanied by cymbals and shwam.
Gunhu Punhi (August- September)
Gunhu Punhi is one of the most significant festivals of the Newars which lasts for 9 days.
First day, known as Gunhu Punhi, the Newars drink broth consisting of spouted mixed cereals. Everyone gets doro, a protection cord tied in one's wrist from the brahmans. On this day, food is offered for the frogs in farms, which is known as Byanja Nakegu.
Saparu is the second day of Gunhu Punhi. On this day people, whose family member died in that year, dressed up as cows parade in the town. It is believed that cows help the departed soul to enter the heaven easily. Other remarkable thing is humor and satire presented on this day.
Last day of Gunhu Punhi is Krishnastami, birth anniversary of lord Krishna, an incarnation of lord Vishnu. Various dances in various parts of the valley are performed in between.
Pancha Dan (August-September)
Pancha Dan is observed by Buddhists only, especially by Shakyas and Bajracharyas. Buddhist antiques are displaced and gigantic effigies of Dipankar are parade around the town. However, the main highlight of the festival is the giving away of alms to Buddhist monks.
Yanya Punhi (September)
Yanya Punhi is dedicated to lord Indra, the king of heaven. This is a week long festival which begins after the erection of Yosin, a ceremonial pole. The main feature of this festival in Kathmandu is a week long display of gigantic mask of Aakash Bhairab and procession of Kumari, the living goddess along with other two living gods Ganesh and Kumar.
Mohani is observed for two weeks. It is observed with great joy. Barley seeds are planted on the first day which is known as Nahla Swanegu. It is nurtured for nine days. On the day of Astami, koochhi bhoya (a feast with two manas i.e. about half kilo of beaten rice) is eaten by gathering family members. On Nawami, (Syakotyako) Durga is worshipped with goats, cocks sacrificed. Nahlaswan i.e. the fresh shoot of barley is also offered. The concluding day of the festival, i.e. on Chalan, processions with scimitars takes place in various places o f the Newar settlements, which is commonly known as Payah.
Tihar, the festival of light lasts for five days. Swanti stands for Swanhu Ttithi which means three days in Nepalbhasa. Among five days of tihar three days are mainly celebrated. On the day of Laxmi puja, Laxmi, the goddess of wealth is worshipped and in the evening lights are burnt to invite Laxmi. Mhapuja is the day of worshiping one's body. This is the new year's day according to Nepal Era. Kija Puja , the last day of the swanti, is dedicated to brothers. Sisters worship their brothers on this day.
Sakimila Punhi (November- December)
Sakimila Punhi (Sakimana Punhi) or the full moon day of boiled arum is the festival of eating arum, sweet potato and fried grains. Halimali Bwayegu (exibiting figure designs of fried grains) with Dapha Bhajan or Dhalcha Bhajan (chanting religious hymns) takes place in the evening in every section of the settlements.
Bala Chahre (December)
This is the festival of scattering seeds (sadhbew) and praying for the souls of the departed in Pashupati, Kathmandu. In many places it is celabrated by gathering the members of Milah Guthi (a kind of social association) and banqueting together.
Yomari Punhi (December-January)
It is post harvest festival of worshipping the newly brought rice and Annapurna, the goddess of grains, for good harvest. Yomari Punhi lends its name from Yomari (a typical steamed cake of rice flour dough stuffed with a mixture of sesame and molasses), which is offered in Dhukoo (store room) and eaten on this day. In the evening kids go around the neighborhood to beg Yomari.
Ghayh Chaku Sanhlhu (January)
Also known as hamoh sanhlu, this festival is observed according to solar calendar. On this day, people take bath early in the morning and offer sugar candy, pills of sesame and molasses etc to their priests. They too eat yams, spinach, sweets of sesame and molasses to warm their body. People rub mustard oil over their bodies in the sun.
Swasthani Bakhan Kanegu (January-February)
In magh month, from mila punhi (full moon day- Jan) to seeh punhi (full moon day-Feb.) Swasthani Bakhan (Swasthani Story) is recited every evening for a month. it is believed that worshipping Swasthani brings happiness in life. There is a belief that Parbati succeed to get Mahadeva as her husband by worshiping Swasthani.
Shree Panchami (February)
Shree Panchami or Basanta Panchami is concerned in honor of Saraswati, Hindu goddess of learning. Artists, teachers, students gather at Saraswati temple in different places. Buddhists worship Manjushree on this day.
Sila Chahre (March)
There are 24 Shivaratris in a year, among which Sila Chahre is celebrated as Maha Shivaratri. Shiva is worshiped on this day. people take bath and fast on this day. People who stay awoken for the whole night get success in every works.
Holi Punhi (March-April)
Holi Punhi, the festival of color begins officially with the raising of huge ceremonial pole at the Basantapur of Kathmandu. Though celebrated for a week, holi punhi or (full moon day -march) is the main day. This festival is belived to be observed since the period of lord Krishna. People play with water and color and roam around the streets.
Pahan Chahre (April)
Pahan chare or Pasa Chare is specially observed in Kathmandu only. On this day, Mahadev in the form of Pisach (Lukumahadyah) is worshipped. Thus the festival is also known as Pisach Chaturdasi. Different palanquin circumambulation takes place in Kathmandu for a week.
Biskah Jatra (April)
The word 'Biskah' or 'B isket' is said to be derived from 'Bee Sikah', which means 'after death of serpents' . It is said that this festival was begun to celebrate after after the death of serpents, serpents described in various legends. Even though it is said so, from various chronicles, sacred writings, inscriptions and the culture of Bisket, it is known that it was not used in the sense of death of serpents. This festival is celebrated mainly in Bhaktapur and Thimi with Chariot festival, tongue boring festival and with music and dances in other parts of the valley as well.
Machhendra Nath Jatra (May-June)
There are two Machhendra nath festivals, namely Rato Machhendranath (Bunga dyah) Jatra and Seto Machhendranath (Janmah dyah) Jatra. The main features of these festivals are pulling of a huge four wheel chariot of Machhendranath. The former, observed in Lalitpur, starts from Pulchowk and ends in Jawahlakhel, where ritual display of legendary vest (bhoto) takes place. It is observed for a month. The later, observed in Kathmandu, starts from Tindhara and ends in Lagan.
Swanya Punhi (May-June)
Budhha Jayanti- full moon day April/may is the day of birth, attainment of enlightenment and death of Lord Budhha, the light of Asia. On this day worship of Budhha takes places in Buddhist monasteries and specially in Swambhu Stupa of Kathmandu.
Sithi Nakhah (June)
Sixth day of bright lunar fortnight is dedicated to Lord Kumar. This is the day when Kartikeya Kumar (Sithi Dyah) was born. On this day, people take bath and houses are cleaned. Wells and conduits are also cleaned on this day, this is also the day of eating Chatamari- a typical rice flour bread and Wo- a flat cake of mashed lentils. It is the last festival of a year that the Newars observe. | [
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] | 2,283 |
Reading Passages Main Idea & Details
Grades 2 - 3 . This reproducible practice book gives students the practice they need to master and reinforce critical reading comprehension skills. High-interest fiction and non-fiction reading passages in a multiple choice and short answer test format will help boost standardized test scores. The book also includes model lessons, pre- and post assessments, and an answer key. | [
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8186,
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] | 79 |
Anyone remember the 19th century adage, “Sticks and stones can break your bones, but words can never hurt you?” I think we’ve all had an experience that has proven this wrong. Words can and do hurt and are unacceptable. But what if what we think the words we’re using are helpful? What if they aren’t? Research conducted by Carole Dweck from Stanford University makes the case that people develop growth mindsets or fixed mindsets based in part on the words they hear growing up. A fixed mindset believes intelligence is something you have, and can’t be changed much. A growth mindset believes that no matter what kind of person you are, you can always change. Success then is not about proving you’re smart or talented, it’s about stretching yourself to learn something new. Developing yourself. Failure then, becomes a learning experience and not something that confirms your intelligence. Dweck believes mindsets are a choice; they are beliefs that are shaped by the words we hear from others and internalize to ourselves.
Consider this phrase, “I’m proud of you”. As a parent and educator, I’ve said it many times. What could possibly be the problem? Consider a study by Melissa Kamins and Carol Dweck conducted with kindergarten students. They found that phrases like “I’m proud of you”, had the same effect on students as the phrase, “I’m disappointed in you.” It’s just the other end of the same conversation. The research goes on to state that if we say, “I’m proud of you” when children are successful, they often fill in the other end of the conversation and begin to believe we are disappointed in them when they are unsuccessful.
The moral of the story (says Peter Johnston in his book Opening Minds) is: don’t use person-oriented praise. Instead, use process-oriented feedback. So “I’m proud of you” becomes: “You tried really hard” or “You found a good way to do it; could you think of other ways that would also work?” Small changes in language can be significant in whether we see our lives (and performances) as “fixed” and therefore out of our control or “changeable” and in our control. We’re not suggesting that praise is always bad or that we stop completely. Rather, the suggestion is that we begin to look at feedback and critiques as opportunities to learn and grow. That we consider intelligence as something that can be improved with effort.
Little things can add up to make big differences. Consider giving feedback in place of praise. Norman Vincent Peale felt strongly about this and said, “The trouble with most of us is that we’d rather be ruined by praise, than saved by criticism.” | [
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] | 619 |
"Let's sit down and make an oval," sang the enthusiastic group of preschooolers.
It's an age when the kids need to learn how to behave in a group, to line up, and to share. But these preschoolers were going beyond those lessons, in a locally developed program called Second Step.
"How do you feel?" asked their teacher, Daren Chamberlin.
"I feel mad. You're mad? What's going on? I feel happy," called out a second student.
Circle time starts with an exercise in identifying emotions.
"What's after we name our feelings?" Chamberlin asked.
"Take belly breaths," replied one preschooler, telling what they had practiced to control their emotions.
"Emotions even for us as adults can be really overwhelming. When they feel like they can name it and you know the ways to calm down, helps them manage those feelings," explained Chamberlin.
Story books the children read reinforce the curriculum.
"It's Ok To Be Different", by Todd Parr topped the reading list on this day.
At Denise Louie Education Center that's an important message for the children to hear. Most are from immigrant and refugee families. Kindergarten will be an adjustment. And acceptance skills will be as crucial for them as math, reading, and language skills according to Executive Director Janice Deguchi.
"Getting along, so social emotional skills, recognizing and being able to name my feelings, and then being able to have empathy for your other peers in your classroom," all skills they'll need Deguchi said.
"Everybody is different. See all the pictures? Everybody is different," explained one of the youngsters as she pointed out photos displayed on the walls.
The Second Step approach contains 27 lessons. Its effectiveness has been studied in elementary school children. Kids who went through the program had better coping, and cooperation skills, and less agression.
Teacher Daren Chamberlin said since the kids in his preschool class started the curriculum he's seen fewer outbursts and tantrums.
"There's a lot of instances where things just never have the opportunity to escalate because the kids have these skills themselves," Chamberlin said.
The skills kids learned were demonstrated in the center's lunchroom.
"Brian get your milk and pass to your friend," said a staff person as the children helped each other share a meal.
It's a program that's helping them be better prepared for their next big step, into kindergarten.
"It's going to be easier for children to transition to be more successful, to enjoy school to look forward to school, instead of it being a traumatic thing where they're behind,and they have to catch up," Deguchi said.
The Second Step program was first developed in Seattle. It has since come into use in several other countries. | [
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] | 586 |
January 22, 1879
James Shields: Senator from Illinois, Minnesota, and Missouri
Many men and women make politics a career and have been elected to Congress three or more times. None, however, have outdone Senator James Shields.
Shields was living in Illinois when he was elected to his first term in the US Senate in 1849. He later moved to the Minnesota Territory. When Minnesota was admitted to the Union in May 1858, Shields was elected one of the state's first two US Senators. After the Civil War, Shields settled in Missouri. On January 22, 1879, Shields was again elected to the US Senate.
To date, James Shields is the only person ever elected the the US Senate representing three different states. | [
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] | 152 |
Pig and his friends are playing when they find what looks like an Egyptian treasure map. But they can't make out the symbols! To search for some answers, the super readers soar into the book Naila and the Magic Map and explore the world of ancient Egypt. Will they be able to help Naila unravel the mysterious code that will unlock where the treasure lies? Educational Objectives: To learn about Egypt. Young viewers will use the alphabet, rhyme with ISH words, learn what the word "sphinx" means, and use the power to read to change the story.
Visit the Website: http://pbskids.org/superwhy/
Episode #206 / Length: 28 minutes
- Tuesday, June 25th at 9:00 AM on KLRU | [
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] | 161 |
Tuesday, April 17, 2012
SAN DIEGO Unlike real earthquakes, this one came with a two-minute warning and a countdown.
The shaking table began moaning as the machine reproduced an 8.8 magnitude quake, like the one that ravaged Chile. Moving a fully equipped five story building that weighs millions of pounds is no small feat.
Engineers can reproduce the force and impact of a killer earthquake on simulations run by computers. For months, they have been building this structure on a shaking table, because computer simulations don't compare to shaking a building in real life.
"It's like going through a car crash where the building may be OK with some kind of little dimples and scratches there," said Jose Restrepo, a UC San Diego engineer. "But the contents will experience more damage. And that's what we're trying to study for the future. "
Researchers hope the tests tell them how pipes, stairwells, elevators and other non-structural components perform under severe stress. The research is unique because it is being done on a complete building, with all the elements of a real five story structure.
"And then you see the five stories, on the roof you see a water tank. You see a little mezzanine there," said Joel Conte, a UC San Diego structural engineer.
Conte points at the stucco covered structure. Inside there's a simulated hospital surgery suite, an intensive care unit and a computer server room. All experienced quite a ride.
"When we simulated some earthquakes under the building, I saw the base isolators deforming a lot," Conte said. "And the building moving as a rigid box, very slowly back and forth. With no distortion. No damage."
Seventy cameras and more than 500 sensors will tell researchers the story of the test, but it will take months to to interpret the results. The building will be shaken again several times without the base isolators, and those results will be compared to these tests. Next month the scientists will also light a fire on the third floor to see how that affects the structure. | [
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] | 433 |
The Winchester Dam was built in November 1890 and is in the National Register of Historical Places. Constructed from large timber cribs, the dam was originally built 4 feet high and in 1907 the dam was raised to sixteen feet. Winchester Dam provided water and electricity for the town of Roseburg until 1923. The Winchester Dam was built as a hydro-power facility for Douglas County. The damn no longer generates power, but now has a viewer-friendly fish ladder remodeled in 2004.
Foreground: Interstate 5 bridge support architecture. Midground: Winchester Bridge support architecture. Background: Winchester Spillway with rolling hills in the beyond.
www.pillarphotography.weebly.com - all rights reserved 2010 | [
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Mon, Mar 16, 2009 -- 9:00 AM
Oceans RisingDownload audio (MP3)
Sea levels may rise twice as much by the end of this century than was previously predicted. That's according to an announcement last week by the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Also last week, the Oakland-based Pacific Institute released a study finding that hundreds of thousands of people and billions of dollars of California infrastructure and property will be at risk if ocean levels rise 55 inches. What should we do to prepare?
Host: Michael Krasny
- Craig Miller, senior editor of KQED's Climate Watch
- Peter Gleick, president of the Pacific Institute, a non-partisan research institute on the environment and social equity
- Will Travis, executive director of the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission | [
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(NewsUSA) - For teens, peer pressure or wanting to escape emotional stress can often lead to prescription drug experimentation, which in turn can lead to abuse, addiction and sometimes a drug overdose.
According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 70 percent of children age 12 and older say they got prescription drugs, not from a drug dealer, but from a friend or relative.
"Each day, more than 2,000 teens begin abusing prescription medications, believing that doctor-prescribed medicine is safer to experiment with than illegal drugs," says Steve Pasierb, president and CEO of The Partnership at Drugfree.org. "Parents and grandparents take great pains to prevent poisoning in young children by keeping household chemicals out of the reach," according to Pasierb. "The same approach needs to be taken to safeguard medications in the home."
The first step is to get informed about the dangers and know how to intervene. The website www.RxSafetyMatters.org provides information to parents and community groups on how to prevent prescription drug abuse.
Tips for parents include:
* Learn to recognize the signs of abuse. Warning signs include sudden mood swings, changes in social circles, secretive behavior, excessive sleeping and a loss of interest in appearance or hobbies. Symptoms often occur in clusters.
* Monitor your medications. Keep a detailed record of which prescription drugs you have in your home and the remaining number of pills. Store your medications in a secure location. If you have medications that you no longer need or have expired, dispose of them properly.
* Educate others. Talk to your relatives, neighbors and other parents in households where your children spend time. Grandparents' homes are frequently a source of pills, simply because older people take more medications. Talk to the PTA at your teen's school, and encourage others to take preventive steps to prevent prescription drug abuse.
* Talk to your children, and listen for clues. Make sure your children understand the dangers of misusing prescription medications -- but avoid providing information about which drugs are popular to abuse. Listen to your kids, and always ask these questions: "Who are they meeting, what will they be doing, and where will they be?"
To learn more about how to prevent prescription drug abuse, download the free "Parents Guide to Understanding Prescription Drug Abuse" at www.RxSafetyMatters.org. Purdue Pharma L.P. developed www.RxSafetyMatters.org as a public service to help combat prescription drug abuse. | [
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] | 511 |
Cool Things - Moon Rocks
A little piece of the moon is in Kansas in the form of these rocks brought to earth by Apollo 11.
When the Apollo 11 spacecraft left the Earth in July 1969, among the items it carried were small flags from each U.S. state, including Kansas. These flags later landed on the moon and traveled across its surface in the lunar module with the astronauts. The flags eventually returned to our planet along with numerous samples of material from the moon's surface.
NASA's purpose in carrying state flags to the moon was to return each to its home state along with a gift of lunar particles (crystalline rock, breccia, and glass) collected from the Sea of Tranquility. These mementoes of the country's first successful manned mission to the moon were mounted in a special walnut stand and presented to each governor. Kansas' flag and moon rocks were received by Governor Robert Docking from President Richard Nixon at the White House in December 1969.
The inscription printed on a plate at the base of the stand reads, "This flag of your state was carried to the moon and back by Apollo 11, and this fragment of the moon's surface was brought to Earth by the crew of that first manned lunar landing." The stand and its three particles of moon rock are on display in the main gallery of the Kansas Museum of History.
Although no Kansans accompanied Apollo 11 into space, a native was among the original astronauts chosen for the Apollo program. Ron Evans, born in St. Francis, Kansas, was a member of the capsule's support crew. A few years after the successful completion of the Apollo 11 mission, Evans served as Command Module Pilot for Apollo 17. This was the U.S.' last manned lunar landing, in 1972. Evans later donated a number of commemorative items illustrative of his career to the museum.
Entry: Cool Things - Moon Rocks
Author: Kansas Historical Society
Author information: The Kansas Historical Society is a state agency charged with actively safeguarding and sharing the state's history.
Date Created: October 2006
Date Modified: March 2013
The author of this article is solely responsible for its content. | [
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] | 444 |
Family Matters: The Money Squeeze
Tue May 29, 2012
Listening To Parents Key To Financial Responsibility
Originally published on Tue May 29, 2012 3:34 am
As an increasing number of Americans live into their 80s and 90s, many families are struggling to find ways to make retirement dollars — that were once supposed to support seniors for years — now stretch over decades.
More and more, families have to care for the very elderly, as well as look after children who might be college grads but haven't found a job in a difficult economy.
All this requires one very important thing: lots of money.
Psychologists and other researchers have spent decades studying why some people are better than others at saving money, so they can address such needs later in life.
In the early 1970s, researchers conducted a marshmallow experiment, where they had young children sit before a table. The researchers placed a marshmallow on the table and told each child that she could eat it — but that if she waited 15 minutes, she could have two marshmallows.
Over the years that followed, researchers found that children who were able to hold off eating the marshmallow — who delayed gratification — did better at school. Other researchers identified brain differences between people who were impulsive and those who had more self-control.
Much of the research into self-control has been focused on documenting which people have it and why. But new research is trying to find whether there are ways to boost self-control among young people, especially when it comes to financial matters and making responsible long-term decisions, such as saving for retirement or nursing care late in life.
While brain biology plays a strong role in shaping temperament, some new studies have found that social factors make a difference in whether people become spenders or savers. Chief among them: the role of parents.
"We found that parents played a really big role in the kinds of behaviors that their children exhibited," said Joyce Serido, a researcher at the University of Arizona, Tucson. "So, those kids who said they spoke with their parents about financial matters actually performed more responsible financial behaviors."
Serido said that she and her colleagues interviewed large numbers of freshmen entering the university and documented different aspects of their family lives. Young people who reported their families had included them in conversations about money and budgets — who, for example, roped children into discussions about what kind of car the family could afford — were much more likely to make more responsible financial decisions as it came time for them to graduate from college.
Many of these students, Serido said, were using a budget, making tough choices between different wants, and saving money. She said the difference was not explained by socio-economic differences — children from well-to-do families did not save more than children from poorer families. Rather, she said, patterns of family dynamics tended to predict which kids developed strong saving habits.
Besides talking with kids about money, Serido said she would advise parents to communicate their expectations to their children — to say they expected a young person would save some portion of their allowance, for example.
So why do such conversations happen rarely when they are so important? Serido said it may be as difficult to talk to kids about bills and bonds as it often is to talk about the birds and the bees.
"The first couple of times you talk with your child about money or savings, or you talk with a parent about their health or what are they going to do with the house long-term, yeah, it's scary and uncomfortable," she said. "And let's face it, it's scary and uncomfortable because sometimes we don't want to think about it ourselves." | [
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] | 757 |
How safe is your password?
The first step in protecting your online privacy is creating a safe password - i.e. one that a computer program or persistent individual won't easily be able to guess in a short period of time. To help you choose a secure password, we've created a feature that lets you know visually how safe your password is as soon as you create it.
Tips for creating a secure password:
Things to avoid:
- Include punctuation marks and/or numbers.
- Mix capital and lowercase letters.
- Include similar looking substitutions, such as the number zero for the letter 'O' or ' for the letter 'S'.
- Create a unique acronym.
- Include phonetic replacements, such as 'Luv 2 Laf' for 'Love to Laugh'.
Tips for keeping your password secure:
- Don't use a password that is listed as an example of how to pick a good password.
- Don't use a password that contains personal information (name, username, birth date, etc.)
- Don't use words or acronyms that can be found in a dictionary.
- Don't use keyboard patterns (asdf) or sequential numbers (1234).
- Don't make your password all numbers, uppercase letters or lowercase letters.
- Don't use repeating characters (aa11).
- Never tell your password to anyone (this includes significant others, roommates, parrots, etc.).
- Never write your password down.
- Never send your password by email.
- Periodically test your current password and change it to a new one. | [
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] | 337 |
Q: Hi, Greg, and thanks for helping me with this question. Who marketed the first front-wheel drive car, either foreign or domestic? Thanks much, Larry F., old-timer from New England.
A: Larry, the first consumer-available front-wheel drive, mass-marketed car came from the DKW F1 from Germany in 1931. Other German car producers, of which there were many back then, followed, as Stoewer later in 1931 offered a front drive. In 1932, the Adler car company released a front drive, followed by Audi in 1933. To this day, Audi and its Quattro all-wheel-drive is the most respected, be it front drive or all-wheel drive. In 1934, French manufacturer Citroen joined the fray.
The first American manufacturer with front drive is a toss-up between Ruxton and Cord, both who tried in 1929 but never sold enough cars to be labeled as mass-produced. BSA, the motorcycle name from overseas, sold a three-wheeled front-drive machine in 1929 with success, but we can’t include any “less than four wheel” vehicles on this list.
Personally, I remember the Simca cars in 1960 as front-wheel drive, although I’m sure many other foreign makes also sold FWD cars. I know the Saab “bumble bees” were front drive (emitting that special sound from their little engines), and the Austin Mini Coopers, too, the latter which were great in road racing classes.
As for the domestic big three and not counting the Cord 810, which had the transmission and engine installed backward in 1938, resulting in front drive worthiness, modern-day front-drive cars first appeared on those 1966 Olds Toronados, and then subsequent Buick Rivieras and Cadillac Eldorados. These were well before the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni of 1978, followed by Chevy’s Citation, which came about in 1980. After 1980, many manufacturers introduced front-drive vehicles and minivans. I had the opportunity to drive a ‘66 Toronado thanks to my date to the prom’s family that year!
As for me, I’m still a fan of rear-wheel drive. I’ll admit that front drive is better in the snow, hands down, but for normal weather driving, a rear drive delivers the best in handling and weight transfer, far and above a front-drive design. That’s why most all of the world’s great motorcars use rear-drive platforms.
Thanks for your letter, and I hope this answer helps.
Greg Zyla writes weekly for GateHouse Media and welcomes reader interaction on collector cars, auto nostalgia or old-time motorsports at 303 Roosevelt St., Sayre, PA 18840 or at [email protected]. | [
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] | 601 |
CT Scans FAQ
How does a CT scan work?
The CT scanner uses x-rays to produce cross sectional images of the human body.
What are the benefits of a CT scan?
- Precise staging of a disease.
- Safe, non-invasive diagnostic procedure.
- Provides detailed diagnostic information.
- Shorter time for definitive diagnosis.
- Earlier detection of disease with fewer invasive diagnostic procedures.
- Can result in less intensive surgery and/or avoidance of some surgeries.
- Identification of distant tumors.
What should I do prior to the CT scan?
- Tell your doctor and technologist if you are diabetic.
- Tell your doctor and technologist if you are allergic to IV contrast (x-ray dye).
- Tell your doctor if you are pregnant, think you might be pregnant or if you are a nursing mother.
- Wear comfortable clothing in layers.
- You may wear your hearing aid, glasses and dentures to the PET/CT center but leave valuables at home.
- Take any prescribed medications on the day of your test unless instructed differently by your doctor.
- Do not eat for at least four hours before your scan.
- Drink only clear liquids for four hours prior to your exam.
- Increase water intake starting the night before the exam.
- Depending on the type of exam you are having, you may be asked to drink diluted barium before your exam.
Can I eat or drink before my scan?
Typically, you will be asked to not eat or drink anything except water for at least four hours before your scan.
How long will the scan last?
You can expect to be in the CT area for approximately an hour. The actual scan takes about 15 minutes.
How do I prepare for the scan?
Different tests require different preparations. You may be asked to drink an oral contrast agent which may be diluted barium or diluted IV contrast. The oral contrast must be ingested approximately 90 minutes (1-1/2 hours) prior to the time you are scanned. The oral contrast allows the Radiologist to distinguish your normal intestines from abnormalities in the abdomen and pelvis.
Will the exam require an injection?
Other tests may require you to only drink clear liquids 4 hours prior to your exam or have some lab work done. Some exams require the injection of IV contrast material administered by a technician through an IV.
This allows the Radiologist to see your organs and soft tissue with more clarity. This contrast material may cause a warm sensation in your body; it will only last momentarily and will not cause any pain.
What do I need to tell my doctor or technologist?
If you have a history of prior allergic reaction, please let the doctor or technologist know.
What will the test be like?
The CT machine looks like a large square doughnut and only covers the area that is being examined. Once the technologist positions you on the table the scan will begin. During the exam you will be in the room alone; however, your technologist will be able to see and hear you throughout the whole procedure. Each CT room has pictorial “skylights” above the scanner to help you stay relaxed and comfortable.
How will I feel after the test?
You will be able to return to normal activities after your scan.
How will my physician get the results?
After your scan is completed, a Radiologist will study the exam by looking at the images on a computer using the Picture Archiving & Communication System (PACS). The Radiologist will issue a report and a copy of that report will be sent to your physician. Your physician’s office will then contact you with the results. Films of the exam can also be produced and sent to your physician. | [
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] | 781 |
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A Guide to the Ike Moore Papers, 1850-1867
Author and historian Ike Moore was a state supervisor for the Historical Records Survey in San Antonio, Texas.
Two drafts of the biography, Life and Diary of Reading W. Black, and a letter composes the Ike Moore Papers, 1850-1867, documenting the history of the upper Nueces region and its development by Reading Wood Black, a pioneer settler, land developer, and entrepreneur. The papers describe the establishment of San Antonio and the Republic of Texas, along with political and social affairs, during the 19th century. Additionally, an 1866 copy of a letter to “Jennie” from Black concerns familial matters.
This collection is open for research use.
Ike Moore Papers, 1850-1867, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin.
Basic processing and cataloging of this collection was supported with funds from the National Historical Publications and Records Commission (NHPRC) for the Briscoe Center’s “History Revealed: Bringing Collections to Light project,” 2009-2011. | [
38148,
3963,
22904,
15365,
198,
32,
10005,
284,
262,
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8877,
27420,
11,
35745,
12,
1507,
3134,
198,
13838,
290,
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34880,
8877,
373,
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447,
251,
3717,
12,
9804,
13,
50256
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] | 237 |
Medieval and early modern inquisitions were major forces within their host societies not only locally but also regionally and even internationally, with an impact that often went well beyond strict enforcement of church discipline through trial and punishment. The very fact of an inquisitorial tribunal’s existence as a looming institutional presence, whether sporadically in some early times and rural places or more continuously in early modern urban centers, could not fail to affect the behaviors and mentalities of entire populations even in the absence of actual prosecutions. But inquisitions were also mundane corporate entities, struggling like all such bodies to efficiently make and execute policy while staying more or less within a budget. As they evolved, too, inquisitions developed significant financial roles within local economies as well as political influence at courts both secular and ecclesiastical. From any number of historical perspectives it is therefore well worth examining the various sorts of administrative documents produced by and around these complex organizations—from the day-to-day running of a tribunal’s affairs as evidenced by public edicts and financial records, to the shifting nature and concerns of the inquisitorial project itself as reflected in high-level policy statements and internal communications.
As a general rule, inquisitors took pains to ensure broad awareness of their disciplinary mandate through the issuance of formal public announcements. In medieval times sermons were given to proclaim the arrival of an inquisitorial visitation, to explicate the types of offences being investigated, and to offer those in attendance a limited “period of grace” in which to voluntarily come forward and confess their own (and their neighbors’) crimes.1 Early modern tribunals maintained this practice, though in time grace periods were often abandoned; “edicts of grace” [INQ 556] were gradually replaced by increasingly lengthy “edicts of faith” that focused instead on an exhaustive listing of sinful behaviors.2 By the seventeenth century inquisitors had begun to convey such messages with the help of more or less standardized printed texts which could be nailed to a church door after their initial proclamation [INQ 288, INQ 389].3 Edicts of faith were in principle to be read (and then posted) on an annual basis at Lent, accompanied in some cases by the 1569 bull Si de protegendis, which warned of dire consequences awaiting all those who dared oppose the inquisitors [INQ 207, INQ 208, INQ 214].4
Other edicts would follow these initial notices, intended to alert specific audiences of significant new inquisitorial directives requiring action on their part. Thus, Mexican priests were informed in 1620 of inquisitors’ claims to jurisdiction over certain offences which might come to light in the confessional [INQ 217]; a later edict notified their parishioners that unauthorized private religious devotion had recently come under inquisitorial scrutiny [INQ 242]. Opposition to the Jesuits and other religious orders, manifested in polemical attacks, was regularly denounced in papal and inquisitorial memoranda [INQ 222, INQ 264, INQ 276]. Such circulars were essentially addenda to the fuller lists of offences contained in the edicts of faith. Inquisitors themselves, too, sometimes required admonitions to comply with directives issued by the Suprema in the form of manuscript or printed cartas acordadas [INQ 220].5 And in a further effort to ensure compliance, monastic houses were repeatedly commanded to ensure that all papal bulls relating to the inquisition were read out on an annual basis [INQ 326, INQ 226, INQ 228, INQ 229]. For those who heeded such edicts, behaved appropriately, and went through the proper channels, the inquisition could become a source not only of warnings and punishments but also of spiritual rewards—including certificates of indulgence issued by the inquisitor general himself [INQ 224].
Whether conducting full-fledged heresy trials or merely issuing warning edicts and indulgences, inquisitions incurred expenses and required sources of income. The question of inquisitorial finance has long interested scholars, and the extensive haciend records at the Archivo Histórico Nacional in Madrid have been subjected to preliminary surveys though much work still remains to be done.6 It is now generally agreed that while confiscations of prisoners’ goods and estates may have brought important revenues (particularly in the early days of the Spanish tribunals, and in special cases such as mass arrests of New Christian merchants in the seventeenth century), inquisitions were rarely profitable money making ventures.7 Day to day expenses could be met thanks to income from church benefices set aside for the purpose, so inquisitors had to be knowledgeable about the state of ecclesiastical resources in the regions to which they were assigned [INQ 5]. As time went on, revenues from seizures, royal grants or other sources were also regularly invested in real estate as a means of producing censo income.8 Yet spiraling personnel costs and extravagant auto de fe ceremonies ensured that many tribunals were perpetually short of cash or in debt.
It was thus essential, whenever possible, that monies be well managed. The few financial documents in the Notre Dame Inquisition Collection hint at some aspects of this management, which is much more fully documented in larger archival collections: these include property transactions and inventories of seized property [INQ 4, INQ 237]. A scattering of rare documents from the Peruvian inquisition provides especially interesting glimpses of day to day expenses in a New World tribunal: food, medicine, and even tobacco all had to be purchased and provided to prisoners on a regular basis [INQ 570, INQ 575, INQ 579]. While prisoners were generally expected to fund their own expenses [INQ 572], there were always cases of indigence. Furthermore, in some instances prisoners would eventually be released and appeal for partial or full return of their confiscated property [INQ 574].
It must also be borne in mind that inquisitors and their staffs were not only agents of a persecutory spiritual tribunal, but also were likely to be knowledgeable and well-connected members of the local elites among whom they resided. As such, they were sometimes drawn into legal and financial conflicts that might have little to do with the business of inquisition per se [INQ 17, INQ 568]. In relatively underdeveloped settings such as colonial Peru, inquisitors’ familiarity with legal and religious affairs may have made their intervention all the more desirable for clerical or university colleagues dealing with complex financial issues such as the execution of a will or a bankruptcy [INQ 573, INQ 580].
Over time, inquisitorial policies evolved and changed to deal with changing circumstances. In some cases this involved purely internal reflections on best practice, but change was also often prompted by pressure from outside forces such as the papacy or secular rulers. From the earliest decades of the Spanish inquisition’s establishment in the eastern regions of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia, for example, fierce debates raged over the extent to which inquisitorial privileges and practices could be made to accommodate local privileges or fueros dating back to medieval times [INQ 206].9 The Spanish monarchy played a major role in these disputes, and thereafter royal support for (and therefore potential control over) the inquisition was to prove an important consideration throughout its history [INQ 10].10
Spanish kings might issue orders commanding that greater inquisitorial attention be paid to certain crimes [INQ 233], and they could also alter tax exemptions and other privileges which facilitated the tribunals’ day to day functioning [INQ 322, INQ 340]. Similar advisories calling for alteration of inquisitorial practice were issued from the Papal Curia [INQ 15]; these could be dead letters but as long as they were endorsed by the inquisitors themselves they were duly implemented [INQ 324, INQ 332, INQ 358, INQ 392]. In Portugal too, kings did not hesitate to make agreements limiting inquisitorial prosecution of some valued subjects when it suited them, only to cancel those same agreements when circumstances changed [INQ 241].11 Royal intervention would become especially marked after the accession of the Bourbon dynasty in 1700, and indeed Philip V did not hesitate to use his Spanish inquisitors as allies in the suppression of pro-Habsburg Catalan resistance movements, which included many priests [INQ 286, INQ 294, INQ 297].12
Not all policies were imposed by powerful external forces. The theological and legal merits of whether or not to enforce limpieza de sangre statutes, for example, were considered at length even by relatively low-level inquisition officials [INQ 232].13 Inquisitors similarly took both theoretical and practical points into consideration when determining the desirability of allowing local clergy in jubilee years to grant absolutions for crimes that normally fell under inquisitorial jurisdiction; this decision was communicated in a series of eighteenth-century edicts [INQ 345, INQ 356, INQ 366, INQ 388]. Nevertheless, royal control remained significant to the very end, and inquisitors could at times be treated for all intents and purposes as civil servants subject entirely to royal commands [INQ 38, INQ 396, INQ 398]. At the dawn of the nineteenth century, it was the king who determined the inquisition’s repressive attitude toward Jews [INQ 394]. Conversely, policies and procedures originally worked out by inquisitorial courts would in some instances continue to echo within the civil service and related organizations long after inquisition tribunals themselves had been abolished [INQ 28].
And, like all working organizations, inquisitions generated a great deal of internal communication which was not intended for the public eye. Vast quantities of relaciones de causa and other official correspondence were regularly filed by local tribunals and their vistators and sent on to a central overseeing body (in Spain the Suprema); today these form the basis of most scholarship on inquisitorial trials.14 Initiatives such as the proposed establishment of a new tribunal office in the South American colony of Buenos Aires generated further exchanges of information, in this case (1636) between the existing hierarchies of Lima and Madrid [INQ 571]. More ephemeral updates and consultations were also shared among inquisition comisarios and other personnel facing practical difficulties in the course of their work [INQ 267, INQ 120]. Such materials have the potential to reveal the inner functioning of inquisitions in practically every region, period, and variety of situation.
This holds true even for communications that were entirely unconcerned with the prosecution of heresy trials. As representatives of a powerful Church establishment with privileged access to royal court circles, inquisitors could play a major role in diplomacy and international affairs; information gathering (and even spying) was therefore a necessity. The Spanish Holy Office maintained agents at the Papal Curia throughout the early modern period [INQ 7].15 It was thus only natural for a pope to call upon an inquisitor general for assistance in effecting a rapprochement between James I of England and the Spanish Crown in 1623 [INQ 221]. When Rome found itself pitted against a pro-Bourbon Suprema during the War of the Spanish Succession, a new flurry of dispatches was generated to keep cardinals such as Vincenzo Grimani, otherwise better known for his patronage of musicians such as G. F. Handel and Alessandro Scarlatti, up-to-date with developments in the peninsula [INQ 583, INQ 584, INQ 21, INQ 22, INQ 23, INQ 24]. Nor did political tensions or religious differences prevent inquisitor general Guidice from communicating with British diplomats in the same period; a man in his position needed to stay well informed at the center of political affairs.16 These sorts of documents have the potential to reveal further untold dimensions of the special roles played by inquisitions and their officers within European and world history.
A final type of policy debate was unleashed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century as different jurisdictions began to abolish the various inquisitions (see Polemics and histories). In Spain, first Napoleon and then the Cortes of Cádiz moved to close the tribunals; the latter vigorously insisted on its right to act in this matter and denounced efforts by the Papal Nuncio to prevent it [INQ 407, INQ 410]. In 1813 the command was thus formally issued to remove inquisitorial records and memorabilia (such as the hated sanbenitos) from local churches and monasteries [INQ 408, INQ 409]. Yet the same Cortes did not countenance giving free reign to all forms of belief and unbelief, and orders were given for the continuance of punishments for heresy even in the absence of a formal inquisition structure [INQ 411]. Competing edicts continued to fly with the short-lived re-establishment of a Spanish inquisition by king Ferdinand VII in 1814 [INQ 413], and to some extent one could describe its final decades as a long drawn-out process of death by paperwork.
Inquisition documents relating to policy, procedures and other types of administrative functioning thus constitute a vast and extremely varied set of sources for further research. It is also however this very vastness and variety which make them so challenging to use; each type of document must be comprehended on its own terms, and placed within an organizational as well as a historical context, which is extremely difficult if not impossible to fully reconstruct. For this reason many scholars have avoided fully exploring the potential of documents whose immediate relevance to major topics in inquisition studies (lives of the accused, types of trial process and torture, censorship, etc.) is not always evident. Yet, while in some ways tangential to the fulfillment of inquisitors’ overall goals of combatting heresy, these documents demonstrate the many important ways in which such ideological struggles took place amid other more mundane distractions and concerns. From the tedium of daily business to the chessboard moves of high politics, they thus represent the some of the most crucial—though also the most challenging—of avenues through which to study inquisition history in all its nuance and complexity.
The Inquisition Collection at the University of Notre Dame contains dozens of items that can be used to study the actual day to day organizational structures and functioning of inquisitorial tribunals. Similar documentation can be found in a variety of library collections, but the bulk of inquisitorial administrative documents remain in archives such as the Archivo Histórico Nacional in Madrid.
INQ 207. Translation of papal bull Si de protegendis, Rome 1569(?).
INQ 208. Translation of papal bull Si de protegendis, Mexico 1569.
INQ 214. Translation of papal bull Si de protegendis, Logroño 1609.
INQ 556. Edict of grace announced at Logroño 1611.
INQ 217. Edict notifying local confessors of inquisitorial jurisdiction, Mexico 1620.
INQ 220. Carta acordada forbidding inquisitors from publicly disparaging individual lineage (limpieza) claims, Madrid 1622.
INQ 222. Edict confirming papal support for the Jesuit Order and condemning anti-Jesuit claims, Seville 1625.
INQ 224. Indulgence certificate issued by inquisitor-general Sotomayor, Madrid 1632.
INQ 326. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1633.
INQ 226. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1634.
INQ 228. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1635.
INQ 229. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1635.
INQ 242. Edict condemning illicit private religious gatherings and other devotional acts, Mexico 1659.
INQ 264. Edict condemning attacks on religious orders (first issued 1634), Madrid 1688.
INQ 276. Edict condemning attacks on religious orders (first issued 1634), Madrid 1696.
INQ 288. Edict of faith announced at Valencia 1700.
INQ 389. Edict of faith announced at Cádiz 1776, with anathema, abjuration and absolution formulae.
INQ 4. Property transfer involving inquisition prison, 1513.
INQ 5. Inventory of clerical benefices and properties, Seville 1559.
INQ 568. Petition for inquisitors’ intervention in a financial dispute, Peru 1598.
INQ 570. Tobacco and food expenses for inquisitorial prison, Peru 1622.
INQ 572. Assignment of confiscated property to cover imprisonment expenses, Peru 1637.
INQ 237. Demand for information relating to confiscated estates, Mexico 1642.
INQ 573. Inquisition orders for payment by executors of a will, Peru 1656.
INQ 574. Consideration of petition regarding compensation for confiscated books, Peru 1662.
INQ 575. Medical expenses for inquisitorial prison, Peru 1678.
INQ 17. Letter of thanks to inquisitor for assistance in a legal dispute, Madrid 1682.
INQ 579. Food expenses for inquisitorial prison, Peru 1755.
INQ 580. Inquisition order for funds transfer from a bankruptcy case to university in Lima, Peru 1780.
INQ 567. Fragment of a royal financial document, Peru 1811.
INQ 206. Royal notice of 1568 concerning limits of inquisitorial jurisdiction in Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia, as determined at the 1564 corts of Monzón.
INQ 10. Collection of Spanish inquisition policy documents communicated to the king, ca. 1625.
INQ 232. Brief by an inquisition notary in favor of limpieza statute, Granada 1638.
INQ 233. Royal order for inquisitorial and other prosecutions of illicit oaths, Madrid 1639.
INQ 241. Cancellation of agreement between Portuguese crown and merchants convicted of judaizing, Lisbon 1657.
INQ 15. Papal decree revising inquisitorial jurisdiction over religious orders, Rome 1660.
INQ 286. Edict denouncing pro-Habsburg clergy, Seville 1706(?).
INQ 294. Edict denouncing pro-Habsburg clergy, Madrid 1706.
INQ 297. Edict denouncing pro-Habsburg clergy, Zaragoza 1707.
INQ 322. Royal decree on various exemptions and policies, including some touching on inquisition, Madrid 1728.
INQ 324. Endorsement of papal decree revising inquisitorial jurisdiction over religious orders (first issued 1660), Madrid 1732.
INQ 332. Endorsement of papal edict condemning freemasonry, Madrid 1738.
INQ 340. Royal decree on various exemptions and policies, including some touching on inquisition, Alcalá 1743.
INQ 345. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Seville 1746.
INQ 356. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Madrid 1751.
INQ 358. Endorsement of earlier papal bulls against heresy, Valencia 1757.
INQ 366. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Valencia 1759.
INQ 388. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Seville 1776.
INQ 391. Royal decrees on inquisitorial jurisdiction, Alcalá 1783.
INQ 392. Endorsement of papal authorization for almsgivers to consume meat during Lent, Mexico 1793.
INQ 38. Collection of legal, administrative and inquisitorial documents, Mexico 18th century.
INQ 394. Royal decree on inquisition treatment of Jews, Madrid 1802.
INQ 396. Royal policy on inquisitorial jurisdiction, Madrid 1804.
INQ 398. Royal policy on inquisitorial jurisdiction, Madrid 1806.
INQ 28. Copy of an 1815 royal document on eligibility criteria for membership in military orders, including limpieza and family history free of inquisitorial prosecutions, Havana 1859.
INQ 7. Dispatches from Spanish inquisition agents in Rome, 1596-1610.
INQ 221. Letter from Pope Gregory XV to Inquisitor General Pacheco concerning Anglo-Spanish diplomatic relations, Rome 1623.
INQ 571. Suprema correspondence with Lima tribunal concerning possible establishment of new inquisition at Buenos Aires, 1636.
INQ 267. Letter to inquisition comisario containing updates on a case in Elche, 1689.
INQ 120. Letter to inquisition comisario containing updates on cases in Elche, 1690.
INQ 583. Notes on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Rome 1707(?).
INQ 584. Notes on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Rome 1707(?).
INQ 21. Copy of report to Rome on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona 1707(?).
INQ 22. Translation of report to Rome on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona 1707(?).
INQ 23. Notes on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona 1707(?).
INQ 24. Copy of an inquisition decree enjoining allegiance to Philip V (part of a larger internal report), Barcelona 1707(?).
Documents relating to abolition:
INQ 408. Cortes order to remove inquisition records from churches and monasteries, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 409. Cortes order to remove inquisition records from churches and monasteries, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 411. Cortes policy on maintenance of punishments for heresy despite having abolished the inquisition, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 410. Collection of documents relating to the abolition of the Spanish inquisition, ca. 1813.
INQ 407. Condemnation of papal nuncio for interference in efforts to abolish the inquisition, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 413. Royal proclamation restoring the Spanish inquisition, Mallorca 1814.
1 Henry Charles Lea, A history of the inquisition of the middle ages (1887; repr. New York 1955), vol. 1, pp. 371-372. The grace period typically varied from about 15 to 40 days.
2 Inquisitorial edicts (including the revival of edicts of grace ca. 1610 for Basque witches, and a reproduction of a 1663 Catalan edict of faith) are discussed at length in Francisco Bethencourt, The Inquisition: a global history, 1478-1834 (1995; tr. Jean Birrell, Cambridge 2009), pp. 174-210. One major aspect of their content is still more closely studied in Charles Amiel, “Crypto-Judaïsme et Inquisition. La ‘matière juive’ dans les édits de la foi des Inquisitions ibériques” in Revue de l’histoire des Religions 210:2 (1993), pp. 145-188. On edicts relating specifically to book censorship, see Censorship
3 Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (New Haven 1997), pp. 174-175 points out that edicts of grace also enjoyed a brief revival in the context of Valencian anti-morisco investigations of the later sixteenth century, and that the Spanish edicts of faith only became standardized around 1630. A sample text of the latter is printed in J. Jiménez Montserín, Introducción a la Inquisición española (Madrid 1980), pp. 503-535.
4 Readings of Si de protegendis became mandatory in Spain from 1637 but it was clearly used to reinforce inquisitorial authority long before that date; Bethencourt, Inquisition p. 180.
6 Pioneering work was done by Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain (1906; repr. London 1922), vol. 2, pp. 315-456. More recently, see José Martínez Millán, La Hacienda de la Inquisición (1478-1700) (Madrid 1984) and ibid., “Structures of Inquisitorial Finance” in Ángel Alcalá (ed.), The Spanish Inquisition and the Inquisitorial Mind (Highland Lakes 1987), pp. 159-176.
7 Stephen Haliczer describes the disappointing results of an early eighteenth-century crackdown on New Christian tobacco barons in Inquisition and Society in the Kingdom of Valencia 1478-1834 (Berkeley 1990), pp. 232-234. For more successful prosecutions of wealthy converso merchants in Mexico see Stanley Hordes, “The Inquisition as Economic and Political Agent: The Campaign of the Mexican Holy Office against the Crypto-Jews in the mid-Seventeenth Century” in The Americas 39:1 (1982), pp. 23-38.
8 Censos, essentially a system of annual rental payments, were a major feature of the Iberian financial system throughout the early modern period and regularly relied upon by religious establishments. For a detailed study of their use in colonial Peru, see Kathryn Burns, Colonial Habits (Durham 1999).
9 Kamen, Spanish Inquisition p. 147.
10 The issue of jurisdiction is examined in great detail by Lea, History of the Inquisition of Spain vol. 1, pp. 427-526.
11 The 1649 suspension of proceedings against alleged Portuguese judaizers, on condition that they invest in Brazilian trade, is noted in Bethencourt, Inquisition p. 371; for further information on this venture see David Smith, “Old Christian Merchants and the Foundation of the Brazil Company, 1649” in The Hispanic American Historical Review 54:2 (1974), pp. 233-259.
12 Lea, History of the Inquisition of Spain vol. 4, pp. 275-276.
15 E.g. London, British Library, MS Add. 28703L for original letters from Spanish ambassadors at Rome to inquisitor general Espinosa, dated 1566-1572. Several other volumes in the same library contain similar materials.
16 See London, British Library, MSS Egerton 2170-2175 (original correspondence of George Bubb, Envoy Extraordinary in Spain 1714-1718).
To cite this essay:
Vose, Robin. “Introduction to inquisition policies and proceedings documents.” Hesburgh Libraries of Notre Dame, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections. University of Notre Dame, 2010. <http://www.library.nd.edu/rarebooks/digital_projects/inquisition/collections/RBSC-INQ:COLLECTION/essays/RBSC-INQ:ESSAY_PoliciesAndProceedings> | [
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] | 5,784 |
What is an emergency medicine specialist and what do they do?
Emergency medicine specialists, also called emergency physicians or emergency room (ER) doctors, are trained in acute illnesses or injuries that need immediate medical attention. They diagnose and treat a variety of illnesses and stabilize patients to prepare them for additional care (such as surgery) or for release after treatment. Emergency medicine doctors typically practice in hospital emergency rooms or other emergency-care facilities, as well as urgent care facilities.
The knowledge base of emergency medicine specialists is very broad, as they need vast education and training in aspects of anesthesiology, cardiology, surgery, plastic surgery, orthopedics and other specialties. Their training, however, emphasizes stabilization of the critically ill patient. Education includes four years of medical school followed by 3-5 years of specialty training. They are certified after an examination administered by the American Board of Emergency Medicine.What sort of emergencies require a trip to the ER?
ER doctors must be quick on their feet and able to make split-second decisions. A constant flow of patients with illness or trauma present themselves to the ER day and night. Emergency medicine specialists work quickly to evaluate, stabilize, diagnose and treat the problems they encounter. They may see diseases or injuries ranging from a broken finger to a cocaine overdose, from gunshot wounds to severe infections, and from blunt trauma from motor vehicle accidents to heart attack, cardiac arrest, stroke and even delivering babies. Part of the daily duties might include reading X-rays, performing screening examinations, suturing lacerations, and examining victims of sexual assault. Also, it is common for other physicians to refer their patients to the ER when they feel the patient needs emergent treatment. It is the responsibility of the emergency physician to inform family and loved ones should the patient not survive their illness or injury.
ERs are open 24/7, meaning they must be staffed around the clock. ER doctors may have a varied schedule or work shifts, including night shifts or day shifts often lasting 10 hours or more. What should I expect if I ever need to visit an ER for emergency care?
Emergency departments work on a system of triage. In the ER, this means that the most severe cases are evaluated first. You may arrive in an ER and have to wait to see a doctor, depending on the severity of your illness. If your case is severe, you will be taken into a room called a “resuscitation bay,” where doctors and nurses will assess your condition and administer treatment.
The triage system assigns a numerical rating denoting acuity (severity) of illness and, as such, the order in which patients will be seen by a physician. Levels range from 1-5, with five being the least severe. Level 1 acuity cases are the most severe, and could include traumatic injuries such as serious car accidents and falls (blunt trauma) or gunshot and stab wounds (penetrating trauma). Other Level 1 conditions include cardiac arrest, acute myocardial infarction, stroke, internal bleeding and severe infections, among others.
With respect to trauma, hospitals in the United States are designated Level 1-3 (some states have Level 4 and 5) based on their trauma management capabilities. A Level 1 trauma center treats the most severe trauma cases, and these centers have trauma surgeons on staff. A Level 2 trauma center will receive minor trauma, and so on. The system functions as such: Paramedics responding to a 911 call contact the regional hospital ER “base station” that determines which hospital should receive the patient. If it is major trauma, the patient is taken to a Level 1 trauma center and may bypass a Level 2 center on its way. On the other hand, most hospital ERs, regardless of trauma designation, are medical receiving facilities, and major illness such as heart attack and stroke will go to the nearest available hospital. In other words, medical receiving hospitals and trauma receiving hospitals are not mutually exclusive. The United States has, by far, the most advanced EMS system in the world. What are the most common conditions emergency medicine specialists treat?
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- Cardiovascular complaint
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] | 914 |
CHICAGO (Reuters) - Drugs used to control diabetes do not reduce signs of inflammation that are linked with heart disease, U.S. researchers said on Tuesday in a study that reinforces the need for diet and exercise.
Both heart disease and diabetes are inflammatory diseases, and researchers had assumed that controlling diabetes would have an effect.
"At the time we initiated the trial, we were thinking if we treat the diabetes, we will lower inflammation," said Dr. Aruna Pradhan of Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston, whose study appears in the Journal of the American Medical Association.
"This study suggests that lowering glucose alone does not impact one important risk factor for heart disease, and that is inflammation," Pradhan said in a telephone interview.
She said the data may help explain the findings of a number of large studies in diabetics that found aggressive control of blood glucose did little to protect against heart attacks and stroke.
"Just simply treating diabetes does not seem to have a benefit at preventing these vascular events," she said.
An estimated 23.6 million people in the United States and 246 million people globally have diabetes. Most have type 2 diabetes, the kind linked with a poor diet and lack of exercise.
Adults with diabetes are two to four times more likely to have heart disease or suffer a stroke than people without diabetes. Seventy-five percent of diabetics die from heart disease or stroke, according to the American Heart Association.
Pradhan and colleagues studied 500 people with type 2 diabetes to see whether insulin, or the common diabetes pill metformin, or both could lower levels of inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein, an immune chemical called interleukin-6, and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 or sTNFr2, which plays a role in autoimmune disease.
People in the study got insulin plus a placebo pill, metformin alone or metformin plus insulin.
After 14 weeks, the team found the drugs helped lower blood glucose levels, but had little effect on inflammation.
Pradhan said everyone in the study was obese, with a body mass index of 36. BMI is equal to weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Someone with a BMI of 25 to 29 is classified as overweight; 30 and over is considered obese.
While treating diabetes alone may not reduce inflammation, a study last November showed that taking AstraZeneca's cholesterol fighter Crestor, a statin, had a powerful effect at reducing deaths, heart attacks and strokes in people who had normal cholesterol but high levels of C-reactive protein.
Pradhan said her study confirms the need for diabetics to exercise and have a healthy diet and weight. Some may also need to take statins and aspirin to control their heart disease risk.
And she said diabetics still need to control their blood sugar to reduce other complications such as eye and kidney problems, and damage to blood vessels that can lead to amputations.
SOURCE: Journal of the American Medical Association, September 16, 2009.
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] | 728 |
Subsets and Splits